A dictionary of the Bible

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Dictionary of the Bible

BY

/

JOHN D. DAVIS, Ph.D., D.D.

Professor of Semitic Philology and Old Testament History in the Theological
Seminary at Princeton, N. J.

With Many New and Original Maps
AND Plans

Amply Illustrated

PHILADELPHIA

THE WESTMINSTER PRESS

1898

Copyright, 1898, by The Trustees of
The Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-
School Work.

PREFACE.

This Dictionary covers the canonical books of the Old and New Testa-
ments, in both the Authorized and Revised Versions, together with the First
Book of the Maccabees in the Revised Version. The Cambridge edition of
1857, minion 24mo, has been the standard of reference for the canonical
books of the Authorized Version. The inclusion of one book of the Apoc-
rypha, and only one, was determined by its unique intrinsic worth, the First
Book of the Maccabees being 'conspicuous among the apocryphal writings for
its value to the historian and the biblical student as throwing much light upon
an important period of Jewish history between the death of Ezra and Nehe-
miah at the close of the Old Testament dispensation and the birth of Christ,
which inaugurated a new order of things. The other books of the Apocrypha
have by no means been neglected : they have been laid under constant con-
tribution, and their available material has been employed; but it was not
deemed desirable to devote an article to every proper name, or to register
every divergent spelling, which occurs in these writings. To have done so
would have encumbered the pages with material of slight value at most, and
of no use to the student of the Bible.

The book aims to be a dictionary of the Bible, not of speculation about
the Bible. It seeks to furnish a thorough acquaintance with things biblical.
To this end it has been made a compendium of the facts stated in the Scrip-
tures, and of explanatory and supplementary material drawn from the records
of the ancient peoples contemporary with Israel ; it has been adequately fur-
nished with authoritative illustrations, not pictures drawn from the imagina-
tion, but actual delineations of the very things themselves; and it has been
fully equipped with accurate maps, all recent, and most of them drawn spe-
cially for this work from the latest authorities. The interpretation of Scrip-
ture which is frequently involved in the statement of the facts will, it is
believed, be found to be sober, fair, and just.

The variations in the orthography of Scripture proper names have been
noted in the respective articles. Neither the Authorized Version nor the

IV PREFACE.

Revised Veihion is thoroughly consistent. When several methods of spelling
the same name exist, the choice will depend upon individual taste. The
writer may perchance prefer one orthography, the reader another. There
may also be circumstances which make a rare spelling preferable in particular
cases. 'I'he reader may rest assured that no form has been admitted to the
pages of the Dictionary which is not supported by authority. What that
authority is may be seen by turning to the proper article.

The pronunciation of anglicized Scripture proper names is still in a
chaotic state. In the majority of names the syllabification and accentuation
have never been settled. Even the systems of pronunciation most in vogue
are unnecessarily inconsistent. A chief reason for this is that the pronuncia-
tion has been so largely based on the forms which the Greek and Latin trans-
lators gave to the Hebrew names. These translators did not transliterate the
names in accordance with any fixed rule ; and, as a result, names of similar
formation and pronunciation in Hebrew appear in different forms in the
Greek and Latin ; and often, when quite similar in appearance in English,
retain the divergent Greek or Latin pronunciation. In many cases this is
intolerable. The present work follows in the main the system of Webster in
the division into syllables and the position of the accent. The departures are
confined almost exclusively to certain classes of words. The pronunciation
adopted is always supported by good authority, and is in the interest of con-
sistency. When once the syllables and the accent of the anglicized biblical
name have been determined, its correct pronunciation in the mouth of every
])erson of true English instinct follows as a matter of course. The letters are
sounded as they would be under similar circumstances in an ordinary English
word. The exceptions are that the g is soft in only one name, Bethphage
(pronounced Beth'pha-je), and ch is always hard and sounded like k, except in
Rachel and cherub. The latter word is scarcely an exception, for it is not a
proper name. The proper name Cherub, a place in Babylonia, is pronounced
according to rule (Ke'rub).

The meaning of proper names has been given whenever it is known. The
cases are many where it has been necessarily omitted or stated cautiously.
Even where there is no note of caution, the reader must be on his guard ; for
although the general signification of the name may be perfectly clear, the
shade of meaning which lent the name flavor among those who bestowed it
may elude discovery. Judah means an object of praise ; but it might be an
expression either of thankfulness on the part of the parents to God, or satis-

PKEl-ACE. V

faction in the child ; either (iod or the child might be thought of as praise-
worthy. Jehovah-jireh means Jehovah doth see ; but the special sense may-
be, Jehovah doth provide.

In regard to the modern names of places in Palestine, the orthography of
the Palestine Exploration Fund has been adopted, except that the elevated
comma is employed to represent the Arabic consonant alif, and the inverted
comma to represent the guttural ain ; compare Alphabet. This is the rule ;
but occasionally, for special reasons, the etymology is more fully indicated by
the diacritical points conventionally used by Semitists. These points will
cau.se no inconvenience to the uninitiated, and will utter their own voice
to the philologist.

Persons are genealogically de.scribed as far as possible according to the
method of registration which was employed by the Hebrews, namely, by the
tribe, family, and father's house. This is a minor feature, but it is a novel
one, and it adds materially to the proper identification of personages and to a
correct understanding of the genealogies.

In the preparation of the Dictionary the author has had the cooperation of

his colleagues the Reverend Professors Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield, D. D.,

LL. D., and George Tybout Purves, D. D., LL. D., who have furnished the

articles pertaining to New Testament introduction and several others on

important related subjects. To each of these articles the initials of its author

are appended.

J. D. D.

August 17, 1898.

M APS.

The World as known in the Apostolic A(;e Frontispiece.

The Babylonian and Assyrian Powers facing page 58

Nineveh, the Great City P^g^ S^l

Arabia " 44

Mount Sinai " 690

Egypt and Peninsula of Sinai " 183

The South Country, Edom, and Moab " 8

Palestine, as divided a.monc; the Twelve Tribes . . . facing page 108

Palestine in the Time of Christ " " 536

Hill Country of Eastern Judah and Benjamin " " 402

Jerusalem , " "• 356

The Shephelah or Low Country, Philistia, and

the Plain of Sharon " " 440

Lower Galilee and the Plain of Esdraelon . . " " 378

Sea of Galilee page 232

Region of the Decapolis "165

Palestine and Adjacent Countries, illustrating Mac-

CAB.t:AN and Early Apostolic History .... facing page 716
Paul's First and Second Missionary Journeys .... " " 550
Paul's Third Missionary Journey and Journey to Rome " " 551

A DICTIONARY

THE BIBLE.

Aa'ron [etymology doubtful. The name
po.ssibly means bright, shining].

The brother of Moses and his senior by
three years (Ex. vii. 7). He was a descend-
ant of Levi through Kohath and Amram
(Ex. vi. 14-27). As we do not read of perils
attending his infancy, it may be inferred that
he was born before the promulgation of the
nefarious Egyptian edicts dooming the He-
brew male children to death. He was
younger than liis sister Miriam (q. v.). He
married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab
and sister of Nahshon, of the tribe of Judah,
who bore him four sons, Nadab, Abihu. Elea-
zar, and Ithamar (Ex. vi. 23; Num. iii. 2).
When Moses at Horeb was called to stand
forth as the deliverer of his oppressed coun-
trymen, and, wishing to escape the mission,
complained that he was "slow of speech, and
of a slow tongue," God repelled the objec-
tion, and said, "Is not Aaron the Levite thy
brother? I know that he can speak well."
Aaron was forthwith instructed to go out
and meet Moses in the wilderness. He did
so. The brothers met and embraced each
other (Ex. iv. 10-16, 27). Eeturning to Egypt,
they gathered together the elders of Israel
and intimated to them the approaching de-
liverance (29-31 1. The wonder-working rod
of Moses was, apparently with the divine
sanction, transferred to Aaron, and is hence-
forth usually known as Aaron's rod (Ex. iv.
17 : vii. 9, 19 '. Acts of smiting with this rod
brought on in succession the ten Egyptian
plagues (vii. 17, 19, 20 ; viii. 5, etc.). At the
Red .Sea, Moses was directed to lift up the rod
(this time called his) and the waters would
be divided (xiv. Ki). Aaron and Hur sup-
ported Moses' arms during the battle with
Amalek (xvii. 12). Aaron and two of his
sons. Nadab and Abihu, and seventy of the
elders were permitted to accompany Moses
into the mount before he received the tables
of the law, and to behold the God of Israel
(Ex. xxiv. 1, 9. 10 1. During the prolonged
stay of Moses in the mount, the people became
impatient at the absence of their leader and
turned to Aaron with the demand that he
make them gods to go before them. Aaron
weakly yielded and made the golden calf
(Ex. xxxii.). According to instructions which

Mpses received, Aaron and his sons were to
till the office of i)riest. Accordingly, after
the tabernacle had been completed, and was
ready for actual services to begin, Aaron and
his four sons were solemnly consecrated to
the priesthood by being anointed with oil and
clothed in splendid typical official vestments
(Ex. xxviii. ; xl. 13-16; Lev. viii.). Aaron
was thus the first high priest, an office which
he filled for nearly forty years. Shortly after
leaving Sinai, he joined with Miriam in find-
ing fault with Mo.ses for having married a
Cushite woman (Num. xii. 1-16). The re-
bellion of Korah was directed as much
against the exclusive priesthood of Aaron
and his sons as against the civil authority
of Moses. The divine apjiointment of Mo.ses
and Aaron to their respective offices was at-
tested by the destruction of the rebels ; and
Aaron's right to the priesthood was further
and specially vindicated by the budding of his
rod (Num. xvi. and xvii.). Toward the close
of the journey in the wilderness, when the
people were encamped for the second time at
Kadesh, Aaron and Moses dishonored God
by their conduct when they smote the rock.
For this sin they were denied the privilege
of entering the jn-omised land. Soon after-
wards by divine direction Aaron was led by
Moses up mount Hor and stripped of his
sacred vestments, which were transferred to
his son Eleazar. There he died, at the age
of one hundred and twenty-three years. The
nation publicly mourned for him thirty days
(Num. XX., xxxiii. 37-39, and see Priest).

Aa'ron-ites, in the Hebrew text simply
Aaron, the name being used collectively.

The priestly descendants of Aaron (1 Chron.
xii. 27; xxvii. 17, A. V.).

A-bad'don [destruction, ruin].

1. Destruction, ruin (Job xxxi. 12) ; the
place of the dead, synonymous with the
grave (Ps. Ixxxviii. 11), Sheol (Job. xxvi. 6;
Prov. XV. 11, R. v.), and death (Job xxviii.
22).

2. A name of the angel of the abyss, who
is called in Greek Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11).

A-bag'tha [Persian name].
One of the seven chamberlains of the Per-
sian king Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10).

1

Abanah

Abel-beth-maacah

Ab'a-nah, E. V.. in A. V. Abana ; in mar-
gin of R. V. Amanah (q. v.), of A. V. Amana
[The name pi'obably means stony].

One of tlie two rivers of Damascus; pre-
sumably the more important, for Naaman,
of that city, mentions it first (2 Kin. v. 12).
It is probably thfe Barada, the Chrysorrhoas
of cla.ssical writers, which rises in a large blue
pool of unfathduiable depth on the high plain
south of Zehedany on Anti- Lebanon, twenty-
three miles from Damascus, rushes in a south-
easterly course down the mountain, and then,
turning eastward, runs along the north wall
of the city, to be lost finally in an inland
lake, the middle one of three existing. It
flows sluggishly through the iilain, but on
its passage through Damascus it has a rapid
course. Not less than nine or ten branches
are taken from it, yet to the end it continues
both deep and broad. It is the chief cause of
the beauty and fertility of the plain of Da-
mascus. One of its tributaries, Nahr Abanias,
still preserves the memory of its old name.

Ab'a-rim [those beyond].

A mountain range on the east side of Jor-
dan, sloping abni])tly from the plateau of
ISIoab to the Dead Sea and the Jordan valley.
On it was a station of the Israelites just be-
fore they reached the low plains of Moab,
opposite Jericho (Num. xxxiii. 47, 48). It
was from mount Abarim and the peak of it
called Nebo that Moses was directed to look
across at the promised land (Num. xxvii. 12 ;
Deut. xxxii. 49 ; xxxiv. 1). In the E. V. Aba-
rim is mentioned in Jer. xxii. 20, with Leba-
non and Bashan ; in the A. V. it is rendered
"passages."

Ab'ba [Aramaic, father].

A term borrowed from childhood's language
to express filial address to God (Mark xiv. 36 ;
Eom. viii. 15 ; Gal. iv. 6). The corresponding
Hebrew word is Ab ; it is common in com-
pound proper names in the forms Ab and
Abi, as Abimelech, Abner or Abiner, Eliab.

Ab'da [Aramaic, servant, probably mean-
ing servant of God].

1. The father of Adoniram (1 Kin. iv. 6).

2. A Levite, the son of Shammua (Neh.
xi. 17).

Ab 'de-el [servant of God].
Tlie father of Shelemiah (Jer. xxxvi. 26).
Ab'di [servant of, a contraction of servant
of God].

1. A Levite of the ftimily of Merari. He
was the son of Malluch, and father of Kishi
(1 Chron. vi. 44). The Abdi of 2 Chron. xxix.
12 seems to be the same man.

2. Son of a certain Elam (Ezra x. 26).
Ab'di-el [servant of God].

A Gadite, residentin Gilead ( 1 f 'hron. v. 15).

Ab'don [servile].

1. The son of Hillel, a native of Pirathon,
in the tribe of Ephraim. He judged Israel,
or a portion of it, eight years, and is the elev-
enth judge in the order of enumeration. He

had forty sons and thirty sons' sons, who rode
on as many ass-colts — a sign of rank in days
when the Hebrews did not yet have horses.
He was buried in his native place (Judg. xii.
13-15).

2. Head of a father's house of Benjamin, a
son of Shashak, dwelling in Jerusalem (1
Chron. viii. 23, 26, 28).

3. A Benjamite, the fir.stborn of Jehiel of
Gibeon and an ancestor of king Saul (1 CJhron.
viii. 30 ; ix. 35, 36).

4. An official of king Josiah (2 Chron.
xxxiv. 20) ; see Achbor.

5. A town in the territory of Asher, given,
with its suburbs, to the Levites of the Ger-
shon family (Josh. xxi. 30 ; 1 Chron. vi. 74).
Abdon is perhaps identical with the ruins of
'Abdeh, ten miles north of Acre.

A-bed'ne-go [servant of Nego, probably
the same as Nebo].

The name given by the prince of the eu-
nuchs at Babylon to Azariah, one of the three
faithful Jews, afterwards miraculously saved
from the fiery furnace (Dan. i. 7; iii. 12-30;
1 Mac. ii. 59).'

A'bel, I. [breath, vapor ; applied to Abel
apparently from the shortness of his life ; or
perhaps the name means son].

A younger son of Adam, and by calling a
shepherd. Abel was a righteous man (Mat.
xxiii. 35 ; 1 John iii. 12) ; one of the Old Tes-
tament worthies whose conduct was con-
trolled by faith (Heb. xi. 4). He offered to
God a lamb from his flock, which was ac-
cepted. It was not the kind of ottering, but
the character of the otterer that God re-
spected. As brought by Abel, the ottering
showed the surrender of the heart to God.
The offering of the best further revealed the
sense of obligation and gratitude to God as
the sole bestowcr of the good, to whom all
thanks were due. It expressed the conscious-
ness in the offerer of entire dependence upon
God for daily blessing and the desire for
the continuance of God's favor. In one in
whom the sense of sin was deep, it set forth
the entire dependence of the sinner upon
God's unmerited mercy. Cain's character was
difierent from Abel's; and being rejected he
at the promptings of envy slew Abel (Gen. iv).
The ultimate ground of Abel's acceptance by
God was the atoning blood of Christ.

A'bel, II. [a grassy place, a meadow].

1 . The same as Abel-beth-maachah (2 Sam.
XX. 14, 15, 18).

2. In 1 Sam. vi. 18 it is apparently an er-
roneous reading for 'Ebcn. stone; see R. Y.

A'bel-beth-ma'a-cali and Abel of Beth-
maacah, in A. V. written Maachah [Abel,
?'. e. Meadow near Beth-maacah].

A fortified town in the tribe of Naphtali
(1 Kin. XV. 20; 2 Kin. xv. 29). It was re-
nowned for wisdom (2 Sam. xx. 18). During
Sheba's revolt Joab was about to assault it,
hut "a wise woman" flung the rebel's head
over the wall, and saved the town (14-22).

Abel-cheramim

Abiel

It was one of the places cajiturcd by Ben-ha-
dad at the instance of Asa (1 Kin. xv. 20).
Tiglath-pileser II. took it with other Naph-
talitc towns, carryin}; the inhabitants captive
to Assyria (2 Kin. xv. 2it). Its site was
probably at Abil el-Kamh, a small Christian
village on a rising ground west of the Jor-
dan, about twelve miles north of lake Huleh
and almost directly o]iposite Dan. The Der-
dara Hows swiftly along at the bottom of the
western side of the mound on which the vil-
lage stands, and the country on every side is
well watered and very fertile. In 2 Chrou.
xvi. 4, it is called Abel-maim, Abel by the
water.

A'bel-clier'a-mini [meadow of vineyards].

A place east of the Jordan to which Jeph-
thah pursued the Ammonites (Judg. xi. 3.3,
R. v.).

A'bel-ma'im. See Abel-beth-maacah.

A'toel-me-ho'lali [meadow of dancing].

A town, apparently in the Jordan valley,
where Elisha was born (Judg. vii. 22; 1 Kin.
iv. 12; xix. 16). It was fixed by Jerome ten
Roman miles south of Scytho])olis, the Scrip-
ture Bethshean. Couder places it at 'Ain
Helwch.

A'bel-miz-ra'im. See Atad.

A'bel-sliit'tlm [meadow of acacias]. See
Shittim.

A'bez, in R. Y. Ebez [whiteness, tin].

A town of Issachar (Josh. xix. 20). Not
identified.

A'bi. See Abijah 6.

A-bi'a. See Abijah.

A-bi'ah [Jehovah is a father]. The Hebrew
name is usually rendered Abijah in the Eng-
li.sh version.

Tlie wife of Hezron. a man of the tribe of
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 24). For others who.se
name appears in A. V. as Abiah, see Abijah,

A-bi-al'bon [father of strength].

One of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii.
31). The Septuagintsuj)portsthe reading Abiel
in this passage, which is the name he bears in
1 Chron. xi. 32.

A-bi'a-saph, or Ebiasaph [father of gath-
ering, perhaps in the same sense of removing
reproach].

A descendant of Levi through Korah (Ex.
vi. 16, 18, 21. 24 ; 1 Chron. vi. 23 ; ix. 19).

A-bi'a-thar [father of abundance].

A ])riest, the son of Ahimelech, of the line
of Eli. On the slaughter by Doeg at the in-
stance of king Saul of the priests at Nob,
Abiathar escaped, carrying the ephod with
him : and, as was natural, cast in his lot with
David (1 Sam. xxii. 20-23). When David at
length ascended the throne. Zadok and Abia-
thar apparently shared the high-jiriesthood
between them (cj). 1 Chron. xv. 11, 12 ; 2 Sam.
XV. 24 seq. ; xv. 3."), etc.). The mention of
Ahimelech, son of Abiathar, as i)riest with

Zadok in 2 Sam. viii. 17, is regarded by some
as a copyist's error, whereby the names of
father and son were transposed. But the
nun)l)er of allusions to Ahimelech, the son of
Abiathar, as priest, is so great that an error is
improbable (1 Chron. xviii. 16, Septuagint ;
xxiv. 3, 6, 31). A simpler exjilanation is
that, since Abiathar was becoming quite old
(he was about seventy years of age at tlie
time of Absalom's revolt), his son and legal
successor assumed the burdensome priestly
functions and was called priest, as Phinehas
served during the lifetime of Eli and was
called priest (1 Sam. i. 3; ii. 11). The aged
Abiathar remained faithful to the king dur-
ing Absalom's rebellion, and rendered the
fugitive monarch great service (2 Sam. xv.
24, 29, 35, 36; xvii. 15 ; xix. 11) ; but when
later Adonijah sought to wrest the succession
to the throne from Solomon, Abiathar cast
his priestly influence with the military in-
fluence of Joab, another old man, in favor of
the attractive aspirant (1 Kin. i. .7). Though
this attempt failed, he again favored Adoni-
jah after David's death (1 Kin. ii. 12-22).
For this he was deposed from the high-priest-
hood, and Zadok, a priest of approved loyalty,
but of the other branch of the Aaronic fam-
ily, was put into his place (1 Kin. ii. 26, 35).
His deposition involved that of his sons,
Ahimelech and Jonathan ; and thus the rule
of the house of Eli came to an end, according
to prophecy (1 Sam. ii. 31-.35). The passage in
1 Kin. iv. 4 probably refers to the time im-
mediately prior to his deposition. Abiathar
is alluded to by our Lord in the New Testa-
ment (Mark ii."26).

A'bib [an ear of corn].

The month which the Hebrews were di-
rected to make the first of the year in com-
memoration of their departure from Egypt
(Ex. xii. 1, 2; xiii. 4). Harvest began in it.
The feast of unleavened bread or the iia.ss-
over fell during the month (Ex. xii. 1 seq. ;
xxiii. lo; Dent. xvi. 1). The Jewish months
following the moon, and ours being fixed, the
two cannot be made exactly to corres])ond.
Abib most nearly approaches our month of
March, though in some years its end moves
some distance into our April. After the cap-
tivity the name Abib gave place to Nism
(Neh. ii. 1 ; Esth. iii. 7). See Year.

A-bi'da, in A. Y. once Abidab (Gen. xxv.
4) an inconsistency from which the original
edition of A. Y. is free [father of knowledge].

A descendant- of Abraham through Midian
(Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chron. i. 33).

A-bi'dan [father of a judge, or the father
judgeth].

The representative prince of the tribe of
Benjamin in the wilderness. His father's
name was Gideoni (Num. i. 11 ; ii. 22; vii.
60, 65 ; X. 24).

A-bi'el [father of strength, or God is a
father].

1. A Benjamite, the father of Kish and

Abiezer

Abilene

of Ner, and the grandfather of Saul and of
Abner (1 Sam. ix. 1 ; xiv. 51). See Kish 2.

2. An Arhathite, one of David's mighty
men (1 C'hron. xi. 32), called in 2 Sam. xxiii.
31 Abi-albon (q. v.).

A-bi-e'zer [father of help].

1. A descendant of Manasseh through
Machir, and founder of a family (Josh. xvii.
2 ; 1 Chron. vii. 18) ; abbreviated in Num.
xxvi. 130 to lezer (A. V. Jeezer). The judge
( Jideon belonged to this family (Judg. vi. 11).

2. Collectively, the family of Abiezer
(Judg. vi. 34 ; viii. 2).

3. One of David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 27 ;
1 Chron. xi. 28; xxvii. 12).

A-bi-ez'rite.

One belonging to the family of Abiezer
(Judg. vi. 11, 24 ; viii. 32). In Num. xxvi.
30 abbreviated, and K. V. has lezerite. A. V.
Jeezerite ; but the spelling should rather be
lezrite to accord with the Hebrew and be con-
sisttnit with Abiezrite.

Ab'i-gail [perhaps, father of exultation].

1. The wife of Nabal. She was a woman
of good understanding, and of a beautiful
countenance, and on the death of her first
lui.sl)and became one of David's wives (1 Sam.
XXV. 3, 14-44; xxvii. 3; 2 Sam. ii. 2). When
the Amalekites captured Ziklag they took
her captive, but .she was rescued by her hus-
band after he had defeated the enemy (1 Sam.
xxx. 5, 18). She bore to him a son called
Chileab (2 Sam. iii. 3) or Daniel (1 Chron.
iii. 1).

2. A sister of David (1 Chron. ii. 16) ; not,
however, a daugliter of Jesse, but of Nahash
(2 Sam. xvii. 25). She was the mother of
Amasa.

Ab-i-ha'il [father of strength]. In the
Hebrew text the /i is a different letter in the
name of the men and in that of the women.
The difrcrcnce is commonly attributed to an
early misreading of the text.

1. A Levite of the famiivof Merari (Num.
iii. 35).

2. Wife of Abishur (1 Chron. ii. 29).

3. A Gadite (1 Chron. v. 14).

4. Wife of king Rehoboam and a descend-
ant of Eliab, David's brother (2 Chron. xi. 18).

5. Father of queen Esther (Esth. ii. 15).
A-bi'hu [He, i. e. God, is fiither] .

A son of Aaron. He shared in the privi-
leges, in the sin. and in the fate of Nadab
the eldest son, and like him died childless
(Ex. vi. 23; xxiv. 1 ; xxviii. 1 ; Lev. x. 1-7;
Num. iii. 2).

A-bi'bud [probably, father of praiseworthi-
uess] .

A descendant of Benjamin through the
family of Bela (1 Chron. viii. 3).

A-bi'jah, in A. V. of O. T. thrice Abiab
(1 Sam. viii. 2; 1 Chron. vi. 28; vii. 8), in
A. V. of N. T. Abia [Jehovah is a father].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of David,

and was made the eighth of the twenty-four
courses into which David divided the priests
(1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 10). See 7 below.

2. A descendant of Benjamin through Be-
cher (1 Chron. vii. 8).

3. The younger son of Samuel, appointed
by his father a judge in Bcersheba, but who
proved corrupt (1 Sam. viii. 2 ; 1 Chron. vi.
28).

4. A son of Jeroboam. While yet a child
he fell dangerously sick. Jeroboam sent his
queen in disguise to the prophet Ahijah, who
had predicted that he should obtain the king-
dom, to inquire what the issue of the sick-
ness would be. The prophet recognized the
queen, notwithstanding her disguise, de-
nounced judgment against Jeroboam for his
apostasy from Jehovah, and added that the
child would die at ouce, and that alone of
all that household he would obtain honor-
able burial, because in him was found some
good thing toward the Lord God. All came
to pass as the seer had foretold (1 Kin. xiv.
1-18).

5. The name given in Chronicles to the son
and successor of Rehoboam, called in Kings
Abijam (2 Chron. xii. 16 ; xiii. 1-xiv. 1) ; see
Abijam.

6. The mother of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix.
1). In 2 Kin. xviii. 2 she is called with
great brevity Abi.

7. A chief of the priests who returned with
Zerubbabel from Babylon (Neh. xii. 4, 7).
Possibly he was a representative of the old
course of Ahijah, but the connection cannot
be established, and in view of Ezra ii. 36 seq.
is not probable. In the next generation, a
father's house among the priests bore this
name (Neh. xii. 17). The father of John the
Baptist belonged to this family (Luke i. 5).

8. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, signed the covenant in the
days of Nehemiah (Neh. x. 7).

A-bi'jam [possibly, father of the sea].

The son and successor of Rehoboam on the
throne of Judah. His mother's name was
Maacah, a descendant of Absalom (1 Kin.
XV. 2 ; 2 Chron. xiii. 2). He sinned after the
manner of his father, and had not a heart
true to Jehovah. The kings of Judah had
not yet become reconciled to the revolt of the
ten tribes, and Abijam continued the war
with Jeroboam which his father had waged
(1 Kin. XV. 6, 7). According to 2 Chron. xiii.
3, compared with 2 Sam. xxiv. 9, the whole
population "able to go forth to war" was
under arms. In the slaughter which accom-
panied the warfare, half a million men of
Israel were slain (2 Chron. xiii. 16-20). Abi-
jam had fourteen wives, twenty-two sons,
and sixteen daughters (2 Chron. xiii. 21).
He reigned three years, and died, leaving
his son Asa to succeed him in the kingdom
(1 Kin. XV. 1-8; 2 Chron. xiv. 1). Abijam is
called in Chronicles Ahijah.

Ab-i-le'ne [Greek 'Abilene, so called from

Abimael

Abishai

AbilH, its capital, aud that agaiu probably
from the Semitic 'abel. a meadow].

A totrarchy near Anti-Lchaiion. Its cap-
ital Ahila lay upon the Haraila. IS or 'JO
miles N. W. from Damascus, in part upon
the site of the modern village of es-Suk,
There is a romantic gorge, with a Roman
mad cut in the clitf, a cemetery, a number
of tall i)illars, a stream below and the so-
called "tomb of Abel" above. The local
tradition that -Vbel was buried here doubtless
originated in the similarity of sound between
Abel aud Abila. Of the' formation of the
tetrarchy Josephus makes no mention. In
Luke iii. 1 it is referred to as separate from
the tetrarchy of Philip, and as governed by
LysJiuias in the fifteenth year of Tiberius.
Some ten years later the two tetrarchies are
still distinct; for t'aligula, TOO .v. r. c, be-
stowed the "tetrarchy of Philip," now dead,
and the "tetrarchy of Lysanias" upon Herod
Agrippa, the Herod of the book of Acts
(Antiq. xviii. 6, 10). and Claudius confirmed
to him " Abila of Lysanias" (xix. 5, 1).

There was an Abila in Persea, east of Gad-
ara, but it is not mentioned in Scripture.

A-bim'a-el [composition of the name still
unknown].

A name in the genealogy of Joktan. It
may denote a person, a tribe, or a locality,
and is to be sought in Arabia (Gen. x. 28 ; 1
Chron. i. 22 1.

A-bim'e-lech [father of the king].

1. The personal name or official title of a
king of Gerar, at whose court Abraham at-
tempted to pass Sarah off as his sister (Gen.
XX. 1-18). The king and the patriarch at a
later period entered into a covenant with each
other (xxi. 22-34).

2. A king of the Philistines at Gerar, at
who.se court Isaac attempted to pass off Re-

^bekah as his sister, and with whom he also,
like his father, at last formed a covenant
(Gen. XX vi. 1-33).

3. The son of the judge Gideon by a con-
cubine. This woman was a native of She-
chem, where her fiimily had influence. One
natural penalty of polygamy is that the sons
by one mother tend fiercely to quarrel with
those by another ; and Abimelech, obtaining
assistance from his mother's relatives, killed
seventy sons of his father on one stone at
Ophrah. the native city of the family. One
son only, .Jotham. escajied from the massacre.
Then Abimelech was elected king of Shechem.
Before he had ruled three years he and his
subjects were at variance, and his throne,
founded in blood, had begun to totter. A
plot against him was formed by Gaal. It
came to the ears of Zcbul, Abiuielech's sec-
ond in command, tiaal was defeated and
driven out of Shechem, the city being after-
wards destroyed and sowed with siilt. A
thousand men and women who had taken
refuge in its tower were burnt to death.
When Abimelech shortlv afterwards was be-

sieging TheV)c/., he was mortally wounded by
a millstone dr(){>ped on his head from the
city wall by a woman. Regarding it as di.s-
houorable to be killed by a female, lie or-
dered his armor-hearer to draw his sword
and slay him, which he did (Judg. ix. 1-57).

4. Sec AcHiSH.

5. A priest, asonof Ahiathar(l("hron. xviii.
16). The spelling isdoulitlessa copyist's error
for Abimelech. The Sept uagint reads .\hime-
lech ; see also 1 Chron. xxiv. (j, etc.

A-bin'a-dab [father of liberality].

1. A man of Kirjath-jearim. who when the
ark was sent l)ack by the Philistines gave it
accommodation in his house for twenty years,
his son Eleazar being set apart as a priest to
act as its custodian (1 Sam. vii. 1,2; 2 Sam.
vi. 3; 1 Chron. xiii. 7).

2. The second son of Jesse and an elder
brother of David (1 Sam. xvi. 8; xvii. 13).

3. A son of Saul, killed with his father in
the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. xxxi. 2).

4. Father of a son-in-law of Solomon and
tax-gatherer for the region of Dor (1 Kin.
iv. 11).

A-bin'o-am [father of sweetness or grace].
The father of Barak (Judg. iv. 6 ; v. 12).
A-bi'ram [legitimate variant of Abram.
For meaning see Abr.\ham].

1. f\ Reubenite, a brother of Dathan and
fellow conspirator with Korah (Num. xvi.).

2. The firstborn son of Hiel, who rebuilt
Jericho (1 Kin. xvi. 34). His death, when
its foundations were laid, in j)art fulfilled a
curse pronounced by Joshua (Josh, vi, 26).

A-bish'ag [perhaps, father of wandering].

A beautiful girl from Shunem, employed to
attend upon king David when he was old
and declining in vitality (1 Kin. i. 1-4).
Adonijah wished to marry her after David's
death, and made application for the needt'd
permission to Solomon, who not merely re-
fused his request, but interpreted it to mean
an insidious claim for the crown, and i)ut him
to death (1 Kin. ii. V.]-2o).

A-bish'a-i and Abshai (1 Chron. xviii. 12
margin) [possessor of all that is desirable].

A son of David's si.ster Zerniah.and brother
of Joab and Asahel (2 Sam. ii. 18; 1 Chron.
ii. 13, 16). When David found Saul and his
followers asleep, Abishai asked jiermission to
kill the king; but David would not sanction
his doing harm to "the Lord's anointed"
(1 Sam. xxvi. .5-9). He served under Joab
in David's army (2 Sam. ii. 18: x. 10). When
Abner, fleeing from the battle at Gibet)n, was
compelled to kill Asahel, Joab and Abishai,
his two brothers, pursued the homicide,
but witliout effect (2 Sam. ii. 18-24). He
was loyal to David during the revolts of
Absalom and Sheba (2 Sam. xvi. and xx.).
He desired to slay Sliimei for cursing David,
even when Shimei asked forgiveness (2 Sam.
xvi. 9; xix. 21). He was one of Davifls
mighty men who had lifted ujt his spear
against three hundred and slain them (2

Abishalom

Abraham

Sam. xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chrou. xi. 20). He defeated
the Edomites also in the valley of Salt, slay-
ing eighteen thousand of them and garrison-
ing their country (1 Chron. xviii. 12, 13).
He succored David in the light with Ishbi-
beuob (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17).

A-bish'a-lom. See Abs.\lom.

A-bish'u-a [father of salvation].

1. A Beujamite of the family of Bela (1
Chron. viii. 4).

2. The son of Phinehas the priest (1 Chron.
vi. 4, 5, 50; Ezra vii. 5).

A-toi'shur [father of a wall].
A man of Judah. family of Hezrou, house
of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii.'28, 29).

A-bi'tal [apparently, father of dew, perhaps
in the sense of refreshment].

One of David's wives. Her son was Sheph-
atiah (2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Chron. iii. 3).

A-bi'tub [father of goodness].

A Benjamite, sou of Shaharaim by his wife
Hushim (1 Chron. viii. 8-11).

A-bi'ud [the Greek form, probably, of He-
brew Abihud].

A member of the royal line of Judah (Mat.
i. 13). The name is omitted in 1 Chron. iii. 19.

Ab'ner [father of light]. A legitimate va-
riant form, Abiner, is used in the Hebrew
text of 1 Sam. xiv. 50, and in the margin of
some editions of the English version.

The son of Ner, king Saul's uncle. During
the reign of that monarch Abner was com-
mander-in-chief of the army (1 Sam. xiv. 51).
He first became acquainted with David when
that youth ofiered to meet Goliath in combat
(1 Sam. xvii. 55-58). On the death of Saul,
Abner availed him.self of the tiibal feeling
adverse to Judah, and turned it to the ad-
vantage of the house to which he was related
by blood, and to which he had owned allegi-
ance. He proclaimed Saul's son Ish-bosheth
king at Mahauaim (2 Sam. ii. 8). During
the war between the house of Saul and David
which followed, iu an interview which he
held at Gibeon with Joab, David's com-
mander-in-chief, Abner proposed what he
seems to have intended for a tournament
between twelve young men picked from Ish-
bosheth's supporters and as many taken from
the followers of David, but mutual animos-
ities converted the mimic combat into a real
battle ; and the two armies being drawn into
the struggle, that which Abner led was de-
feated with great slaughter (12-32). During
the retreat from this battle Abner was perti-
naciously followed with hostile intent by
Asahel, one of Joab's brothers, and after re-
jieatedly warning him oS', had at last to strike
him dead in self-defence (18-24). Soon after-
wards Abner had a serious charge brought
against him by Ish-bosheth, which .so irritated
him that he intimated his intention of trans-
ferring his allegiance to David, and was as
good as his word. First he sent messengers
to David, and then sought an interview with

him, and was graciously received. But Joab,
believing or pretending to believe that Ab-
ner had come simply as a spy, went after
him, invited him to a friendly conversation,
and stabbed him dead. The ostensible rea-
son for this assa.ssination was revenge for the
death of Asahel, who, however, had died in
fair fight. An unavowed motive probably
was fear that Abner might one day displace
him from the command of David's army.
The king was justly incensed against the
murderer, and conspicuously showed the peo-
ple that he had no complicity in the crime.
He attended the funeral, lamented the un-
worthy fate of the prince and great man who
had fallen in Israel, and finally left it in
charge to his successor to call Joab to ac-
count for the crime (iii. 6-39; 1 Kin. ii. 5).
Abner had at least one son, Jaasiel (1 Chron.
xxvii. 21), and seems to have had a regard for
the house of God, for he dedicated to it some
of the spoils which he had taken iu battle
(xxvi. 28).

A-bom-i-na'tlon of Des-o-la'tion.

Idolatry with its blighting eflect upon man,
its degradation of the divine ideal, and its
violent outward, as well as its less visible in-
sidious, opposition to the kingdom of God.
To Daniel was revealed: "For the half of
the week, he shall cause the sacrifice and the
oblation to cease ; and upon the wing of abom-
inations shall come one that maketh desolate "
(ix. 27, R. V.) ; "and they shall profane the
sanctuary, even the fortress, and shall take
away the continual burnt oflering, and they
shall set u])the abomination that maketh deso-
late " (xi. 31, R. V.) ; and " from the time that
the continual burnt ofi'ering .shall be taken
away, and the abomination that maketh des-
olate set up, there shall be a thousand two hun-
dred and ninety days " (xii. ll,R.y.). These
prophecies depict outstanding features of the
development of the kingdom of God, which
are typical for all time. A notable fulfillment
of xi. 31, which the Jews were quick to dis-
cern, was the stoppage of the daily sacrifice
by Antiochus Epiphanes in June, 168 b. c,
and the erection on the brazen altar of an
idolatrous one, on which sacrifices were of-
fered to Jupiter Olympius (1 Mac. i. 54 ; vi.
7 ; 2 Mac. vi. 2 ; Antiq. xii. 5, 4 ; 7, 6). But
the prophecy of the abomination of desola-
tion was not exhausted by this fulfillment.
The prophecy belongs to Messianic times (Dan.
ix. 27), and yet more generally to the conflict
of the kingdom of God until its final triumph-
ant establishment (xii. 7, 11 with vii. 25-27;
cp. xii. 2). Christ reiterated the proi)hecy,
enjoining those to flee to the mountains who
should see the abomination of desolation,
spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing
in the holy place (Mat. xxiv. 15, etc.).

A'bra-ham, at first Abram [in Hebrew,
Abram denotes exalted father: the change
to Abraham appears to consist merely in
strengthening the root of the second sylla-

II

Abraham

Abraham

ble, iu order to placo increased cnii)liasi,s ou
the idea of exaltation].

Son of Terali, in-o^cnitor of the Hehrews,
father of the faithful, and the friend of God
(Geii. xi. 2(i ; Gal. iii. 7 J» ; Jas. ii. 2:5).

I. Chronology. — 1. His life before his arrival
in Canaan, 75 years. In his early life Abra-
liam dwelt with his father and his I)rethren
iu Fr of the Chaldees. He married Sarai,
his half-sister. After the death of his l)rother
Haran. he, his wife, and Lot his nephew nii-
jjrated, under the headship of Terah, from
Ur to fi<> to the land of Canaan (Gen. xi. 27-
31). The motive whieh led the family to
change its habitation is not stated in Gen. xi.

and Neh. ix. 7 ; although these passages might
refer to God's i)roviilenee. All the various
causes suggested may have coclperated ; and
the Tiatural motives may have been the
means providentially employed l)y (Jod to
persuade the party to obey the heavenly
vision. The family dejiarted from Ur and,
taking the customary route, followed the
Euphrati'S toward the nortliw<'st. On reach-
ing Haran. the party temporarily abandoned
the purpose of journeying to Canaan and
took up residence where they were. When
Abraham was 75 years old, he departed from
Haran to go to Canaan. This move may have
been due to God's will as I'e vealed by him in Ur,

Traditional Oali of Abraham at Mamre.

Josephus inferred from the narrative that
Terah was actuated by a desire to escape from
associations which reminded him of the son
who had died lAntiq. i. 6, 5). It has also been
suggested that the migration of the family
may have been prompted by the wish to better
their condition in a new and freer country,
or have been incited by political disturbances
in Chaldea, such as an invasion of the Elam-
ites. Stephen understood Gen. xii. 1 to refer
back to this time, and to be the initial com-
mand, given while the family was yet in I'r,
for he .says: "God appeared unto Abraham,
when he was in Mesopotamia, before he dwelt
in Haran " (Acts vii. 2, R. V.). Stephen's in-
terpretation is countenanced by Gen. xv. 7

or to a command now first received. Stephen,
as already said, adopts tlie I'oriner interpreta-
tion and the wording oftlie details in f ten. xii. 1
well suits, with our present meager knowledge
of the community at Haran, this ex]danation.
The departure is related after the record of
Terah's death. It does not follow, however,
from this that Abraham tarried at Haran
until his father died. The narrator as usual
concludes what he has to say of Terah before
taking up the detailed history of Abraham.
Still it is a plausil)le conjecture that Abra-
ham did tarry so long; for the same party
that left Ur now, with the exception of
Terah, leaves Haran : and this also is the
interpretation of Stephen. Btit if so, Abra-

Abraham

Abraham

ham was born when Terah was at least 130
years old, and not 70, as is often unneces-
sarily inferred from Gen. xi.26. In this pas-
sage Abraham is mentioned first, either be-
cause he was the firstborn and born in Terah's
70th year, or else, if he was a younger sou
and born after Terah's 70th year, because he
was the progenitor of the chosen people (,cp.
Gen. V. 32 with ix. 22, 24). From Haran
Abraham went to Canaan. What route did he
take '? Probably the road by way of Damas-
cus, for a great highway led from Mesopo-
tamia past that city to Canaan ; and later
mention is made of Abraham's steward, Eli-
ezer of Damascus. Abraham did not stop
long at any place along the way, but prop-
erly speaking journeyed continuously; for
he was 75 years old when he left Haran, and
he spent ten years in Canaan before he took
Hagar to wife (Gen. xvi. 3), and he was 86
years old when Hagar bore Ishmael (16) ; so
that not more than a year elapsed between
the departure from Haran and the arrival in
Canaan.

I. 2. Unsettled life in Cnnnnn, at most 10
years. He encamped at Shechem (Gen. xii. 6),
at Beth-el (8), journeyed to the south country
(9), and was driven by famine into Egypt.
In Egypt, through fear for his life, he repre-
sented Sarah merely as his sister (10-20).
He returned to the south country (xiii. 1),
was again at Beth-el (3). He and Lot now
separated on account of their increasing pos-
ses.sions. Lot chose the plain of the Jordan

Pfelr-a

Afa'an.

SOUTH COUNTRY,EDOM*''°M0AB

SeaU o/M/es

(5-12). Abraham afterwards moved his tent
to the oaks of Mamre at Hebron (18).

I. 3. Residence at the oalcs of Mamre, at least
15, perhaps 23 or 24 years. Abraham is in
treaty with the Amorite chieftains of the
vicinity (Gen. xiv. 13), pursues Chedorlaomer
(l-16),'is blessed by Melchizedek (17-24). The
promise of an heir is given him and is be-
lieved ; and the ])romise of Canaan as an in-
heritance is confirmed by covenant (xv.).
Birth of Ishmael (xvi.). After an interval
of 13 years (16; xvii. 1), the promise is un-
folded. Man's attempt to fulfill God's prom-

Abraham

Abraham

ise does not alter ({od's intention ; not the
bondwoman's ehild, l)ut the free woman's;
not the ehikl of the tlesh, Imt the chihl of
jn-omise. On tliis oeeasii>n tlie covenant sijjn
of eireumeisiou is appointed, and tiie name
Abram is changed to Abraham (Gen. xvii.).
Sodom is destroyed (xviii. and xix).

I. 4. Residence in the south conittri/, some lo
years durinfr the ehildliood of Isaae. Sarah
taken to the eourt of Abimeleeh (Gen. xx.).
When Abraham is 100 years old. Isaac is born,
and a week later Ishmael is expelled (xxi. 1-
•21 ). At a well owned by Abraham. Abimeleeh
and he conclude a treaty, and Abraham names
the well Beer-sheba (2J-34). When Isaac
was somewhat grown (xxii. 6 ; Josephus con-
jectures 25 years, Antiq. i. 13. 2), Abraham's
faith was put to an open test by the command
to .sacritice his only son. In obedience to this
commaiul, he and Isaac reyiaii-ed to the moun-
tains of Moriah, when a ram was graciously
substituted for Isaac. They returned to Beer-
sheba (xxii. 1-19).

I. 5. Again at Hebron, after an uneventful
interval of 20 years. Here Sarah died, aged
127 years (Gen. xxiii).

I. 6. Probably in the south country with Isaac,
about 38 years. After the death of Sarah,
when Abraham was 140 years old (xxi v. 67;
XXV. 20), he sends to Mesopotamia to obtain
a wife from his own people for Isaac. Re-
bekah is brought back and meets Isaac at
Beer-lahai-roi, perhaps 'Aiu Muweileh (xxiv).
That Abraham took Keturah to wife is next
recorded. Abraham died, aged 175 years,
and was buried in the cave of Machpelah
(xxv. 1-9).

II. The size of the community under Abraham.
Abraham departed from Haran with his wife,
his nephew, and the souls that they had ac-
quired (Gen. xii. 5), and in Gauaau he obtained
additional servants by purchase, by gift and
doubtless by birth (xvi. 1 ; xvii. 23, 27 ; xviii.
7; XX. 14). He was rich in flocks and herds
and their necessiiry accompaniment, men-
servants and maidservants (xii. 16: xiii. 2,
7; xxiv. 32, '.i-'y. 59; xxvi. 15). He led 318
trained men, born in his house, to the rescue
of Lot (xiv. 14). He was recognized by the
neighboring chieftains as a mighty prince
(xxiii. 6), with whom they do well to make
alliances and conclude treaties (xiv. 13 ; xxi.
22 seq.). Yet when deprived of the aid of
his allies, as when he went to sojourn in
Egypt, his sense of in.security triumphed
over his better self, and he repressed part of
the truth in regard to Sarah. He desired
peace and was a man of peace (xiii. 8). yet
like many other hardy settlers would in time
of need brave hardship and danger and do
battle for relatives and friends (xiv).

III. The religions belief of Abraham. His
nearer ancestors served other gods (Josh.
xxiv. 2). Their worship was at least cor-
r\ipted by the prevalent animism of Baby-
lonia, which assigned a spirit to every object
in nature, and which led to the conception

of eleven great gods besides innumerable
minor deities. The great gods were the
deities of the majestic and imjjressive objects
in nature: of the sky, of eartli's surface, of
the ocean and all subterranean waters: of
the moon,,,the sun, and the storm; and of
the five planets visible to the naked eye.
The gods were powi-rful. were active in na-
ture, bestowed siK'cial care on favorite indi-
viduals and comnuiuilies, heard and an-
swered prayer. Abraham's faitl) was distin-
guished from the belief of the great majority
of his contemporaries of whom we have any
knowledge, in that Abraham believed in (iod
the almighty (Gen. xvii. 1), the everhisting
(xxi. 33), the most high ( xiv. 22), the possessor
or maker of heaven and earth, i. e. the actual
and lawful Lord of all (ibid., xxiv. 3), the
righteous Judge, i. e. the moral governor of
all the earth (xviii. 25) ; and in accordance
with the faith of his contemporaries, Abra-
ham believed in this God as the dispo.ser of
events, who seeth and taketh knowledge of
what occurs on earth, and who giveth and
withholdeth as he will. In this faith Abra-
ham obeyed, worshiped, and guarded the
lionor of God. How came Abraham by this
faith? 1. Reason lent its aid, as it still helps
the intelligent Christian. Polytheists have
often arrived at henotlieism ; and there are
traces of henotheism among Abraham's coun-
trymen in Babylonia. A clear, logical mind,
such as Abraham exhibits, would tend to pass
from henotheism to monotheism. Melchize-
dek had come to worship the most high God,
possessor of hea%-en and earth ; and his re-
ligious couceptions and practices called forth
profound recognition from Abraham. Monu-
mental evidence seems to show that occasion-
ally an individual among the Assyrians and
Babylonians arrived at a siuculiitive belief
in the unity of God, but without iulluencing
the people at large. It is no more unique for
Abraham to believe in one God, Lord over
all, than for Ho.sea or Amos to do so. 2. The
religious inheritance, which he received fnmi
his forefathers, aided Abraham. In su])])ort
of this source of religious information may be
urged, (a) the reascms for believing in a primi-
tive revelation: (b) the existence of tlie line
which began with Adam and included such
true worshipers of God as Seth (see (ten. iv.
26), Enoch, and Noah ; and (c) the historical
fact of the transmission to the Hebrews of
traditions like that of the creation and the
flood. 3. Special revelation was granted to
Abraham by dreams, visions, and theojihanies
(xii. 7 ; XV. 1, 12, 17 ; xvii. 1 ; xviii. 1, 2 : xxii.
1, 2). Theophanies are as conceivable in
Abi-aham's time as is the manifestation of
Christ at a later age.

IV. Harmony between the Hebrew record and
contemporary history. 1. The language of
Canaan. Before the conqtiest of tlu> countrj'
by the Israelites under Joshua not a few places
and persons bore Semitic names. Abimeleeh
and Urushalim, /. e. Jerusjilem. were in vogue.

Abram

10

Absalom

IV. 2. The narrative of Abraham fits hito Egyp-
tian history. Biblical chronological data place
the arrival of Abraham in Cauaan about 645
years before the Exodus. This date explains
at once Abraham's willingness to go to Egypt
when famine prevailed in Canaan and his
kindly reception by Pharaoh, for the date of
his journey falls within the period when
Asiatics, the so-called shepherd kings, held
the throne of Egypt. The biblical data place
not only Abraham's visit to the Nile country,
but also the descent of Jacob and his sons to
Egj'pt, Avithin the period of the shepherd
rule : a strong confirmation both of the
chronological data and of the authenticity
of the narrative.

IV. 3. The narrative fits into Babylonian his-
tory. (1.) About the time assigned by the He-
brew record to Abraham and the invasion of
the west, the populous plain at the mouth of
the Tigris was ruled by an Elamite dynasty.
(2.) Under the Elamite sovereign vassal kings
exercised sway, as described in Genesis. (3.)
The Babylonian kings of this period made ex-
])editions into the far west and held Canaan
in subjection (cp. Kudurmabug and Ammisa-
tana). (4.) Chedorlaomei;, the name assigned
to the king of Elam, is a genuine Elamite
name. Chedor, i. e. Kudur, is constantly
used in the composition of Elamite royal
names, and Laomer, i. e. Lagamar, is the
name of an Elamite god. Thus the Hebrew
record gives an accurate and somewhat de-
tailed picture of the political condition of
Babylonia as well as of Canaan. It may be
added that Cliedorlaomer's own name and
those of his allies have been recently re-
ported as discovered in the Babylonian in-
scriptions.

A'bram (Gen. xi. 26-xvii. 5). See Abka-

HAM.

A-bro'nah, in A. V. Ebronah [a passage, or
opi)osite] .

A station of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness, apparently north of Ezion-geber (Num.
xxxiii. 34, 35).

Ab'sa-lom and Abishalom (1 Kin. xv. 2,
10) [father of peace].

1. The third son of David, king of Israel.
He was born in Hebron, and had for his
mother Maacah, the daughter of Talmai,
king of Gcshur, in Aram (2 Sam. iii. 3). He
was of faultless form, and had long, fine hair,
of which he was inordinately vain. His
beauty was shared by his sister Tamar, who
so fascinated her half-brother Amnon that
he criminally dishonored her, for which two
years afterwards he was treacherously assas-
sinated at the instance of Absalom, whose
guest he was at the time. Though Absalom
was his father's favorite, his crime was too
gross to be overlooked even by his indulgent
parent. He had to go into exile, and re-
mained three years with his maternal con-
nections in Geshur, and two more at Jeru.sa-
lem. before he was allowed to return to the

court or see his royal father. He soon after-
wards deliberately set himself to win the
hearts of the people away from the king his
father, and when the plot was ripe, repaired,
under false pretences, to Hebron, and raised
the standard of rebellion. The perfection
of his bodily frame marked him out for rule
of the highest kind. Probably he had heard
that Solomon was to succeed David, and con-
sidered the ari-augement unfair to himself,
as he was the elder of the two brothers, and,
unlike Solomon, was by the mother's as well
as the father's side of royal blood. Whether
or not he was aM'are that it was t)y the divine
choice, as recorded in 1 Chron. xxii. 7-10,
that Solomon was designated to the sove-
reignty, is less certain ; if he did know it,
then in a theocracy like the Jewish, the
enormity of his rebellion was further height-
ened. It is noticeable, in connection with
this point, that the priests and Levites sided
with David, and brought him much moral
as well as material support ; but the mass of
the people seem to have gone against him,
and he had to escape with a few faithful fol-

Absalom's Tomb.

lowers from Jerusalem to save his life. Of
David's two chief counselors, the abler one,
Ahithophel, had gone over to Absalom ; the
other, Hu.sliai, was faithful to David, and
went after the fugitive king. David sent
him back to Jerusalem to pretend adherence
to Absalom, and thwart the counsel of Ahith-
ophel. When the time arrived for ofler-
ing advice to Absalom, Ahithophel astutely
recommended that he should be allowed to
take 12, 000 men that very night and follow
David before David recovered from his depres-
sion. He would kill only the king, and the
people would then come over to Absalom.
Before the scheme was carried out, Hushai

I

Abshai

11

Accho

was asked if he adhered to it, and of course
he raised ohjeetions, and jirojjosed a rival
scheme of his own, so preposterous that it
does uot say much for Absalom's penetration
that he did not see it was meant to efiect his
ruin. Huslu^i counseled long dehiy, a course
which would really tend to make Absalom
weaker and David stronger. He flattered
Absalom's self-conceit by proposing that he
should be commander, which would give the
army a poor leader. When victory was
achieved, which he assumed to be a certainty,
he provided that there should be extensive
and unnecessiiry bloodshed, a serious politi-
cal blunder as well as a great crime. Hushai's
absurd scheme, however, recommended itself
to Absalom and the people, and Ahithophel,
seeing that it was all over with the rebellion,
went home and committed suicide. Hushai,
understanding that the danger was not yet
over, sent David counsel immediately to cross
the Jordan, which he did. Absalom and the
rebel army were beginning to revert to the
policy of Ahithophel ; and ultimately a com-
promise was made between his plan and that
of Hushai. ('. e. hostilities should be immediate,
but Absalom should be the commander-in-
chief. The battle took place in the wood of
Ephraim, apparently near Mahanaim, where
David was then residing. The rebel host,
undisciplined and badly led, went down at
once before David's veterans, handled by
three skillful commanders. When the rout
took place, Absalom, riding furiously on a
mule, got his head entangled among the
spreading branches of an oak, great disser-
vice being done him by the long hair of
which he was so vain. The animal ran
away, leaving him hanging helplessly, but
alive. Joab, one of the three commanders,
thrust three darts through the heart of the
unhappy prince, and ten of Joab's immediate
followers surrounding him completed the
slaughter. David had given express direc-
tions that Absalom should not be injured, and
on hearing of his death he gave himself up to
excessive grief (2 Sam. xiii. 1-xix. 8). Ab-
salom was buried near the place where he
died, in a pit under a great cairn of stones.
He had reared for himself a pillar at Jerusa-
lem to keep his name in remembrance (xviii.
17. IS). What is now called Absalom's tomb
is in the valley of the Kidron. The decora-
tions date from the Greco-Roman period, but
the chamber itself may be older. According
to the title, Ps. iii. was composed by David
during Absalom's rebellion ; perhaps also Ps.
vii.

2. Father of Mattathias and probably of
Jonathan, captains of the Jewish army under
the Maccabees Jonathan and Simon (1 Mac.
xi. TO; xiii. 11; Antiq. xiii. 5, 7; 6, 4).

Ab'shal. See Abishai.

A-ca'ci-a. See Shittah.

Ac'cad.

An ancient city in the land of Shinar and

one of four towns which constituted the orig-
inal kingdom of Nimrod (Gen. x. 10). It is
also mentioned by Mebuchadnezzar called the
First, who reigned at Babylon about 11,50 B. v.
(VR 56, 50). The name was extended to denote
a district called the land of Accad. This dis-
trict, at one period at least, embraced northern
Babylonia, adjacent to Assyria, and included
within its bounds the cities of Babylon and
Cutha.

Ac'cho [hot sand].

A city on a small promontory of the coast
of Palestine, about 25 miles south of Tyre.
The town looks aci'oss the bay of its own
name to mount Carmel, about 8 miles to the
south. It was assigned to the tribe of
Asher, but was not occupied by the Hebrews
(Judg. i. 31). In the time of Hoshea it
submitted to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria
(Antiq. ix. 14, 2) ; and it suflered from the
same nation in the reign of Ashurbanipal.
A century or so before Christ its name was
changed to Ptolemais, in honor of one of the
early Ptolemies. It acquired importance polit-
ically as the key of Galilee and as a seaport at
the end of commercial routes to Decapolis and
Arabia (1 Mac. v. 15, 21, 55 ; x. 1 ; Antiq. xiii.
12, 2 seq.). Jonathan Maccabseus was treach-
erously slain there (1 Mac. xii. 48 ; Antiq.
xiii. 6, 2). A large number of Jews found a
home within its walls (War, ii. 18, 5), and
a Christian community early grew up here.
On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul spent
a day here with the brethren (Acts xxi.
7). Later the town became the seat of a
Christian bishop. The Arabs restored the
old name, which the Franks corrupted mto
Acre. It was taken in a. d. 1191 by Philip
Augustus, king of France, and Richard I.,
king of England. From A. d. 1229 it was
held by the Knights of St. John, and was
often called in consequence St. Jean d'Acre.
Prior to 1799 it was strongly fortified by
Jezzar Pasha, who ruled with energy, but
with such cruelty that lie was nicknamed
" the Butcher." In that year it was attacked
by Napoleon, who was baifled, and at once
began his retreat from Syria. Jezzar's vic-
tory was largely due to English sailors, who
had been landed to give him aid. In 1832 it
was wrested from the Turkish sultan by one
of his subjects, Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mo-
hammed Ali, the ruler of Egypt. On No-
vember 3, 1840, it was bombarded by the
British and Austrian fleets, until the day was
decided by the ex]>losion of the powder mag-
azine, which caused the death of from 1700
to 2000 Egyptian soldiers. The place was given
back to the sultan, under who.se rule it still
remains. It is now a walled town, with a
single land gate at the southeast angle and a
sea gate leading to the shipping in the har-
bor. Its ramparts, injured by the bombard-
ment of 1840, have not been repaired : its
bazaars look deserted, the chief support of
its 5000 to 8000 inhabitants being the money

Accursed

12

Achsah

spent by the garrison or obtained by tlie ex-
portation of grain and cotton.

Ac-cur'sed.

Anything on which a curse has been pro-
nounced, devoting it todestriirtion (Josh. vi.
18; vii. 1, 11,13,15; xxii.20j. 8ie Anathema.

A-cel'da-ma, R. V. Akeldama [field of
blood].

A field called originally the Potter's Field.
Judas hanged himself, apjiarently, in it, and
his body, for some cause, fell and burst
asunder. The chief i)riests purchased the
field with the thirty ])icces of silver which
Judas had cast down in the temple, and de-
signed it to be a burial place for strangers
(Mat. xxvii. 7, 8). Peter alludes to Judas as
acquiring the field (Acts i. 18, 19). Probably
he does not mean that it was purchased by
Judas in person, but by the priests with
Judas' ill-gotten monej^. The traditional
site, dating from the time of Jerome in the
fourth century, is on the southern side of the
valley of Hinuom. This identification is not
improbable, for the locality is one which can
furnish potter's clay, and lias long been sur-
rendered to burial purposes. Many crusaders
were subsecjuently buried there. Its modern
name is Hakk ed-Dumm.

A-cha'ia.

Originally a state of Greece situated in the
northern part of the Peloponnesus (now the
Morea), and comprehending Corinth and its
isthmus. After Greece had been conquered
by the Romans, the emperor Augustus Csesar
divided that country with the adjacent re-
gions into two provinces, Macedonia and
Achaia. The latter comprehended the whole
of the Peloponnesus, with continental Greece
S. of Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly. Corinth
was the capital, and was the residence of the
proconsul by whom the province was ruled.
It is in the second or comprehensive sense
that the word Achaia is used in the New
Testament (Acts xviii. 12, 27; xix. 21 ; Rom.
XV. 26 ; 2 Cor. i. 1 ; ix. 2; 1 Thess. i. 7, 8).

A-cha'i-cus [belonging to Achaia].
A Christian who came with two others from
Corinth to Paul (1 Cor. xvi. 17).

A'chan and Actiar [trouble ; or, he has
troubled].

A son of Carmi, of the house of Zimri, fam-
ily of Zerah, tribe of Judah. At the capture
of Jericho he appropriated to his own use and
hid in his tent a Babylonish garment and a
wedge of gold, part of the spoil of Jericho,
which had been devoted to utter destruction.
He thereby troubled Israel. His transgres-
sion led to the defeat of the Israelites before
Ai. Lots were then cast to discover the cul-
prit who had brought on the catastrophe, and
Achan was jiointed out as the individual.
He made confession of his guilt, but this did
not avert his fate. He was stoned to death
in the vallev of Achor (Josh. vii. 1-26 ; xxii.
20; 1 Chron. ii. 7).

A'char. See Achan.
A'chaz. See Ahaz.
Ach'bor [a mouse].

1. The father of Baal-hanan, king of Edom
(Gen. xxxvi. 38; 1 Chron. i. 49).

2. The son of Michaiah and father of
Elnathan. He was a trusted otficer at the
court of Josiah (2 Kin. xxii. 12, 14 ; Jer. xxvi.
22 ; xxxvi. 12). Called Abdon in 2 Chron.
xxxiv. 20.

A'chim [Greek, from Hebrew Jachiu or
Jakim, Jehovah will establish].

An ancestor of Jesus in the line of Joseph,
who lived after the exile (Mat. i. 14).

A'cMsh [Philistine name, meaning is un-
known].

The son of Maoch and the king of Gath,
to whom David twice fled during the time
that he was persecuted by Saul (1 Sam. xxi.
10-15; xxvii. 1-12; xxviii. 1, 2; xxix. 1-11).
He is ])robably the Achish who was king of
Gath at the beginning of Solomon's reign :
for the latter was the son of Maachah, a
name which is radically identical with Maoch
the father of the Achish already known. The
reign of about fifty years required by this
assumption is not extraordinary (cp. among
many others the reigns of Uzziah and Ma-
nasseh). Achish survived his contemporary,
David, at least three years (1 Kin. ii. 39). In
the title of Ps. xxxiv. he is called Abimelech,
which appears to have been an official desig-
nation of the Philistine kings as Pharaoh was
a title of the Egyptian monarchs.

Ach'me-tlia [Median Hanqmntdna].

A city in the province of the Medes. When
the Jews asserted that Cyrus had issued a de-
cree permitting them to build the temj^le,
their adversaries sent to Babylon to inquire
if the document were in existence. Darius
ordered an investigation. The house of the
archives where the treasures were laid up in
Babylon was first searched, but in vain. The
quest was continued in Achmetha in the
province of the Medes, and the decree was
found in the palace (Ezra v. 6-vi. 2). There
is no reason to doubt that Achmetha was
Ecbatana, the capital of Media, the summer
residence of the Persian kings, and a treasure
city. It is the modern Hamadan.

A'chor [trouble].

The valley near Jericho where the unhappy
Achan was stoned to death (Josh. vii. 24-26;
Is. Ixv. 10; Hos. ii. 15). It lay south of
Jericho, for it formed part of the northern
boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 7), whereas
Jericho was a city of Benjamin.

Ach'sah, in A. V. once Achsa (1 Chron. ii.
49), an inconsistency from which the original
edition of A. V. was free [a leg-band, an
anklet] .

A daughter of Caleb, son of Jephunneh,
who promised her in marriage to anyone who
should capture Kirjath-sepher. Othniel, his
younger lirother or half-brother, took the

i

Achshaph

13

Acts of the Apostles

town, aud received the maiden. At her re-
quest her father gave her tlie npijer and
uetlier springs (Josh. xv. KJ-IU ; Judg. i. 12-
Ir,; 1 fhron.'ii. 4!»).

Ach'shapb [fascination].

A border town of Asher, originally Ca-
naanite, with a king, conquered by Joshua
(Josh. xi. 1 ; xii. 20). To judge from Josh.
xix. 25 it lay not far from Accho.

Ach'zib or Che'zib, as it was with equal
correctness pronounced by the Hebrews [de-
ceitful].

1. A town of southern Palestine eventually
included in Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 5; Josh.
XV. 44 ; Mic. i. 14). Probably the same place
as Chozeba (1 Chrou. iv. 22). It is commonly
identified with ruins at the spring 'Ain Kez-
beh, which is appai'ently a corruption of the
old name.

2. A town on the seacoast of Asher (Josh.
xix. 29;, but from which the people of that
tribe did not drive out the Canaanite inhabi-
tants (Judg. i. 31). It was known as Ekdip-
pa to the Greeks and Romans (War, i. 13, 4) ;
and has been identified as Zib, eight aud a
half miles north of Acre.

Acts of the A-pos'tles, The.

The fifth book of the X. T. The common
title, which is as old as the second century,
does not mean that the book relates all the
acts of the apostles. Its purpose was to show
the establishment by the Spirit through the
apostles of gentile Christianity. At first
Peter and afterwards Paul are most promi-
nent ; but frequently the apostles as a body
are represented as taking action (Acts i. 23-
26; ii. 42 ; iv. 33 ; v. 12, 29; vi. 2 ; viii. 1, 14;
XV. 6, 23). The book is addressed to a cer-
tain Theophilus, probably a gentile Cliris-
tian of distinction. The author refers (i. 1)
to a previous treatise by him concerning
the life and teachings of Christ, which was
clearly our Third Gospel, because (1) it was
addressed to Theophilus; (2) it consists of a
narrative of Christ's life and teaching until
his ascension (Luke xxiv. 51) ; (3) it presents
the ministry of Christ with special reference
to its universal mission, which would nat-
urally be the point of view adopted by the au-
thor of The Acts ; (4) the vocabulary and .style
of the two books are notably alike. Further,
while the author does not name himself in
either book, he uses the first person plural
in certain portions of the narrative of Paul's
journeys (Acts xvi. 10-15 ; xx. 5-xxi. 18 ;
xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16), and by this intimates that
he was a companion of the apostle : that he
joined him on his second journey at Troas
and accompanied him to Philippi, again re-
joined him at Philijipi in the third journey
and went with him to Jerusalem, and trav-
eled with him from Csesarea to Eome. The
earliest tradition of the post-apostolic age
assigns both the Third Gospel and The Acts to
Luke, and the allusions to Luke in Paul's
epistles accord with the above references to

his movements in The .\cts, while no other of
Paul's known companions will fit into them.
From Col. iv. 14, Philem. 24, we learn that
Luke was with Paul in Rome, and no men-
tion of him occurs in ejjistles written when,
according to The Acts, its author was not with
the apo.stle. Moreover, the u.se of med-
ical terms (see Hobart, The Medical Laiuiuage
of St. Luke) and the classical elements in his
style, as well as his evident acquaintance with
the Roman world, indicate that the auth(jr
was an eilucated man such as a physician
would l)e likely to be. There should lie no
doubt, therefore, that Luke wrote both the
third Gosjjcl and The Acts. The purpose of
The Acts has been already .stated. Chap. i. re-
counts Christ's last interviews with the apos-
tles through forty days, his promise of the
Spirit and his command to preach to all the
world (ver. 8), followed by his ascension and
the actions of the disciples until Pentecost.
Then follows an account of the church in
Jerusalem after Pentecost (ii. 1-viii. 3), in
which certain representative facts are de-
scribed (the first conversions, the first oppo-
sition, the first discipline, the first persecu-
tion, the first organization, the first martyr-
dom), and, after each, a brief notice of its
effect upon the Church (see ii. 41-47; iv. 23-
37; V. 11-16, 41, 42; vi. 7; viii. 1-3). Here
Peter is most prominent, though the first
martyr and the man who prepared for the fol-
lowing period was Stephen. Next we have an
account of the transition of the Church to a
missionary religion, otl'ering salvation by
faith alone to all men (viii. 4-xii. 25). Here
five significant events are described: (1)
Philip's work in Samaria and the Ethiopian
steward's conversion (viii. 4-40) ; (2) Saul's
conversion and earliest preaching (ix. 1-30) ;
(3) Peter's missionary work in Syria, leading
to the conversion of Cornelius and the con-
viction of the Church that the gospel was for
gentiles (ix. 31-xi. 18); (4) the founding of
the gentile church of Antioch, a new center
for further gentile work (xi. 19-30) ; (5) the
Herodian persecution whereby th<5 Jewish
state finally repudiated Christianity (xii.).
Then follows the estal)lishnient of Christi-
anity, chiefly through Paul, in the principal
centers of the empire (xiii. to the end). This
was done in three great journeys : the first,
to Cyprus and the interior of Asia Minor
(xiii. ; xiv.), led to the Council of Jeru-
salem (xv. 1-35), when the standing in the
Church of uncircumcised gentiles was for-
mally recognized ; tlie second, to Macedonia
and Greece (xv. 36-xviii. 22) ; the third, to
Ephesus as well as Greece (xviii. 23-xx. 3),
followed by Paul's last visit to Jerusalem
(xx. 4-xxi. 26), where ho was arrested, and,
after defending himself before the Jews,
Felix, Festus, and Agrippa, and after two
years' imprisonment iuCsesarea (xxi. 27-xxvi.
32) was sent, on his appeal to the emperor, to
Rome (xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16), where he preached
for two years (xxviii. 17-31). Many think

Adadah

14

Adbeel

that The Acts was written just at the close of
these "two years" (i. e. A. d. 63). Others
think Luke ended there because his object
was attained in ))ringing I'aul, as an apos-
tolic i)r(;aclier, to Jvonie, or because he in-
tended to write a third hook descriptive of
hiter events, and tliat Tlic Acts should be
dated a few years later than (;3. The re-
markable historical accuracy of The Acts has
been proved by modern research (see e. <i.
Ramsay's Chid-ch hi the Human Empire). Its
harmony with Paul's epistles has been much
del)aled and successfully defended. It is
written witli nnich artistic power, and sup-
jilics the information necessary to explain
the riseof Christianity as a universal religion
during the thirty-three years from the death
of Clirist covered by its narrative. G. x. p.

Ad'a-dah [holiday, festival].

A town on the extreme south of the tribe
of .Tudah (Josh. xv. 22). It has not been
identified, unless Adada is a misreading of
'Ar'ara (cp. Septuagint). See AitOEE 3.

A'dah [as a Hebrew word, means adorn-
ment, beauty].

1. One of Lamech's wives, and mother of
Jabal and Jubal (Gen. iv. 19-21, 23).

2. One of Esau's wives, daughter of Elon,
the Hittite (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 4) ; in Gen. xxvi. 34
called Bashemath. Double names are frequent
among men ; and it is stated that women in
the East more frequently adopt new names
than do men. and are apt to alter their name
if thej' re-marry or change their religion.

A-da'iah [.Tehovah has adorned].

1. A man of Bozkath, father of Josiah's
mother (2 Kin. xxii. 1, R. V.).

2. A Le.vite descended from Gershom (1
Chron. vi. 41, 42).

3. A priest, descended through Jeroham
from Malchijah (1 Chron. ix. 12; Neh. xi. 12).

4. A Benjamite, son of Shimhi (1 Chron.
viii. 21).

5. A son of Bani. induced by Ezra to put
away liis foreign wife (Ezra x. 29).

6. The son of another Bani. He was sim-
ilarly persuaded (Ezra x. 39).

7. A son of Joiarib (Neh. xi. 5).

8. Father of Maaseiah (2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

A-da'li-a [Persian name].

One of Haman's ten sons (Esth. ix. 8).

Ad'am [human being, meaning etymologi-
cally either ruddy or formed].

1. The first human being. Mankind was
made, as were all other created things, by God
((ien. i. 26) ; and was made male and female
(27; Mat. xix. 4-6), the man being first
formed, then the woman (Gen. ii. 7, 20-23; 1
Tim. ii. 13). Like other animals and later men,
his body was formed of tlie ordinary ma-
terials of the universe and life was granted
by God (Gen. ii. 7 ; cp. 19 ; vi. 17 ; vii. 22 ; Job
X. 8-12 ; xxvii. 3 ; xxxiii. 4). He was made in
the image of God (Gen. i. 26, 27). Paul de-
scribes the similarity as consisting in knowl-

edge, or, more completely, in knowledge,
righteousness, and true holiness (Eph. iv. 22-
25; Col. iii. 9, 10). Mankind was invested
with dominion over tlie inferior animals (Gen.
i. 26-28) ; was exhorted to be fruitful and to
multiply, and replenish the earth, and sub-
due it (28) ; and shared in the approval when
God pronounced that everything which he
had made was very good (31).

Adam, the first of mankind, was placed
with Eve in the garden of Eden to dress it
and keep it in order. A command was laid
upon him, in the nature of a covenant of life
and death (Gen. ii. l(i, 17). On his transgres-
sion, sentence of death was passed upon him,
toil and undesired results were annexed to
labor, and he was expelled from the garden
(iii. 1-24 ; 2 Esdr. iii. 4-7, 21. 22). Afterwards
he had children, Cain. Abel, and. when he was
130 years old, Seth. He lived 800 years more,
at last dying at the age of 930. See Chronol-
ogy. Paul draws a double parallel between
Adam and Christ, calling our Lord the last
Adam (Rom. v. 12-21 ; 1 Cor. xv. 22, 45).

2. A city in the Jordan valley beside Zare-
than (Josii. iii. 16). Its identification with
ed-Damieh on the western bank of the river,
less than a mile below the mouth of the
Jabbok and eighteen miles above Jericho,
must be received with caution.

Ad'a-mah [soil].

A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 36).
The Palestine explorers place it at ed-Damieh,
five miles southwest of Tiberias.

Ad'a-mant [in Greek, unconquerable].

An extremely hard metal or mineral, espe-
cially the diamond. It is the traditional ren-
dering of the Hebrew Shamir, a hard sub-
stance compared with flint and the stony
heart (Ezek. iii. 9 ; Zech. vii. 12), and used
to point graving tools (Jer. xvii. 1, where it
is rendered "diamond").

Ad'a-mi [human], in R. Y. Adami-nekeb
[perhaps, Adami of the pass].

A frontier town of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33).
Conder identifies Adami with the ruined vil-
lage of Admah on the table-land southwest
from the sea of Galilee. See Nekeb.

A'dar, I. [perhaps, amplitude].

A town of Judah, better written Addar
(q. v.).

A'dar, II. [Assyro-babylonian adarn and
addarti, probably dark, cloudy].

The later name of the twelfth month of
the Jewish year, borrowed by the Jews from
the Babylonian calendar during the exile
(Ezra vi". 15; Esth. iii. 7, 13; ix. 15). It ex-
tended from the new moon in February to
that in March. See Year.

Ad'a-sa.

A town near Beth-horon (1 Mac. vii. 40, 45,
cp. 39; Antiq. xii. 10, 5), at the junction of
the two main lines of advance 5n Jerusalem
from the north.

Ad'be-el [perhaps, a miracle of God].

Addan

15

Adonijah

A son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13 ; 1 Chron.
i. 29).

Ad'dan or Addon; the pronunciation with
a, wliii'h appears to he Aramaic or BaV)y-
lonian, heinj< exchanged for its regiihir He-
hrew modification [Hahylonian, native form
and meaning unl<no\vn].

A i)lace in Bal).vh)nia from which people
who couhl not i)rove their Israelitish descent
went to Pah^stine after the captivity (Ezra ii.
i)0 ; Neh. vii. 61).

Ad'dar [perhaps, largeness].

1. A town of Judah, on the southern bound-
ary line of Palestine (Josh. xv. .3, in A. V.
written Adar; and Num. xxxiv. 4). In the
latter passage it is called Hazar-addar, i. e.
village of Addar.

2. .\ Henjamite. See Ard.
Ad'der.

The rendering of four Hebrew words, re-
ferring probably to four distinct species of
venomous snake.

1. Sh'phiphon, the creeper. Probably the
Vipera ctrastes, the Horned Sand-snake of
Arabia and Egypt. At Thebes it was re-
garded as sacred (cp. Herod, ii. 74). It is a
venomous viper, three to six feet long, of a
gray color, and with a horn above each eye.
It hides in the sand, and may well be the
serpent which bites the horses' heels so that
the rider falls backward (Gen. xlix. 17).

2. Pethen, a species of serpent incapable of
being afiected by the voice of the snake-
charmer, and therefore called the deaf adder
(Ps. Iviii. 4, 5). It is very venomous (xci.
13). It is the asp of Deut. xxxii. 33; Job
XX. 14, 16 ; and Isaiah xi. 8. Probably the
Naja haje of Egypt ; see Asp.

3. 'Akshub (Ps. cxl. 3). In the Septuagint
and in the quotation in Rom. iii. 13 it is
translated "asp." Boehart considers it the
Common Adder (Pelias bernn), and Colonel
Hamilton Smith the Puff Adder of the Cape
Colonists, Vipera arietans, but there is as yet
no certainty as to the identification.

4. Siph'oni (Prov. xxiii. 32), translated in
Is. xi. 8; xiv. 29; lix. 5, cockatrice or basi-
lisk ; see these words.

Ad'di [Greek, from a Hebrew name not oc-
curring in the (). T.].

An ancestor of Christ who lived several
generations before Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 28).

Ad'don. See Addan.

A'der. See Eder.

Ad'i-da. See Adithaim and Hadid.

A'di-el [ornament of God].

1. A Simeouite (1 Chron. iv. 36).

2. A priest, son of Jahzerah (1 Chron. ix.
12).

3. Father of the supervisor of David's
treasuries (1 Chron. xxvii. 2.5).

A'din [soft, delicate].

Founder of a family, members of which
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel J

(Ezra ii. 15) and Ezra (viii. 6). Its chief
signed the covenant made by Nehemiah to
serve Jehovah (Neh. x. 16 j.

Ad'i-na [delicate].

A Reubenite, one of David's military offi-
cers (1 chron. xi. 42).

Ad'i-no.

One of David's mighty men, an Eznite ;
the same as Josheb-basshebeth (2 Sam. xxiii.
8 A. v., and A. V. margin and R. V.). The
verse as it stands is detective. Luther and
most modern interpreters change the text,
altering the words "Adino the Eznite" to
accord with 1 Chron. xi. 11.

Ad-i-tha'im [perhaps, double })Ooty-town].

A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh. xv.
36). Sometimes identified with Adida, but
Adida is rather Hadid.

Ad'lai [justice, or possibly justice of Je-
ho%-ah] .

Father of a herdsman of -David (1 Chron.
xxvii. 29).

Ad'mah [perhaps, redness].

One of the cities of the plain (Gen. x. 19 ;
xiv. 2, 8) which was destroyed with Sodom and
Gomorrah (Gen. xix. 25, 28, 29; Deut. xxix.
23 ; Hos. xi. ?<).

Ad'ma-tba [Persian name of doubtful
meaning].

One of the seven princes of Persia and
Media under Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 14).

Ad'na [Aramaic, pleasure].

1. A priest, head of the father's house
Harim in the second generation after the
exile (Neh. xii. 15).

2. A son of Pahath-moab, induced by Ezra
to divorce his foreign wife (Ezra x. 30).

Ad'nah [pleasure].

1. A Manas.site who joined David at Ziklag
(1 Chron. xii. 20).

2. A man of Judah, of high military rank
under Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xvii. 14).

A-do'ni-be'zek [lord of Bezek].

A king of Bezek, conquered by the war-
riors of the tribe of Judah, who inflicted on
him a cruel mutilation. This he regarded as
a divine requital for similar cruelties perpe-
trated by him on seventy kings (Judg. i.
4-7).

Ad-0-ni'Jah [Jehovah is lord] .

1. A son of David by Haggith, one of his
wives. He was the fourth son born to the
king at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 2, 4). He was a
goodly, probably meaning a handsome, young
man, and apparently his father's next favor-
ite after Absalom. Blinded by this foolish
fondness, David never displeased him at any
time in saying. Why hast thou done so ?
When David was stricken in years Adonijah
attempted to seize the throne. He won to
his cause Joab, who, he hoped, would bring
with him the army ; and Abiathar. the priest,
who, he expected, would bring with him the
priests and the Levites. But Zadok the

Adouikam

16

Adullam

priest, Benaiah, commander of the royal
bodyguard, and Nathan tlie prophet he was
unable to seduce from their allegiance. He
invited his partisans to a great open-air feast
at the stone of Zoheleth by the fountain of
Eogel, and had himself proclaimed king.
But Solomon had been divinely chosen to be
the successor to David ; and Bath-sheba, Sol-
omon's mother, supported by Nathan the
prophet, waited on the aged king to report
the proceedings of Adonijah and ask instruc-
tions. Promptly, by IX^vid's order, Solomon
was proclaimed king ; the open-air feast came
to an abrupt termination, the guests took to
flight, and Adonijah sought asylum at the
altar (1 Kin. i. 5-50). Solomon pardoned him
for the time, but tiuding him acting in such
a way as to create the suspicion that he was
again aiming at the kingdom, put him to
death (vs. 51-53 ; ii. 13-25).

2. One of the Levites whom Jehoshaphat
sent to instruct the people of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

3. For Neh. x. 16, see Adonikam.
Ad-o-ni'kam [the Lord arises].
Founder of a family, members of which

returned from Babylon both with Zerubbabel
and with Ezra (Ezra ii. 13 : viii. 13 ; Neh. vii.
18). The head of this family, apparently,
sealed the covenant in Nehemiah's time (Neh.
X. 16), but is called Adonijah.

Ad-o-ni'ram [the Lord is exalted].

An officer who was over the tribute during
the reigns of David and Solomon. He was
the son of Abda, and was called also Adoram
{2 Sam. XX. 24) and Hadoram (2 Chron. x.
18). When the ten tribes revolted, Rehoboam
sent him to treat with the rebels, who, how-
ever, instead of listening to him, stoned him
to death (2 Sam. xx. 24 ; 1 Kin. iv. 6 ; xii. 18 ;
2 Chron. x. 18).

A-do'ni-ze'dek, in A. V. Adonizedec [lord
of righteousness].

A king of Jerusalem who, on learning that
Ai had been captui-cd by the Israelites, and
that the Gibeonites had made peace with
Joshua, formed a confederacy with four other
Aniorite kings to punish Gibeon. He and
Lis confederates were defeated, taken, and
slain (Josh. x. 1-27). In the Septuagint called
Adonibezek.

A-dop'tion.

The act of taking a stranger to be one's
own child, as in the case of Moses and Esther
(Ex. ii. 10; Esth. ii. 7).

In the N. T. the word is used to denote :

1. The choice by Jehovah of the Jewish
nation to be his special people (Rom. ix. 4).

2. The reception of all true Christians to
be in a special sense the sons of God (Gal. iv.
5; Eph. i. 4). The spirit of adoption enables us
to feel to God as children to a loving father.
It is distinguished from the spirit of bondage,
which compels one to feel to him as a slave
to a master (Kom. viii. 14-21).

3. The redemption of the body ; its deliv-

erance from sin, pain, and death in the glori-
fied state (Rom. viii. 23).

A-do'ra. See Adoraim.

Ad-o-ra'im [perhaps, two mounds].

A city of Judah fortified by Rehoboam (2
Chron. xi. 9). It is probably identical with
Adora, shortened into Dora, a town of the in-
terior, near Idunuea, and after the exile reck-
oned as belonging to the latter country (An-
tiq., xiii. 9, 1 ; 15, 4 ; xiv. 5, 3; War, i. 2, 5 ;
1 Mac. xiii. 20). Since Robinson's researches,
it is identified with Dura, a village on a hill-
side five miles west of Hebron.

A-do'ram. See Adoniram.

A-dram'me-lecli [god Adar is king].

1. A deity to whom the colonists of Sa-
maria, who had been brought from Sephar-
vaim, burnt their children in the fire (2 Kin.
xvii. 31). The god Adar was the sun wor-
shiped under a particular attribute.

2. A son of Sennacherib. With another
brother he murdered his father, and after-
wards escaped to Armenia (2 Kin. xix. 37 ; Is.
xxxvii. 38).

Ad-ra-myt'ti-um.

A maritime city in ^Eolia. Under the Ro-
mans it belonged to the province of Asia.
The vessel in which Paul embarked at Caesa-
rea for Rome was a ship of Adramyttium,
about to sail to the places on the coast of
Asia (Acts xxvii. 2).

A'dri-a.

A part of the Mediterranean (Acts xxvii.
27). The name was derived from the com-
mercial town of Adria on the lower Po, and
in the narrowest sense it denoted only the
neighboring part of the sea. But the name
was extended to include the expanse of sea
as far as the extreme southern points of
Greece and Italy (Ptolemy iii. ; Pausanias,
Eliac. V. ; Procopius, Bell. Vand. i. 14).

A'dri-el [flock of God].

A Meholathite, to whom Saul gave his
daughter Merab in marriage, though he had
previouslv promised her conditionallv to
David (1 Sam. xviii. 19).

A-dul'lam [enclosure].

A toM'n in the Shephelah, in the territory
of Judah, mentioned between Jarmuth and
Socoh (Josh. XV. 35). It was in existence, in-
habited by Canaanites, as early as the time
of Jacob (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 2). A petty king
ruled over it at the time of the conquest
(Josh. xii. 15). It was fortified by Rehoboam
(2 Chron. xi. 7), continued to flourish in
the time of Micah the prophet (Mic. i. 15),
and was inhabited after the exile (Neh. xi.
30; 2 Mac. xii. 38). In its vicinity was the
cave which David at one period of his wan-
derings made his headquarters, and whither
his father and his brethren and many other
adherents went down to join him (1 Sam.
xxii. ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13; Antiq. vi. 12, 3). M.
Clermont-Ganneau is possibly right in hear-
ing an echo of the name still lingering in

Adultery

17

Agar

'Aid el-Miyeh. This name belongs to a hill
which is crowned with a fortress and has
caves in its sides. The hill stands on the
south side of a ravine at its junction with
the southern extension of the valley of Elah
(es-Sunt), and is about two miles from the
place where the fight took place between
David aJid Goliath.
A-dul'ter-y.

1. In a special sense, sexual intercourse of
a married man with a female not his wife, or
that of a married woman with a man not her
husband. Polygamy, with inferior wives and
concubines, is not adultery. Under the Mo-
saic law adultery was punished with death
(Lev. XX. 10).

2. In a general sense, all sexual impurity
in thought, word, or deed, or whatever tends
thereto. This is the sense in the seventh
commandment, interpreted on the principles
of the Sermon on the Mount (Ex. xx. 14 ;
Deut. v. 18 ; Mat. v. 27, 28).

3. Figuratively, the worship of false gods
or other infidelity to the covenant with Jeho-
vah (Jer. iii. 8, 9; Ezek. xxiii. 37, 43; Hos.
ii. 2-13), God claiming our undivided affec-
tions, as a husband does the undivided re-
gard of the woman who has sworn him
fidelity.

A-diun'mim [red objects].

The ascent of Adummim is a pass leading
up from the Jordan valley to the hill country.
The boundary between Judah and Benjamin
passed near it (Josh. xv. 7; xviii. 17), and
the shortest and most traveled road from
Jerusalem to Jericho ran through it. Ac-
cording to Jerome, the name belonged to a
hamlet, which in his day was lying in ruins,
and which was still called Maledomim, ap-
parently the full Hebrew phrase Ascent of
Adummim. Jerome ascribes the origin of the
name to the blood frequently spilled thereby
robbers (cp. Luke x. 30) ; but it more prob-
ably arose from the red marl of the neigh- j
borhood. An echo of the name is still heard
in Tala'at ed-Dumm, Ascent of Blood, the
name given to a hill and fortress half way !
between Jerusalem and Jericho, and to the
wady which the road follows downward.

.ffi'ne-as [Latin from N. T. Greek Aineas, '
classic Greek Aineins; the name of a Trojan
hero] .

A man at Lydda bedridden eight years with !
palsy. His restoration by the power of the !
risen Jesus resulted in large increase of the |
Church in that region (Acts ix. 32-35).

.S'non [Greek, probably from Aramaic I
'enavan, fountains]. '

A village, or merely a locality of perennial
springs, near Salim, where John at one time
at least baptized because there was there j
much water (or, as in Greek, many waters) I
(John iii. 23). The site has not been iden- |
tified. But according to Jerome, ^Enon and ;
Salim were situated in the .Jordan valley,
eight Roman miles south of Scythopolis. The

names have ceased to be heard. Measure-
ment indicates either the place now called
ed-Deir, in the neighborhood of which are
seven springs and extensive ruins, or Umm
el-'Amdan, hard by on the east, or the ruins
and spriug at the base of Tell Ridghah,
which, however, is only seven Roman miles
from Scythopolis.

The modern map can, indeed, show villages
bearing the names of 'Aiuun and Salim. A
town called Salim is situated four miles east
of Shechem, on an extensive plateau south
of the wady Far'ah. 'Ainun is a ruin on the
eastern slope of the wady Tubas, about ten
miles northeast of Shechem and four miles
north of the Far'ah valley. The objection to
identifying 'Ainun with ^Enon mentioned by
John is that 'Ainun is not near Salim. The
villages are distant from each other about
eight miles, and the great wady Far'ah lies
between. 'Ainun is but little farther from
the important city of Shechem than from
Salim, and is more closely connected with
Shechem by road. Rejecting 'Ainuu, one
thinks of the plentiful waters of the Far'ah
valley but three miles distant from Salim, or
even the two living springs which supply
Salim with water ; but a place of fountains
near this Salim would be in Samaria, and it is
scarcely probable that John the Baptist was
laboring among the Samaritans (cp. Mat. iii.
5; x. 5 ; Luke iii. 3).

The only other site proposed, which offers
any attractions, is Shilhim, in the Septuagint
Seleeim, in the wilderness in the extreme
south of Judah, near which was a place called
Ain (Josh. xv. 32) ; but Aiu is constantly con-
nected with Rimmou and not with Shilhim.

Ag'a-bus [meaning is uncertain]-.

A Christian prophet of Jeru.salem. He
went to Antioch and predicted a great famine
which took place in the days of the emperor
Claudius (Acts xi. 28; see Antiq. xx. 2, 6 ; 5,
2). When Paul passed through Cfesarea on
his last journey to Jerusalem, Agabus, who
was there, bound his own hands and feet with
Paul's girdle, and announced that this would
be done also to the owner of the girdle when
he reached the capital (Acts xxi. 10, 11).

A'gag [perhaps, flaming].

Whether Agag was a title of the kings of
Amalek, as Pharaoh was for those of Egypt,
or was a recurring name in the royal line, is
unknown. Specially

1. A king of Amalek whose greatness was
alluded to by Balaam (Xum. xxiv. 7).

2. The king of Amalek slain by Samuel,
after he had been spared bv Saul (1 Sam. xv.
9-33).

A'gag-ite.

An appellation given to Haman, the great
enemy of the Jews (Esth. iii. 1, 10 ; viii. 3-5).
Its reference to his Amalekite descent (An-
tiq. xi. 6, 5, and see Agag) is extremely
doul)tful.

A'gar. See H.\gar.

Agate

18

Ahab

Ag'ate [named from a river in Sicily near
•whieli the agate abounded].

A precious stone composed of various kinds
of colored quartz, especially of amethyst,
chalcedony, and jasper. Two Hebrew words
are so rendered :

1. Kadkod, which means sparkling (Is. liv.
12 ; Ezek. xxvii. IG, in A. V.). This charac-
teristic ill accords with the agate, which in
its natural state is wanting in lustre ; hence
the R. V. translates it Ruby, and the margin
of the A. V. Chrysoprase.

2. Sh'bo ; perhaps from shabah to lead cap-
tive, or less probably from Sheba, from which
it may have been brought. It was the middle
stone in the third row of gems on the high
priest's bi'eastplate (Ex. xxviii. 19 ; xxxix. 12).

Age.

1 . The time counted hy yeai's, or more pre-
cisely by years, months, and days, that one
has lived in the world. Extraordinary age
is ascribed to men in the registers of Gen. v.
and xi., dwindling as the genealogy becomes
more particular as it approaches Abraham ;
see Chronology. Abraham died at the age
of 175 (Gen. xxv. 7), and his wife Sarah at
127 (xxiii. 1), Isaac at 180 (xxxv. 28), Jacob
at 147 (xlvii. 28), Joseph at 110 (1. 26), Moses at
120 (Dent, xxxiv. 7), and Joshua at 110 (Josh.
xxiv. 29). The ordinary length of human
life is reckoned at 70 years, or, by reason of
strength, 80 years, in the prayer of Moses (Ps.
xc. 10). David died an old man at 70 (2
Sam. V. 4 ; 1 Kin. ii. 11). Veneration for old
age is inculcated in the Bible (Lev. xix. 32 ;
Prov. XX. 29), and old age itself is considered
a blessing (Ex. xx. 12 ; Deut. v. 16).

2. A frequent rendering in the N. T. of the
Greek Aidn, the later Latin yEon :

(a) A certain specified period of the world's
history, past or to come (1 Cor. x. 11, in A. V.
world ; Eph. ii. 7 ; iii. 9 ; Col. i. 26 ; Heb. vi.
5 — all R. v.). More frequently it signifies an
indefinitely long period of time, eternity past
or to come; " unto the ages" being equivalent
to " forever " (cp. text and margin of E. V. of
Luke i. 33; Rom. i. 25; ix. 5; xi. 36; Heb.
xiii. 8), or "for evermore" (2 Cor. xi. 31).
" The age of the ages ".is " for ever and ever "
(Eph. iii. 21). " Unto the ages of ages " is also
" for ever and ever" (Gal. 1. 5 ; Phil. iv. 20;
Rev. i. 18).

(b) The world literally (Heb. i. 2, R. V.
margin) ; or figuratively (Mat. xiii. 22; Luke
xvi. 8; XX. 34; Rom. xii. 2; 1 Cor. i. 20; ii.
6, 7, 8 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4 ; Gal. i. 4 ; 2 Tim. iv. 10 ;
Titus ii. 12 — all R. V., margin). The con-
necting link between <i and /; is when the
world means the duration of this world (Mat.
xii. 32 ; xiii. 40 ; xxiv. 3), and of that to come
(Mark x. 30 ; Luke xviii. 30 ; Heb. ii. 5).

(c) The course of the world (Eph. ii. 2,
R. v., text and margin).

Ag'e-e [perhaps, a fugitive].
A Hararite, the father of one of David's
mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 11).

Ag'ri-cul-ture.

Tlie cultivation of the soil. The word does
not occur in Scripture, but the idea does ; and
the analogous term husbandry is found both
in the O. T. and N. T., while husbandman is
common. Adam was expected to dress the
garden of Eden (Gen. ii. 15) ; Cain cultivated
the soil (iv. 2) ; Noah planted a vineyard (ix.
20) ; and Isaac sowed (xxvi. 12). Agricul-
ture was in an advanced stage among the
ruling race in the delta of the Nile at the
time of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt.
Cereals of various kinds were cultivated and
exported (Gen. xii. 49, 57; xliii. 2). Wheat,
rye, or rather spelt, and barley, are men-
tioned, besides which there were crops of flax
(Ex. ix. 31, 32). The crops cultivated by the
Israelites were sometimes summed up as
corn and wine (Gen. xxvii. 37; Ps. iv. 7).
If a third agricultural product was named it
was generally olives (Deut. vi. 11). When
the enumeratioti was more ample, the list
was increased to "wheat, barley, vines, fig-
trees, pomegranates, and olives" (viii. 8), not
to speak of honey, which was from wild bees
(cp. also xi. 14 ; xii. 17). To this list Isaiah
adds fitches (Is. xxviii. 25, 27), and Ezekiel
beans, lentils, and millet (Ezek. iv. 9). The
Israelites had ploughs drawn 1)y oxen (1 Kin.
xix. 19; Is. ii. 4), and pruuiug-hooks, sickles,
etc. (ibid. ; Deut. xvi. 9 ; Joel iii. 13, etc.).
The purpose now efiTectcd by rotation of crops
was carried out by letting the land lie fallow
during the seventh year (Ex. xxiii. 10, 11).
As a rule, good crops were reaped, and they
would have been so to a larger extent had
proper attention been paid to the storing of
water in reservoirs, so that absence of rain
should not result, as it generally did, in fam-
ine. Agriculture and the keeping of flocks
and herds continued, through all the period
of scriptural history, the .staple industries
of Palestine, which was not to any consider-
able extent a commercial land.

A-grip'pa. See Herod.

A'gur [garnered, hired, or collector].

Son of Jakeh, and author of the maxims
contained in Proverbs xxx. (see ver. 1).

A'hab [a father's brother].

1. A king of Israel, and son and successor
of Omri. He began to reign about 874 r. c,
in the thirty -eighth year of Asa, king of
Judah (1 Kin. xvi. 29). He married an idol-
atress of masculine temperament. Jezebel, the
daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon. She
worshiped Baal, and her husband being weak
and irresolute, she ruled over him, and made
him also a Baal-worshiper (30-33). This was
a revolution in the national religion of Israel.
When Jeroboam set up the two golden calves,
he still desired to worship Jehovah nominal-
ly, using them as helps for the purpose. But
Ahab, under Jezebel's influence, wholly gave
up the adoration of Jehovah, Baal being a
rival god. The intolerant Jezebel did not
stop with Ahab's perversion, but attempted

Ahab

19

Ahava

to force the whole people to adopt her faith.
Tlie prophets of Jehovah were sought out
auil slain. Only a rcnuiant escaiied, being
hidden in a cave by a high functionary,
Obatliah. Now, however, ajipeared the most
formidable prophet known in the history of
Israel, Elijaii the 'rishl)ite. He was .sent to
Ahab to jirediit years ^)f drought and famine
as the punishment of .\lial)'s sin. 'i'oward
the close of the drought, which lasted three
years and six months (1 Kin. xviii. 1 ; Luke
iv. 2r>; Jas. v. 17), Elijah, by the divine com-
mand, again confronted .\hab, and demanded
that the ])rophets of Baal and he should meet
on the toj) of mount Carmel and sul)mit the
question between them to a decisive test.
The meeting took place ; Jehovah vindicated
himself by sending fire from heaven to con-
sume Elijah's sacrifice, and the jirojjhet took
the 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of
the Ashera down to the brook Kishon, and
slew them. Then he prayed that the drought
might cease, and raiu was immediately sent.
Jezebel, on learning what had been done,
uttered imprecations against her.self if Elijali
were alive by the morrow. The prophet,
fearing for his life, fled to mount Horeb, from
which he was divinely brought back again to
anoint as king of Israel Jehu, designed to be
the relentless avenger on the house of Ahab
of all the sins which it had committed. Ex-
ecution of the sentence was, however, de-
layed, for the cup of iniquity of Ahab and
Jezebel was not yet full. Soon, however, it
was made full to overflowing by the affair of
Naboth's vineyard. About this time Ahab
had won a victory over Ben-hadad of Damas-
cus, king of Syria, and had permitted that
potentate, who had been captured, to escape
with a treaty. The approach of Shalmaneser,
king of Assyria, led to an alliance between
Ben-hadad of Damascus, Ahab of Israel, and
other neighboring kings, to resist the in-
vader. Ahab furnished 2000 chariots and
10,000 infantry. The allies were defeated at
Karkar, in the district of Hamath. in 854
B. c. The war with Damascus was soon after-
wards renewed, and Ahab, taking advantage
of a visit from Jehoshaphat, king of Judah,
proposed a joint expedition for the recovery
of JJaiiiotli-gilead, beyond Jordan. The
pro])hets of Baal sjjoke well of the enterprise.
Micaiah, the only prophet of Jehovah ob-
tainable, foreboded the death of Ahab. The
man of doom resolved to go into the battle
disguised, while proposing that the king of
Judah should put on his royal robes, thus
becoming a mark for every missile. But
a certain man drew a bow at a venture
and smote Ahab between the joints where
the plates of his armor met. Ahab died
that evening, and the siege of Ramoth-gilead
was raised. Ahab's chariot and armor were
washed in the pool of Samaria, the dogs,
as Elijah had predicted, licking his blood.
Ahab died after a reign of twenty-two
years, and was succeeded by his son Aha-

ziah (1 Kin. xvi. 2y-xxii. 40; 2 Cliron. xviii.
1-34).

2. A lying and immoral prophet, a son of
Kolaiah. Jeremiah predicted that Nebu-
chadnezzar, king of Babylon, would roast
him in the fire (Jer. xxix. 21-23).

A-liar'ah.

A son of Benjamin, probably the founder
of a family (1 (,'hron. viii. 1), who is called
Ehi (Gen. xlvi. 21) and Ahiram (Num. xxvi.
38).

A-har'hel [possibly, strength hath tarried].

A son of Haruna, founder of a family which
Vi'as enrolled in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron.
iv. 8).

A'has-ai. See \uzxi.

A-has'bai [perhaps a foreign uamt^].

A Maacathite, tlie father of Eliphelet, one
of David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 34).

A-has-u-e'rus [from Persian Khshuya,
king].

1. The father of Darius the Mede (Dan.
ix. 1). See Darius.

2. A Persian king, the husband of Esther
(Esth. i. 2, 19; ii. 16, 17). Ahasuerus is
Khshayarsha, whom the Greeks called
Xerxes. The book of Esther tells of his
sensuality, his fickleness, his lack of fore-
thought, his despotism, and his cruelty.
Greek history presents essentially the same
picture of Xerxes (Herod, vii. 35, 37 ; ix. 107).
He was the son of Darius Hystaspis, whom
he succeeded on the Persian throne, 486 B. c.
His mother was Atossa, the daughter of
Cyrus. In the second year of his reign he
subdued the Egyptians, who had revolted
against his father Darius. After about four
years' preparation, he led an immense host
to invade Greece ; but fled back to Per.sia on
seeing his great fleet defeated (480 b. c. ) by a
much smaller number of Greek .ships at
Salamis. The next year (479 b. o.) his gen-
eral, Mardonius, whom he had left behind
with an army, allowed his camp at Platsea to
be forced by the Greeks, when such a slaugh-
ter ensued as rendered the Persian invasion
hopeless. In 466, after a reign of twenty
years, Xerxes was murdered by two of his
courtiers, and was succeeded on the throne
by his .son, Artaxerxes Longimanus. Xerxes
is probably again mentioned as Ahasuerus in
Ezra iv. 6, where the author completes the
historj' of Samaritan machinations at the
Persian court against the Jews, resuming in
ver. 24 the narrative which he interrupted at
ver. 5. The older interpreters thought that
Ahasuerus in this passage referred to (Jam-
byscs, son of Cyrus ; but there is no evidence
that Cambyses was ever called Ahasuerus.

A-ha'va.

A locality in Babylonia, doubtless to the
north of Babylon (Ezra viii. 15). It .serves
to indicate the river or canal in its vicinity
on which Ezra assembled the j)eoi>le who pro-
posed to go to Jerusalem with him (vii. 28

Ahaz

20

Ahijah

with viii. 31). It appears to have been dis-
tant about nine days from Babylon (.vii. 9 ;
viii. 15, 31). On mustering the Jews who
were present and finding no Levites, except
priests, among them, Ezra sent for and se-
cured a number of the.se ministers for the
house of Uod. Here also a fast was kept, and
the protection of God supplicated for the
journey.

A'haz, in A. V. of N. T. Acbaz [he has
sustained].

A king of Judah who was probably pro-
claimed king about 741 B. c, when 20 years
old, and who succeeded his father Jotham
about 734 B. c. He was an idolater, causing
his son to pass through the fire, and sacri-
ficing and burning incense on high places
and under green trees (2 Kin. xvi. 3, 4). He
was unsuccessfully l)esieged in Jerusalem by
Eezin, king of Syria, and Pekab, king of
Israel (5 ; Is. vii. 1). In connection with this
crisis Isaiah was sent to exhort him to rely
upon Jehovah and not call in foreign aid.
He did not believe, and refused to ask a sign.
Thereupon the prophet uttered the celebrated
prophecy relative to the birth of Immanuel
(Is. vii. 1-16) ; see Immanuel. Ahaz turned
to Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, and pur-
chased his aid with the treasures of the tem-
ple and the palace. Tiglath-pileser marched
to his assistance. The approach of the Assyr-
ians seems to have led Rezin and Pekah to
raise the siege of Jerusalem. Tiglath-pileser
attacked Philistia, overran Samaria, took
Damascus and slew Rezin, and connived at
the murder of Pekah and enthronement of
Hoshea as king of Israel. With other vas-
sals of Assyria, Ahaz went to Damascus to do
homage to Tiglath-pileser (2 Kin. xvi. ; 2
Chron. xxviii. ; Assyrian inscriptions). While
there he admired a heathen altar, and had a
facsimile of it made at Jerusalem. Ahaz
died about the year 726 b. c, after reigning
16 years, and left his son Hezekiah to a.scend
the throne. Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah proph-
esied during the whole of Ahaz's reign, zeal-
ously witnessing for Jehovah (Is. i. 1 ; vii.
1-16; Ho,s. i. 1).

Ahaz is mentioned on the Assyrian monu-
ments by the name Yauhasi, corresponding
to the Hebrew Jehoahaz, the full form of
Ahaz. Ahaz means "He has sustained,"
while Jehoahaz signifies " Jehovah has sus-
tained."

A-ha-zi'ah [Jehovah hath sustained].

1. A king of Israel who was ap]>arently
placed on the throne when his fatlier Ahab
marched with the allies against Shalmaneser
in 854 B. c. He succeeded his father on the
latter's death. His entire reign lasted only
two years (1 Kin. xxii. 40, 51). He joined
with Jehoshaphat in fitting out ships of Tar-
shish to go to (Jphir for gold ; but the vessels
were wrecked at Kzion-geber. Ahaziah pro-
po.sed a .second attempt; but Jehoshaphat,
warned by a prophet, declined (1 Kin. xxii.

48, 49 ; 2 Clhnm. xx. 35-37). After the death
of Ahab, Moab rebelled ; but Ahaziah took
no steps to reduce it to subjection (2 Kin. i.
1 ; iii. 5). Ahaziah fell through a lattice in
his palace, and was seriously injured. He
sent to consult Baal-zebub. the god of Ekron.
as to the result. Elijah intercepted the mes-
sengers, and sent them back with the mes-
sage that the injurj' would prove fatal (2 Kin.
i. 2-17). Ahaziah left no son to succeed him,
so the throne passed over to his brother Je-
horam (17).

2. A king of Judah, who began to rule the
kingdom in 843 B. c. (2 Kin. ix. 29), apparently
during his father's sickness (2 Chron. xxi.
18, 19), and succeeded his father Joram or
Jehoram the next .year (2 Kin. viii. 25).
He was then twenty-two years old, and
reigned only a year. His mother, Athaliah,
was his evil genius (2 Chron. xxii. 3). He
went with Joram, king of Israel, to fight with
the Syrians at Ramoth-gilead. Joram re-
turned to Jezreel wounded, Ahaziah paid
him a visit, was with him during the revolt
of Jehu, and was killed with him by that
ruthless soldier (2 Kin. viii. 25-29 ; ix. 16-29 ;
2 Chron. xxii. 1-10). By a reversal of the
constituent parts of his name, he is called
Jehoahaz in 2 Chron. xxi. 17. " Azariah " in
2 t'hron. xxii. 6 has probably arisen from
Ahaziah through corruption of the text.

Ah'ban.

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 29).

A'her [another].

A Benjamite (1 Chron. vii. 12). R. V. mar-
gin identifies him with Ahiram. See Aharah.

A'hi [brother of, or a brother is (Jehovah)].

1. Chief of the Gadites in Gilead in Bashau
(1 Chron. v. 15).

2. An Asherite, son of Shamer, of the fam-
ily of Beriah (1 Chron. vii. 34).

A-hi'ah. See Ahljah.

A-hi'am.

One of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii.
33).

A-M'an [perhaps, brotherly].

A Manassite of the family of Shemida (1
Chron. vii. 19).

A-M-e'zer [brother of help].

1. Son of Ammishaddai, and head of the
tribe of Dan in the wilderness (Num. i. 12;
ii. 25; vii. 66).

2. A man of Gibeah who joined David at
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

A-M'hud [i)r(>bal)ly, brother of praise-
worthiness, or a brother is the praiseworthy
one].

1. The x>rince representing the tribe of
Asher on the commission to divide the land
(Num. xxxiv. 27).

2. Head of a father's house in Geba of
Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 7).

A-hi'jah, in A. V. sometimes Ahiah (viz.
1, 3, 6) [brother of, or a brother is Jehovah].

Ahikam

21

Ahishahar

1. A Beujamitc aiiparently, who assisted
Gera in carrying ofl' inhabitants of Geba (1
Chron. viii. 7).

2. A man of Judah descended through
Jerahuieel (1 Chron. ii. 25).

3. A son of x\hitnb, and great-grandson of
Eli. He at one time in the reign of Saul per-
formed the functions of high priest at Gibeah
(1 Sam. xiv. 3. 18). He was elder brother of
Ahimelech, or possibly that priest himself
under another name.

4. A Pelonite, one of David's mighty men
(1 Chron. xi. SG).

5. A Levite who in David's reign was over
the treasures of the tabernacle and the dedi-
cated offerings (1 Chron. xxvi. 20; but see
E. V. margin).

6. A scribe in Solomon's reign (1 Kin. iv. 3).

7. A prophet belonging to Shiloh, who, meet-
ing Jeroboam, rent his own garment in twelve
pieces, and directed Jeroboam to take ten, as
an indication that he should be king over ten
tribes (1 Kin. xi. 29-39). After Jeroboam had
become king, he sent his queen disguised to
the now aged and half-blind prophet to in-
quire whether their child who was sick would
recover. Ahijah recognized her under her
disguise, and predicted that the child would
die (xiv. 1-18). He committed his prophecies
to writing (2 Chron. ix. 29).

8. The father of Baasha, king of Israel (1
Kin. XV. 27, 33).

A-M'kam [brother of him who riseth, or a
brother hath appeared] .

Son of Shaphan and a prince of Judah (2
Kin. xxii. 12). He protected Jeremiah when
priests and false prophets demanded Jere-
miah's death (Jer. xxvi. 24). He was the
father of Gedaliah (2 Kin. xxv. 22).

A-M'lud [perhaps, brother of one born, or
brother of the son].

Father of the recorder Jehoshaphat (2 Sam.
viii. 16 ; xx. 24; 1 Kin. iv. 3).

A-Mm'a-az [brother of irascibility].

1. Father of Ahinoam, Saul's wife (1 Sam.
xiv. 50).

2. A son of Zadok, high priest in David's
time. He and Jonathan, Abiathar's son,
maintained communication between David
and the loyal party in Jerusalem during Ab-
salom's rebellion (2 Sam. xv. 27, 36 ; xvii. 20).
He was the first to bring David intelligence
of the victory over Absalom (xviii. 19-30). It
may have been he who was afterwards Sol-
omon's purveyor in Naphtali (1 Kin. iv. 15).

A-hi'man [brother of a gift] .

1. A son of Anak, and probably founder of
a family of Anakim (Num. xiii. 22) driven
from Hebron by Caleb (Josh. xv. 14 ; Judg.
i. 10).

2. A Levite who acted as porter of the
house of God (1 Chron. ix. 17).

A-him'e-lecli [brother of a king].
1. A sou (tf Ahitub, and chief priest at
Nob. David, fleeing from Saul, but pretend-

ing to be on the king's business, being in
great want of food, received from him the
show-bread, which, by the law, was a per-
quisite of the priests. He also obtained the
sword which had formerly belonged to Goliath
(1 Sam. xxi. 1-9 ; in Mark ii. 26 the event is
dated in the time of Abiathar, Ahimelech's
son). Doeg the Edomite reported the occur-
rence to Saul, who, interpreting it as a proof
that Ahimelech and the other priests were
treacherous, gave orders that they .should be
slain. One inhabitant of Nob — Abiathar, a
son of Ahimelech — escaped from the mas.sa-
cre (1 Sam. xxi. 7 ; xxii. 7-23 ; title of Ps. Hi.).

2. The son of the Abiathar who escaped
from the slaughter at Nob, and the grandson
of Ahimelech, son of Ahitub. He was one
of two high priests during David's reign (2
Sam. viii. 17 ; 1 Chron. xxiv. 3, 6, 31). Ahim-
elech in 1 Chron. xviii. 16 is probably a copy-
ist's error for Ahimelech.

3. A Hittite, and follower of David (1 Sam.
xxvi. 6).

A-M'moth [brother of death].

A Levite, a son of Elkauah (1 Chron. vi.
25).

A-hin'a-dab [brother of liberality].

Solomon's purveyor in Mahanaim (1 Kin.
iv. 14).

A-Mn'o-am [brother of grace].

1. Saul's wife, a daughter of Ahimaaz (1
Sam. xiv. 50).

2. A woman of Jezreel, one of David's
wives (1 Sam. xxv. 43 ; xxvii. 3), taken cap-
tive at Ziklag by the Amalekites (xxx. 5).
She was the mother of Amnon (2 Sam. iii. 2).

A-hi'o [fraternal] .

1. A son of Abinadab and brother of Uzzah.
The two drove the cart on which David was
taking the ark to .Jerusalem (2 Sara. vi. 3, 4).

2. A Benjamite, son of Elpaal (1 Chron.
viii. 14).

3. A Benjamite, son of Jehiel by his wife
Maachah (1 Chron. viii. 29, 31 ; ix.'sS, 37).

A-M'ra [brother of evil].

A son of Enan, and head of the tribe of
Naphtali during the early journeyings in the
wilderness (Num. i. 15 ; ii. 29; vii. 78; x. 27).

A-hi'ram [exalted brother, or brother of
the high one].

A Benjamite, founder of a family (Num.
xxvi. 38). Aharah (1 Chron. viii. 1) doubt-
less represents the same name ; and Ehi (Gen.
xlvi. 21) is either an abbreviation or more
probably a corruption, as the last syllable of
Ahiram was easily overlooked by a copyist
by reason of the recurrence of similar Hebrew
letters in the two following names.

A-his'a-macli [brother of support].
A Danite, the father of the craftsman
Aholiab (Ex. xxxi. 6).

A-hish'a-har [brother of the dawn].
A man descended froui Benjamin through
Jediael and Bilhan (1 Chron. vii. 10).

Ahishar

22

Aijalon

A-hi'shar [l)iotli(!r of a singer].

An orti(i;il wlio was over Solomon's house-
hold (1 Kin. iv. (i).

A-hith'o-pliel [brother of folly].

A resident of tiiloli in southwestern Judah,
one of David's counselors (2 Sam. xv. 12),
father of one of David's mighty men (xxiii.
34), and perhaps the grandfather of Bath-
sheba (xi. 3 with xxiii. 34). So unerring was
his .sagacity that his advice was "as if a man
had iiHjuired at the oracle of God" (2 Sam.
xvi. 23), but he was morally untrustworthy.
Absalom found him ready to betray David,
and to point out how he might be destroyed.
When Absalom preferred the ab.surd counsel
of Hushai, who was .secretly in David's in-
terest, Ahithophel, foreboding that it was
therefore all over with the rebellion, com-
mitted suicide (2 Sam. xv. 12, 31-34 ; xvi. 15 ;
xvii. 23), offering thus a strange O. T. type
of Judas, both in his treachery and his fate.

A-M'tub [brother of benevolence] .

1. A son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli
(1 Sam. xiv. 3), and father of Ahimelech, the
priest (xxii. 9).

2. A son of Amariah, and father of Zadok,
the priest (2 Sam. viii. 17; 1 C'hron. vi. 7, 8).

3. A later priest in the same family, son of
another Amariah, and grandfather of another
Zadok. also a priest (1 Chron. vi. 11, 12; Neh.
xi. II).

Ah'lab [a fat, fertile place].

A town within the territory of Asher, but
from which that tribe did not drive out the
Canaanite inhabitants (Judg. i. 31). Not
identified. Gush Halab of the Talmud, the
Giscala of .Josephus, five miles northwest of
Safed on the road to Tyre, lies too far east-
ward to have been within the territory of
Asher.

Ah'lai [O that!].

1. A descendant, namely a daughter of
She-shan (1 Chron. ii. 31, 34).

2. The father of Zabad (1 Chron. xi. 41).
A-ho'ah [heat].

A Benjamite of the family of Bela (1 Chron.
viii. 4) ; perhaps Ahijah (7). See Ahohite.

A-ho'Mte.

A descendant of Ahoah (2 Sam. xxiii. 9,
28 ; 1 C^hron. xi. 12, 29).

A-holah. See Oholah.

A-ho'li-ab. See Oholiab.

A-hol'i-bah. See Oholibah.

A-hol-i-ba'mab. See Oholibamah.

A-hu'mai [perhaps, brother of water].

A man of .ludah, family of Hezron, house
of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 2 with ii. 18, 19, .50).

A-huz'zam, in A. V. Ahuzam [possession].

A man of .Judah, son of Assliur, of the

family of Hezron (1 Chron. iv. 5. 6 with ii. 24)

A-huz'zatli [possession].
A friend of Ahimelech. king of Gerar, in
I.sjiae's time {Gen. xxvi. 2(i).

Ah'zai, in A. V. Ahasai [possession, or
perhaps clear-sighted].

A ])riest descended from Inmier through
Meshillemoth (Neh. xi. 13) ; prol)ablynot the
person called Jahzerah in 1 Chron. ix. 12, but
a dilferent link in the genealogy.

A'i, in A. V. in Genesis Hai, with retention
of the Hebrew article [ruins]. Aija and Aiath
(Neh. xi. 31 ; Is. x. 28) are feminine forms of
the word.

1. A town ea.st of Bethel and near Beth-
aveu, with a valley on its north (Gen. xii. 8;
Josh. vii. 2; viii. 11). It lay north of Mich-
mash, if Aiath is the same as Ai, as is in
every way probable (Is. x. 28) ; a location
which excludes such .sites as el-Hai, half a
mile southeast of Michmash, and a name,
moreover, radically ditlerent from Ai. Its site
was apparently near the modern Deir Diwan,
on the ancient road between Michmash and
Bethel, about midway between the two places.
Three-quarters of a mile northwest of Deir
Diwan is the ruin et-Tell. the heap (cp. Josh,
viii. 28) ; and one-third of a mile south, and
less definitely in the gardens extending one-
half mile southvvestwardly to el-Kadeirah,
is the ruin el-Haiyan. Each of these three
sites has its advocates. The name Haiyan, it
may be noted, is an entirely diflerent word
from Ai, and Josephus' name for Ai scarcely
forms the connecting link, for the Greek
texts of the historian do not show the nomi-
native case Aina. At first Ai was unsuccess-
fully attacked by Joshua (Josh. vii. 2-5).
When it was found that the defeat was caused
by the sin of Achan. and when he had suffered
for it, Ai was again attacked, and this time
was taken by stratagem. Its inhabitants, num-
bering about 12,000, were slaughtered, its
king was hanged on a tree, and the city was
burned (vii.-viii.). It lay in ruins until some
time after the account in Joshua was writ-
ten (viii. 28), but ultimately was rebuilt (Is.
X. 28 ; Ezra ii. 28).

2. A city of the Ammonites, apparently not
far from Heshbon (Jer. xlix. 3).

A-i'ab, in A. V. once Ajab [bird of prey].

1. A Horite, son of Zibeon and brother of
Anah (Gen. xxxvi. 24 ; 1 Chron. i. 40).

2. The father of Rizjiah, Saul's concubine
(2 Sam. iii. 7; xxi. 8, 10, 11).

A-i'atb. See Ai.

A-i'ja. See Ai.

Ai'ja-lon, in A. V. occasionally Ajalon
[place of harts].

1. A village of the Shcphelah, near a val-
ley (Josh. X. 12; 2 Chron. xxviii. 18). It
corresponds to Yalo, a village thirteen miles
northwest of Jerusalem, on a low spur, look-
ing northward over a beautiful plain. It was
assigned t<^ the tribe of Dan, but they did
not expel the Amorite inhabitants (Judg. i.
34, 35). Aijalon was designated to be a Levit-
ical city for the Kohathites ( Jo.sh. xxi.'20, 24 ;
1 Chron. vi. 69). After the secession of the

Aijeleth

23

Aleph

ten tribes, it was intliuUd in Boiijanuii, and
was fortified by Keliol)oaui (1 Chron. viii. 13 ;
2 Clirou. xi. 10) ; but in the time of Aliaz it
was captured by the Piiilistines (xxviii. 18).

2. A phice in tlie tril)e of Zebuhm, where
the jndge Elon was buried (Judg. xii. 12).
Exact site unknown. The ruin Jallun, nine
antl a half miles east of Acre and one and a
half miles southwest of Mejd el-Kerum, seems
too far north for Zebulun, and like 'Ailut,
another projjo-sed site two and a half miles by
road northwest of Nazareth, is a radically
tlifferent word.

Ai'je-leth hash- Sha bar, in A. V., with
omission of the Hebrew article, Aijeleth
Shahar [hind of the dawn].

Probably a tune, to which the chief musi-
cian was directed to set the twenty-second
Psalm (Ps. xxii. R. V., title).

A'in [an eye, and a natural spring].

1. The sixteenth letter of the Hebrew al-
phabet, originally in outline an eye. English
0 comes from the same source, but is used as
a vowel, whereas aiu is a consonant of pecu-
liar guttural sound. In anglicizing Hebrew
names which contain ain, the letter is some-
times not represented at all, at other times it
appears as g, rarely through the Greek as h.
In the original, aiu stands at the beginning
of the words Amalek, Eli, Gomorrah, and per-
haps Heli. It heads the sixteenth section of
Ps. cxix., in which section each verse of the
Hebrew begins with this letter.

2. A place on the northern boundary-line
of Palestine west of Riblah (Num. xxxiv. 11).

3. A town in the territory of Judah, toward
Edom and near Rimmou (Josh. xv. 32 ; 1
Chron. iv. 32), and as it were forming one
town with it (Neh. xi.29). It was transferred
with Rimmon to Simeon, and assigned to the
priests who resided with that tribe (Josh. xix.
7; xxi. Ifi; but see ASHAN). It is identified
with extensive ruins at Bir Khuweilfeh, a
large well of perennial water about three-
quarters of a mile north of the probable site
of Rimmon.

A'jah. See Ai.\h.
Aj'a-lon. See Aij.\lon.
A'kan. See Jaakan.
Ak'kuh [cunning, artful].

1. A descendant of Shecauiah through
Elioenai (1 Chron. iii. 21, 24).

2. A Levite who founded a family of tem-
ple porters known by his name (1 Chron. ix.
17; Ezra ii. 42 ; Neh. viii. 7 ; xi. 19; xii. 25).

3. One of the Nethinim (Ezra ii. 45).
Ak-ra-bat-ti'ne.

A place in Idumtea (1 Mac. v. 3), probably
Akrabbim.

A-krah'bim, in A. V. once Acrabhim (Josh.
XV. 3) [scorpions].

An ascent on the southeast frontier of
Judah near the southern point of the Dead
Sea, and not far from the desert of Zin (Num.
xxxiv. 4; Josh. xv. 3; Judg. i. 36). Ap-

parently, the boundary between Canaan and
Edom on leaving the Dead Sea followed wady
el Fikreh.

Al'a-bas-ter [without a handle (labas) ; or
else derived from a place called Alabastrum].

The material of which the cruse was made
from which Jesus was anointed at Bethany
(Mat. xxvi. 7; Mark xiv. 3; Luke vii. 37).
Alabaster commonly tlenotes massive gypsum
of a fine-grained variety, white in color, and
delicately shaded. Being more easily worked
than marble, it can be made into columns or
turned on the lathe into cups, boxes, basins,
or vases. Anciently, alabaster denoted any
stone suitable for working into such utensils.
Most of the extant ancient ointment fiasks
are made of a light gray, translucent lime-
stone.

A-la'meth. See Alemeth.

A-lam'me-lech [perhaps, king's oak].

A frontier village of Asher (Josh. xix. 26) ;
site unknown.

Ara-moth [maidens] .

A musical term (1 CJhron. xv. 20; Ps. xlvi.
title). It probably refers to maiden or treble
voices.

Al'ci-mus.

A high priest appointed by Antiochus Eu-
pator (2 Mac. xiv. 3, 7 ; Antiq. xii. 9, 7), con-
firmed by Demetrius I. in 162 B. c. (1 Mac.
vii. 5-9), and installed by Bacchides at the
head of an army (10-20). He was entirely
Greek in sympathy, and was abhorred by the
Jews. He was driven out of Palestine by
Judas Maccabgeus (21-25) ; but was brought
back by Bacchides (ix. 1), and destroyed the
inner wall of the temple, 160 b. c. (54). His
sudden death soon afterwards was regarded
by the Jews as a punishment for the impious
act (55, 56).

Al'e-ma.

A town in Gilead (1 Mac. v. 26), conjectured
to be Bcer-elim (Is. xv. 8).

Al'e-meth, in A. V. once Alameth, the
Hebrew ju'onunciation, in this instance, due
merely to the position occupied by the name
in the sentence (1 Chron. vii. 8) [covering].

1. A Benjamite. descended through Becher
(1 Chron. vii. 8). '

2. A descendant of king Saul (1 Chron. viii.
36 ; ix. 42).

3. A town (1 Chron. vi. 60). See Almox.
Al'eph.

The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
The English letter A has the same origin ;
but the Hebrew letter is a consonant, hav-
ing no representative in the speech of the
English people. In the spelling of Hebrew
names in the English versions it does not
appear. It is the initial letter, for example, in
the original of the words Edom, Ophir, and Ur.

Aleph stands at the head of the fii-st sec-
tion of Ps. cxix. in many versions, since in
the original each verse of the section begins
with this letter.

Alexander

24

Alexandria

Al-ex-an'der [<lcfending men].

1. AU'xander the Great, kiug of Macedonia,
who followed his father Philij) {1 Mac. i. 1).
He began to reign 3:5H B. c. After quelling
some disturbances at home, he crossed the
Hellespont to attack the Persians, whom he
met and defeated at Grauicus, and again at
Issus on the northeastern corner of the Medi-
terranean Sea. After the battle of Issus, Alex-
ander took Damascus, which contained great
treasure, and Sidon, and laid siege to Tyre.
From there he sent to the Jewish high priest
Jaddua, demanding his allegiance and sup-
l)lics for his army. Jaddua refused on the
ground of being subject to the Persian king.
Angry at this answer, Alexander set out in
person for Jerusalem as soon as he bad re-
duced Tyre. According to Josephus, the
Jews were in terror at his ajjproach, but Jad-
dua threw open the gates and went in full

Head of Alexander the Great.

priestly robes to meet the conqueror, who fell
at bis feet in worship of the God whom Jad-
dua represented. He explained that before he
left Macedonia he had seen in a dream the
Deity in the garb of this high priest, and had
been promised victory over Persia. He
granted the Jews many special privileges
(Antiq. xi. 8, 5). From Palestine he went
on to Egypt, where he founded Alexandria ;
he then returned through Palestine to Persia,
where he overthrew the Persian king Darius.
After further conquests be died in Babylon in
323 B. c, aged 33. After his death, his gen-
erals made some show of holding the empire
for his infant son, his widow and brother
being set up as regents. But dissensions .soon
arose among the generals. All the members
of Alexander's family were made away with,
and the ruling generals were i-educed from
seven to four ; these four then assumed the
title of king, and founded four royal houses —
Ptolemy in Egypt, Seleucus in Syria, Antipater
in Macedonia, and Philetierus in Asia Minor.
In the first division of Alexander's empire.

before the final reduction to four kingdoms,
Syria and Palestine formed an independent
satrapy under Laomedon, but they were soon
annexed to Egypt by Ptolemy Lagus. This
rich province was coveted also by others, and
was twice taken by Autigonus, another of
Alexander's generals, who was then master
of the greater part of Asia Minor, but in the
final partition into four kingdoms after the
battle of Ipsus it passed into Egyptian hands,
and remained so from that time, 320 b. c,
until 203 B. c, when it became part of the
Syrian kingdom of Antiochus the Great.

2. Alexander Balas, a pretender, who claim-
ed to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes. By
the help of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, whose
daughter Cleopatra he married, he reigned
over Syria 150-146 B. c. He proved incapa-
ble of holding the kingdom and, betrayed by
Ptolemy, was easily driven out by Demetrius
II. He made treaties with Jonathan Mac-
cabseus, and sued for the help of the Jcm'S
(1 Mac. X. 1, 18-20; Antiq. xiii. 2, 1; 4, 8).

3. A son of Simon of C'yrene (Mark xv. 21).

4. A leading man at Jerusalem when Peter
and John were tried there (Acts iv. 6).

5. A Jew who was involved in danger
during the tumult at Ephesus (Acts xix. 33).

6. One who made shipwreck of his faith,
blasphemed, and was excommunicated by
Paul (1 Tim. i. 19, 20) He perhaps was the
same as Alexander the coppersmith, who did
the apostle and his associates much injury
(2 Tim. iv. 14, 15).

Al-ex-an'dri-a [named after its founder].

A city founded by Alexander the Great, in
the year 332 B. c, on the north coast of
Egypt, of which it was designed to be the
Greek metropolis. A site was fortunately
selected west of the mouths of the Nile, and
the Mediterranean current which sweeps
from the west carries the mud of the river
away from the harbor and prevents silting.
The city was built on a tongue of land lying
between the Mediterranean Sea and lake
Mareotis, and connected by a mole with the
isle of Pharos, on which there was a cele-
brated lighthouse. The city was admirably
situated for commercial purjioscs. It became
the great port for the export of Egyptian
wheat, cargoes destined for Rome being car-
ried direct to Puteoli, unless unfavorable
winds compelled the vessels to coast along
Asia Minor (Acts xxvii. 6 ; xxviii. 11-13 ;
Philo, in Flac. v.). It was also the mai-t of
interchange between the Orient and the Occi-
dent. The city flourished greatly under the
Ptolemies, and subsequently under the Ro-
mans, until it extended along the coast fifteen
miles by a breadth of one. During the time
that the old Roman emjiire was dominant.
Alexandria was considered the second city
of the empire, having a poi)ulation of 600,000
or 700.000. Its inhabitants were drawn from
many nationalities, Greeks. Egyptians, Jews,
Romans, who used the Greek language as the

Algum

25

Almug

medium of communication. The different
peoples occupied, as a rule, different quarters
of the city. The Jews resided in the north-
eastern part, enjoyed equal rights with the
other citizens, and were governed by their
own ethnarch (Antiq. xix. 5. '2: War. ii. 1^,
7). The Ptolemies founded a museum with
a renowned library of 2(M).0uO volumes, and
the city was looked upon as one of the great-
est intellectual centers in the world. The
translation of the Hebrew Sc-riptures into the
Greek language was begun here iu the third
century, and completed by the second cen-
tury, before Christ. Here, too, the spirit of
Greek ])hilosophy permeated Judaism, and
esegetes like Philo arose who exces.si vely alle-
gorized Scripture. The Jews of Alexandria
had their own synagogue in Jerusalem, and
were among the persecutoi-s of Stephen (Acts
ii. 10 ; vi.9): butthe teaching of John the Bap-
tist and the knowledge of Jesus also gained
entrance into Alexandria, and under God pro-
duced such men as Apollos (Acts xviii. 24, 25).
Tradition ascribes the planting of the Chris-
tian Church in Alexandria to the evangeli-st
Mark. In the early Christian ages the city
was the seat of a celebrated Christian cate-
chetical school with such teachers as Clement
and Origen, and the home of bishops like
Hesychius and Athana.sius. In a. d. 616,
Chosroes II.. king of Persia, took Alexandria,
and in 640, after an obstinate defence, it was
captured by Amrou, the general of Omar I.,
the Arab caliph, and. with the exception of
two or three brief intervals, has since re-
mained under the blighting influence of Mo-
hammedan government. The French, under
Napoleon I., captured it in 1798, but were
driven out by the British in ISOl, after which
it reverted to the Mohammedans. On July
11, 1882, the Alexandrian forts were bom-
barded and taken by the British fleet, and
that temporary occupation of Egypt, which
still continues, began. In that year Alexan-
dria contained 227.064 inhabitants.

Al'gtun. See Almug.
A-li'ah. See Alvah.
A-li'an. See Alvax.
Al-le-lu'ia. See Hallelujah.
Al-le'meth. See Almox.

Al'lon [an oak].

Not a proper name, as in A. V. of Josh. xix.
33, but a common noun, the oak or terebinth
of Bezaanannim (Judg. iv. 11, E. V. : where
in A. V. plain should be oak). See Zaaxax-

XI M.

Al'lon-bac'uth, in A. Y. AUon-bachuth
[oak of weeping].

An oak near Bethel under which Deborah,
Rebekah's nurse, was buried (Gen. xxxv. 8).

Al-mo'dad.

A people descended from Shem through
Joktan (Gen. x. 26: 1 Chron. i. 20). They
doubtless settled in the south of Arabia.

Al'mon [something hidden].

A village within the territory of Benjamin,
assigned to the priests (Josh. xxi. 18). In 1
Chron. vi. 60 it is called Alemeth, or, follow-
ing the traditional Hebrew pronunciation
more closely, AUemeth. Both names have
the same origin and meaning, and difler
merely iu outward form. Its .site is the ruin
'Almit. a low, naked mound between Geba
and Anathoth.

Al'mon-dib-la-tlia'iin [probably the dis-
trict included between Almon and Dibla-
thaim].

A station of the Israelites between the Ar-
non and Shittim (Num. xxxiii. 46) ; probably
identical with Beth-diblathaim.

Alm'ond.

A tree and its fruit (Gen. xliii. 11 ; Ecc.
xii. 5), called in Jlehrevf Shaked. the awaker,
probably because it is the flrst tree to blossom
in the spring. It is the Amygdalufi communis of
botanists, a tree about 20 feet high, originally,
it is believed, from Barbary, but now intro-
duced into many lands. In Palestine it is
found on Lebanon, Hermou, and in most of
the region beyond Jordan. The town of Luz
in the hill country of Ephraim derived its

Almond Tree.

name from the almond. The tree grew also
in Mesopotamia (Gen. xxx. 37, R. V.). There
are two varieties, the bitter and the sweet ; the
former has white flowers, the latter roseate.
Almonds were sent by Jacob to the Egyptian
dignitary ((ien. xliii. 11). The cups on the
branches of the golden candlestick were
modeled after almond blos,soms (Ex. xxv. 33,
34). When Aaron's rod budded it brought
forth almond blossoms (Num. xvii. 8). The
rod of an almond tree, which Jeremiah saw
in his earliest vision, signified Jehovah's
wakefulness (Jer. i. 11, 12). The white hairs
on the head of the aged are probably com-
pared to the white flower of the bitter
almond tree (Ecc. xii. .5).

Al'mug, in 2 Chron. Algum [perhaps from
Sanscrit valgit, valgum (Lassen, Max Miiller)].

Aloes

26

Alphseus

A timber brought in abundance by sea
from Opliir during the roign of Solomon. It
was used to make pillars or balustrades, as
also haqis and jisalteries (1 Kin. x. 11. 12; 2
C'hron. ix. 10, 11). Awording to Josephus, it
resembles the wood of the fig tree, but is
whiter and shines more (Antiq. viii. 7, 1).
It is commonly believed to be sandal wood,
the Saiitdlnm (dhnm of botanists, and the type
of the oi'der Hdntcdace.ie. The tree is small,
much-branched, in aspect somewhat resem-
bling a myrtle, a native of India and the
eastern islands. If found on Lebanon (2
Chron. ii. 8) it must have been introduced
there. The wood, which is odoriferous, is
burnt to perfume temples and private houses
both in India and China. It is well adapted
for the purpose for which it was used by
Solomou.

Al'oes.

Not the botanical genus Aloe, consisting of
succulent plants belonging to the order Lilia-

Lign-aloes {Aquilaria acjallocha).

ceie. and furnishing a bitter purgative medi-
cine. The chief value of the scriptural plant
is evidently its fragrance (Ps. xlv. 8 ; Prov.
vii. 17; Song iv. 14). It seems to he Agal-
locha, called in various Indian dialects afiar,
aijnru, and nffra, of which the Hebrew words
'"halim and ^'^haloth are probably a corrup-
tion. The species Aquilaria agallocha grows in
.Sylhet, in the east of Bengal, and at Tennas-
serim. in the Eastern Peninsula. It is a large
tree, having alternate lanceolate leaves, a
leathery calyx, no petals, ten stamens, and
a two-celled seed-vessel. The wood contains
a resin, and an essential oil, which constitutes
the perfume for which it is prized iu the East.
It is the ligu-iiloes of Num. xxiv. 6, and the
aloes of .lohn xix. 39, one of the kinds of
si)ice with which Nicodemus designed to
anoint the body of our Lord.

A'loth [yielding milk].

A place of which, according to the Hebrew
text, the name may just as well be Bealoth,
known only as constituting with Asher one

of the twelve districts from which Solomon
drew provisions (1 Kin. iv. 16).

Al'pha.

The first letter in the Greek alphabet ; de-
rived from the Phcenician, and correspond-
ing to the Hebrew letter Aleph. Omega is
the last letter of the (ireek alphabet. " I am
Alpha and Omega" means "I am the first
and the last" of beings (Rev. 1. 8, 11 ; xxi. 6 ;
xxii. lo; C]i. Is. xliv. 6).

Al'pha-bet [from Greek Alpha, Beta, the
first two letters of the Greek alphabet].

The letters used in writing or printing a
language, these being arranged iu a ccmven-
tional order. The English alphabet is bor-
rowed from the I^atin, which in turn came
from the Greek. The Greek was derived
from the Plurnician ; the tradition that Cad-
mus brought letters into Greece, if not ti-ue
in its details, being yet essentially histori-
cal. The Phoenicians, Hebrews, Moabites,
and Aramseans used a common alphabet at
least as early as the eighth century B. c. The
same alphabet, in more primitive form, was
employed centuries earlier by the Minjeans
of southern Arabia. In their original form
these letters were pictures of familiar ol)jects,
bore the names of these objects, and had the
initial sound of these words ; thus, Gimel
had the sound of g and depicted a camel,
which was called fiamalu. The names of the
several letters in the Hebrew alphabet and
the order in which they are arranged have
long been familiar to the English reader,
from their having been used to mark the
divisions of the 119th Psalm. The E. V. gives
in addition the later forms of the letters
themselves, /. e. the square characters intro-
duced after the beginning of the Christian
era. It will be seen that they are twenty-
two in number. The Hebrew Bible has other
alphabetical jisalms than the 119th, though
the fact is not ascertainable from the English
versions ; see Psalms and Lamentations.
To transliterate the Hebrew letters is to sub-
stitute for them as nearly as jiossible the
equivalent Eomau characters. There are
difi'erent methods of transliterating some of
the letters. In the present work Aleph is
represented by the smooth breathing ' and
Ain by the rough breathing ', Heth by h,
Teth by t, Jod when a consonant by y,
Tzaddi "by s, Koph by k, Shin by sh. The
other letters require neither explanation nor
diacritical point. In the N. T. two letters
of the Greek alphabet are mentioned. Alpha,
the first, and Omega, the last. In translating
this alphabet, Epsilon is represented by e,
Eta by e, Theta by th, Xi by x, Omikron by
o, Upsilon by u, Phi by ph, Chi by ch, Psi by
ps, and Omega l)y 6.

Al-phse'us [perhaps, transient].

1. Tlic husband of one of the Marys, and
father of .Tames the less and .loses {I\Iat. x. 3 ;
Mark xv. 40). He was probably Clopas. in
A. V. Cleo])has (John xix. 25, with ]Mark xv.

Altar

Alush

tO), for Clopas and Alphjeus are merely dif-
ferent Greek modifications of the Hebrew
name Halpai/. See James 2.

2. Tiie father of Levi or Matthew ( Mark ii.
14 : cp. Mat. ix. 9).

Al'tar.

An elevated structure on wliich incense is
burned or siicrificc offered to the deity. It
might be a mound of earth : or a huge stone
or a platform built of several stones, dressed
or undressed : or an object of similar shape
made of metal. In patriarchal times, wor-
shipers reared altars wherever they pitched
their tents or had special occasion to sacrifice
to God ( Gen. viii. 20 : xii. 7 ; xxii. 9 ; xxxv. 1. 7;
Ex. xvii. 1.5 : xxiv. 4i. The fundamental law
of the Hebrew altar, which was embodied in
the theocratic covenant and was given at
8iuai before the tabernacle was built, enjoined
the erection of an altar of earth or stone
wherever Jehovah should manifest himself.
This law was the primary warrant for the
altars at the tabernacle and temple, where
.Jehovah's presence continually was, and for
the transient altars and sacrifices on occasions
of theophanies (Judg. ii. 5, etc.).

^"Xo*^j^'

Ancient Assyrian >^tone Altar.

The tabernacle had two altars : 1. The
brazen altar or altar of burnt offering, which
stood in the outer court and directly in front
of the door of the tabernacle. It was .5 cubits
square and 3 high. It consisted of a hollow
frame of acacia wood overlaid with brass, and
it was furnished with rings and staves that it
might be transported from i)lace to place. On
its upper corners were projections called
horns. It was without steps, but had a ledge
round about it, midway between the bottom
and the top, for the priests to stand on. It
was probably intended to be filled with earth.
All sacrifices were offered at this altar. Its
position at the very threshold taught dis-
tinctly that man has no access to .Jehovah
except as a sinner atoned for by blood (Ex.
xxvii. 1-8 ; xxx. 28 : xxxviii. 30; cp. 1 Kin.
i. 50 ; Ps. cxviii. 27). 2. The golden altar, or
altar of incen.ie. which stood in the holy
l>laee before the veil that hung before the
mercy seat. It was a cubit square and two

cubits high, and was made of acacia wood
overlaid with gold, with a border of gold
about its to]), horns at its corners, and two
golden rings at each side for staves. Incense
of prescribed ingredients, lighted by fire from
the brazen altar, was burned on it morning
and evening when the light of the candle-
stick was seen to. It symbolized the obliga-
tory and acceptable adoration of God by his
people (Ex. xxx. 1-10, 28. 34-37; xl. 5; cp.
Heb. ix. 4 and 1 Kin. vi. 22 ; Lev. xvi. 18, 19).
When Solomon's temple was built, the new
brazen altar had nearly four times the di-
mensions of the old (1 Kin. viii. ti4 : 2 Cliron.
iv. 1). A new golden altar was also made
(1 Kin. vii. 48 ; 2 Chron. iv. 19).

These were the only permanent altars on
which sacrifices or incense could be accepta-
bly offered (Deut. xii. 2, 5, 6, 7). But the
rearing of altars and offering of sacrifice in
other places where God manifested himself
was authorized by the fundamental law ; and
the privilege was embraced, as for example,
by the Israelites at Bochim, by Gideon, by
Manoah (Judg. ii. 1-5 ; vi. 20-25; xiii. 15-23).
The law of the altar was necessarily in abey-
ance twice. 1. When God forsook the taber-
nacle and the ark was in the hands of the
Philistines, or in dreaded seclusion at Kirjath-
jearim, there was no place where Jehovah
manifested himself (Ps. Ixxviii. 60-64 ; 1 Sam.
vi. 20-vii. 4). Samuel, as the prophet and
representative of Jehovah, erected an altar
at Eamah and sacrificed in several places (1
Sam. vii. 9, 17). Out of the confusion of
worship caused by the capture of the ark,
the domination of the Philistines, and the
political complications connected with Saul
and David, there arose and continued for a
time two high priests and two altars, the orig-
inal altar at the original tabernacle and a
new altar near the ark in Jerusalem (1 Kin.
iii. 2, 4. 15 ; 2 Chron. i. 3-6). 2. When the
Ten Tribes revolted, the pious Israelites of
the north who were debarred the pilgrimage
to Jerusalem were compelled either to abstain
from worshiping Jehovah by sacrifice, or else
to erect local altars. They chose in some in-
stances the latter alternative (1 Kin. xAiii.
30, 32 ; xix. 10). Altars were not always in-
tended for sacrifices or for the burning of in-
cense : the two and a half tribes who settled
east of the Jordan built an altar designed to
be a memorial of their affinity in blood to the
other tribes, who crossed the river (Josh. xxii.
10-34).

Al-tash'heth, in A. Y. less accurately Al-
taschith [do not destroy].

A compound word occurring in the titles
of Psalms Ivii., Iviii.. lix.. and Ixxv.. all R. Y.
It probably refers, like Aijeleth Shahar. to the
name of some Hebrew melody to the tune of
which those psalms were to be sung.

A'lush [tumult of men].
An encampment of the Israelites between
Egypt and mount Sinai (Xum. xxxui. 13, 14).

Alvah

28

Amasa

Al'vah or A-li'ah [high, tall, thick]. For
variation in spelling perhajis cp. Vau.

A duke of Edoin, descended from Esau
(Gen. xxxvi. 40; 1 Chron. i. 51). He prob-
ably bears the name of his district (43).

Al'vaiKtr A-li'an [high, tall]. For variation
in form i)erhaps cp. Vau.

A Horite (Uen. xxxvi. 23; 1 Chron. i. 40).

A'mad [people of duration or, better, sta-
tion, domicile].

A frontier village of Asher (Josh. xix. 26).
Not identified.

A'mal [labor, sorrow].

An Asherite, sou of Helem (1 Chron. vii.
35).

Am'a-lek.

Son of Eliphaz, Esau's son, by his concu-
bine Timna (Gen. xxxvi. 12) ; or, collectively,
the Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8 ; Num. xxiv. 20;
Dent. XXV. 17; Judg. v. 14, etc.).

Am'a-lek-ites.

The descendants of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 12).
For a long time they were centered about
Kadesh-barnea. In this neighborhood they
dwelt at the time of the exodus (Num. xiii.
29 ; xiv. 25). The territory occupied by them
was visible from the mountains of Abarim
(Num. xxiv. 20 ; Deut. xxxiv. 1-3). They
were among the foremost peojile of their time
in that part of the world (Num. xxiv. 20). A
writer after the era of the exodus, refer-
ring to ancient events which occurred in that
region, could speak proleptically of the coun-
try of the Amalekites. Hence in the narra-
tive of the campaign of Chedorlaomer and
his allies in this region, it is said that these
eastern invaders "came to Kadesh and smote,"
not the Amalekites (as one would expect the
writer to say, after the manner of his con-
text, had that people been in existence), but
in guarded phrase "all the country of the
Amalekites" (Gen. xiv. 7). From their cen-
ter near Kadesh, the people roamed and their
camps radiated. They harassed the rear of
the Israelites soon after the Hebrews had left
Egypt and entered the wilderness; and at
Eephidim on the west of Sinai they engaged
with Israel in battle and were defeated. Be-
cause of their hostility to Israel, their utter de-
struction was authorized (Ex. xvii. 8-16; Deut.
XXV. 17-1!>). A year later, when Israel had
reached Kadesh, and in defiance of God at-
tempted to push northward into Canaan, the
Amalekites opposed and repulsed them (Num.
xiv. 43-45). About that date perhaps or later,
their name became attached to a hill district
in Ephraim (Judg. xii. 15; cp. v. 14). Soon
after the time of Moses and Joshua, they
aided Eglou, king of Moab, to wrest Jericho
from the Israelites ; and a few generations
later they were allied with the Midianites in
oppressing northern Israel (Judg. iii. 13 ; vi.
3, 33). Evidently they had been working
their way eastward, in friendly intercourse
with other inhabitants of the desert ; and

in Saul's time their bauds were found roam-
ing through a stretch of perhaps five or six
hundred miles of wilderness from the border
of Egypt, near their original seat, to Havilah,
a designation which includes northern cen-
tral Arabia (1 Sam. xv. 7 ; xxvii. 8). They
sufi'ered crushing defeat from Saul, their king
was captured and slain, and they presently
disappear from Hebrew history.

A'mam [perhaps, collection or conjunction].
A village of Judah in the southland (Josh.
xv. 26).

Am'a-na [firmness, a treaty].

The mountains of Anti-Lebanon, doubtless
those in which the Abanah or, as it is also
called, Amanali takes its rise (Song iv. 8).

Am-a-ri'ah [Jehovah hath said or prom-
ised] .

1. Son of Meraioth, a priest descended from
Phinehas (1 Chron. vi. 7).

2. A priest in the same high-priestly line of
descent, a son of Azariah (1 Chron. vi. 11 ;
Ezra vii. 3).

3. A chief of the priests, who returned from
Babylon with Zerul)babel (Neh. xii. 2. 7). A
father's house bore his name in the next gen-
eration (ver. 13).

4. A priest, doubtless head of a father's
house, who sealed the covenant in Nehemiah's
time (Neh. x. 3).

5. A man who had taken a foreign wife,
whom Ezra made him divorce (Ezra x. 42).

6. A man of Judah. family of Perez (Neh.
xi. 4).,

7. A son of Hezekiah, and an ancestor of
the prophet Zephaniah (Zeph. i. 1, R. Y.).

8. A chief priest in Jehoshaphat's time (2
Chron. xix. 11).

9. A Levite, descended through Kohath
and Hebron (1 Chron. xxiii. 19; xxiv. 23).

10. An assistant distributor of the freewill
oflferings of God in Hezekiah's time (2 Chron.
xxxi. 14, 15).

Am'a-sa [a burden].

1. The son of David's half-sister Abigail
and Jether an Ishmaelite (1 Chron. ii. 17).
He was Joab's cousin (2 Sam. xvii. 25). Ab-
salom appointed Amasa captain of his army
(ibid.). After Absalom's defeat and death.
Amasa was forgiven by David and appointed
commander-in-chief in supersession of Joab
(2 Sam. xix. 13). On the breaking out of
the revolt headed by Sheba, Amasa received
orders to have an army in readiness to start
in three days. He was behind his time ; and
Abishai was sent with troops, among whom
Joab was, after Sheba. The two companies
united at Gibeon ; and Joab, under pretext
of greeting Amasa with a kiss, stabbed him
(2 Sam. XX. 1-13).

2. A prince of Ephraim and son of Hadlai.
When captives from Judah were being car-
ried otF by the Israelite army under Pekah,
he aided in securing their release (2 Chron.
xxviii. 12).

Amasai

29

Amiuiliud

Am'a-sal [burdensome].

1. A Levlte of the Koliathite family, de-
scended through Abiasapli and an ancestor
of Heman the singer (1 Chrou. vi. 35). Ama-
sai in ver. 25 is perhaps a ditterent person of
the same family and name, but descended
from the brother of Abiasiiph (Ex. vi. 24).

2. A Levite who blew a trumpet in David's
reign (1 Chron. xv. 24).

3. A Kohathite who aided in the religious
revival in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron. xxix.
12).

Am'a-sliai, in R. V. Amashsai [perhaps,
two variant spellings of Amasai combined].

A priest, son of Azareel. He lived in
Jerusalem, at Nehemiah's request (Neh. xi.
13).

Am-a-si'ah [Jehovah hath borne].
A son of Zichri. and high militaiy officer
under Jeho^haphat (2 Chron. xvii. 16).

Am-a-zi'ah [.Tehovah is strong].

1. A kingof Judah. who succeeded his father
Joash when twenty-five years old. When he [
found himself firm on the throne, he put to
death the murderers of his father, but spared
their children, in conformity with the prin-
ciple laid down on the subject in the Mo.saic
law (Deut. xxiv. 16). He hired 100,000
Israelitish mercenaries to accompany him on
an expedition against the Edomites, but at
the command of a man of God he dismissed
them and, taking the forces of Judah alone,
defeated the Edomites in the Valley of Salt j
and captured their capital, Selah. But he {
brought back idols of the Edomites, and set
them up for his gods. The dismissed Israel- 1
ites on their way home plundered the cities
of Judah north of Beth-horon. Amaziah,
following bad advice, challenged Jehoash,
king of Israel, to fight, but he was defeated
in a battle at Beth-.shemesh. taken prisoner,
and carried to Jerusalem. Part of the wall
of Jerusalem, his capital, was broken down
by Jehoash, and treasure and hostages were
taken by him to Samaria. A conspiracy was
formed against Amaziah in Jerusalem. He
fled to Lachish, but was followed thither
and murdered. He reigned twenty-nine years
(2 Kin. xiv. 1-20 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 1-27).

2-4. See 1 Chron. iv. 34 ; vi. 45 ; Amos vii. 10).

Am'ber.

The hardened or fossilized resin of a now
extinct pine-tree iPinns succinifer) allied to
the Norway spruce or to the Silver fir. That
it was originally fluid is plain from the fact
that it is found to enclose numerous remains
of plants and of insects. The pines pro-
ducing it grew in the southeastern part of
what is now the bed of the Baltic .Sea, and it is
still picked up on the southern shore of that
sea. It was regarded as a gem, and early be-
came an object of commerce over regions very
remote from the Baltic Sea. It is generally
yellow, and that is the color of amber referred
to in Ezek. i. 4, 27 : viii. 2.

A'men' [firm, established].

1. Jesus, as the faithful and true One (Rev.
iii. 14; cp. Is. Ixv. 16, R. V. margin).

2. An interjection, " So be it," " May it be "
as has been asked, said, promised, or threat-
ened (Mat. vi. 13 ; Deut. xxvii. 16-26 ; 2 Cor. i.
20). To render it more emphatic, it is s(mie-
times redoubled (Num. v. 22). .lesus begins
many of his sayings with this word, which
is then translated "verily." This idiom is
peculiar to him.

Am'e-tliyst [the Hebrew name suggests
dream-stone].

A precious stone, believed to be intended
by the Hebrew name for the last gem in the
third row on the Jewish high priest's breast-
plate (Ex. xxviii. 19 ; xxxix. 12). The ame-
thyst formed the twelfth foundation of the
New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). It is a glassy,
clear, purple or bluish violet variety of
quartz, the color, it is believed, being pro-
duced by manganese. The Hebrews could
obtain it in Edom, Egypt, Galatia, or Cyprus ;
but finer specimens came from India and
Spain.

A'mi. See Amox I, 3.

A-min'a-dab. See Amminadab.

A-mit'tai [truthful].

The father of Jonah the prophet (2 Kin.
xiv. 25 ; Jonah i. 1).

Am'mah [mother of anything in a figura-
tive sense ; beginning, foundation].

A hill near Giah, on the road from Gibeon
through the wilderness to the Jordan (2
Sam. ii. 24; cp. 16, 29). Exact situation un-
known.

Am'nii [my people] (Hos. ii. 1).

Am'mi-el [one of the family, or a devoted
ally, is God] .

1. Son of Gemalli. and i-epresentative of the
tribe of Dan on the commission to spy out
Canaan (Num. xiii. 12).

2. A man of Lo-debar. and father of Machir
(2 Sam. ix. 4, 5; xvii. 27).

3. A sou of Obed-edom (1 Chron. xxvi.
5).

4. Father of Bath-sheba (1 Chron. iii. 5) ;
see Eliam.

Am-mi'liud [kinsman of praiseworthiness,
or an ally is the praiseworthy one].

1. An Ei)hraimite, descended through Ta-
han. and father of Elishama (Num. i. 10; 1
Chron. vii. 26).

2. A man of Simeon, and father of Shemuel
(Num. xxxiv. 20).

3. A man of Naphtali, and father of Peda-
hel (Num. xxxiv. 28).

4. Father of Talmai, king of Geshur (2
Sam. xiii. .37). In the Hebrew text the name
is written with h and r in.stead of h and d,
but is traditionally pronounced Ammihud.

5. A descendant of Judah through Perez
(1 Chron. ix. 4, R. V.).

Ammihur

30

Amon

Am-mi'hur [perhaps, kinsman of nobility] .
Sec Ammiiiud 4.

Am-min'a-dal), in A. V. of N. T. Amina-
dab [tlu' p('()]ile or kinsman is generous].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Ram (1 C'hron. ii. 10). He was the
father of Nahshon, the ])rince of Judah (Num.
i. 7), father-in-hiw of Aaron the priest (Ex.
vi. 23), and an ancestor of David (Ruth iv.
19; Mat. i. 4 ; Luke iii. 33).

2. A Lcvite, family of Kohath, house of
Uz/.iel. He was head of his father's house
in David's reign (1 Chron. xv. 10, 11 ; cp. Ex.
vi. 18, 22).

3. A Levite, family of Kohath (1 Chron.
vi. 22). The genealogies of Kohath, how-
ever, regularly have the name Izhar in this
place (vs. 37, 38; Ex. vi. IS, 21, 24), so that
Amminadab is probably either another name
of Izhar or a corruption of the genealogy.

Am-min'a-dib [my princely willing people,
or the people is generous].

If a proper name, which is doubtful, then
it is some one famous for his chariots (Song
vi. 12; cp. text and margin).

Am'mi-shad'dai [an ally or kinsman is the
Almighty].

A Danite, father of Ahiezer (Num. i. 12 ; ii.

25).

Am-miz'a-bad [the kinsman hath en-
dowed].

A son of David's mighty man Beuaiah (1
Chron. xxvii. fi).

Am'mon [pertaining to the nation].

An adjective which paraphrases the name
of Ben-ammi, Lot's younger son, ancestor of
the Ammonites (Gen. xix. 38).

Am'mon-ites.

A peoi)le descended from Ben-ammi, Lot's
second son (Gen. xix. 38). They disposses,sed
the Zamzummim of the territory between the
Arnon and the Jabbok (Dent. ii. 20, 21 ; iii.
11) ; but were in turn driven out by the
Amorites and compelled to keep on the bor-
der of the eastern desert, with the upper
Jabbok as their western boundary (Num. xxi.
24 ; Deut. ii. 37 ; Judg. xi. 13, 22). For hav-
ing joined the Moabites in hiring Balaam
to curse the Israelites, they were excluded
from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth
generation (Deut. xxiii. 3-6). They aided
Eglon, king of Moab, in subjugating a por-
tion of the Israelites (Judg. iii. 13). In the
time of Jephthah they again oppressed the
Israelites east of Jordan (Judg. x. fi, 9, 18).
Just before Saul became actual king, Nahash,
the Ammonite king, besieged Jabesh-gilead.
Saul came to the assistance of tlu' beleaguered
citizens, and totally defeated Nahash (1 Sam.
xi. 1-11). Nahash befriended David ; doing
this, perhaps, because both were enemies of
Saul. On the death of Nahash, David sent
an embassy to his son, Hanun ; but the am-
bassadors were insulted, and war supervened.

In the first campaign, the confederate Syrians
and Ammonites were defeated by the Israel-
ites, led by Joab and Abishai (2 Sam. x. 1-19 ;
1 Chron. xix. 1-19). In the second, the Israel-
ites captured Rabbah, the Ammonite capital
(2 Sam. xi., xii. ; 1 Chron. xx. 1-3). Solo-
mon took several Ammonite women as wives
(1 Kin. xi. 1). In the time of Jehoshaphat
Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites unsuc-
cessfully invaded Judah (2 Chron. xx. 1-30).
To Uzziah and Jotham the Ammonites sent
tribute (xxvi. 8 ; xxvii. 5). Ammonites joined
with others in vexing Jehoiakim (2 Kin.
xxiv. 2) ; and after the fall of Jerusalem,
they frustrated the attempt of the Jews to
form a new community (xxv. 25 ; Jer. xl. 11-
14). As inveterate enemies of Israel, they
were denounced by the prophets (Jer. xlix.
1-8 ; Ezek. xxi. 20; xxv. 1-7 ; Amos i. 13-15 ;
Zeph. ii. 8-11). They opposed the rebuilding
of the walls of Jerusalem by the returned ex-
iles (Neh. iv. 3, 7) ; yet intermarriages between
them and the Israelites took place, which
were censured by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra
ix. 1, 2; Neh. xiii. 23-31). Judas Maccabseus,
under strong provocation, made war against
them (1 Mac. v. 1-8). They are mentioned
as late as the second Christian century. Their
chief deity was Milcom, another designation
of Molech (1 Kin. xi. 7, 33). In the time of
Jephthah they were worshiping Chemosh,
the Moabite god (Judg. xi. 24).

Am'non [faithful].

A son of David by Ahinoam, the Jezreel-
itess ; born at Hebron while that was his
father's capital. He behaved scandalously to
Tamar, his half-sister, and was in consequence
murdered by her fuU-ln-other Absalom (2
Sam. xiii. and 1 Chron. iii. 1).

A'mok [deep].

A chief of the priests who returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 7). In
the next generation a father's house bore this
name (ver. 20).

A'mon, I. [security or handicraftsman].

1. Governor of the citv of Samaria under
Ahab (1 Kin. xxii. 10. 26).

2. A king of Judah who at the age of
twenty-two succeeded his father Manasseh.
He followed his father's bad example. In
two years his servants murdered him in his
palace. The people of the land put the mur-
derers to death, and placed his son Josiah on
the throne (2 Kin. xxi. 19-26 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii.
21-25).

3. One of "the children of Solomon's ser-
vants" (Neh. vii. 59) ; called Ami in Ezra ii.
57.

A'lnoii, II. [Egyptian Amen, thi; hidden one,
the unseen being].

The chief divinity of Thebes, named after
him No-amon, the capital of Upper Egypt
(Jer. xlvi. 25, R. V. ; Nah. iii. 8, R. V.]. the
Hyksos were ex]>elled from Egypt under his
ensign, and he consequently became head of

Amorites

31

Amphipolis

the pantheon, and was called the successor
of Ea. He was represented as wearing two

The Egyptian God Amon.

plumes of hawk's feathers, a disk, and a red
cap.

Am'o-rites [commonly explained as "moun-
taineers," but this explanation is question-
able].

One of the tribes who occupied Canaan be-
fore the conquest of the country by the He-
brews (Gen. X. 16 ; xv. 21 ; Ex. iii. 8). At the
time of Abraham, they dwelt at least on the
western shore of the Dead Sea and back on the
mountain (Gen. xiv. 7, 13). Even then they
were the most powerful tribe in the hill coun-
try, and their name was used as .synonym for
the inhabitants of that region generally (xv.
Ifj), if not, as later when their power had
further increased, for the inhabitants of
Canaan generally (xxxiv. 2 with xlviii. 22;
Josh. vii. 7; ix. 7 and xi. 19 with 2 Sam. xxi.
2; Judsi. vi. 10; Amos ii. 10). At the time
of the exodus they were still in the hill
country (Num. xiii. 29: Deut. i. 7, 19,20, 44;
they could of course be called Canaanites,
Num. xiv. 45) ; but before this date they had
carried their conquests to the east of the
Jordan (Num. xxi. 26-30), and taken i)Osses-
sion of the land from the Arnon to mount
Hermon and from the wilderness to the Jor-
dan (Deut. iii. 8; iv. 48; Josh. ii. 10; ix. 10;
Judg. xi. 22). At this time they occujjied the
entire hill country west of Jordan from Jeru-

salem to Hebron, and westward to and iuclu-
siveof theShephelah (Josh. x. 5, 6) as far north
as Aijalon and even the territory of Ephraim
(Judg. i. 35; Josh. xi. 3; xiii. 4). For their
wickedness they were devoted to destruc-
tion ; but a strong remnant remained in the
land after tiie conquest (Judg. i. 3'); iii. 5),
with whom in Samuel's day there was peace
(1 Sam. vii. 14), and who with other survivors
of the earlier races were made bondservants
by Solomon (1 Kin. ix. 20, 21 ; 2 Chron.
viii. 7).

A'mos [burden; burden-bearer].

A prophet born at Tekoa, in the territory
of the tribe of Judah, about six miles south
of Bethlehem (Amos i. 1). He was originally
a herdsman and a dresser of sycomore trees
(i. 1 ; vii. 14, 15). Although a man of Judah,
he was called to prophesy in the kingdom of
the ten tribes. He appeared at Bethel, then
the king's sanctuary and a royal house, which
still had within it one of the two golden
calves reared by Jeroboam I. as objects of
worship. Amos spoke with such freedom and
faithfulness against the sins of the king and
the people that Amaziah, the idolatrous priest
at Bethel, sent word to king Jei'oboam II.
that Amos was conspiring against him in his
own kingdom (vii. 10). The time and cir-
cumstances of Amos' death are unknown.

The book of Amos is the third of the minor
prophets. Amos i)ro])hesied in the days of
Uzziah, king of Judah, and in the days of
Jeroboam, son of Joash, king of Israel, two
years before the earthquake (Amos i. 1; cp.
Zech. xiv. 5),andprobably while the kingdom
was at its greatest extent (Amos vi. 14 ; cp. 2
Kin. xiv. 25). The literary form of chapters
i.-vi. is literal, of vii.-ix. allegorical. The
theme of the prophecy is the judgment of
the Lord (i. 2 ; cp. Joel iii. 16). The prophecy
consists of three parts : 1. Introduction: judg-
ment upon the nations, the series leading up
to I.srael (i. 3-ii. 16). 2. Denunciation of
Israel (iii. 1-ix. 10) : three discourses, each
beginning with the words " Hear this," fol-
lowed by five visions, exhibiting {a) The in-
strument of judgment : devouring locusts,
symbol of foreign foes. (6) Source of the
judgment: fire, symbol of God's wrath, (c)
Character of the judgment: plumb line, sym-
bolizing righteous retribution, (d) Nearness
of the judgment : ripe fruit. (e) Infliction
of the punishment: the Lord smiting down
and slaying. 3. Promises (ix. 8-15) : the ex-
ile only a sifting (8-10) ; restoration of the
royal house of l^avid to its former glory (11);
extension of the kingdom over Edom and
other heathen nations (12) ; restoration of
Israel from captivity (13-15).

A'moz [powerful, brave].

The prophet Isaiah's father (Is. i. 1, etc.).

Am-phip'o-lis [a city pressed on all sides].

A city of Thrace, situated at the mouth of
the Strymon on a bend of the river. It was
founded by the Athenians in the fifth cen-

Amplias

32

Ananias

tury B. C, and called Amphipolis because
nearly surrounded by the river. Under the
Romans it was the chief town of Macedonia
prima. It was on the Via Egnatia, thirty-
three miles southwest of Philippi, and Paul
accordingly pas.sed through it while traveling
by that road from Philippi to Thessalonica
(Acts xvii. 1). It is now called Empoli or
Yamboli, is about three miles from the sea,
and has a village, Neokhorio or Jeui Keui
(New Town), on part of its site.

Am'pli-as.

A Christian of Rome to whom Paul sent
salutation (Rom. xvi. 8).

Am'ram, I. (1 Chron. i. 41). See Hemdan.

Am 'ram, II. [perhaps, inexperience].

1. A Levite, son of Kohath, husband of
Jochebcd and founder of the father's house
of the Amramites, who in the time of Moses
numbered approximately two thousand males
(Num. iii. 17, 19, 27, 28). He was an ancestor
of Aaron and Moses, and lived to the age of
137 years (Ex. vi. 20 ; for form of expression
cp. Gen. xlvi. 16-18, 19-22, 23-25 ; Mat. i. 5,
6, 8, II).

2. A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 34).

Am'ram-ites.

The descendants of Amram, constituting a
subdivision of the Levites (Num. iii. 27 ; 1
Chron. xxvi. 23).

Am'ra-phel.

King of Shinar, ally of Chedorlaomer in
the invasion of the west (Gen. xiv. I, 9).
Evidence exists that goes far to identify
him with Hammurabi, king of Babel.

Am'u-let.

Anything worn as a protection against
sorcery. It often serves at the same time as
an ornament (Is. iii. 20, R. V. ; cp. Gen.
XXXV. 4).

Am'zi [robust].

1. A Levite, a descendant of Merari (I
Chron. vi. 46).

2. A priest of the course of Malchijah (Neh.
xi. 12, R. v.).

A'nab [probably, fruitful in grape.s] .

A town in the mountains of Judah (Josh,
xi. 21 ; XV. 50). Two ruins still bear the
name ; one is twelve miles southwest of He-
bron, and the more extensive is one and a
half miles farther southwest.

A'nah [perhaps, hearkening to, granting].

A tribe of Horites (Gen. xxxvi. 20, R. V.),
organized under a chief (29). The tribe bore
the name of its progenitor, who was descended
from Zibeon and expanded to a branch tribe
(20, 24). He di.scovercd warm springs in the
wilderness (24). From this circumstance he
probably received the name Beeri, man of
the well (2 with xxvi. 34, where, if Hittite
does not include Hivite, the two names may
be confused ; for in the Sei)tuagiut of xxvi. 34
Elon is a Hivite, but in the Hebrew text a

Hittite). A daughter of the tribe, traced back
also to Zibeon, became a wife of Esau (xxxvi.
2, 14, 25). Many interpreters, however, discern
three persons of the name — a woman (2, 14)
and two men (20, 25, 29 and 24).

An-a-ha'rath [possibly, nostril or pass].

A frontier village of Issachar (Josh. xix.
19). The position of en-Na'urah (possibly a
corruption of the old name), Ave miles north-
east of Jezreel, suits for the site.

A-na'iah [Jehovah hath answered].

One who stood by Ezra when he read the
book of the law to the people (Neh. viii. 4),
and who afterwards sealed the covenant to
serve God (x. 22).

A'nak [the long neck (with definite article,
Num. xiii. 22, 28, but not 33)].

Collective name of the Anakim (Num. xiii.
22 with Deut. i. 28), who possibly, though not
necessarily, were descended from Arba (Josh.
xiv. 15 with XV. 13).

An'a-kim ; A. Y. has Anakims, using both
the Hebrew and the English plural ending.

A stalwart race, connected with the Reph-
aim (Num. xiii. 33; Deut. ii. 10, 11, 21).
Three families of them settled at Hebron
(Num. xiii. 22), and others were found in
neighboring towns and elsewhere throughout
the hill country (Josh. xi. 21 ; xv. 14 ; cp. Reph-
aim, xvii. 15, R. V.). They were cut ofl' by
the Israelites in the general campaign under
Joshua (Josh. x. 36, 39 ; xi. 21), and particu-
larly at Hebron, on the allotment of the land,
by Judah under Caleb (xiv. 12; xv. 13-19;
Judg. i. 10-15). A remnant was left in Gaza,
Gatii, and Ashdod, in the Philistine country
(Josh. xi. 22). .The giant, Goliath of Gatli,
was probably one of the Anakim.

An'a-mim.

An Egyptian tribe, of which nothing is
known (Gen. x. 13; 1 Chron. i. 11).

A-nam'me-lech [god Ann is king, or Auu-
king].

One of the deities worshiped bj^ the people
of Sepharvaim, a city of Babylonia (2 Kin.
xvii. 31). Ann was god of the sky. When
Sepharvites were brought to colonize Samaria,
they burnt their children in the fire to him,
worshiping Ann as Molech was worshiped.

A'nan [a cloud, or he hath covered].

One who with Nehemiah sealed the cove-
nant to worship Jehovah (Neh. x. 26).

A-na'ni [cloudy, or covered hath (God)].

A son of Elioenai (1 Chron. iii. 24).

An-a-ni'ali [Jehovah hath covered].

1. The father of Maaseiah (Neh. iii. 23).

2. A town of Benjamin (Neh. xi. 32). De-
spite the diflerence in spelling, it is counnonly
identified with Beit Hanina, about three
miles north of Jerusalem toward (iibeon.

An-a-ni'as [Greek form of Hananiah, Je-
hovah hath been gracious].

1. A disciple of Jerusalem who, with his
wife Sapphira, .sold a piece of land, and taking

Anath

33

Anem

a portion of the price, laid it at the apostles'
feet (Aets v. 1 seq.). The Christian eom-
nninity held all things common. There was
none among them that lacked : for as many
as were i>oftsessors of hinds or houses sold
thom and laid the price at the apostles' feet,
and distril)ution was made unto each, accord-
ing as any one had need. No one was under
ohligation to do this (ver. 4), and the end pro-
jiosed did not demand that all property be
sold, but forbade it. Projjerty was sold as
need re<iuired. Ananias brouglit part of the
proceeds, and laid it at the apostles" feet os-
tensibly as the whole. Peter rebuked him
for having lied unto the Holy Ghost, and
he fell down and expired ; as did his wife
Sapphira. when, coming in three hours after-
Avards, in ignorance of what had taken place,
she repeated her husband's falsehood, and
had the same doom foretold her by Peter.

2. A Christian at Damascus who was in-
formed in a vision of Saul's conversion, and
sent to restore his sight and admit him to
the Christian Church by baptism (Acts ix.
10-18).

3. A high priest appointed by Herod, king
of Chalcis, about A. D. 48 (Antiq. xx. 5, 2).
Four years later he was sent to Rome by
the governor of Syria to answer for vio-
lence done by the Jews to the Samaritans,
but he was acquitted through the influence
of Agrippa, and returned to Jerusalem (An-
tiq. XX. 6, 2 and 3 : War ii. 12, 6 and 7). Jona-
than, former high priest, was politically asso-
ciated with him. In the year 58, Paul was
arraigned before Ananias, and he appeared
against the apostle before the procurator Felix
(Acts xxiii. 2 : xxiv. 1). Jonathan, his col-
league, was now murdered, and about the
year .59. toward the close of Felix's admin-
istration. Ananias himself was deposed by
Agrippa (Antiq. xx. 8, 5 and 8; War ii. 13,
3). He appears to have resided on the south-
western hill of Jerusalem, in the upper city,
near the palace of the Asmonseans. He was
murdered in the year 67 (War ii. 17, 6 and 9).

A'nath [a hearkening, a granting].
Father of the judge Shamgar (Judg. ill. 31 ;
V. 6).

A-nath'e-ma [anything devoted].

In the X. T.. a person or thing devoted to
destruction. It corresponds to the Hebrew
Herem (Rom. ix. 3, R. V. ; 1 Cor. xii. 3. R. V.
and margin of A. V. ; Gal. i. 8, 9, R. V. ; see
Lev. xxvii. 28, 29 ; Josh. vi. 17 ; vii. 1, R. V.).

A-nath'e-ma Mar-an-ath'a [Greek, one
devoted to destruction, and Aramaic Maran
'atha. the Lord cometh].

One accursed at the coming of the Lord
(1 Cor. xvi. 22, A. V.). R. V. regards Maran
atha as a di.stinct sentence.

An'a-thoth [answered prayers].

1. Head of a father's house of Benjamin,
family of Becher (1 Chron. vii. 8).

2. Head and representative of the men of

3

Anathoth, who in their name sealed tlie cove-
nant to worship .Ichiivali (Xcli. x. 19).

3. A city in tlie territory of Henjamin, as-
signed to the priests (Josh. xxi. 18: 1 Chron.
vi. (iO). It was the home of Abiathar tlie
high priest (1 Kin. ii. 2fi), and the birtli-
place of Jeremiah, and the i)ropliet's life was
also endangered here (Jer. i. 1 ; xi. 21). 'J'lic
town was re-peopled after the exile (Ezra ii.
23). Its site is represented by the modern
'Anatp., which is about 3 miles northeast of
Jerusalem. It was once a fortified town.
Portions of the wall still remain, built of
large hewn sttine, apparently ancient.

An'a-thoth-ite, in A. Y. Anethothite, Ane-
tothite, and Antothite.

A native or inhabitant of Anathoth (2 Sam.
xxiii. 27; 1 Chron. xi. 28; xxvii. 12).

An'drew [manliness].

Brother of Simon Peter, born at Bethsaida,
on the lake of Galilee (John i. 44). By vo-
cation he Avas a fisherman like his brother
(Mat. iv. 18; Mark i. 16-18), and with his
brother had a house at Capernaum (Mark i.
29). He was a disciple of John the Baptist,
but being directed by John to Jesus as the
Lamb of God, he obtained an interview with
Jesus and became convinced that Jesus was
the Messiah. Forthwith he found his brother
and induced him to visit Jesus (John i. '.ir>-
42). He was afterwards called to permanent
fellowship with Jesus (Mat. iv. 18, 19 ; Mark
i. 16, 17; cp. John vi. 8). and appointed an
apo.stle (Mat. x. 2; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14 ;
Acts i. 13). He joined with his brother and
James and John in inquiring regarding the
destruction of the city and temple, and the
second advent of Christ (Mark xiii. 3, 4), and
with Philip he presented the request of the
Greeks to Jesus (John xii. 22). Nothing trust-
worthy is known of his subsequent life. Ac-
cording to tradition, he suffered martyrdom
in Achaia by crucifixion on a cross shaped
like the letter X. This is now called St. An-
drew's Cross. It is also related that a ship
bearing two relics of him was wrecked in a
bay of Scotland, afterwards called St. An-
drew's Bay. The mariners who reached the
shore introduced the gospel into the region.
St. Andrew, therefore, became the patron
saint of Scotland, and gave name to St. An-
drew's town. His festival is kept by the
Greek and Roman churches on the .30th of
November. In the Church of England it has
become customary on that day to preach on
the subject of missions. The Acts of St. An-
drew, an alleged gospel from his pen, is
spurious.

An-dro-ni'cus [conquering men].

A Jewish Christian, and once fellow-pris-
oner of Paul, to whom at Rome Paul sent
greeting (Rom. xvi. 7).

A'nem [two fountains].

A town in the territory of Is.sachar, given
with its suburbs to the sons of (iershora (1
Chron. vi. 73). Probably a corruption of the

Aner

34

Annas

text out of En-gauuim (Josh. xxi. 29; cp.
xix. 21).
A'ner.

1. An Amorite, resident at Mamre, and one
of Abraham's confederates in the battle with
with the eastern kings (Gen. xiv. 1.3. 24).

2. A town of Manasseh west of the Jordan.
It was given with its suburbs to the Kohath-
ites (1 Chron. vi. 70). In Josh. xxi. 25, K. V.,
Taanach appears in its stead. Either name, as
it stands in the text, might easily be misread
as the other.

An'e-thoth-ite or Anetothlte. See Ana-

THOTHITE.

An'gel [messenger, envoy].

1. A celestial being a little higher in dig-
nity than man (Ps. viii. 5; Heb. ii. 7). They
are spiritual beings (Heb. i. 14), and they
neither marry nor are given in marriage
(Mat. xxii. 30). From their worship of God
as well, probably, as from their nature they
are called, at least in poetry, sons of God
(Job i. 6 ; xxxviii. 7) ; and from their charac-
ter, holy ones (Job v. 1, E. V. ; Ps. Ixxxix. 5, 7,
E. v.). Their office is denoted by the term
angel. In the later books differences among
angels in rank and dignity are implied, for
there are archangels (chief angels), as well
as those of a more ordinary kind (1 Thess.
iv. 16 ; Jude 9). This twofold distinction
does not seem to be all. Both among fallen
angels and angels unfallen there are thrones,
dominions, principalities, and powers (Eom.
viii. 38 ; Eph. i. 21 ; iii. 10 ; Col. i. 16 ; ii. 15).
Cherubim and Seraphim seem also to belong
to the angelic order. The inanimate powers of
nature, by which the ordinary economy of the
universe is carried on, are God's messengers
(Ps. civ. 4, E. V.) ; but pestilence and death,
when acts of the divine government, are rep-
resented as under angelic charge (2 Sam. xxi v.
16; 2 Kin. xix. 25; Zech. i. 7-17). Un.seen
they encamj) round about them that fear God
(Ps. xxxiv. 7; Gen. xxviii. 12; xlviii. 16; 2
Kin. vi. 17 ; Is. Ixiii. 9). The angel of the
Lord came in human form to Abraham,
Hagar, and Lot, to Moses and Joshua, to the
Israelites at Bochim. to Gideon and Manoah.
An angel came to Elijah and to Daniel. An-
gels are fittingly prominent in the history of
Jesus, announcing his birth and that of his
forerunner, heralding his advent to the shep-
herds, ministering unto him after his victory
over temptation and in the garden (Luke
xxii. 43, a jiassage omitted in many old copies),
and beariiig tidings to his disciples at the
resurrection and ascension. An angel also
aided Peter and stood by Paul. The names
of some angels or archangels are mentioned,
namelv, Gabriel (Dan. viii. 16; ix. 21; Luke
i. 19, 26), and MiclKU-l (Dan. x. 13, 21 ; xii. 1 ;
Jude 9 ; Eev. xii. 7). In the Apocrypha
Eaphael is mentioned (Tobit v. 4). The old
Persians and the modern Parsees have recog-
nized the existence of angels of difterent rank
and assigned names to some of them.

2. The representative of a church ; but
whether this is the board of elders which
directed the affairs of the local church, or the
pastor, or a celestial being of the angelic order
watching over the church, is by no means
clear (Eev. i. 20; ii. 1, 8, 12, 18; iii. 1, 7, 14).

A'ni-am [sighing of the people].

A Manassite, family of Shemida (1 Chron.
vii. 19 ; cp. Num. xxvi. 32).

A'nim [a contraction of '"yanim, fountains].

A town in the hill country of Judah, men-
tioned immediately after Eshtemoh (Josh. xv.
50). It is apparently identical with the ruin
Ghuwein, about eleven miles south of Hebron
and three south of Semiia, i. e. Eshtemoh.

An'ise.

An umbelliferous plant (PimpineUn anisum)
somewhat like caraway in appearance, occa-
sionally cultivated in the East for its seeds,
which are used as a seasoning and as a car-
minative. The English versions render the
Greek word anethou (Mat. xxiii. 23) in the
text by anise, on the margin by dill. The
latter is Anethum graveolens of the .same order
(umbelliferous) as anise, resembles anise in
appearance and properties, and is more com-
monly grown in gardens.

An'kle Chain.

A chain binding together the two ankles
of a female, so as to compel her to take short
steps, and, especially when they were com-
bined with anklets, to make a tinkling sound
when she walked (Num. xxxi. 50; Is. iii. 20,
both E. V. ; in A. Y. called simply chains and
ornaments of the legs).

Ank'let.

An ornament for the ankles, consisting of
metallic or glass rings, and corresponding to
bracelets on the wrists. Anklets are often
worn by boys as well as women in the East
(Is. iii. 18, E. V. ; in A. Y. called tinkling orna-
ments about the feet) : see Ankle Chain.

An'na [Greek form of Hannah, grace].

A widow, daughter of Phanuel of the tribe
of Asher. Her married life had lasted seven
years. At the age of eighty-four she visited
the temple daily, and was there when the in-
fant Jesus was brought to be dedicated. A
prophetess, she recognized and proclaimed
him to be the Messiah (Luke ii. 36-38).

An'nas [a Greek form of Hananiah, Jeho-
vah hath been gracious].

A high priest at Jerusalem, as was Caiaphas,
in the year when John the Baptist began his
ministry (Luke iii. 2), it is thought about
A. D. 26. He is called Auanos by Josephus,
which is nearer the Hebrew form of the
name than is Annas. He was appointed high
priest about a. d. 7 by Quirinius, governor
of Syria, and was deposed by the procurator
of Judea, Yalerius Gratus, about A. d. 16.
Each of his five sons became high priest, and
he was father-in-law of the high priest Caia-
phas ( Antiq. xviii. 2, 1 and 2 ; John xviii. 13).
Although Annas was no longer officiating

Anoint

35

Anticlirist

high priest when Jesus was arrested, he was
yet the most iiiHuential i)riest and still bore
the title (Luke iii. '2; Acts iv. 6), and to him
Jesus was first taken (John xviil. i;5), and
after being examined by him was sent bound
to Caiaplias (24). When Peter and John were
subsequently arrested, Annas was prominent
among their examiners (Acts iv. 6).

A-noint'.

To i)our oil upon the head, or in any other
way apply it to a person, or to a thing. Among
the Jews there were an ordinary, a sacred or
official, and a medical or surgical anoint-
ing. The ordinary one was simply a matter
of the toilet (2 Sam. xii. 20 ; Dan.'x. 3 : Mat.
vi. 17). The anointing of the head with oil
in the time of Jesus was extended, as an act
of courtesy, also to guests (Luke vii. 46). The
official anointing was conferred on prophets,
priests, and kings. Elijah the prophet was
directed to anoint Elisha, his successor (1 Kin.
xix. Ki). Aaron the high priest, and those
who followed him in the same office, were
anointed with a holy consecrating oil (Ex.
xxviii. 41 ; xxix. 7 ; xxx. 30 ; xl. 13, 15). Saul
(1 Sam. ix. IH; x. 1), David (xvi. 1, 12, 13; 2
Sam. ii. 7; iii. 39, etc.), Solomon (1 Kin. i.
34), Hazael of Syria (xix. 15), Jehu (16),
Jehoash (2 Kin. xi. 12), and others, were
anointed, kings. Messiah and Clirist mean
the Anointed One. Jesus the Christ was
anointed by the Spirit to be prophet, priest,
and king. Of things, the altar (Ex. xxix.
36 ; xl. 10), and the tabernacle (xxx. 26 ; xl.
9), the laver, etc. (xl. 9-11), were also anointed.
The medicinal or surgical anointing, not
necessarily with oil, was a customarj- remedy
applied to the sick and wounded (Is. i. 6 ;
Luke X. 34; Eev. iii. 18). The Chri.stian
places reliance, not in the natural means in
themselves, but in God who works through
the means and renders them effectual (Jas. v.
14, l.'>).

Ant.

Any hymenopterous insect of the family
Formicidse. They are social insects like bees
and wasps, to which they are not remotely
akin. The species are numerous and widely
difl'used, the larger members, however, oc-
eurring in the tropics. The ant is held up as
an example of industry and forethought, in-
dnstriously providing food in summer and
gathering grain in harvest (Prov. vi. 6-8 ; xxx.
24, 25). That the ants of Palestine store food
on which to live in winter is not expressly as-
serted in Proverbs, but it is clearly stated in
similar Arabic maxims. Dr. Thomson states
that the ants of Palestine are great robbers of
grain in harvest. Sykes in 1829 found an ant
in India, at Poonah, storing grain, and called
it Atta proridens. Moggridge witnessed similar
forethought exercised by certain ants in the
south of Europe, and McCook by ants in Texas.

An'te-lope.

An animal, believed to be mentioned in
Deut. siv. 5 and Is. li. 20, E. V. It was captured

in nets, and was ceremonially fit for food.
Targum, followed by A. V., renders wild ox;
probably meaning the bubale, AntilopehnhaUs,
of Egypt and Arabia, classed by the Arabs with
wild oxen. In the Greek versions and the
Vulgate, the word is generally rendered oryx,
which refers to the Antilope leucoryx. This
animal has horns whicli are long, slender,
conical, and with ringlike ridges round. The
animal is white, with the exception of a long
tuft of hair under the throat, which is black.
It is a native of Sennaar, Upper Egypt, and
Arabia, and is said to be found in Syria.

An-tho-thi'jah, in A. V. AntotMjah [an-
swers of Jehovah].

A Benjamite descended through Shashak
(1 Chron. viii. 24).

An'ti-christ [Greek antichristos, against or
instead of Christ].

The word antichrist may mean, as the ety-
mology shows, an enemy of Christ or a usur-
per of Christ's name and rights. The former
was probably its primary meaning, though
the other idea was also attached to it. In the
N. T. St. John alone uses the term (1 John ii.
18, 22; iv. 3; 2 John 7). From 1 John ii. 18,
E. v., we learn that the Christians had been
taught that '"Anticlirist" would appear in
" the last hour," ;. e. before the second advent
of Christ. While not denying that Antichrist
would be a single person, John lays stress on
the spirit to be embodied in him, and declares
that already many antichrists had come. The
substance of the antichristiau spirit, he says,
is denial that Jesus is the Christ or the real
incarnation of the Son of God, by which is
meant not only denial of the doctrine, but
moral antagonism to its religious implica-
tions. This opposition was already appear-
ing in the Church in the persons of false
teachers and false disciples, for Antichrist
arises out of nominal Christianity itself. But
while John alone uses the term, the doctrine
it taught elsewliere. Jesus himself not only
warned his apostles of " false Christs" (Mat.
xxiv. 5, 23, 24 ; Mark xiii. 21, 22)— by which,
however, he meant primarily Jewish Mes-
sianic pretenders — but plainly intimated that
apostasy would arise within the Church (see
parables of tares, ten virgins, Aiat. vii. 22,
23 ; xxiv. 12, etc.). Paul more fully teaches
(2 Thes. ii. 3-12) that before the second ad-
vent "the man of lawles.sness " (E. V.) must
be revealed, "who oppo.seth and exalteth
himself above all that is called God, or that
is worshiped,'' and " in the temple of God "
(= probably the Church) claims to be God (to
usurp the place of God). Paul, too, like John,
represents this as the culmination of a process
of apostasy (ver. 7; see, too, 1 Tim. iv. 1).
Many intei-preters also see in the "beast" of
Eev. xiii. a further description of Antichrist.
Thus the N. T. declared that Christian his-
tory would not be a pure development of good-
ness and truth, but that within Christendom
apostasy would arise, develop, have many

Antiocli

36

Antioch

representatives, and finally culminate in An-
ticlirist proper {= either a jierson or an insti-
tution, perhaps hoth), of which the essential
spirit would be anlufionisni to ( 'hrist and the
impious claim of that aUegiance tVoni man's
mind and life which is alone due to God and
his Son. In different periods, various apos-
tasies have seemed to believers to be Anti-
christ, and have more or less embodied the
antichristian pi'inciple ; but doubtless the full
manifestation of Antichrist is yet to come,
and will precede and be destroyed at the
second advent of the Lord. g. t. p.

An'ti-och [pertaining to Antiochus].

1. The metropolis of Syria under the Mace-
donian Greek dynasty (1 Mac. iii. 37 et passim),
founded about ;300 K. c. by Seleucus Nicator,
and named by him after Antiochus, his father.
It was situated on the southern side of the
Orontes, about twenty miles from its mouth,

he fetched as a coadjutor Paul from Tarsus.
For a whole year these two great evangelists
made the city the sphere of their labors and
taught much peojile. The disciples were called
Christians first in Antioch (Acts xi. 19-2G).
Further reinforcements arrived in the per-
sons of prophets (27). From Antioch Paul
and Barnabas were sent on a missionary jour-
ney (xiii. 2). On its completion they returned
to the city (xiv. 26). The disciples at An-
tioch kept up active intercourse with the
brethren at Jerusalem. In time of famine,
they sent relief to them (xi. 2«-30), and they
submitted the question regarding the cir-
cumcision of gentile converts to a council
at Jerusalem (xv.). The second missionary
journey of Paul, like the first, commenced
with a departui-e from Antioch (35, 36), to
which Paul returned, this time by the way
of Casarea (xviii. 22). At A7atioch Paul with-
stood Peter to the face because of his vacil-

Antioch of Syria.

the riverbeing navigable up to the city. Mount
Casius approached it closely on the south, and
the Amanus mountains were not far off on
the west, whilst in front lay the valley of the
Orontes, five or six miles across. The city
became large and numerously inhabited. It
remained the capital when the Eoman prov-
ince of Syria was erected in 64 b. c. Its
population was a mixed one, chiefly gentile,
but also with not a few Jews (War vii. 3, 3).
Christians who fled from Jerusalem to avoid
the jiersccution which arose U]K>n the martyr-
dom of Stejjhen preached the gospel here, ad-
dressing at first only Jews who spoke the
Aramaic tongue, then those who spoke Greek.
Barnabas was despatched from Jerusalem to
aid the work. After laboring there for a while

lating conduct with regard to the gentile
converts (Gal. ii. 11). The city remained
great, and the Church went on to develo]>
w'hile the Eoman empire stood. In a. d. 538
Chosroes, the Persian king, took and de-
stroyed it. It was rebuilt by the Eoman em-
peror Justinian. In a. d. 635 it was taken
by the Saracens, from whom it passed in 1084
to the Turks. Except between 1098 and
1269, when it was the seat of a Christian
kingdom founded by the crusaders, it has
remained in Mohammedan hands. It has
been all along very liable to earthquakes,
one of which, occurring in 1822, damaged
Justinian's walls. The place, still called
'Antakia, is now unimportant.
2. A tow'n in Asia Minor, also founded by

Antiochus

37

Antipatris

Scleucus Xicator and named after his father,
Antioehus. Thoiio;h situated in Pliryjiia, it
lu'canie the eajiital of the Roman ])rovince of
I'isidia. Harnahas and Paul visited it on their
lirst missionary journey (Acts xiii. 1-1-52 ; xiv.
l!i-21 : 2 Tim. iii. 11). In 1>%33 Arundel
identified the ruins of this Autioch near the
modern town of Yalabatch.
An-tl'o-clius [withstander, eudurer],
1. AxTiociirs III., surnamed the Great,
kintr of Syria and sixtli ruler of the Sfleuei-
ilan dynasty, father of Seleucus IV. and An-
tioehus Eiiii)lianes (1 Mac. i. 10; viii. 6-8). He
reij;ned from 2-23 to 187 B. c. He attempted
to wrest C'celesyria, Phcenicia, and Palestine
from Ptolemy iV., but was defeated at Raphia
217 B. c. After the death of Ptolemy he re-
newed the attempt and was successful, gain-
ing the decisive battle of Paueas in 198. He
invaded Europe, but his victorious career was
ternnnated at Thermoiiyhe. On his retreat
he was decisively defeated at Magnesia in Asia
in 190. By the terms of peace he was obliged
to send twenty hostages to Rome, including
his son, and pay an enormous tribute. While
plundering a temple in Susiaua he was mur-
dered by a mob. The Seleucidan Hue was
continued as follows :

Autiochus the Great.

merely as a cloak for liis own ambition, and
slew him as soon as he felt himself established,
142 B. c. U Mac. xi. 39, 40, 54 ; xiii. 31, 32).

Seleucus lY.

Demetrius I.

Antioehus Epiphanes.

I
Autiochus Eupator.

I
Alexander Balas.

Demetrius II.

Antioehus VI.
Antioehus VII.

2. Antiochus E-piph'a-nes, the eighth
ruler of the house of Seleucidte, 175-164 B. c.
(1 Mac. i. 10 ; vi. 16). He passed fifteen years
of his life as a hostage at Rome (1 Mac. i. 10).
He was an euergetic prince who extended
and strengthened his kingdom, but enraged
his subjects by religious intolerance. He
stirred up the Jews by robbing the temple
and setting up a statue of Jupiter in the holy
of holies. He also pulled down the walls of
Jerusalem, commanded the sacrifice of swine,
forbade circumcision, and destroyed all the
sacred books that could be found. It was
these outrages which induced the revolt of
the Maccabees (1 Mac. i. 41-53). He died be-
tween Elymais and Babylon, shortly after re-
ceiving news of the Jewish revolt (vi. 1-16).

3. AxTiocHUS Eu'PA-TOR, SOU of the above.
As a minor he reigned two years under the
regency of Lysias (1 Mac. vi. 17-63). He was
slain and succeeded by Demetrius Soter.

4. Antiochu.s VI.. "the young child of the
pretender Alexander Balas. He was set up as
king by the general Tryphon, who used him

Head of Antioehus Epiphanes.

5. Antiochus VII., brother of Demetrius
II., who reigned in the stead of Demetrius
during his imprisonment by Arsaces, 138-128
B. C. He defeated Tryphon (1 Mac. xv. 1,
10-14), made first a treaty with Simon Mac-
cabseus, but afterwards repudiated his help
and tried to rob the temple. His attempt
was frusti-ated bv John and Judas Maccabseus
(1 Mac. xvi. 1-10).

An'ti-pas [contraction of Antijjater],

1. A Christian who suffered martyrdom at
Pergamos, in Asia Minor (Rev. ii. 12, 13).

2. Son of Herod the Great ; see Herod 2.
An-tip'a-ter [in place of or like the father].

1. A Jew, son of Jason. He was one of
two amba.ssadors sent by Jonathan and the
elders to Rome to renew the alliance (1 Mac.
xii. 16). His father was perhaps the Jason
who had formerly gone on a similar mission
(viii. 17).

2. Father of Herod the Great (Antiq. xiv.
7,3).

An-tip'a-tris [belonging to Antipater].

A town founded by Herod the Great, in
the fertile plain of Caphar Saba, on the site
of that village, near the mountains, and called
after Antipater, his father. It was surrounded
by a river (Antiq. xiii. 15, 1; xvi. 5. 2; War
i. 4, 7 ; 21, 9). It lay on the Roman military
road between Jerusalem and Ca?sarea. forty-
two Roman miles from the former city and
twenty-six from the latter. The old name lin-
gers under the modern form Kefr Saba, and
its site is commonly souglit at this village ; but
the conditions of the site are in all other re-
spects fulfilled by Wilson and Conder's location
of it at Ras el 'Ain, at the junction of the old
Roman road from Jerusalem with that from

Antonia

38

Aphek

Eamleh through Lydda to Csesarea. The
large mound is covered with ruins, from the
sides of which on the north and west the
river 'Aujah gushes forth a full-sized stream.
It was the limit of Paul's journey the first
niglit while he was being taken as a jirisoner
from Jerusalem to Csesarea (Actssxiii. 31).

An-to'ni-a, Tow'er of [jiertaiuing to An-
tonius].

A castle connected with tlie temple at Jeru-
salem. It presumably occui>ied the site of the
stronghold Birah, which ai)pertaiued to the
temple and was restored by Nehemiah (Neh.
11. 8). John Hyrcanns built the tower, and he
generally dwelt in it and kept the priestly
vestments there, for he was entitled to wear
them (Antiq. xv. 11, 4 ; xviii. 4, 3). Until the
time of Herod the Great it was known as the
Baris, but Herod repaired it at vast expense,
and fortified it more firmly than before in
order that it might guard the temple, and
named it Antonia in honor of Marc Antony
(Antiq. xviii. ; War i. 21, 1 ; v. 5, 8 ; Tacitus,
Hist. V. 11). It was situated at the north-
western corner of the temple area, on a rock
fifty cubits in height, the highest point in the
neighborhood (War vi. 1, 5). Its presence there
prevented the area from being foursquare
(War vi. 5, 4). The fortress had the amplitude
and form of a palace, with chambers, courts,
barracks, and baths. Its walls rose forty cubits
above the rock on which they rested. At the
corners were turrets, three of which were
fifty cubits high, while the fourth, which over-
looked the temple, was seventy cubits (cp. An-
tiq. XX. 5, 3 ; War vi. 2, 5). It was separated
by a deep trench from the hill Bezetha (War v.
4, 2), but was connected with the northern and
western cloisters, at the junction of which it
stood, with gates for the guards and a stair-
case (Acts xxi. 3.5 with 37 ; 40 with xxii. 24),
and with the inner temple at its eastern gate
by a subterranean passage (Antiq. xv. 11, 7),
which seems to have existed in the Baris as
built by Hyrcanus (Antiq. xiii. 11, 2). Over
the temple end of this underground passage
Herod erected a tower. The arrangement
was intended to aflbrd him a way of escape
in case of a popular sedition. In the castle a
Roman legion was stationed, which stood on
guard in the cloisters, especially during the
Jewish festivals, to jirevent any excesses on
the part of the populace (Antiq. xviii. 4, 3 ;
War V. 5, 8). The castle was finally demol-
ished by order of Titus in A. D. 70 (War vii.
1, 1 ; cp. vi. 2, 7 : 5, 4 ; 9, 1 and 4).

The most tragic event in the history of the
castle occurred during the reign of Aristobu-
lus, son of Hyrcanus. The king lay sick in
one of its chambers. His beloved brother
Antigonus, returning from the war, hastened
clad in armor and accompanied by his mili-
tary escort to the temple to ofter prayers for
the recovery of the king. The act was mis-
represented to Aristobulus ; but he summoned
his brother to his bedside, with the request

that he come unarmed, and ordered soldiers
to lie in the underground passage and slay
him if he appeared in armor. The queen
suppressed the message in part, and contrived
to have Antigonus informed that the king
desired to see his splendid armor. Suspect-
ing nothing, he entered the passage clad in
mail and was murdered. The deed was re-
ported to the king, and the shock brought on
a hemorrhage. A slave bore away the vessel
in which the blood had been caught, but
stumbled on the spot where Antigonus had
been slain. The blood of the tw-o brothers
mingled on the floor. A cry of horror ran
through the palace, and roused the king to
inquire the cause. When he learned what
had occurred he was filled with an agony of
remorse and instantly expired (Antiq. xiii.
11).

Paul, when rescued from the infuriated
mob who had dragged him out of the temple,
was carried into this castle, and on the way
was allowed to address the people from the
stairs (Acts xxi. 30 seq.).

An-to-tM'jah. See Anthothijah.

An'toth-ite. See Anathothite.

A'nub [joined together].

A man of Judah, son of Hakkoz (1 Chron.
iv. 8, E. v.).

Ape.

A quadrumanous animal. The Hebrew
word Koph, which is rendered ape, is probably
generic and includes apes, which are without
tails, and monkeys, which possess them. In
Greek Icepos denotes a monkey of Ethiopia.
In Malabar and Sanscrit knpi or Icefi signifies
a monkey. There is no genuine ape either
in Malabar or in any other part of India. If
the animals which were brought to Palestine
by the vessels that went to Ophir for gold
(i Kin. X. 22 ; 2 Chron. ix. 21) came from In-
dia, they were a tailed monkey, perhaps
that called Hanuman (Semnopithems enteUtm),
which is common throughout India, and is
worshiped as a god.

A-pel'les.

An approved Christian at Rome to whom
Paul sent a salutation (Rom. xvi. 10).

A-phser'e-ma.

A government district which in the time
of Jonathan Maccabeus was separated from
Samaria, annexed to Judaea, and placed under
the authority of the high priest (1 Mac. xi.
34 ; cp. X. 30, 38). The name is thought to be
a Greek corruption of Ephraim, and to desig-
nate the most southern part of Samaria (cp.
John xi. 54).

A-phar'sach-ites or Apharsathchites.

A tribe from beyond the Euphrates, settled
by Asnapper in Samaria (Ezra iv. 9; v. 6).

A-phar'sites.

An eastern tribe, transplanted by Asnapper
to Samaria (Ezra iv. 9).

A'phek [strength].

1. A city apparently north of Zidon (Josh.

Aphekah

39

Apocrypha

xiii. 4), and hence commonly identified with
the ancient Aphaca, a place northeast of
Beirut and famous for its temple of Venus.
It is now known as Afka. The situation of
this town so far north renders questionable
its identity with Aphek, variant Aphik, which
was situated within the territory of Asher,
but not cleared of its Canaanite inhabitants
(Josh. xix. 30; Judjj. i. 31).

2. A place near Ebenezer, not too far from
Shiloh, and probably near Mizpah (1 Sam.
iv. 1, 12; vii. 11; perhaps Josh. xii. 17, 18).
The Philistines pitched here before the battle
in which they captured the ark.

3. A town apparently between Shunem and
Jezreel. The Philistines pitched at Shunem,
but soon discovered that the Israelites had
occupied the heights of Gilboa. From Shu-
nem they advanced to Aphek, and thence to
Jezreel, where they attacked the Israelites
who had descended to the spring at Jezreel,
forcing them back to their former position
on Gilboa and completing the slaughter on
that mountain (1 Sam. xxviii. 4 ; xxix. 1, 11 ;
xxxi. 1). Probably it is the town Apku men-
tioned by A.shurbanipal, king of Assyria, as
"on the border of Samaria," and, by implica-
tion, on the military road to Egypt. It may
also be the town of Aphek to which Ben-
hadad advanced with the intention of giving
battle to Ahab, and to which he and his army
retreated after his defeat, and where a wall
fell and killed 27,000 of his soldiers (1 Kin.
XX. 26-30) ; and it may also be the town
where Joash. king of Israel, should, according
to jirophecy, smite the Syrians till they were
consumed (2 Kin. xiii. 14-19). The situation
presupposed in the narratives is fully met by
a town west of the Jordan in the plain of
Jezreel. Still the Aphek referred to in these
two passages may be the town of that name
beyond Jordan, about three miles east of the
sea of Galilee, on the highway between Da-
mascus and Beth-sheau, and now represented
by the village of Fik.

A-phe'kah [strong place, fortification].

A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh.
XV. 53) ; probably not the same as Aphek 2.

A-pM'ah [perhaps, refreshed, revivified].

An ancestor of king Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1).

A'phik. See Aphek 1.

Aph'rah, in E. V. Beth-le-Aphrah [dust].

A town (Mic. i. 10), site unknown.

Aph'ses. See Happizzez.

A-poc'a-lypse [disclosure, revelation],

A name frequently given to the last book
of the Bible. See Eevelation.

A-poc'ry-pha [Greek apokruphn, hidden
things, used by ecclesiastical writers for (1)
forged, spurious; (2) unrecognized, uncanoni-
?al].

The name generally given to the following
sixteen books : 1 and 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith,
The Eest of Esther, The Wisdom of Solomon,
Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, with the Epistle of

Jeremiah, The Song of the Three Holy Chil-
dren, The History of Susanna, Bel and the
Dragon, The Prayer of Manasses, 1, 2, 3, and
4 Maccabees. Sometimes the number is lim-
ited to fourteen, 3 and 4 Maccabees being
omitted.

Unlike the books of the O. T., which are
in Hebrew, with the exception of a few verses
in Aramaic, the apocryphal i)roductions are
in Greek, though doubtless Judith, Ecclesi-
asticus, Baruch i.-iii. 8, and 1 Maccabees were
originally written in Aramaic. The Jewish
church considered them uninsjiired, and some
of their writers disclaim inspiration (Prologue
to Ecclesiasticus ; 1 Mac. iv. 46 ; ix. 27 ; 2 Mac.
ii. 23; xv. 38). They are not found in the
Hebrew canon ; they are never quoted by
Jesus; and it cannot with certainty be af-
firmed that the apostles ever directly allude
to them. The early churches permitted them
to be read for edification, and recommended
them to the catechumens for study, but re-
jected them from the canon, their decision
carrying authority during the middle ages,
as it does now with the various Protestant
churches. Thus the Church of England iu
the sixth of the Thirty-nine Articles pub-
lished in 1.562 calls the apoci-yphal ti'eatises
books which " the Church doth read for ex-
ample of life and instruction of manners ; but
yet doth it not apply them to establish any
doctrine." The Westminster Confes.sion of
1643 declares, as a matter of creed, that "The
books, commonly called Apocrypha, not being
of divine inspiration, are no part of the
canon of Scripture, and therefore are of no
authority in the Church of God, or to be
any otherwise approved or made use of than
other human writings." The Council of
Trent at its sitting on April 1.5, 1546, declared
eleven of the sixteen apocryphal books to be
canonical, enumerating Tobit, Judith, Wis-
dom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, and the two
books of Maccabees, and adding The Rest of
Esther to the canonical Esther, and incoi'po-
rating the History of Susanna, the Story of
the Three Holy Children, and the History of
Bel and the Dragon with Daniel. The Council
pronounced an anathema against anyone who
ventured to difl'er from it in opinion. This
has since regulated the belief of the Eomau
Catholic Church. The Apocrypha was intro-
duced into the English version by Coverdale
in 1535, and was included in king James' ver-
sion, but began to be omitted as early as 1629.
When inserted, it was placed between the O.
T. and N. T. A con trove rssy on the subject
was carried on between the years 1821 and
1826, which resulted in the exclusion of the
Apocrypha from all Bibles issued by the
British and Foreign Bible Society.

1. 1 E.s'deas. Esdras is simply the Greek
form of Ezra, and the book narrates the de-
cline and fall of the kingdom of Judah from
the time of Josiah, the destruction of Jeru-
salem, the Babylonian captivity, the return
of the exiles, and the share taken by Ezra in

Apocrypha

40

Apocrypha

reorganizing tlie Jewish polity. In some re-
spects it iinijilififs tlie biblical narrative, but
the additions are of doubtful authority. It
is followed l)y .losephus, A. D. ff.i (cp. 1 Esdras
iii. l-iv.44, with Antiq. xi. 3, 2-8, etc.). How
much earlier than his time it existed, there
is no evidence to show. Nor is its author
known.

2. 2 Es'dras. This is in quite a different
style from 1 Esdras, and the two can scarcely
have had the same author. It is not a his-
toric book, but is a religious treatise, much
in th(> style of the Hebrew prophets. Its au-
thor is unknown, and its date has been placed
about 5U-43 k. c, or 2S-25 B. C, or from about

A. 0. 8h to about A. D. 117. Whenever pub-
lished, it was subsequently interpolated by
some Christian. Thus Jesus is mentioned by
name (vii. 2b), and is called by God, " my son
Christ " (29, cj). also xiii. 37, 52 ; xiv. 9) ; the
Holy (thost is expressly named (xiv. 22).
Crod compares his care in gathering his peo-
ple together to that of a hen gathering her
chickens under her wings (2 Esd. i. 30 with
Mat. xxiii. 37), and there are many other re-
semblances to the N. T. But the thinking
of the book is Jewish, and the distinctively
Christian passages are wanting in the Arabic
and the Ethiopic versions, a strong proof
that thej' did not emanate from the original
writer.

3. To'bit. This is a narrative of a certain
pious Naphtalite, Tobit by name, who has a
son Tobias. The father loses his eyesight.
The son, dispatched to obtain payment of a
debt to Rages in Media, is led on by an angel
to Ecbatana, where he makes a romantic
marriage with a widow, who still remained
a virgin, though she had been married to
seven husbands, all of whom had been killed
by Asmodeus, the evil spirit, on their mar-
riage day. Tobias, however, is encouraged
by the angel to become the eighth husband
of the virgin-widow, and escapes death by
burning the inner parts of a fish, the smoke
of which puts the evil spirit to flight. Then
he cures his father's blindness by anointing
the darkened eyes with the gall of the fish
which had already proved so useful. Tobit
is manifestly a tale, and not a sei'ious narra-
tive. The mo.st ])robable date of the publica-
tion is about 350 b. c, or from 250 to 200

B. C.

4. Ju'dith. This is a narrative professing
to be a history of the way in which Judith,
a Jewish widow of masculine temperament,
insinuated herself into the good graces of
Holofernes, an Assyrian commander-in-chief,
then besieging Bethulia, and seizing his
sword when he was asleep, cut ofi' his head.
The narrative is full of misstatements, ana-
chronisms and geographical absurdities. It
is doubtful if there is any truth in the
story, which may possibly have been sug-
gested to the author by the narrative of Jael
and Sisera (Judg. iv. "l7-22). The first dis-
tinct reference to the book is in an epistle of

Clement of Eome, about the end of the first
century a. d., but it may have existed as
early as 175 to 100 B. c, say four or six hun-
dred years after the event it professed to
record. By that time to say that Nabuchodo-
nosor, apparently Nebuchadnezzar, reigned
in Nineveh, instead of Babylon (Judith i. 1).
would not look so erroneous as it would to a
contemporary of the great king.

5. The Kest of the Chapters of the
Book of Es'ther, which are found neither
in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee. The
canonical Esther ends with a short tenth
clia])ter of three verses. The apocryphal i>ro-
ductiou adds ten verses more, and six chap-
ters (xi.-xvi.). In the yeptuagint this sup-
plementary matter is distributed in seven
portions through the text, and does not in-
terrupt the history. It ami)lifies parts of the
Scripture narrative, without furnishing a new
fact of value, and it often contradicts the his-
tory as contained in the Hebrew. The com-
mon opinion is that the biwk was the work
of an Egyptian Jew, and that he wrote about
the time of Ptolemy Philometor, 181-145 B. c.

G. The Wis'dom of Solo-mon. This is
an ethical treatise in commendation of wis-
dom and righteousness, and in denunciation
of iniquity and idolatry. The passages which
point out the sin and folly of image-woi-ship
recall those on the same theme in the Psalms
and Isaiah (cp. Wisd. xiii. 11-19 with Ps.
cxv. ; cxxxv. 15-16; and Is. xl. 19-25; xliv.
9-20). It is remarkable to what extent the
author, in referring to historical incidents il-
lustrative of his doctrine, limits himself to
those recorded in the Pentateuch. He writes
in the person of Solomon ; says that he was
chosen by God as king of his people, and was
by him directed to build a temple and an
altar, the former on the model of the taber-
nacle. He was a man of genius and of piety,
his religious character being sustained by liis
belief in immortality. He lived apparently
between 150 and 50 b. c and possibly be-
tween 120 and 80 b. c. Though never for-
mally quoted or in any way referred to in
the N. T., yet occasionally both the language
and the trains of thought in the N. T. some-
what resemble those in the book of Wisdom
(Wisd. V. 18-20 with Eph. vi. 14-17 : Wisd.
vii. 2Gwith Heb. i. 2-6 ; and Wisd. xiv. 13-31
with Rom. i. 19-32).

7. Ec-cle-si-as'ti-ci;s, called also the Wis-
dom of Jesus, the son of Sirach. This is a
comparatively long work, extending to fifty-
one chapters. Its author was a Hebrew called
Jesus, son of Sirach (1. 27). In chap. 1. 1-21
he greatly commends Simon, the high priest,
the son of Onias, probably the pontifi'of that
name who lived between 370 and 300 B. c.
The work may, therefore, have been pub-
lished between 290 and 280 b. c. The pro-
logue implies that it was originally in He-
brew, from which it was translated into Greek
by a grandson of the author, unnamed in the
prologue, but called Jesus in the unauthentic

Apocrypha

41

ApoUos

and late preface. Tlie translation was made
in Egypt "in the eight-and-thirtieth year"
"when Euergetes was king." The reference
is either to Ptolemy III., surnamed Euergetes,
who was king of Egypt from "247 to 222 B. c,
or to Ptolemy Physcon, who was likewise
surnamed Euergetes, and who reigned from
169 to 1(>.") and 146 to 117 B. c". The great
theme of the work is wisdom. It is a valua-
ble ethical treatise, in i)laces reminding one
of the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
parts of Jot), iu the canonical Scriptures, and
of the Wisdom of Solomon in the Apocrypha.
It is generally quoted as Ecclus., to distin-
guish it from Ecc. — that is, Ecclesiastes.

8. Ba'kuch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah.
Baruch was Jeremiah's friend. The first five
chapters are made nominally to emanate from
Baruch, while the sixth is headed " The Epis-
tle of Jeremiah." The first is intended to
comfort the Jews during the Babylonian cap-
tivity by a promise that they should ulti-
mately return to their own land ; the second,
to warn them against Babylonian idolatry
(cp. with Baruch i., Dan. ix. ; with Baruch ii.
and iii.. Lev. xxvi. and Deut. xxviii.). The
book is of comparatively late date. Ewald
argues that the first part was penned in the
Persian period, when, on the occasion of re-
volt against their oppressors, the Babylonian
Jews did not share the struggles and hopes
of the Jews in Palestine. The Epistle of
Jeremy was probably written about the same
date, or even a century later.

9. The Song of the Three Ho'ly Chil'-
DREN was designed to fit into the canonical
Daniel between iii. 23 and 24. Its author and
exact date are unknown. (Cp. verses 35-63
with Ps. cxlviii.)

10. The History of Su-s.^n'na. This is
also an apocryphal addition to Daniel, show-
ing how the prophet sagaciously discovered an
accusation against Susanna, a godly woman,
to be a malignant slander. Its author and
date are unknown.

11. The Idol Bel AND the Drag'on. Yet
another apocryphal addition to the canonical
book of Daniel. The prophet proves that the
priests of Bel and their families ate the food
offered to the idol ; and he kills a dragon, for
which, a second time, he is put into a lions'
den. Author and date unknown.

12. The Prayer of Ma-nas'ses, king of
Judah, when he was holden captive in Baby-
lon (cp. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13). Author
unknown ; date probably the first century

B. C.

13. The First Book of the Mac'ca-bees.
A historical work of great value, giving an
account of the Jewish war of independence,
under the Maccabee family of Levites in the
second century b. c. ; see Antiochus 2 and
Maccabee. its author, whose name is un-
known, was evidently a Jew belonging to
Palestine. Two opinions exist as to its date :
the one places it between 120 and 106 B. c,
the other, on better grounds, between 105 and

64 B. c. It was doubtless translated into
Greek from a Hebrew original.

14. The Second Book of the Mac'c.^-
BEES is iirofcssedly an abridgment of the
large work of Jason of (,'yrene. It is con-
cerned chiefly with Jewish history from the
reign of Seleucus IV., 175 b. C, to the death
of Nicauur in 161 B. c. It is much less val-
uable than the first b(jok, and the author has
a love of the marvelous which diminishes
the credibility of his narrations, though they
contain a good deal of truth. The book was
written after 125 B. c, and before the de-
struction of Jerusalem in a. d. 70.

15. The Third Book of the Mac'ca-bees
refers to events before the war of independ-
ence. The leading incident is the attempt
of Ptolemy IV. Philopator in 217 B. c. to
penetrate into the holy of holies, and his
subsequent persecution of the Jews iu Alex-
andria. It was written shortly before or
shortly after the beginning of the Christian
era. It has even been dated as late as a. d.
39 or 40.

16. The Fourth Book of the Mac'ca-
bees is a moral treatise advocating the mas-
tery of the passions, and illustrating its teach-
ing by examples of constancy under suflfering,
drawn from Maccabsean times. It was written
after 2 Maccabees and before the destruction
of Jerusalem.

Ap-ol-lo'ni-a [pertaining to Apollo, the
youthful god of music, song, soothsaying,
archery, etc.].

A town of Macedonia, on the Egnatian
Way, thirty Eoman miles west of Amphipolis.
Paul passed through it as he journeyed to
Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1;.

Ap-ol-lo'ni-us [pertaining to Apollo.]

1. An official under Antiochus Epiphanes,
who was sent to Judsea to collect tribute, and
who treacherouslv ordered a massacre at Je-
rusalem (1 Mac. "i. 29-32 ; 2 Mac. v. 24-26 ;
cp. iv. 21). He became governor of Samaria
(Antiq. xii. 5. 5). He was defeated and slain
by Judas Maccabseus (1 Mac. iii. 10; Antiq.
xii. 7. 1).

2. Governor of Coelesyria. whom Deme-
trius II. made general of his army. He was
defeated iu battle by Jonathan Maccabanis
at Ashdod (1 Mac. x. 69-85). Less credibly,
Jo.sephus speaks of him as on the side of
Alexander Balas (Antiq. xiii. 4, 3 and 4).

A-pol'los [a modification of Apollonius or
Apollodorus].

A Jew born at Alexandria, eloquent and
learned, and deeply versed in the O. T.
Scriptures. He became a disciple of John
the Baptist, and zealously taught concerning
the Messiah, though knowing only the bap-
tism of repentance. While itinerating in
Asia Minor for this purpose, he met at Ephe-
sus, Aquila and Priscilla, who instructed him
more fully : and the brethren wrote letters
of introduction for him to the brethren in
Achaia. On arriving in Greece, he helped

Apollyon

42

Apostle

the Christians, publicly confutiug the Jews,
aucl showing from the Scriptures that Jesus
is the Christ (Acts xviii. 24-28). The dis-
ciples with whom Paul soou afterwards fell iu
at Ephesus, who knew only John's baptism,
and had never heard that tliere was a Holy
Ghost, were probably converts of Apollos (xix.
1-7). Apollos' jireaching at Corinth raised
a party in the church at that place (1 Cor. i.
12; iii. 4, 5, 6, 22; iv. 6). But Paul had all
coutidence in him, and urged him to revisit
Corinth (xvi. 12). He also enjoined Titus to
help Apollos, apparently then in or on his
way to Crete (Titus iii. 13). It is thought by
many scholars that Apollos was the writer
of the Epistle to the Hebrews.

A-pol'ly-on [destroying, a destrover].
The angel of the abyss (Eev. ix. il). The
Greek synonym of Abaddon.

A-pos'tle [one sent forth, a messenger, an
ambassador (John xiii. 16, E. V. margin)].

1. One of the men selected by Jesus to be
eye-witnesses of the events of his life, to see
him after his resurrection, and to testify to
mankind concerning him (Mat. x. 2-42; Acts
i. 21, 22 ; 1 Cor. ix. 1). They were chosen in
succession at a very early period of the
Saviour's public life. First came Andrew
and his brother Simon, the well-known Simon
Peter (Mat. iv. 18-20 ; x. 2 ; Mark i. 16-18 ;
Luke vi. 14 ; John i. 35-42) ; then apparently
James and John, sons of Zebedee (Mat. iv.
21, 22; X. 2; Mark i. 19, 20; Luke vi. 14);
then seemingly Philip and Nathanael, named
also Bartholomew (John i. 4.3-51) ; and sub-
seciuently six more, viz., Matthew, called
also Levi (Mat. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 14-17;
Luke V. 27-32) ; Thomas ; James the son of
AlphfEUS ; Simon the Zealot or Canauivan ;
Judas, the brother of James ; and Judas
Iscariot (Mat. x. 1-4; Mark iii. 16-19; Luke
vi. 13-16 ; Acts i. 13, all E. V.). The apostles
were regarded as illiterate men by the higher
Jewish dignitaries who had before them
Peter and John (Acts iv. 13). All they seem
to have meant was that the apostles had re-
ceived elementary rather than higher educa-
tion. Jesus gave great attention to their
spiritual training : yet to the last they failed
to understand his mission, believing that he
was about to set up a temporal rather than a
spiritual kingdom (Mat. xx. 20-28 ; Mark x.
35-45 ; Acts i. 6) ; they slept in the hour of
his agony in the garden (Mat. xxvi. 40), and
held aloof all the day of his death on the
cross (Mat. xxvi. 56; Mark xiv. 50). They
were often called discix>les or pupils (Mat. xi.
1 ; xiv. 26 ; xx. 17 ; John xx. 2). Peter, James
the son of Zebedee, and John, seem to have
possessed a clearer comprehension of the
teacher's instructions and a higher apprecia-
tion of him than the others. On three ditler-
ent occasions they were singled out from the
rest for special privilege. They were in the
room at the raising from the dead of Jairus'
daughter (Mark v. 37 ; Luke viii. 51) ; they

were present at the transfiguration (Mat.
xvii. 1 ; Mark ix. 2; Luke ix. 28), and were
in the garden of Gethsemane during the
agony (Mat. xxvi. 37 ; Mark xiv. 33). Peter,
though rash and impetuous in speech, was
constitutionally the best fitted U) lead. He
is generally mentioned first, but not always
(Gal. ii. 9). John was the disciple whom
Jesus peculiarly loved (John xix. 26; xx. 2;
xxi. 7, 20). Thomas was scrupulous as to
evidence, but yielded when the proof he
sought was complete. Judas proved a traitor,
who, betraying his divine Lord to death for
lucre's sake, and then repenting, committed
suicide. The step taken to fill his place
showed that the number of the apostles,
fixed originally at twelve, required, for a
time at least, to be kept at that figure ; the
reason probably was that there might be as
many apostles as there were tribes of Israel.
Two men possessing the necessary qualifica-
tions were put forward, the one Joseph, called
Barsabas and Justus, and the other Matthias.
The lot fell upon Matthias, who was conse-
quently elected iu Judas' room (Acts i. 15-
26; cp. with ver. 20, Ps. cix. 8). The descent
of the Holj' Spirit on the day of Pentecost
produced a spiritual transformation of the
apostles, fitting them for the great work to
which they were called, the evangelization
of the world (Acts ii. 1-47). To this they at
once addressed themselves, Peter and John
taking the lead (iii. 1-v. 42 ; ix. 32-xii. 18).
James was also zealous, for he became .so ob-
noxious to the Jewish authorities that they
slew him with the sword (Acts xii. 2). Paul
was divinely chosen and called for the ar-
duous work of preaching the gospel to the
gentiles (Acts ix. 1-31 ; xxii. 5-16 ; xxvi.
1-20). He had not itinerated with Jesus
whilst our Lord was on the earth ; but he
possessed the apostolic qualification of having
seen Jesus after his resurrection. On the way
to Damascus Jesus appeared to him and spoke
to him, changing his hostility into passionate
devotion. He was able to say " Am I not an
apostle? Have I not seen Jesus Christ our
Lord?" (1 Cor. ix. 1). Paul was a highly
educated man, and able to address cultured
audiences of the gentiles at Athens, Eome,
and elsewhere. Nor did his intellectual ac-
quirements lead him away from his proper
work. His labors were so abundant that
the record of them fills about half the book
called The Acts of the Apostles. Where the
several apostles labored, how they lived, and
how they died, is in most cases known only
by the doubtful evidence of tradition. One
matter, however, and an all-important one,
is placed by tradition on a secure founda-
tion, namely, that no second Judas appeared
among them ; all were faithful to the end ;
and some at least, if not even the majority,
sealed their testimony to Jesus with their
blood.

2. The word is occasionally applied in a
less restricted sense in the N. T. to men of

Appaim

43

Arabia

apostolic sifts, graces, labors, and successes. It
is so notably of Barnabas, who was sent forth
with Paul (Acts xiii. ;}; xiv. 4, 14). Similarly
cue still meets with such expres-sions, as Jud-
son the Apostle of Burniah. The name is
applied also to Jesus, in Hi'b. iii. 1.

Ap'pa-im [the nostrils].
A man i>f Judali, family of Hezron, house
of Jerahmeel (1 t'bron. ii.';50, 31).

Ap'phi-a.

A Christian woman, probably the wife of
Philemon ( Philemon 2).

Ap'pi-i Fo'rum [market place of Appius].

A town in Italy, about forty-three Roman,
or thirty-nine and a half English, miles from
Rome, on the celebrated Appiau Way from
Rome to Capua. Its ruins exist near Triponti.
Paul was met at this town by Christians from
Rome, when he was being brought a prisoner
to the capital (Acts xxviii. 15).

Ap'ple.

A tree and its fruit (Song ii. 3 ; viii. 5 ;
Prov. XXV. 11), the rendering of the Hebrew
Tappicah. Tappuah seems akin to the Arabic
fiiffdh, meaning an apple, and the one re-
ferred to in the O. T. is probably our English
apple tree Pijriis mains, which Thomson found
growing splendidly at Askelon in the Philis-
tine country. The name may have included
the quince as well. Tristram believes that
the apricot is meant. The apple tree is enu-
merated with the vine, the fig tree, the pome-
granate, and the palm tree, as one of the
chief trees cultivated (Joel i. 12). Thei-e were
several towns called Tappuah — in the lowland
(Josh. XV. 34), near Hebron (53), and on the
border of Ephraim and Manasseh (xvii. 8),
where doubtless many apple trees grew.

The apple of the eye is the eyeball or pupil
(Deut. xxxii. 10 ; Ps. xvii. 8 ; Lam. ii. 18 ;
Zech. ii. 8). For apple of Sodom, see Vine.

Aq'ui-la [eagle].

A Jew, born in Pontus, who with his wife.
Priscilla, lived for a time at Rome, but had
to leave that city when the emperor Claudius
commanded all its Jewish inhabitants to de-
part. He removed to Corinth, where he
worked at his craft, tentmaking. Paul, who
was of the same occupation, lodged ■oath him
at Corinth, and formed a high opinion of him
and his wife (Acts xviii. 1-3). They were
his fellow-passengers ft-om Corinth as far as
Ephesus, on his way to Syria (Acts xviii. 18,
19). In the First Epistle to the Corinthians,
the two join Paul in sending salutations from
Asia, i. e. probably from Ephesus (1 Cor. xvi.
19). At Ephesus they met Apollos, and in-
structed him more completely in Christian
doctrine (Acts xviii. 26). Afterwards they
seem to have returned to Rome, for Paul sends
them salutations in his letter to that church
(Rom. xvi. 3). But they must again have
left it, for in the apostle's second Epistle to
Timothy, written from Rome, salutations are
sent them anew (2 Tim. iv. 19).

At [city].

One of the chief cities of Moab, more fully
called Ar of Moab (Isa. xv. 1). It lay on the
northern boundary of Moab (Num. xxi. 15;
Deut. ii. 18), in the midst of the Arnon valley
(Num. xxii. 3(); Deut. ii. 3f) ; Josh. xiii. 9).

The Greeks connected the name with Ares,
the god of war, the Roman Mars, and called
it after him Areopolis, city of Mars. The
Jews and others in the early Christian cen-
turies named it Rabbath Moab, or simply
Rsibbah, /. e. capital, of Moab. It was de-
stroyed by earthquake, probably in A. D. 342,
and the name Areopolis was transferred to
another Rabbah, about ten miles south ou
the plateau.

A'ra.

A man of Asher (1 Chron. vii. 38).

A'rab [ambuscade].

A village in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 52).

Ar'a-bah [arid region, desert].

1. The geographical name of that great de-
pression of the land in which are found the
sea of Galilee, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea
(Josh. xi. 2 ; xii. 3, R. V.). The name ap-
parently belonged also to the extension of the
valley to the Red Sea (Deut. ii. 8, R. V.). In
A. Y. the word is translated, being generally
rendered by plain, but also by wilderness or
desert (Amos vi. 14 ; Ezek. xlvii. 8).

2. The same as Beth-arabah (Josh, xviii. 22).
A-ra'bi-a [Greek form of Arabic 'arab,

arid region].

In modern geography the most westerly of
the three great peninsulas in southern Asia.
It is bounded on the east by the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman, on the south by the
Indian Ocean, and on the west by the Red
Sea. Northward it projects triangularly and
passes insensibly into the Syrian desert. Its
length from north to south is about 1500
miles ; its average breadth from east to west,
about 800 ; its area about 1,1.39,000 square
miles. It consists mainly of an elevated
table-land called Nejd, highest along the west
and south near the coast, and sloping on the
north toward the Syrian desert. It is sep-
arated from the coast by a low-lying sandy
region, the western portion of which is called
Hejaz, the southwestern and southern Yemen,
and the eastern, Oman, Hejr, and Bahrein.
Arabia lies athwart the enormous belt of
desert, commencing near the Atlantic Ocean
with the Sahara, and extending through
Chinese Tartary, almost to the Pacific Ocean.
Arabia is consequently largely desert. Among
the Hebrews the name Arabian denoted the
inhabitants of the desert portion (Jer. iii. 2),
whether near Babylonia or Ethiopia (Is. xiii.
20 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 16), often as distinguished
from the prominent settled tribes (Jer. xxv.
24 ; Ezek. xxvii. 21). Eventually Arabia
came to denote the entire peninsula (Acts ii.
11; Gal. i. 17; iv. 25; cp. 2 Chron. ix. 14).
Ptolemy, the geographer of Alexandria who

Arabia

44

Arabia

wrote in the second century A. D., divided
the country into throe regions : Arabia Felix,
the Hai)])y or Fertile; Arabia Petnea, the
Stony; and Arabia Deserta, the Desert. Ara-
bia Felix was of indefinite extent. Arabia
Petnea, having for its cajjital Petra, was the
district between the Red and the Dead Seas;
and Arabia Deserta the projecting angle on
the northern Ijoundary, soiiietiines called the
Syrian desert. The streams are few and
small, none navigable. The geology is little

existed in southern Arabia a civilized power,
the Mina?an kingdom, with its capital at
Ma'in, about thirty miles to the north of
Mariaba. The names of thirty-three Minsean
kings have been recovered. Even the Min-
seans used the familiar Semitic alphabet.
The Minsean kingdom was ultimately super-
seded by the Sabsan, the scriptural kingdom
of Sheba. Arab tribes often came into con-
tact with the Hebrews (Gen. xxxvii. 28, 36;
Judg. vi.-viii.). Solomon bought from the
Arabs gold, silver, and
spices (2 Chron. ix. 14).
Jehoshaphat received
tribute from them in
flocks of sheep and goats
(xvii. 11). In the reign
of Jehoram, Arabs with
other marauders plun-
dered Jerusalem (xxi.
16). They were after-

known, but gold and precious stones were
obtained. The feature of the botany is the
prevalence of aromatic plants, some of them
furnishing valuable spices. Of its birds the
most noted is the ostrich ; of its quadrupeds
the camel, the Arab hor.se, and the wild ass.
The country was .settled by Semites (Gen. x.
26-29; XXV. 2-4; 13-15), as physiognomy,
traits, and language evidence ; in part also by
Hamites (Gen. x. 6, 7). As early as the time of
the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, there

wards defeated by Uzziah (xxvi. 7). Isaiah
and Jeremiah denounced judgments against
their race (Is. xxi. 13-17; Jer. xxv. 24), and
both used the wandering Arab in their poetic
illustrations (Is. xiii. 20; Jer. iii. 2). Arabs
were hired allies of the Syrians against Judas
Maccabffius (1 Mac. v. 39). There were Arabs
present on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 11),
and Paul sojourned for a time in Arabia, be-
fore commencing his apostolic work (Gal. i.
17). The scantiness of water, the courage of

Arabian

45

Aram

the Amhs, and their waudoriiig life, pre-
vented even the j^reatest of the ancient em-
pires from conquering Arahia and holding it
in subjection. Both Judaism and Christianity

Bedouin Arab.

had rooted themselves in Arabia when, in the
seventh century of the Christian era, Moham-
med arose. Before his death (a. d. 6.32) his
faith was everywhere dominant throughout
the peninsula, and in a century more the
Saracens, issuing thence, had put in danger
the civilization and faith of the whole Chris-
tian World.

A-ra'bi-an.

One of the Arab race ; a native or inhabi-
tant of Arabia (2 Chrou. xvii. 11).

A'rad [wild ass].

1. A town on the border of the south coun-
try and the wilderness of Judah (Num. xxi.
1 ; Josh. xii. 14 ; .Tudg. i. 16). The site is
marked by Tell 'Arad, on a barren-looking
eminence sixteen miles south of Hebron.
Its king fought against the Israelites when
they were at mount Hor and took some of
them captive ; but the Israelites roused them-
selves to new trust in God, and devastated
the territory of the king, and eventually he
himself or his succes.sor was vanquished by
Joshua (ibid.).

2. A Benjamite, descended through Beriah
(1 Chron. viii. 1.5).

Ar'a-dus. See Arvad.
A'rah [wayfarer].

1. Founder of a family, members of which
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 5 ; Neh. vii. 10).

2. An Asherite, a son of Ulla (1 Chron. vii.
39).

A'ram.

1. A person, or collectively a people, de-

scended from Shem, who inhabited the region
known as AVam (Gen. x. 22, 23 ; 1 Chrou. i.
17).

2. The plain occupied by the Aranueans,
extending from the Lebanon mountains to
beyond tlie Euphrates, and from the river
Sagur on the north to Damascus and beyond
on the south. The prophet Amos speaks of
the Aramaeans as dwelling from Damascus to
Beth-eden ; in other words, from Lebanon on
the southwest to mount Masius on the north-
east (i. 5). Several districts were distin-
guished :

(1) A'ram-na-h.-v-ea'im, i. e. Aram of the
two rivers, referring either to the Euphrates
and Tigris, or, more probably, to the Euphrates
and Chabur. It is commonly believed that
in this region Paddan-aram was situated,
Paddan being identified with the place near
Haran called Tell Faddan (Gen. xxviii. 5 and
xxiv. 10, 47, R. v.). This is the Aram where the
patriarchs dwelt before they went to Canaan,
where the ancient cities of Haran and Nisibis
stood, where later Edessa the noted seat of
Syrian culture arose ; the Aram which the
Hebrews speak of as " beyond the river " (2
Sam. X. 16).

(2) A'ram-da-mas'cus. The Hebrews dur-
ing almost, if not quite, the entire period of
their kingdom, found Aramaeans in Damascus
(2 Sam. viii. 5, R. V. margin ; 1 Kin. xv. 18).
The city became eventually the center of
Aramaean intluence west of the Euphrates,
and waged intermittent warfare with the
northern Israelites during their entire ex-
istence as a separate kingdom.

(3) A'ram-zo'bah. In the days of Saul,
David, and .Solomon, another powerful Aram-
aean kingdom flourished west of the Euphra-
tes, namely the kingdom of Zobah (1 Sam. siv.
47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3 ; cp. 2 Chron. viii. 3), called
Aram-zobah by Hebrew writers (2 Sam. x. 6).
At one time its dominion extended as far as
the borders of Hamath on the northwest (1
Chron. xviii. 3 ; 2 Sam. viii. 10) ; had Damas-
cus to the south or southwest, for one of its
towns, Berothai, was situated between Ha-
math and Damascus (2 Sam. viii. 5 and 8 with
Ezek. xlvii. 16), and during this prosperous
period probably exercised sway well toward
the Euphrates on the east and the Hauran on
the south.

(4) A'r.\m-ma'.\-cah lay east of the Jordan
within the contemplated bounds of Israel,
hard by mount Hermon (Josh. xii. 5 ; xiii.
11). From the description of Abel, which
belonged to the tribe of Naphtali, as "Abel
[in the neighborhood] of Beth-maacah,'' it
may be inferred that Maacah extended as far
west as the Jordan.

(5) Ge'shur in Aram was a .small kingdom
not far from Maacah, and like it east of the
Jordan, near mount Hermon, and within the
territory allotted to Mana.sseh (Deut. iii. 14;
2 Sam. XV. 8, R. V. margin, with xiii. 37).

(6) A'r.\>i-beth-re'hob (2Sam. X. 6). The
location is uncertain. If identical with the

Aramaic

46

Ararite

place mentioned in Num. xiii. 21 and Judg.
xviii. 28, it adjoined Maaeah, probably on the
north.

3. A descendant of Asher (1 Cliron. vii. 34).

Ar-a-ma'ic or the Ar-a-mae'an or Ara-
mean Language.

A Semitic language spoken in Aram. It
was written with the .same alphabet as the
Hebrew, and differs from this language chiefly
in the system of vocalization and in the
structure of a few grammatical forms. Be-
fore the inscriptions revealed that the Baby-
lonian vernacular was
As.syrian, Aramaic was
incorrectly called
<_'haldee. a term not
yet obsolete. Aramaic
was used by Laban
(Gen. xxxi. 47, R. V.
margin) ; it is seen in
the proper names Tab-
rimmon, Hazael (1
Kin. XV. 18, R. V. ;
xix. 15), and Mari' ;
it is found in inscrip-
tions as early as the
time of Shalmaneser
and Sargon, showing
that it was used by
tradcrsat Nineveh ; it
became the interna-
tional language of
business and diploma-
cy (2 Kin. xviii. 26, R.
V. margin); it was
used by .Jeremiah to
state an address to
idols (x. 11, R. V. mar-
gin), and by Daniel

and Ezra for certain portions of their books ;
it was adopted by the Jews who returned from
Babylonia, and in the time of Christ was
spoken by large numbers of the Jews collo-
quially (see Hebrew), and also by neighbor-
ing nations. The Hebrew Scriptures were
translated into it ; the Targum of Onkelos, a
pupil of Gamaliel, comprising the Law and
the Prophets, was the first work of the kind
and a fine version. Syriac is a dialect which
developed out of the Aramaic.

A'ram-betli-re'liol). See Aram 2 (6).

A'ram-i'tess.

A woman of Aram (1 Chron. vii. 14).

A'ram-ma'a-cali. See Aram 2 (4).
A'ram-na-ha-ra'im. See Aram 2 (1).
A'ram-zo'bah. See Aram 2 (3).

A'ran [wild goat].

A descendant of Dishan or offshoot of that
Horite tribe (Gen. xxxvi. 28: 1 Chron. i. 42).

Ar'a-rat.

A mountainous country north of Assyria,
centering about the elevated plateau of the
Araxes. In the time of Jeremiah it was the
seat of a kingdom apparently adjacent to

those of Minni and Ashkenaz (Jer. li. 27).
When the sons of Sennacherib killed their
father they escaped into the land of Ararat,
which the A. V. happily identifies with Ar-
menia (2 Kin. xix. :i7 ; Is. xxxvii. 38). On
one of the mountains of Ararat, it is not
stated which, the ark of Noah rested (Gen.
viii. 4). The Assyrian cuneiform account of
the flood implies a mountain near the coun-
try of Urtu, northeast of Babylonia. Per-
haps the name Ararat (Urartu) and Urtu
have been confounded. Traditions with r'e-

The Mountain known as Ararat.

spect to the resting place of the ark attach
themselves to various mountains in western
Asia ; but by mount Ararat is now meant a
noble mountain almost midway between the
Black Sea and the Caspian, and not far from
the boundary line between Russia and Tur-
key. It has two peaks, one higher than the
other. The loftier one rises 17,260 feet above
the level of the ocean, more than 10,000 feet
above the table-land on which it stands, and
3000 above the line of perpetual snow. The
ascent is so difficult and laborious that the
Turks call Ararat Aghri Dagh, or the Painful
Mountain. Its summit was long deemed in-
accessible, but it was at length reached by
Parrot in 1829, and in 1850 by Col. Khoelzko
and his party of sixty, while they Avere en-
gaged on the ti-igonometrical survey of Trans-
Caucasia.

A-ra'thes, in A. V. Ariarathes.
King of Cappadocia from 162 to 131 B. c,
surnamed Philopator (1 Mac. xv. 22).

A'ra-rite.

So R. v., following the present Hebrew
text, once in 2 Sam. xxiii. 33, where A. V.
has Hararite as in the corresponding passage,
1 Chron. xi. 35.

Araunah

47

Archippus

A-raunai.

A Jebusite who possessed a threshing floor
on mount Moriah. David purchased the floor
in order to erect there an altar to Jehovah
that the plague then raging might be stayed
(2 Sam. sxiv. 1^25 : 1 Chron. xxi. 15-2Sj.
The place afterwards became the site of S<j1o-
mon"s temple (2 Chron. iii. Il Araunah is
called Oman in Chronicles. Umah or Omah
in the Hebrew text of 2 Sam. xxiv. 16. and
yet differently in ver. IS. It is difficult to
determine which was the original form of the
name. Araunah has the most foreign look.

Ar'ba, in A. V. once Arbali [four. or. per-
haps, the croucher iwiih article. Cjen. xxxv.
27)].

Father or greatest man of Anak (Josh. xiv.
15: XV. 13). He founded, or gave name to,
Kiijath-arba. the city later known as Hebron,
or else he derived his title from the town
(Josh. xiv. 1.5 ; Judg. i. lOj. See Hebeox.

Ar'bath-ite.

An inhabitant of Beth-arabah (2 Sam. xxiii.
31; 1 Chron. xi. 32 1.

Ar-bat'ta, in A. V. Arbattis.

A l(X?ality near C4alilee 1 Mac. v. 23 >. The
readings of the name vary greatly in the
manuscripts, and it is uncertain what place
is meant.

Ar-bela.

A place il Mac. ix. 2l : according to Jo-
sephus. the well-kuown town of the name in
Cialilee (Antiq. xii. 11. IK now Irbid. See
Beth-arbel.

Ar'bite.

A native of Arab, in the hill country of
Judah (2 Sam. xxiii. .35. possibly a variant
reading of 1 Chron. xi. 37).

Ar-che-la'tis [leading the people, a chief].

The elder one of two sons whom a Samari-
tan wife bore to Herod the Great, the younger
one being Antipas. afterwards Herod the Te-
trarch (Antiq. xvii. 1. 3 . With his brother
Antipas and his half-brothers Herod and
Philip, he received his education at Eome.
While there Antipater. a half-brother of his,
falsely accused him and Philip of plotting to
murder their common father ; but Archelaus
and Philip were acquitted, and the crime
which the accuser had alleged against others
being brought home to himself, he was put to
death (Antiq. xvi. 4. 3 : xvii. 7. 1 : War. i.
31, 2 to 32. 7l. Herod died immediately after-
wards. 4 B. c. : and when his will, which had
been altered a few days previously. wTis
opened, it wiis found that the greater part of
the kingdom was left to Archelaus, though
tetrarchies had been cut out of it for Antipas
and Philip, and some cities reserved to
Herod's sister Salome ' Antiq. xvii. S, 1 1. But
at that time the Jewish kingdom stood to
imperial Eome in the relation of a protected
state. Archelaus therefore prudently ab-
stained from ascending the throne till he had
solicited permission from Augustus, the Ro-

man emperor, and he resolved to start at
once for the metropolis to urge his suit in
person iS, 4). But before he could leave, an
unhappy incident occurred. A number of
people, who conceived that they had a griev-
ance, wished it redressed by strong measures
then and there. Their demand was clearly
premature, but they would take no denial ;
and when they could not have their way,
they rioted at the passover. till, sorely against
his will, for he wished to gain popularity. Ar-
chelaus had to put down the sedition by mili-
tary force, 3<XH3 people losing their lives. In
consequence of this, a deputation of Jews was
dispatched to Eome. to urge the emperor not
to allow Archelaus to obtain the kingdom.
His younger brother. Herod Antipas. also ap-
peared as his rival, petitioning that he, in
place of Archelaus, might be made king.
The emperor confirmed Heri:>d's will in its
essential provisions. Archelaus obtained the
larger portion of the kingdom, but only with
the title of ethnarch or ruler of a people, which
was inferior to that of kiug (Antiq. xvii. S. 1 ;
9, 7 : 11. 5). His rival Antipas was given only a
tetrarchy. S<x)n after this. Joseph and Mary
returned with the infant Jesus from Egypt.
They might consider that the queller of the
passover riot was not a man over-tender of
human life, and that it was only common
prudence for them to turn aside to Gralilee so
as to keep out of his jurisdiction I Mat. ii. 22(.
A parable of our Lord himself seems to refer
to the circumstances attending the accession
of Archelaus. "A certain nobleman." we
read. " went into a far country to receive for
himself a kingdom, and to return " (Luke
xix. 12). "But his citizens hated him. and
sent a message after him. saying. We will
not have this man to reign over us" (14i.
If the reference is really to Archelaus, then
another verse may be history rather than
parable. " But those mine enemies, which
would not that I should reign over them,
bring hither, and slay them before me " (27).
Quite in keeping with this view. Josephus
says that Archelaus used not only the Jews
but the Samaritans barbarously, out of resent-
ment for their old quarrels with him. B<5th
nationalities, therefore, sent embassies to
Rome to complain of his cruelty. They suc-
ceeded in their object. In the ninth year of
his government, about a. d. 6. he was de-
posed, and banished to Vienne. in Oaul.
while his wealth was put into the emperors
treasury (War ii. 7, 3).

Ar'che-vites.

Babylonians, inhabitants of Erech. A bixly
of them were settled byAsnapper in Samaria
after the ten tribes had been carried captive
( Ezra iv. 9).

Ar'chi. See Aechite.

Ar-cMp'ptis [ma.ster of the horse].
A Christian at Colosse who approved him-
self as a champion of the gospel, was intimate

Archite

48

Argob

with Philemou, and an office-bearer in the
church (Col. iv. 17; Phileni. 2).

Ar'chite, in A. V. once Archi, the Hebrew
form.

A member of a Canaanite tribe of the same
name, or else a native or inhabitant of a vil-
lage known as Erech. The tmrder of the Ar-
chiteswason the bonndary between Ephraim
and Benjamin, west of Bethel, where the
fountain 'Arik and the wady "Arik are found
(Josh. xvi. 2). Hushai, David's faithful coun-
selor, was an Archite (2 Sam. xv. 32).

Arc-tu'rus [the Bear-ward].

A large and bright star, which the Greeks
and Romans called by this name, meaning
the keeper of the Bear, because in its course
through the heavens it always kept behind
the tail of Ursa Major, or the Great Bear. In
the A. V. of Job. ix. 9 and xxxviii. 32 it is the
translation of the Hebrew 'Ash or 'Ayish. But
'Ash is not Arcturus, which looks very soli-
tary in the sky, while the 'Ayish of Job
(xxxviii. 32) has sons or bright stars near it
in the heavens. It is not the Bear-keeper
but probably the Bear itself, and is so ren-
dered in the R. V. The Arabs call it Na'sh,
a bier. There are in it seven bright stars.
The four constituting the irregular diamond
seem to the Arabs to resemble a bier carry-
ing a corpse, while the three stars constitut-
ing the Bear's tail appear to them to be the
children of the deceased per.son, walking be-
hind the bier to the place of interment.

Ard.

A son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin
(Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num. xxvi. 38 and 41 with 40).
He gave name to a family of the tribe of Ben-
jamin (ibid.). The person called Addar in
1 Chron. viii. 3 is probably he. The varia-
tion in form is probably due to a copyist's
transpositif)n of two letters very similar in
Hel irew, or to his confusion of Hebrew d and
r. The latter error is especially frequent,
and is quite intelligible ; see under Daleth.

Ar'don.

A man of Judah. family of Hezron, house
of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 18).

A-re'li.

A son of Gad, and founder of a family
(Gen. xlvi. 16 ; Num. xxvi. 17).

Ar-e-op'a-gite.

A judge of the court of Areopagus (Acts
xvii. 34).

Ar-e-op'a-gus [hill of Ares].

1. One of the lower hills on the west of the
acropolis of Athens. It was consecrated to
Ares, the god of war, and was crowned by
his temple. Robinson {Bibl. Resear., i. 10, 11)
describes it as a narrow, naked ridge of lime-
stone rock, rising gradually from the north-
ern end, and terminating abruptly on the
south, over against the .acropolis, or citadel
of Athens. Its southern end is 50 or 60
feet above the valley .separating it from the
acropolis, which is much the higher of the

two hills. Ares corresponding to the Roman
Mars. Areopagus is the same as Mars" hill.

2. The supreme court of Athens, which
met on the hill called Areopagus to pass sen-
tence. The seats of the j udges and others con-
nected with the court are still seen hewn in
the rock ; and toward the southwest there is a
flight of steps descending to the market place.
It was before the Areopagus that Paul pleaded
his own cause and that of Christianity, and
the philosoi)hic character of his discourse
arose from his vivid consciousness that he
was addressing some of the most intellectual
men in the most intellectual city on the
globe.

During judicial trial the court sat in its
othcial chamber on the market place, and ad-
journed to the hill to pass formal sentence.
It has been argued that Paul made his de-
fence in the chamber of justice and not on
the hill, before the Areojiagus and not on the
Areopagus (Curtius). Recent studies of Aris-
totle, however, lead to the conclusion that
cases of heresy were not subject to the ju-
risdiction of this court (Manatt), and the nar-
rative in The Acts militates against the sup-
position that Paul's discourse was a formal
defence in a trial before the court (Conybeare
and Howson). It appears, therelure, that
Paul addressed an informal gathering of
philosophers on the Areopagus (Acts xvii.
16 seq.).

Ar'e-tas [Greek form of Har'thnth].

ISIore than one king of Arabia Petrtea. dur-
ing the time that it was occupied by the
Nabathfean Arabs, bore this name. Among
others,

1. A contemporary of the high priest Jason,
about 170 B. c. (2 Mac. v. 8).

2. Father-in-law of Herod the Tetrarch.
When Herod prepared to divorce his daugh-
ter in order to marry Herodias, Aretas de-
clared war against Herod and totally de-
feated his army in A. D. 36. The Romans
took Herod's part, and Vitellius was dis-
patched to chastise Aretas, but the death of
the emperor Tiberius put an end to the ex-
pedition (Antiq. xviii. 5, 1-3). It was about
A. D. 39 or 40, during the reign of Caligula,
or perhaps in 36, that Aretas for a brief j^eriod
held Damascus (2 Cor. xi. 32).

A-re'us. See Akius.

Ar'gob [a heap of stones or clods].

1. A region of Bashan, included within the
dominions of Og. and marching on Geshur
and Maacah. It contained sixty fenced cities,
besides the nomad encampments taken by
Jair (Deut. iii. 4, 13, 14 ; Josh. xiii. 30 : 1 Kin.
iv. 13) ; see Havvoth-jair. Tlie Targum
indicates the district of Trachonitis. but tiiis
region lies too far to the east. Josephus
identifies a portion of it with Gaulonitis
(Antiq. viii. 2, 3 with 1 Kin. iv. 13). It prob-
ably corresponded in part to the region be-
tween the eastern slope of northern mount
Gilead and the Lejjah.

Ariarathes

49

Ark

2. A man assassinated along with Peka-
liiah, king c)f Israel, by Pekah, who aspired
to the throne (2 Kin. xv. 25).

A'ri-a-ra'thes. See Ar.vthes.

A-ri'dai.

A son of Ilaman (Esth. ix. 9).

A-rid'a-tha.

A son of Haman (Esth. ix. 8).

A-ri'eh [lion].

A man assassinated along with king Peka-
hiah, Argob, and others, by Pekah, the son
of Remaliah {2 Kin. xv. 25).

A'ri-el [lion of God].

1. A figurative name given by Isaiah to Je-
rusalem in consideration of the valor of its
inhabitants [Is. xxix. 1, 2, 7).

2. A chief of the Jews who were with Ezra
at the river Ahava (Ezra viii. Ki).

Ar-i-ma-thse'a [Latin and Greek modifi-
cation of Kaniah, height].

The town from which the councilor Joseph
came, who obtained permission of Pilate to
take away the body of Jesus and give it hon-
orable interment in his own new sepulcher
(Mat. xxvii. 57-60; Mark xv. 43 ; Luke xxiii.
51-53 ; John xix. 38). Arimathsea is the Greek
form of Ramah, but which town of that name
is intended is uncertain. Ramlehnear Lydda
is out of the question ; for it was not built
until the beginning of the eighth century
A. D. The name occurs in 1 Mac. xi. 34 (cp.
Antiq. xiii. 4, 9) as belonging at that period
to Samaria.

A'ri-och [servant of the moon-god].

1. King of Ellasar, who was confederate
with Chedorlaomer on his invasion of the
Jordan valley (Gen. xiv. 1, 9). A king of
Larsa called Eriaku, son of Kudurmabug, is
mentioned in Babylonian inscriptions. Larsa,
probably Ellasar, his capital, is now repre-
sented by the mounds of Senkerah, a little
to the east of Erech.

2. Captain of the king's guard at Babylon
under Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. ii. 14, 15). It
pertained to the office to execute sentences of
death (24).

A-ri'sai.

A son of Haman (Esth. ix. 9).

Ar-is-tar'chus [best ruling].

A Macedonian of Thessalonica who was
with Paul at Ephesus, and in the riot was
dragged into the theater, but does not appear
to have been seriously injured (Acts xix. 29^.
On the apostle's return from Greece, whither
he had gone from Ephesus, Aristarchus ac-
companied him from Troas to Asia (Acts xx.
4, 6). He was subsequently his fellow-voyager
to Rome i xxvii. 2; cp. Philem. 24), as also
at one time his fellow-prisoner (Col. iv. 10).

Ar-is-to-bu'lus [best advising].

1. A celebrated Jewish philosopher at Alex-
andria (2 Mac. i. 10).

2. A Christian, to whose household at Rome
Paul sent salutations (Rom. xvi. 10).

4

A-ri'us, in A. V. Areus.

King of Sparta (1 Mac. xii. 20 ; Antiq. xiii.
5, 8), probably the tirst of the name, who
reigned from 309 to 265 b. c.

Ark.

A chest, box, or vessel of similar shape.

1. Noah's ark was the rude vessel which
Noah was divinely ordered to construct, and
in which he floated about when the deluge
was on the earth. If the cubit, in terms of
which the dimensions of the ark are stated,
was the ordinary cubit of 18 inches, then
the length of the ark was 450 feet, the
breadth 75 feet, and the height 43 feet. The
Great Eastern steamship was 674 feet long, 77
feet broad, 58 feet deep, and had a gross ton-
nage of 22,500 tons. The ark was made of
gopher, probably cypress, wood, and rendered
watertight by being daubed inside and out-
side with bitumen. It had lower, second,
and third stories. A door in the side afforded
ingress and egress. A window, probably a
cubit in height, extended, with slight inter-
ruptions, all around the vessel. A rooflike
covei'ing protected the inmates from rain
and sun (Gen. vi. 14-viii. 19; Mat. xxiv. 38;
Luke xvii. 27; Heb. xi. 7 ; 1 Pet. iii. 20). The
ark was designed for the accommodation of
Noah, his family, and the animals which were
selected to be preserved.

Dr. Howard O.sgood, in The Sunday School
Times for Feb. 6, 1892, discusses the question
whether every species of animals, as they are
now classified by naturalists, could have found
accommodation in the ark. The highest es-
timate of the number of species of land mam-
malia is 290 above the size of tbe sheep, 757
from the sheep to the rats, and 1359 of the
rats, bats, and shrews. The average size is
about that of the common cat. Allowing five
square feet of deck room as amply sufficient
for a cat, two of each species of mammalia
could find room on two-thirds of one deck of
the ark, with its 33,750 square feet of surface.
The representatives of 10,000 species of birds,
979 of reptiles, 1252 of lizards, and 100,000
of insects could easily be placed on the re-
maining third of the deck, leaving the other
two decks for storing food.

2. The infant Moses' ark, made for his
reception when he was exposed upon the
Nile, was a basket composed of papyrus
leaves or stems, or both, plaited together, and
rendered watertight by a coat of bitumen
(Ex. ii. 3-6).

3. The Ark of the Covenant or Testimony
was the central object of the tabernacle. It
was a chest 2V cubits long, IJ cubits broad,
and the same in depth ; made of acacia wood,
and overlaid within and without with jnire
gold. A rim or moulding of gold encircled
it at the top. At the bottom were two gold'en
rings on each side, through which poles of
acacia wood overlaid with gold were put for
the purpose of carrying the ark about. It
was covered by a lid of solid gold which was

Ark

50

Armor

called the mercy seat. Two clierubim of gold
stood on this cover, of one piece with it, one
at each end, spreading their wings on high so
as to overshadow it. and facing each other,
but looking down toward the mercy seat.
They were sjonbols of the presence and un-
approachableuess of Jehovah who. as King
of Israel in the midst of his i)eople, dwelt be-
tween the cherubim, uttered his voice from
between them, and met the representative of
Lis people there (Ex. xxv. 10 seq. ; xxx. fJ ;
Num. vii. 89 ; 1 Sam. iv. 4). It was made
specially for the reception of the Testimony,
on the two tables of stone (Ex. xxv. 21 ; xxxi.
18), and it was placed in the holy of holies
(xxvi. 34). Afterwards a pot of mauna, Aaron's
rod that blossomed, and the book of the law
were put beside the ark (Ex. xvi. 34 ; Num.
xvii. 10 ; Deut. xxxi. 26 ; Heb. ix. 4), but
were removed during the times of confusion
(1 Kin. viii. 9). The ark was placed in charge
of the Kohathite Levites (Num. iii. 29-31 ; iv.
4-15). The priests, who were Levites and of
the family of Kohath, bore it themselves on
occasions of special solemnity (Josh. iii. 3;
vi. 6 ; viii. 33 ; 2 .Sam. xv. 24, 29; 1 Kin. viii.
3). It stood in the midst of Jordan till the
Israelites had done crossing the river (Josh.
iv. 9-11). It was carried for seven days round

Egyptian Ark or Sacred Chest.

Jericho before the walls of the city fell down
(vi. 1-20). Having been taken in Eli's time
to the field of battle, as a talisman which was
expected to work wonders in the contest with
the Philistines, it was captured by the enemy
(1 Sam. iv. 1-22), but was soon afterwards sent
back into the Hebrew territory (v. 1-vi. 11).
It was successively at Beth-shemesh, where
the inhabitants looked into it and were pun-
ished (vi. 12-20) ; at Kirjath-jearim (vii. 1, 2) ;
and at Perez-uzzah, where Uzzah was struck
dead for touching it when it seemed to tot-
ter. Thence it was taken by David to Jeru-
salem (2 Sam. vi. 1-23). It was placed in the
holy of holies in Solomon's temple (1 Kin.

viii. 1-9). Mauasseh substituted an image for
it, but Josiah restored it to its place (2 Chron.
xxxiii. 7 ; xxxv. 3). It disappeared when Je-
rusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar,
and has not been seen since.

Sacred chests were in use among other
peoples of antiquity. They were employed
by the Greeks and Egyptians, and served as
receptacles for the idol, or for symbols of the
deities, or for other sacred objects.

Ark'lte.

A tribe descended from Canaan (Gen. x.
17; 1 Chron. i. 15). According to Josephus
they founded the Phoenician city Arke, the
modern 'Arka, about twelve miles north of
Tripoli, in Syria (Antiq. i. 6, 2). This town
is mentioned as Arkatu by Thothmes III.
about 1600 j-ears before Christ (Brugsch).

Ar-ma-ged'don, in E. Y. Har-Magedon

[mountain of Meglddo].

A prophetic battlefield where the kings of
the whole world gather together unto the
war of the great day of God (Kev. xvi. 16).
The name is framed with evident reference
to the sanguinary contests which took place
near the town of Megiddo ; the first, that in
which Sisera and the Canaanites were de-
feated at the waters of Megiddo (Judg. v. 19),
the second, that which resulted in the death
of Ahaziah, king of Judah, at Megiddo (2
Kin. ix. 27), and the third, that in which king
Josiah was killed when in conflict with the
army of Pharaoh-necho (2 Kin. xxiii. 29;
Zech. xii. 11). The historical associations
with Megiddo in the past were seized upon
by the prophet to supply a speaking name
appropriate in a description of the future
sorrows and triumphs of God's people.

Ar-me'ni-a. See Ararat.

Arm'let.

An ornament like a bracelet, but surround-
ing the arm higher up than the wrist (Ex.
xxxv. 22, R. v.). There were armlets among
the spoil of the Midianites (Num. xxxi. 50,
R. v.). In parts of the East an armlet, gen-
erally studded with jewels, is worn by kings
as one of the insignia of royal authority (cp.
2 Sam. i. 10).

Ar-mo'ni [pertaining to the palace].

One of Saul's sons by his concubine Rizpah.
He was slain bv the Gibeonites to satisfy jus-
tice (2 Sam. xxi. 8-11).

Ar'mor.

Covering worn to protect the person against
oflensive weapons (Eph. vi. 11). It consisted
of — 1. The shield. Shields were used by all
nations of antiquity. The Israelites em-
ployed a larger and a smaller kind (1 Kin.
X. 16, 17). The larger kind, translated shield,
buckler, target, belonged to the heavy armed
spearmen and lancers (1 Chron. xii. 8, 24, 34 ;
2 Chron. xiv. 8). The smaller shield, ren-
dered shield or buckler, was carried bv archers
(1 Chron. v. 18 ; 2 Chron. xiv. 8).' Shields
were of various shapes — round, oval, and ob-

Army

51

Aroer

long. They were commonly made of several
thicknesses of leather or of wood covered
with leather (cp. E/ek. xxxix. 9), which was
oik^d to keep it jilossy and pliable, and to pro-
tect it against tlie wet (Is. xxi. 5). Tliey were
sometimes covered with brass (Antiq. xiii.
12, 5), or made entirely of brass (1 Kin. xiv.
27, probably), or even of beaten gold (1 Kin.
X. 17; 2 C'hron. ix. 16; 1 Mac. vi. 2, 39).
Bronze shields were often two or three feet in
diameter. Sometimes a shieldbearer accom-
panied a warrior into battle (1 Sam. xvii. 7).
2. Helmets were made of leather and event-
ually of iron and brass (1 Mac. vi. 35). They
were known to Egyptians, Philistines, A.s-
syrians, Babylonians, Persians (1 Sam. xvii.
5 ; Jer. xlvi. 4 ; Ezek. xxiii. 23, 24 ; xxvii.
10). Helmets of brass were in occasional use
among the Israelites and Philistines as early
as the time of SjiuI (1 Sam. xvii. 5, 38). Uz-
ziah armed his troops with helmets and coats
of mail (2 Chron. xxvi. 14). 3. The breast-
plate or properly coat of mail, as it is some-
times rendered, covered the breast, back, and
shoulders. It was made of leather, quilted
cloth, linen (Herod, iii. 47), brass, or iron
(1 Sam. xvii. 5; Rev. ix. 9), and even gold
(1 Mac. vi. 2). There were joints in it or be-
tween it and the adjacent armor (1 Kin.
xxii. 34). Scale-armor coats were worn by
Goliath, and chain coats by the soldiers of
Antiochus Eupator (1 Sam. xvii. 5, Hebrew;

1 Mac. vi. .3.5, Greek). 4. Greaves, consisting
of thin plates of metal, were occasionally
worn to protect the front of the leg below
the knee (1 Sam. xvii. 6) ; and sometimes, 5.
Laced boots set with nails (Is. ix. 5, R. V.
margin). For oflTensive weapons, see the
several articles.

Ar'my.

The army of Israel consisted originally of
infantry only (Num. xi. 21 ; 1 Sam. iv. 10 ;
XV. 4), composed of spearmen, slingers, and
archers. It included all the able-bodied
men of the nation — all the males from 20
years old and upward, able to go forth to
war, being enrolled for service (Num. 1. ;

2 Sam. xxiv. 9). The numbers reported
as participating in various battles are suffi-
ciently large to include the greater part of
the adult male population of the region.
For military operations of no great magni-
tude, each tribe furnished its quota of war-
riors (Num. xxxi. 4; Josh. vii. 3; Judg. xx.
10) : hut inroads of the enemy were naturally
met by all the manly spirits seizing their
weapons to defend their firesides. In time of
national peril messengers were sent through-
out all the coasts of Israel to summon the
men of war by the sound of the trumpet, by
proclamation, or by symbolic act, to come to
the rescue (Judg. vi. 34, 35 ; xix. 29 ; 1 Sam.
xi. 7). The army was divided into bodies of
a thousand, a hundred, and fifty, each of
which was under its own officer (Num. xxxi.
14 ; Judg. XX. 10 ; 1 Sam. viii. 12 ; 2 Kin. i.

9 ; xi. 4 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 5). The commander-
in-chief and the officers formed a council
of war (1 Chron. xiii. 1 ; cp. 2 Kin. ix. 5,
13). The first traces of a standing army are
found in the reign of Saul. He retained
three thousand men of all Israel to hold the
Philistines in check (1 Sam. xiii. 2), and im-
pressed any men of marked valor whom he
saw (xiv. 52). David increased the array, and
organized it into twelve divisions of twenty-
four thousand footmen each (1 Chron. xxvii.),
and Solomon added a large force of chariots
and horsemen, which he distributed in the
cities throughout his kingdom (1 Kin. ix. 19 ;
X. 26; cp. iv. 26; 2 Chron. ix. 25). The suc-
cessors of these three kings of all Israel con-
tinued to bestow attention on the organiza-
tion and equipment of the host, as Jehosha-
phat (2 Chron. xvii. 13-19) Amaziah (xxv.
5, 6), Uzziah (xxvi. 11-15), Judas Maccabseus
(1 Mac. iii. 55). See War.

Ar'nan [agile].

Founder of a family, presumably of the
lineage of David (1 Chron. iii. 21).

Ar'non [murmuring, noisy ; or, perhaps,
quickly moving].

A river which anciently formed the boun-
dary between the Amorite country on the
north and that of the Moabites on the south
(Num. xxi. 13, 26), and at a later period be-
tween the tribe of Reuben on the north and
again Moab on the south (Deut. iii. 8, 16 ;
Josh. xiii. 16). It had fords (Is. xvi. 2). It
is now called the Wady Mqjib, and is a
perennial stream which is formed by the
junction of three smaller tributaries, and
falls into the Dead Sea. It is fringed by
oleanders, the vegetation of its banks is ex-
uberant, and its waters are full of fish.

A'rod or Ar'o-di.

A son of Gad, and founder of a family (Gen.
xlvi. 16 ; Num. xxvi. 17).

Ar'o-er [naked, nakedness; or juniper
thicket].

1. A town on the right or northern bank
of the river Arnon. It was the southern
point of the Amorite kingdom ruled, by
Sihon, and afterwards of the tribe of Reuben
(Deut. ii. 36; iii. 12; Josh. xii. 2 ; xiii. 16;
Judg. xi. 26, 33). It was taken by Mesha. king
of Moab (Moabite Stone, 26). It fell into the
hands of Hazael, king of Syria (2 Kin. x. 33 ;
1 Chron. v. 8). In the time of Jeremiah it
belonged to Moab (Jer. xlviii. 19). It is now
called 'Ara'ir, and is a desolate heap just
south of Dibon, and a little east of the Ro-
man road running north and south through
Moab.

2. A city built by the Gadites (Num. xxxii.
34). It was before, that is east of, Riibbath
Ammon, in the middle of the valley of Gad,
on the southern boundary of that tribe (Josh,
xiii. 25 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 5). Exact site unknown.

3. A village of Judah, to which David sent
spoil after his victory over the Amalekites
who had pillaged Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. 28).

Aroerite

52

Asa

Its ruius consist of a few walls, in the wady
'Ar'ara, twelve miles southeast of Beer-sheba.

If Aroer in Is. xvii. 2 is a proper name, and
not a common noun meaning nakedness, ruin,
the phrase in which it stands may be ren-
dered "the cities of Aroer," and interpreted
as the suburbs of the Gadite Aroer ; or " the
cities Aroer," the two Aroers east of the Jor-
dan being used representatively for all the
cities of the region.

Ar'o-er-ite.

A native or inhabitant of Aroer (1 Chron.
xi. 44, where the reference is ijrobably to
Aroer 3).

Ar-pach'shad, in A. V. Arphaxad [ety-
mology unknown ; the latter part of the name,
if separable, is contained in Chaldea].

A son of Shem (Gen. x. 22, 24 ; 1 Chron. i.
17, 18, both R. v.). He was a remote ancestor
of Abraham, was born two years after the
flood, at the age of 35 begat Shelah, and
died 403 years afterwards, at the age of
438 (xi. 10-13, R. V.). Arpachshad is not
necessarily a person. The structure of these
genealogical registers, apparent at a glance,
is such that the name may be that of a tribe
or laud, of which the people were descended
from that son of Shem born two years after
the flood. Arpachshad was long identified
with the mountainous country on the upper
Zab north and northeast of Nineveh, called
by the Greek geographers Arrapachitis, and
by the Assyrians Arabella. But this identi-
fication fails to account for the final syllable,
shad.

Ar'pad, in A. V. twice Arphad.

A city, generally coupled in the O. T. with
Hamath, from which, consequently, it was
not far distant (2 Kin. xviii. 34 ; xix. 13 ; Is.
X. 9 ; Jer. xlix. 23). It has been placed at
Tell Erfad, 13 miles north of Aleppo. It
was a place of importance, and was sub-
jected to repeated visitations from the As-
syrians. It saw the army of Rammannirari
in 806 B. c, and of Ashurnirari in 754 ; it was
besieged and taken by Tiglath-pileser 742-
740 ; and an uprising of cities which included
Arpad was suppressed by Sargon in 720.

Ar-phax'ad. See Arpachshad.

Ar'sa-ces.

King of Persia and Media (1 Mac. xiv. 2, 3 ;
XV. 22), from 174 to 136 B. c. He was the
sixth of the name, but is better known as
Mithridates I. of Parthia. His rule extended
far beyond the bounds of Media and Persia.
He conquered Asia from the Hindu Kush to
the Euphrates and raised the Parthian king-
dom to an empire.

Ar-tax-erx'es [po.ssessor of an exalted
kingdom].

The son and successor of his father Xerxes
on the Persian throne 465 B. c. He is
called Longimanus, the Longhanded. This
epithet is generally interpreted literally, but
Dr. John Wilson considers that it is figurative,

and means only that Artaxerxes had a widely-
extended dominion. He was led to forbid
building at Jerusalem (Ezra iv. 7), but after-
wards permitted it (vi. 14). The older in-
terpreters understood the king referred to
to be the Pseudo-Snierdis, i. e. a Magian im-
postor called Gomates, who pretended to be
Smerdis, brother of the deceased Cambyses,
and reigned as such for seven months in the
year 521 b. c, until the fraud was discovered
and he was put to death. But see remarks
under Ahasuerus. In the seventh year of
his reign (458 B. c.) Artaxerxes allowed Ezra
to lead a great multitude of exiles back to
Jerusalem (Ezra vii. 1, 11, 12, 21; viii. 1). In
the twentieth year of his reign (445 B. c.) he
permitted Nehemiah to make his first journey
to the .lewish capital, and rebuild the walls of
the city (Neh. ii. 1, etc.). In the thirty-second
year of his reign (433-432 b. c.) he allowed
Nehemiah, who had returned for a little to
Persia, to revisit Jerusalem, and become gov-
ernor of the restored city and the adjacent
country (xiii. 6). Artaxerxes died in the year
425 B. c.

Ar'te-mas [gift of Artemis].

A companion whom Paul thought of send-
ing on an errand to Titus (Tit. iii. 12).

Ar'te-mis.

The Greek goddess of hunting, correspond-
ing to the Roman Diana (Acts xix. 24, R. V.,
margin) ; see Diana.

Ar'u-both [latticed windows].

A town mentioned in connection with
Socoh and Hepher; hence probably in the
southwest of Judah (1 Kin. iv. 10).

A-ru'mali [perhaps, a height].

A village near Shechem, once the residence
of Abimelech (Judg. ix. 41). It has been sup-
posed to be identical with Rumah (2 Kin.
xxiii. 36), and has been placed doubtfully at
el-'Ormeh, 6 miles southeast of Shechem,
which, however, is spelled with a difl'erent
initial letter.

Ar'vad [wandering] .

A place which, in EzekieFs time, furnished
mariners and valiant defenders of the strong-
hold of Tj-re (Ezek. xxvii. 8, 11). It is the
island of Aradus near the coast of Phoenicia,
now called er-Ruad (1 Jlac. xv. 23).

Ar'vad-ite.

One of the inhabitants of Arvad. They
were reckoned to Canaan (Gen. x. 18 ; 1
Chron. i. 16).

Ar'za [delight].

The steward of king Elah's house in Tir-
zah (1 Kin. xvi. 9).

A'sa [physician].

1. A Levite, son of Elkauah who lived in
a village of the Netophathites (1 Chron. ix.
16).

2. A king of Judah who ascended the
throne in the twentieth year of Jeroboam,
king of Israel. He was son of Abijam and
grandson of Rehoboam. His mother (really

Asahel

53

Asaramel

his grandmother) was Maacah, daughter of
Absalom (1 Kin. xv. 9-10, cp. 2). His reign
began with ten years of peace (2 Chron. xiv.
1). He took away the male prostitutes out
of the land, aliolished the idols of his predeces-
sors, and removed his grandmother from her
position of queen-itiother, because she had
made an image for an Asherah (1 Kin. xv.
y-13 ; cp. xiv. 22-24 ; 2 Chron. xiv. 1-5 ; xv.
16). He also destroyed the strange altars,
the high places, and the sun images through-
out .Tudah (2 C'liron. xiv. 3-5) as fully as he
was able (cp. 1 Kin. xxii. 46 ; 2 Chron. xix.
4) : but, though his own heart was perfect
with the Lord, the people still occasionally
sacrificed to Jehovah on high places (1 Kin.
XV. 14 ; 2 Chron. xv. 17). His kingdom was
invaded by the Ethiopian Zerah, at the head
of an enormous host of Africans, but by the
help of .Jehovah he defeated them, and di'ove
them from the land (2 Chron. xiv. 9-15). In
the fifteenth year of his reign, encouraged by
the prophet Azariah, he completed the re-
ligious reformation which he had begun, re-
stored the altar of burnt ofl'eriug at the tem-
ple, and induced the people to renew the
covenant with Jehovah (2 Chron. xv. 1-15).
In the thirty-sixth year of his reign, Baasha,
king of Israel, invaded Benjamin and fortified
Eamah on the main road from Jerusalem to
the north. Asa. finding himself too weak to
reopen the road by the capture of Ramah,
took the temple treasui-es, and hired Ben-
hadad, king of Damascus, to attack Baasha.
Ben-hadad invaded the northern portion of
the Israelite kingdom, compelling Baasha to
■withdraw from Ramah. Asa took the build-
ing materials which Baasha had gathered at
Ramah and fortified Geba and Mizpah. The
prophet Hanani reproved the king for his
worldly policy, after his experience of God's
help at the time of the Ethiopian invasion.
Asa resented the interference of the prophet,
putting him in prison (1 Kin. xv. 16-22 ; 2
Chron. xvi. 1-10). In the thirtj'-ninth year
of his reign he became diseased in his feet.
In his distress he sought help from the physi-
cians, but not from the Lord (1 Kin. xv. 23 ;
2 Chron. xvi. 12). In his latter days he was
not so true to Jehovah as in his earlier life.
He died in the forty-first year of his reign,
and was buried with royal honors in a sepul-
cher which he had made for himself in the
city of David.

As'a-hel [God hath made].

1. Son of Zeruiah, and brother of Joab and
Abishai (1 Chron. ii. 16). For a time he was
the military captain in attendance on David
for the fourth month of the year, his men
numbering 24,000 (xxvii. 7). He was exceed-
ingly fleet of foot. When the followers of
David routed those of Ishbosheth he pursued
Abner, Ishbosheth's commander-in-chief, with
the intention of killing him. Abner, after
warning him more than once, was compelled,
reluctantly and in self-defence, to strike him
a mortal thrust (2 Sam. ii. 18-23).

2. One of the Levites employed by Jehosh-
aphat to teach the people the law (2 Chrofl.
xvii. 8).

3. An overseer of the temple in the reign
of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 13).

4. Father of a certain Jonathan (Ezra x. 15).
A-salah, in A. V. twice As-a-M'ah (2 Kin.

xxii. 12, 14) [Jehovah hath made].

1. A Simeonite prince (1 Chron. iv. 36).

2. A Levite, head of the familj- of Mei'ari
in David's time (1 Chron. vi. 30 ; xv. 6, 11).

3. A man of Judah, son of Baruch, and
head of the familj* of Shelah at the time of
the return from the captivity (1 Chron. ix. 5).
He was known also by the synonymous name
Maaseiah (Neb. xi. 5).

4. An officer whom Josiah sent with others
to the prophetess Huldah to inquire of the
Lord about the things which he had heard
from the Law found by Hilkiah (2 Kin. xxii.
12, 14; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 20).

A'saph [collector ; or He hath gathered or
removed reproach].

1. A Levite, the son of Berachiah, of the
Gershomite family (1 Chron. vi. 39, 43). With
Hemau and Ethan, he sounded cymbals be-
fore the ark during its removal from the
house of Obed-edom to the city of David
(xv. 16-19). He was then assigned the per-
manent office of sounding cymbals at the
service (xvi. 4, 5, 7); and when the service
was finally and fully arranged, of the three
families permanently charged with the music
and song and instructed in the art, his family,
with him at the head, was one (xxv. 1-9).
Their position was on the right (vi. 39). The
family often receives mention (2 Chron. xx.
14; xxix. 13). A hundred and twenty-eight,
all of them singers, came back from Babylon
(Ezra ii. 41 ; Xeh. vii. 44), and conducted the
psalmody when the foundations of Zerub-
babel's temple were laid (Ezra iii. 10). Twelve
psalms, viz. the 50th and the 73d to the 83d,
both inclusive, are attributed in the titles to
the family of Asaph (cp. 2 Chron. xxix. 30).
The 50th belongs to the second book of
psalms ; the others constitute the bulk of
the third book. In them the usual name
of the deity is God, rather than Jehovah.
Asaph, like the other chief singers, is called
a seer (2 Chron. xxix. 30; cp. xxxv. 15 and
1 Chron. xxv. 5).

2. Father of Hezekiah's recorder (2 Kin.
xviii. 18).

3. Keeper of the king's park in Palestine
under Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Per-
sia (Xeh. ii. 8).

4. In 1 Chron. xxvi. 1 read Ebiasaph (cp.
ix. 19).

A-sar'a-mel, in A. A'. Saramel.

Perhaps a title of Simon Maccabseus, Sar
'am 'el, prince of the people of God ; or more
probably, since the word is preceded by a
preposition, it stands for Ifsar 'am 'el, the
court of the people of God, the forecourt of
the temple (1 Mac. xiv. 28).

Asarel

54

Asher

As'a-rel, in A. V. A-sar'e-el [God hath
bound].

A 8un of Jehalelcel (1 Chron. iv. 16).

As-a-re'lah. See Asharelah.

As'ca-lon (1 Mac. x. 86). See Ashkelon.

As'e-nath [Egyptian Snat, belonging to the
goddess Xeith].

Daughter of Poti-phera, priest of On, wife
of Joseph and mother of Manasseh and Eph-
raim (Gen. xli. 45, 50-52; xlvi. 20).

A'ser. See Asher.

Ash.

The rendering in the A. V. of the Hebrew
'Oren in Is. xliv. 14. The wood of the tree
was suitable for use in making idols. A tree
which the Arabs call 'arda is said by one of
their writers to grow in Arabia Petrgea, and
is described as having thorns and producing
bunches of bitter berries. This imperfect
description recalls the mountain a.sh, and the
name 'ardn may be connected with 'oren. But
by 'oreu the Seventy understood the lir tree.
Jerome renders it pine. E. V. accordingly
translates the word by fir ti'ee, and places ash
on the margin. The Syrian fir {Pinus hale-
pensis) is perhaps intended, which flourishes
on the mountains of Palestine, and is occasion-
ally found as far south as Hebron. See Fir.

A'shan [smoke].

A town in the lowland, allotted to Judah,
afterwards transferred to Simeon and assigned
with its suburbs to the Levites (Josh. xv. 42 ;
xix. 7 ; 1 Chron. iv. 32; vi. 59). In the pres-
ent text of Josh. xxi. 16 or 1 Chron. vi. 59
Ashan and Ain have become confounded
through the misreading of one letter. Ashan
is apparently identical with Cor-ashan, in A.
V. Chor-ashan, smoking furnace (1 Sam. xxx.
30), where many manuscripts and versions
have Bor-ashan, smoking pit.

Ash-a-re'lah, in A. V. Asarelah [upright
toward God].

A son of Asaph (1 Chron. xxv. 2). Called
in ver. 14 Jesharelah, a word having the same
meaning.

Ash'be-a [let me call as witness].

A descendant of Shelah, of the tribe of
Judah. The members of the family wrought
fine linen (1 Chron. iv. 21).

Ash'bel [perhaps, a secondary form of Esh-
baal, man of the Lord].

A son of Benjamin and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num. xxvi. 38; 1 Chron.
viii. 1).

Ash'che-naz. See Ashkenaz.

Ash'dod, in N. T. Azotus [a fortified place,
a castle].

One of the five chief Philistine cities, ruled
over by a lord, and seat of the worship of
Dagon (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. v. 1 seq. ; vi.
17 ; 1 Mac. x. 83; xi. 4). Anakim remained
in it after the conquest of Canaan by the He-
brews (Josh. xi. 22). It was assigned to
Judah (xv. 46, 47), but was not possessed by

that tribe. The ark of God was carried to
Ashdod by the Philistines after they captured
it at Ebenezer, and was placed in the temple
of Dagon (1 Sam. v. 1-8). A judgment fall-
ing on the inhabitants, the ark was trans-
ferred to Gath (6-8). Uzziah broke down the
walls of Ashdod (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). The
Tartan or Assyrian commander-in-chief under
Sargon besieged it with success (Is. xx. 1).
Psammetichus, king of Egypt, utterly de-
stroyed it about 630 b. c, after a siege which,
according to Herodotus (ii. 157), lasted twenty-
nine years. Only a remnant survived (Jer.
XXV. 20 ; cp. Zeph. ii. 4 ; Zech. ix. 6). Its in-
habitants were among those who opposed the
rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, and
they spoke a different language from the
Israelites of that day ; nevertheless some of
the returned Jews married women of Ashdod
(Neh. iv. 7 ; xiii. 23, 24). The city was twice
besieged and partially destroyed by the Mac-
cabees (1 Mac. V. 68 ;' x. 84), but was rebuilt
by the Romans about 55 B. c In N. T. times
it was called Azotus (Acts viii. 40).

Philip preached the gospel from this place
as far as Csesarea (Acts viii. 40). The city be-
came eventually the seat of a bishop. Its
approximate site is the mud village of Esdud
on the eastern slope of a low round knoll,
among sycomore trees and prickly pears,
9 miles northeast from Ascalon, 3 from the
Mediterranean, and about midway between
Jafia and Gaza.

Ash'dod-ite, in A. V. once Ashdothite.

A native or inhabitant of Ashdod (Josh,
xiii. 3; Xeh. iv. 7).

Ash'doth-ite. See preceding article.

Ash-doth-pis'gah, in E. V. slopes of Pis-
gab, in A. V. once springs of Pisgah.

The slopes of Pisgah east of the Dead Sea,
which face the west (Dent. iii. 17; iv. 49;
Josh. xii. 3 ; xiii. 20).

Ash'er, in A. V. of N. T. Aser, in imitation
of the Greek form [happy].

1. The eighth son of Jacob, and the second
by Zilpah, Leah's maidservant (Gen. xxx.
12, 13; XXXV. 26). His blessing given by
Jacob on his deathbed is thus worded, " Out
of Asher his bread shall be fat, and he shall
yield royal dainties" (Gen. xlix. 20). That
of Moses, " Let Asher be blessed with chil-
dren ; let him be acceptable to his brethren,
and let him dip his foot in oil. Thy shoes
shall be iron and brass ; and as thy days, so
shall thy strength be " (Deut. xxxiii. 24). He
had four sons, Jimnah, Ishuah, Isui, and
Beriah ; and a daughter named Serah (Gen.
xlvi. 17 ; 1 Chron. vii. 30).

2. The tribe of which Asher, the son of
Jacob, was the progenitor. As assigned, its
territory extended on the north to the north-
ern boundary of Palestine, and on the south
reached to the south of Carmel, a length of
about 60 miles. On the east it was bounded
by the territories of Zebulun and Naphtali,
and on the west by the Mediterranean (Josh.

Asherah

55

Ashterathite

six. 24-31). But from Tyre, Sidon, Accho,
and other stroug places the Asherites did not
expel the C'anaunite inhabitants (Judg. i. 31,
32). The failure of the Asherites to capture
and occupy the Phoenician plain along the
sea left them only the inland hill-country,
except near Carmel. This was well adapted
for the culture of the olive, so that the in-
habitants might dip their feet in oil (cp. Deut.
xxxiii. 24).

3. A town east of Shechem (Josh. xvii. 7) ;
perhaps Teiasir, about 11 miles northeast of
Shechem on the road to Bethshean.

A-she'rali, jjlural A-she'rim, masculine,
and Asheroth, feminine [upright or uniting,
or less probably, bringing fortune].

A word uniformly translated grove in the
A. v., but a grove of trees would not be
brought out of the temple (2 Kin. xxiii. 6).
It was something upright made of wood (Ex.
xxxiv. 13), originally, perhaps, the trunk of
a tree with the branches chopped off, and was
regarded as the wooden symbol of a goddess
Asherah, probably Ashtoreth, the female side
of the beneficent and fertilizing sun-god (Ex.
xxxiv. 13). It was erected beside the altar
of Baal (Judg. \i. 25, 28, R. V.). The prophets
of the Asherah in Ahab's time were, with those
of Baal, slain by Elijah at the river Kishon (1
Kin. xvi. 33 ; xviii. 19-40. both R. V.). Women
wove hangings for an Asherah in the temple
(2 Kin. xxiii. 7, R. V.), and Josiah, as part
of his religious reformation, brought out the
idolatrous symbol and burnt it at the brook
Kidron (6). '

A-she'rim. See preceding article.

Ash'er-ite.

A member of the tribe of Asher (Judg. i. 32).

A-she'roth. See Asherah.

Ash'hur, in A. V. Aslmr [blackness].

Son of Hezron by his wife Abiah. He was
enrolled with the house of Caleb, was head
or ancestor of the inhabitants of Tekoa, and
had two wives and seven children (1 Chron.
ii. 24 ; iv. 5-7).

Ash'i-ma.

A divinity worshiped by the people of
Hamath (2 Kin. xvii. 30).

Ash'ke-lon, in A. V. sometimes Askelon
[starting point, migration].

One of the five leading Philistine cities
each ruled by a lord (Josh. xiii. 3). It was
situated in a valley on the Mediterranean
seashore (Jer. xlvii. 5, 7), 12 miles north of
Gaza, and was the seat of the worship of Der-
ceto, a goddess with the body of a fish, whose
temple and lake lay to the east of the city. It
was captured bj^ the tribe of Judah in the time
of the judges (Judg. i. 18), but soon reverted
to its old rulers (xiv. 19; 1 Sam. vi. 17). It
was to have its inhabitants, all but a rem-
nant, cut off and made desolate, apparently
by a Pharaoh in Jeremiah's time (Jer. xlvii.
1, 5, 7: Zeph. ii. 4, 7; cp. also Zech. ix. 5).
Ashkelon was twice taken by Jonathan Mac-

cabjeus (1 Mac. x. 86; xi. 60). It was the
birthplace of Herod the Great, and the resi-
dence of his sister Salome. It was several
times taken and retaken during theCrusiides,
till at length, in a. d. 1270, the sultan Bibars
destroyed it and filled the harbor with stones.
Its site has been found within a natural am-
phitheater constructed by a ridge of rocks,
forming a kind of semicircle with the opeu
side to the sea. The wall, now in ruins, ran
along the top of the ridge. The soil is fer-
tile, producing large apples, sycomore figs,
etc. The kind of onion called shallot, or
eschalot, came at fir.st from Ashkelon, after
which it is named. Ashkelon is now called
'Askalan.

Ash'ke-lon-ite ; in A. V. Eshkalonite, fol-
lowing partly the traditional Hebrew pro-
nunciation and partly the obsolete spelling,
Eshkalon.

An inhabitant of Ashkelon (Josh. xiii. 3).

Ash'ke-naz, in A. V. twice Aschenaz.

The eldest son of Gomer (Gen. x. 3 ; 1
Chron. i. 6). The name, whether originally
that of a person or country or tribe, denoted,
a people of the race of Gomer. In the time
of Jeremiah they dwelt in the neighborhood
of Ararat and Minni, that is, near eastern Ar-
menia (Jer. Ii. 27).

Ash'nah [strong].

1. A village in the lowland of Judah near
Zorah (Josh. xv. .33, R. V.).

2. Another village of Judah, but farther
south (Josh. XV. 43). Exact site unknown.

Ash'pe-naz.

The master of the eunuchs at Babylon dur-
ing Nebuchadnezzar's reign (Dan. i. 3).
Ash'ri-el. See Asriel.
Ash'ta-roth [plural of Ashtoreth (q. v.)].

1. In connection with the plural of Baal, a
general designation for all the false gods of
the neighboring nations and their idols ; or
better, to judge from Gen. xiv. 5 and 1 Sanx
xxxi. 10, the old Canaanitish plural of emi-
nence whereby the goddess Ashtoreth was
honorably spoken of in the plural number.

2. A town at Edrei, named after the god-
dess Astarte, and the capital of Og, king of
Bashan (Deut. i. 4, where it is spelled Asta-
roth in A. V. ; Josh. ix. 10). Some of the
ancient inhabitants were giants, Og himself
being of the number (Jo.sh. xii. 4 ; xiii. 12).
The place fell to the lot of Machir, the son
of Manasseh (31), but became a Levitical city,
inhabited by the children of Gershom (1
Chron. vi. 71). Uzzia, one of David's mighty
men, was connected with the town (xi. 44).
Its site is commonly identified with Tell
'Ashterah, which agrees with the statement
of Eusebius that the town was distant 6
Roman miles from Edrei. This tell stands
on a hill in the mid.st of a well-watered,
grassy plain. See Ashteroth-kaenaim.

Ash'te-rath-ite.

A native of Ashtaroth (1 Chron. xi. 44).

Ashteroth-kamaim

56

Asnapper

Ash'te-rotli-kar-na'un [two-horned Ash-
taruth].

A i)lace smitteu by Chedorlaomer ou his
expedition against the cities of the plain (Gen.
xiv. 5, K. v.). Its name suggests that the
inhabitants specially worshiped the horned
moon. Probably Asbteroth-karnaim is the
full name of Ashtaroth. and it may be the
jilace known centuries later as Karuaim,
which is mentioned in connection with cities
of Gilead and in which Atargatis was wor-
shiped (1 Mac. V. 26, 3(j, 43 ; 2 Mac. xii. 2G).
This goddess, whose true name according to
Strabo was Athara, was the Syrian nature
deity corresi)onding to Ashtoreth. It is to
be remembered that the physical features
ascribed to Carnion in 2 Mac. xii. 21 do not
agree with Tell 'Ashterah, the commonly ac-
cepted site of Ashtaroth.

Ash'to-reth [a binding together, union].

Astiirte, a Phoenician goddess, partly
evolved, perhaps, from admiration for the
planet Venus, but symbolizing also the soft
radiance of the moon ; cp. Asbteroth-kar-
naim. Her worship was early established at
Sidon, hence she is called the goddess or the
abomination of the Zidonians (1 Kin. xi. 5,
33; 2 Kin. xxiii. 13). It was in vogue east
of the Jordan in the days of Abraham (Gen.
xiv. 5). As early as the times of the judges
it had spread to the Hebrews (Judg. ii. 13 ;
X. 6). It was also practiced in Philistia (1
Sam. xxxi. 10). Solomon in his old age gave
it the support of his great name (1 Kin. xi.
5 ; 2 Kin. xxiii. 13).

Ash'ur. See Ashhue.

Ash'ur-ite.

A people belonging to the kingdom of Ish-
bosheth (2 Sam. ii. 9). They are enumerated
between Gilead and Jezreel. Vulgate and
Syriac have Geshurites.

Ash'vatli.

An Asherite, family of Heber, house of
Japhlet (1 Chrou. vii.33).

A'si-a.

The continent east of Europe and Africa
(Herod, iv. 36-40). The name was employed
in a narrower sense for the kingdom of the
Seleucida' (1 Mac. viii. 6 ; xi. 13), which em-
braced Syria and extensive regions west of
the river Halys. When the Romans trans-
ferred most of these western districts, Mj-sia,
Lydia, and Phrygia, to Eumenes II., king
of Pergamos, the name was used by them for
the kingdom of Pergamos, and when this
kingdom was appropriated by them in 133
B. c, they added Caria and a strip of coast
to it and formed the province of Asia (Acts
vi. 9; xxvii. 2; 1 Pet. i. 1; Rev. i. 4, 11).
Pliny, however, distinguishes between Phry-
gia and Asia (v. 28). So do Paul and others
(Acts ii. 9, 10 ; xvi. 6). The names of the in-
corporated districts were not abandoned ; and
Paul, who was traveling along but outside of
the borders of Asia, mentions being at a point

over against Mysia (Acts xvi. 7, R. V.), in which
Pergamos was situated, one of the cities of
Asia (Rev. i. 4, 11). The province was at first
governed bj' proi)ra?tors, but in 27 B. c. it
was made senatorial and so continued for 300
years, being governed by proconsuls (cp. Acts
xix. 38, R. v.). Its capital w^as Ephesus. In
the N. T. Asia always denotes the Roman
province (Acts xix. 10, 22, 26, 27; xx. 4, 16,
18; xxi. 27; xxiv. 18; xxvii. 2; 1 Cor. xvi.
19; 2 Cor. i. 8; 2 Tim. i. 15).

A'si-arcli [chief of Asia].

Member of a college of deputies who were
annually appointed by various towns of the
pi-ovince of Asia to conduct a festival and
games in honor of the Roman emperor. The
festivities took place yearly at one of the
several cities which had the honor in succes-
sion. The asiarchs were chosen each year,
but in time formed an influential body in
the towns, and often secured the reelection
of their members. The asiarchs of Ephesus
were friends to Paul (Acts xix. 31, R. V. marg.).

A-si-de'ans. See Hasid.eans.

A'si-el [God hath made].

A Simeonite (1 Chrou. iv. 35).

As'ke-lon. See Ashkelon.

As-mo-nse'an [Greek ' Asamunaios, from
Hel)rew Hnshman, opulent].

A descendant of Hasbman, a priest of the
family of Joarib and ancestor of the Mac-
cabees (Antiq. xii. 6, 1 ; cp. 1 Mac. ii. 1 ; 1
Chron. xxiv. 7). The title Asmonsean is com-
monly employed in Jewish literature to des-
ignate the family from Mattathias to Herod
the Great and Aristobulus (Antiq. xiv. 16, 4 ;
XX. 8, 11).

As-mo-nae'ans, Pal'ace of the.

A ])alace in Jerusalem erected by the As-
monsean princes, opposite the western court
of the temi)le, on an elevation which com-
manded a view of the city and the sanctuary
(Antiq. xx. 8, 11). It stood near the Xystus
and overlooked it (ibid. : War ii. 16, 3). It is
probably the royal palace which was reck-
oned one of the two fortresses of Jerusalem,
the Paris being the other, and in which Herod
the Great i-esided before the erection of his
palace in the upper city (Antiq. xiv. 13, 9;
XV. 3, 7; 8, 4 and 5). This latter building ex-
celled it in magnificence and as a fortress.
So late as A. D. 60 the last prince of the He-
rodian house used it as a residence, Agrippa
II., the king Agrippa of Acts xxv. 13 (Antiq.
XX. 8, 11 ; War ii. 16, 3). It was probably the
palace burnt by the seditious Jews at the be-
ginning of the war with the Romans (War ii.
17, 6).

As'nah [a bramble].

One of the Nethinim, some of whose de-
scendants returned from the captivity at
Babylon (Ezra ii. 50).

As-nap'per, in R. V. Osnappar.

A high Assyrian dignitary called great and
noble who settled various foreign tribes in

Asp

57

Assir

Samaria (Ezra iv. 10). He seems to have
been either Esar-haddou or one of his officials
(cp. 2 aud 10). The name is supposed by some to
be a rude Aramaic form of Ashurbanipal. the
son of Esar-haddou, who from about 671 B. C.
or hiter was his associate, aud from &iS b. c.
his successor ou the Assyrian throue, aud
reigued uutil about ()2(i B. c. Ashurbauipal
records that he penetrated Ehim, took Susa
the cai)ital, aud carried off many of the in-
habitants to Assyria (cp. Ezra iv. 9, 10). His
father, Esar-haddou, had conquered Egypt.
Eebeliiou occurred among the petty rulers,
aud assistance was rendered them by the able
Tirhakah. To supi)ress this revolt, Ashur-
bauipal conducted two campaigns, in which
ou the whole he was successful, though Egypt
was lost at last. In the later campaign, about
664 B. c. Thebes, then known as No, was cap-
tured and plundered (cp. Nah. iii. 8-10). He
had relations first friendly, but afterwards
the reverse, with Gyges, the usurping king
of Lydia ; see Gog. He had to crush a rebel-
lion of his own brother, the ruler of Babylon.
He had a war with the Minni. By the Greeks,
who called him Sardanapalus, he was consid-
ered effeminate. Modern scholars regard his
memory with gratitude ou account of the
splendid library which he brought together.
He had copyists incessantly at work not
merely transcribing Assyrian book.s, but
ti-auslatiug works of value from the so-called
Accadian and other tongues. Part of this
library has been recovered, and it is from it
that we derive most of our acquaintance with
the Assyrian empire and its kings.

Asp [a round shield, which the serpent
when coiled up resembles].

The rendering of the Hebrew word Pethen
in Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Job xx. 14, 16 ; aud Is.
xi. 8. aud of the Greek Aspis in Eom. iii. 13.
With some inconsistency Pethen is rendered
not asp but adder in Ps. Iviii. 4 and xci. 13.
Pethen is a species of snake (Ps. Iviii. 4), ven-
omous (Deut. xxxii. 33i, dwelling in holes (Is.
xi. !?); probably Xaja haje, which is found in
Egypt and Palestine, is the asp of the Greeks
and Romans, is of the same genus as the
deadly cobra of India, and is generally used
by the snake-charmers in their performances.
It has a hood which it dilates when about to
strike its prey.

As'pa-tha.

A son of Haman (Esth. ix. 7).

As'phar.

A reservoir in the wilderness of Tekoah (1
Mac. ix. 33).

As'ri-el, in A. V. once Asliriel [probably,
vow of God].

A descendant of Manasseh and founder of
a family (Num. xxvi. 31 : Josh. xvii. 2).

Ass.

The genus called by zoologists Asinus, con-
taining the several species and varieties of
asses, wild or domesticated. The ass genus

belongs to the family Eqnidse or Horses. Three
asses are mentioned in Scripture.

1. The wild ass, called in Hebrew 'Arod,
the fugitive. It is poetically described in Job
xxxix. 5-S, where, however, there is mention
also of the commou wild ass of Syria, and is
named also in Dan. v. 21. If distinct in
species from the commou wild ass, it is prob-
ably As-inits onager, which is found in the
Sahara and in Arabia, where it was once
common, but is uow more rare. It occa-
sionally visits the Hauran. It is the pro-
genitor of the domestic ass.

2. The wild ass of Syria {Asinus hemipjjits);
Hebrew Pere\ the leaper, occurring in Job
xxiv. 5; xxxix. 5; Ps. civ. 11 ; Is. xxxii. 14,
and Jer. xiv. 6. It is rather smaller than the
onager. Tristram mentions that euormous
herds of them often enter the Armenian moun-
tains in summer. They are found at all times
in Northern Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Syria,
occasioually entering Northern Palestine.
They are the species represented ou the Nine-
vite sculptures.

3. The domestic ass {Asinns asinus), the
Hebrew H"mor. It is a sub-species descended
from the onager. It is obstinate aud tyi)ical
of stupidity. But on the other hand the ass
is strong, easily fed, patient, and forgiviug.
Its faults are mainly produced by the cruel
bondage imposed upon it by its human task-
master. The ass was early domesticated.
Abraham had asses (Gen. xii. 16) on which
he rode (xxii. 3), so had Jacob (xxx. 43).
They were used also for burden-bearing (xlix.
14 ; Is. xxx. 6), for ploughing, etc. (Deut. xxii.
10). White asses were deemed fit for persons
of rank (Judg. v. 10), as they still ai"e in
Palestine. Jesus showed his lowliness, and
at the same time the spirit of the earlier
kiugs, by rejecting horses and riding on an
ass in his triumphal entry into Jerusalem
(Zech. ix. 9 ; Mat. xxi. 5).

As'shnr. in A. V. twice Assur [probably
originally A-ushar, watered plain (Delitzsch),
or from the local deity Ashur, the good
(Schrader)]. Pronounced Ash'ur.

A people descended from Shem (Gen. x. 22),
and the country which they inhabited (Ezra
iv. 2. A. y. : Ezek. xxvii. 23). See Assyria.

As-shu'rim.

A people, doubtless of Arabia, descended
from Dedan, and more remotely from Abra-
ham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 3). The like
name borne by an individual mentioned in
the Minseau inscription throws little or no
light on this tribe. The Ashurites, named
after Gilead in 2 Sam. ii. 9, are almost cer-
tainly different, as is also Asshur, that is As-
syria, in Ezek. xxvii. 23.

As-si-de'ans. See Hasid^axs.

As'sir [captive].

1. A descendant of Levi through Korah,
bom in Egypt (Ex. vi. 24 ; 1 Chron. vi. 22).

2. A descendant of the preceding (1 Chron.
vi. 23, 37).

Assos

58

Astrologers

3. A son of king Jeconiah (1 Chron. iii. 17).
The name does not appear in R. V. The
revisers regard it as an adjective descriptive
of Jeconiah, and translate it " the captive;"
but there is no definite article in the present
Hebrew text, and there was none in the text
used by the Seventy. His name suggests that
Assir was born in captivity. This accords with
other indications. Jeconiah was 18 years old
when carried off to Babylon, and in the enu-
meration of the members of his family de-
ported with him, no children are mentioned
(2 Kin. xxiv. 8-15). Assir did not succeed to
the royal title ; the right to the throne passed
to Shealtiel (q. v.).

As'sos.

A seaport town of Mysia, now called Beiram,
not far from Troas (Acts xx. 13, 14).

As'sur. See Asshur.

As-syr'i-a [Greek modification of Asshur
(q. V.)].

A country on the river Tigris (Gen. ii. 14,
E. V. margin). It was originally the district
dominated by the town of Asshur, the ruins of
which have been found at Kalah Shergat, on
the western bank of the Tigris, about 60 miles
below Nineveh. With the growth of the city's
power and dominion, the name came to de-
note the region comjiassed by the Gordysean
mountains of Armenia on the north, the
ranges of Media on the east, and the little
Zab river on the south. Westward it ex-
tended a short distance from the Tigris into
Mesopotamia. This district is the Assyria
proper of history, but the name was often
given to the extensive empire conquered and
ruled by the Assyrians. The inhabitants were
Semites (Gen. x. 22), who derived their cul-
ture from Babylonia, and probably originally
emigrated thence. They became powerful
enough under king Tukulti-adar, about 1300
B.C., to subjugate Babylonia, and thenceforth
during 700 years they were, with brief inter-
ruptions, the leading power in the east. Tig-
lath-pileser I., about 1120 to 1100 b. c, raised
the kingdom into the most extensive empire
of the age. Under his successors it greatly
declined, its decadence leaving a void which
permitted the kingdoms of David and Solo-
mon to reach their widest limits. Ashur-
nasirpal (885 to 860) by his conquests restored
the prestige of the empire. He erected a
palace in the northwestern part of Calah, and
made that ancient town (Gen. x. 11) the cap-
ital. He was succeeded by his son Shalman-
eser, called II., who reigned from about 860
to 825, the first Assyrian king who came into
conflict with the Israelites ; see Ahab and
Jehu. Among the other kings were Pul,
also known as Tiglath-pileser III., 743-727 ;
Shalmaneser IV., 727-722; Sargon, 722-705;
Sennacherib, 705-681 ; Esar-haddon, 680-668 ;
and Ashurbanipal, 668-626. Ashurbanipal is
possibly Asnapper. Several minor kings fol-
lowed. About 607 B. c. the Modes, the Baby-
lonians, and their allies captured Nineveh,

and put ap end to the Assyrian empire. When
at the height of its power in the seventh cen-
tury B. c, Assyria held sway over Babylonia,
parts of Media. Armenia, Syria, Cyprus, Ara-
bia, and Egypt. The kings of Israel mentioned
in the Assyrian inscriptionsareHumri(Omri),
Ahabbu (Ahab), Yaua (Jehu), Minihimmu
(Menahem), Pakaha (Pekah), and Ausi' (Ho-
shea). The kings of Judah so mentioned are
Azriyau (Azariah or Uzziah), Yauhazi (Ahaz),
Hazakiyau(Hezekiah)andMinasi(Manasseh).

The Assyrian religion was borrowed from
that of Babylon, except that Ashur, the pre-
siding god of the city of Asshur, became the
chief deity of Assyria. It was animistic na-
ture-worship. Every object and phenomenon
in nature was believed to be animated by a
spirit. The great gods, after Ashur, were the
prominent objects of nature. They were
eleven in number, in two triads and a pentad.
Chief were Anu, heaven, Bel, the region in-
habited by man, beast, and bird, and Ea, ter-
restrial and subterranean waters. Next in
order were Sin, the moon, Shamash, the sun,
and Ramman, god of the storm. Then came
the five planets. There were innumerable
other deities, some of whom were merely
different aspects of the foregoing. Sul)ordi-
nate gods often attained eminence as patrons
of important towns.

Excavations in the Assyrian palaces, begun
by the Frenchman Botta in 1843, followed
immediately by the Englishman Layard.and
then, after a time, by George Smith of the
British Museum, Rassam, and others, have
made the Assyrian empire, which was little
more than a myth to the classic nations of
antiquity, to us a great reality.

The language spoken by the Assyrians and
the kindred people in Babylonia was of the
Semitic family and closely allied to the He-
brew. An alphabet was not used. The lan-
guage was written in characters which ex-
pressed syllables, not single letters or sounds.
These signs were imi)ressed on clay by a
stylus, each impression having the shape of
a wedge or arrow, whence the writing is called
cuneiform. The characters were originally
pictures of objects, but in time assumed con-
ventional forms which often bore no resem-
blance to the original object.

As'ta-roth. See Ashtaroth 2.

As-trol'o-gers.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew words
Hob're shamai/'ni}, dividers of the heavens.
They are mentioned with stargazers (Is.
xlvii. 13). There is no question that these
were astrologers who divided the heavens
into certain mansions, with the view of
tracing the course of the planets through
each of them, in the vain hope of being able
to tell fortunes and predict future events.
Though their failure was complete, yet the
careful study of the heavens which astrolo-
gers found needful, led to the gradual growth
of the sublime science of astronomy.

Asuppim

59

Athens

2. The rendering in A. V. of the Hebrew
and Aramaic words \lshshaiihiin (Dan. i. 20),
'Ash'phin (ii. 27), and 'Ash'phnyi/a (iv. 7 ; v.
7), all translated in the R. V. "enchanters."
See Enchantment and Enchanter.

A-sup'pim [collections, stores].

A building for storing temple goods, which
stood near the southern gate of the outer
court (1 Chron. xxvi. 15, 17) ; hence E. V.
renders the word by storehouse.

A-syn'cri-tus [incomparable or unlike].
A Christian at Kome to whom Paul sent a
salutation (Rom. xvi. 14).

A'tad [a plant, Ehamnits paliurus, or Christ's
thorn].

The great company, which was bearing the
body of Jacob from Egypt to the sepulcher
at Hebron, after making a detour, perhaps to
avoid the Philistines and Edomit«s, halted
at the threshing-floor of Atad, east of the
Jordan, and made a mourning for seven days.
The Canaanites saw and called the place Abel-
mizraim. Meadow, or with slightly altered
pronunciation. Mourning of Egypt. The pro-
cession afterwards entered Canaan (Gen. 1.
9-13).

At'a-rah [a crown, a diadem].

A wife of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 26).

At'a-roth [crowns, diadems].

1. A town east of the Jordan, rebuilt by
the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3, 34). It was
taken from the men of Gad by Mesha, king
of Moab (Moabite Stone, 10, 11). Its name is
generally supposed to be preserved in the
ruins 'Attarus, on the western slope of Jebel
'Attarus, three or four miles eastof Machaerus.
The mountain is some miles south of Hesh-
bon, which is in the tribe of Reuben ; but the
territories of Reuben and Gad, like those of
Judah and Simeon, were much commingled.
The ruins consist of uuwrought stones, lying
in heaps ; ranges of broken walls ; remains
of foundations, large caverns, and circular
cisterns. The old citadel was an hour's walk
from the town, than which it is lower, but
more isolated.

2. The same as Ataroth-addar (Josh. xvi. 2).

3. A town on the border of Ephraim, not
far from Jericho. Apparently different from
Ataroth-addar (Josh. xvi. 7).

4. A village, apparently in Judah (1 Chron.
ii. 54). The name should include the four
words that follow in A. V. and be written as
in E. v., Atroth-beth-joab.

At'a-roth-ad'dar, in A. V. once Ataroth-
adar [crowns of Addar].

A village on the southern frontier of Eph-
raim (.Josh. xvi. 5), on the boundary line be-
tween that tribe and Benjamin, west of Luz
and near the hill that lieth on the south side
of the nether Beth-horon (xviii. 13). Not
identified. 'Atara, 3i miles south of Bethel,
on the road leading to Jerusalem, is much
too far east.

A'ter [shut].

1. A man called, by way of distinction,
Ater of Hezekiah, ninety-eight of whose de-
scendants returned from liabylun after the
captivity (Ezra ii. K! ; Neh. vii. 21).

2. A porter (Ezra ii. 42 ; Neh. vii. 45).

A'thach [a lodging-place].

A village in the south of Judah, to which
David sent some of the spoil of Ziklag (1
Sam. XXX. 30). Perhaps it is Ether (Josh. xv.
42 ; xix. 7), kaph and resh being confused by
a scribe.

A-tha'iah.

A man of Judah, son of Uzziah, of the
family of Perez (Neh. xi. 4) ; scarcely the
same as Uthai (1 Chron. ix. 4).

Ath-a-li'ah [Jehovah has afflicted or is
exalted].

1. The wife of Jehoram, king of Judah, a
daughter of Ahab and granddaughter of
Omri (2 Kin. viii. 18, 26 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 6 ;
xxii. 2). She possessed the masculine courage
of her mother Jezebel, and was equally un-
scrupulous in shedding blood. When her son,
king Ahaziah, was slain by Jehu, she killed
all the sons of the murdered monarch except-
ing one infant, Joash, who was stolen away
by his aunt, Jehosheba. Then seizing the
throne, she reigned six years, at the end of
which a priestly insurrection took place in
favor of Joash. Attempting to quell it, she
was dragged from the temple courts and
killed at the carriage entrance of the palace
(2 Kin. xi. 1-16; 2 Chron. xxii. 1-xxiii. 21).

2. A Benjamite of the house of Jeroham
(1 Chron. viii. 26).

3. A man of the father's house of Elam
(Ezra viii. 7).

Ath-e-no'toi-us.

A commissioner .sent by Antiochus Sidetes
to Simon Maccabseus. He belonged to the
privileged class known as friends of the king
(1 Mac. XV. 28).

Ath'ens.

The caiutal of Attica, one of the Greek
states. The city became the center of en-
lightenment in science, literature, and art
for the ancient world. It grew up around
the rocky hill called Acropolis (top or high-
est point of the city), and covered the smaller
hills and intervening valleys on the north-
west side of the Gulf of ^Egina, between the
small river Ilissus on the east and south, and
the Cephisus a little to the west. Athens was
about 5 miles from the sea. Its commercial
port was Pirteus, with which the city when
in its glory was connected by long walls.
The navy anchored close by at Phaleron.
Tradition says that Athens was founded by
Cecrops about 1556 B. c, that it sent fifty
ships to the Trojan war, and that it was ruled
by kings till about 1068 B. c. The supreme
authority was afterwards vested in archons.
Two celebrated legislators are spoken of;
Draco, about 621 b. c, whose name has be-

Athlai

60

Attalia

<;oiiie proverbial for pitiless severity, aud
Solon, about 594 B. c, a wiser mau, whose
laws were more humane. In 490 B. c. the
Athenians, sui>ported by the I'latieans, gained
the great victory at Marathon against the
generals of Darius Hystaspis, king of Persia.
In 480 Athens had to be abandoned to his son
and successor, Xerxes, but the great naval
battle at Salamis gained by the Greeks com-
pelled the invader to withdraw. The city
was, however, burnt in 479 B. c. by his gen-
eral, Mardouius. The glory gained by the
Athenians in the Persian war led to the es-
tablishment of a small empire, with Athens
for its capital and a powerful fleet rather
than a large army for its support. About
444 B. c. the power of Pericles, an able demo-
cratic leader, became very great. The good
feature of his enlightened government was
the erection of many beautiful public build-
ings in Athens. Literature also gi-eatly flour-
ished under his administration. In 431, while
he yet lived and ruled, the Peloponnesian
■war began, which ended by the surrender of
Athens to the Spartans in 404. The city after-
wards went through various political vicis-
situdes, though the intellect and knowledge
of its inhabitants rendered them influential,
whatever changes took place. Four great
schools of philosophy — Platonic, Peripatetic,
Epicurean, and Stoic — flourished here and
attracted numerous students, not only from
Greece, but also later from Eome. The city
■was taken by the Roman general Sulla in 86
B. c, and was still subject to the Eomans
■when Paul was there. Altars "to an un-
known god " were found in the city and at
the harbor Phaleron (Actsxvii. 23 ; Pausanias
i. 1, 4 ; Philostratus, vit. Apol. 6, 2). Mars'
Hill, on which Paul delivered his celebrated
discourse, was a short distance west of the
Acropolis (Acts xvii. 15-xviii. 1 ; cp. also 1
Thes. iii. 1). Athens subsequently came into
the hands of the Goths, the Byzantines, and
other temporarily dominant races, ending
■with the Turks. Since the establishment of
the modern Greek kingdom, in a. d. 1828,
Athens has been the capital not .merely of
Greece, but of the Hellenic race throughout
the world.

Ath'lai [afiiicted or exalted].

A mau who was induced by Ezra to divorce
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 28).

A-tone'ment [at-one-ment, the making of
those one in feeling who before were at
variance] .

1. Reconciliation between persons or beings
at variance (Rom. v. 11, A. V.).

2. That which produces this reconciliation,
specially an expiatory sacrifice designed to
have that effect (Ex. xxx. 16 ; Lev. iv. 20, 26,
31, 35). This is the sense in which the word
atonement is now commonly used.

A-tone'ment, Day of.

The annual day of humiliation and expia-
tion for the sins of the nation, when the high

priest offered sacrifices as an atonement for
the sanctuarj-, the prie.sts, and the people
(Lev. xvi. ; xxiii. 26-32 ; Num. xxix. 7-11).
It was observed on the tenth day of the
seventh month by abstinence from daily
labor, by a holy convocation, and by fasting.
It was the only fast enjoined by the law. It
was "the fast" (Acts xxvii. 9; Antiq. xiv.
4, 3). On that day the high priest laid aside
his official ornaments, and clad in simple
white linen sacrificed a bullock as a sin
offering for himself and the priests. Taking
a censer of live coals from off' the altar, he
entered the holy of holies and burned in-
cense that, the smoke might cover the mercy
seat above the law. He then fetched the
blood of the slain bullock and sprinkled it
on the mercy seat and on the floor. This
completed the atonement for the priesthood.
He took the two goats provided by the nation
and cast lots upon them. One he slew as a
sin offering for the people, brought its blood
within the veil, and sprinkled it as before to
make atonement for the holy of holies. By
similar rites he made atonement for the holy
place and the altar of burnt offering. He
now took the remaining goat, placed his
hands on its head, and confessed over it the
sins of the people. Typically the sins of the
people were "laid on its head," it was made
the sin bearer of the nation, and laden with
guilt not its own was sent away into the wil-
derness ; see Azazkl. The high priest re-
sumed his official raiment, offered his burnt
offering and that of the people, and likewise
the fat of the sin offering. The flesh of the
bullock aud the goat were carried without
the camp and burned. The Epistle to the
Hebrews points out that this entry of the
high priest into the most holy place, once a
year, aud not without blood, foreshadowed
the entrance of Jesus, the gi-eat high priest,
once for all into heaven, having purchased
for us eternal salvation (Heb. ix. 1-12, 24-
28).
At'roth. See Atroth-shophan.

At'roth-beth-jo'ab [crowns of the house
of Joab].

A village, apparently in Judah (1 Chron. ii.
54, R. v.). In A. V. the name is cut asunder.

At'roth-sho'phan [crowns of Shophan].

A town rebuilt by the Gadites (Num. xxxii.
35, R. v.). Site unknown. In A. Y. incor-
rectly represented as two towns.

At'tai [perhaps, opportune].

1. A man of Judah whose descent through
his mother was from Jerahmcel and Hezron,
but whose father was an Egyptian slave (1
Chron. ii. 34-36).

2. A Gadite who came to David at Ziklag
(1 Chron. xii. 11).

3. A son of Rehoboam by his queen Maacah
(2 Chron. xi. 20).

At-ta-li'a [jiertaining to Attains].

A city on the seacoa.st of Pamphylia, built

Attains

61

Azariah

by Attains PhilaiU'lplius, kiug of Pcrgamos,
159-138 B. c, anil now called Antali or Adal.
Paul sailed theuce to Autioch ou his first
missionary journey (Acts xiv. 25).

At'ta-lus.

King of Porganios, cither Attains II., Phila-
delphus, or his nephew Attains III., who suc-
ceeded his nnole iu 138 B. c. (1 Mao. xv. '2'2).

Au-gus'tan Band, in A. V. Augustus' Band.

A cohort of Eomau soldiers, apparently
named after the Koman emperor Augustus
(Acts xxvii. 1).

Au-gus'tus [venerable, august].

The personal name of the first Roman em-
peror, called iu the N. T. Qesar Augustus.
See C^SAK.

A'va. See Avva.

A'ven [emptiness, nothingness, an idol].

1. The Egyptian city Ou, called by the
Greeks Heliopolis (Ezek. xxx. 17). The He-
brew consonants of Ou and Aveu are the
same, though the vowels differ. The pro-
nunciation has been intentionally modified
by the prophet to express his contempt for
the idolatries of the city.

2. A name applied by Hosea to Bethel as
no longer the house of God, but now a house
of idolatry (Hos. x. 8) ; see Beth-avex.

3. A town, apparently, which served to
designate a valley in the kingdom of Da-
mascus (Amos i. 5) ; probably Heliopolis, now
Baalbec, which like the Egyptian Ou was a
seat of the sun-worship (cp. 1 above).

A-ven'ger of Blood.

One who inflicts punishment on a mur-
derer, thus vindicating the majesty of the
law, " Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man
shall his blood be shed " (Gen. ix. 5, 6 ; Num.
XXXV. 31). When civil life is regulated, this
duty is undertaken by courts of justice. Of
old, however, the Semitic nations, like the
ancient Greeks, Germans, and Slavs, acted to
a large extent on the system of each injured
man being his own avenger. When murder
or accidental homicide took place, the nearest
relative of the victim was expected to avenge
his death, and was called the avenger of
blood. He slew the murderer or the unin-
tentional homicide, without any preliminary
trial to settle the actual facts of the case.
Then, very probably, the nearest relative of
the second man slain murdered the avenger
of blood, and a blood feud was established.
The Mosaic legislation introduced modifica-
tions into the system which destroyed its
worst features. Cities of refuge were estab-
lished, and any one killing a man and fleeing
to one of those cities was granted a fair trial,
and was not put to death unless he had com-
mitted actual murder (Xum. xxxv. 19, 21,
24, 27; 2 Sam. xiv. 11). The A. V. reads. Re-
venger of blood. See Cities of Refuge.

A'vlm and Avims. See Avvim.

A'vites. See Avvites.

A'vith [ruins].

An Edomite city, the native place of king
Hadad KJen. xxxvi. 35 ; 1 Chron. i. 46). Exact
site unknown.

Av'va, in A. V. A'va.

A city of the Assyrian empire, in or north-
west of Bal)ylouia, from which people were
brought to help to colonize Samaria. Their
gods were Nibhaz and Tartak (2 Kin. xvii.
24, 31). It is doubtless the place called Ivvah
iu 2 Kin. xviii. 34; xix. 13, R. V.

Av'vim, in A. V. A'vims and A'vites and,
as name of the town, A'vim.

1. The aborigines of the Philistine country
about Gaza. All save a small remnant were
destroyed by the Caphtorim, afterwards called
Philistines (Deut. ii. 23; Josh. xiii. 3).

2. A town of Benjamin, perhaps the same,
as Ai (Josh, xviii. 23).

Av'vites, in A. V. A'vites.

1. The same as Avvim (Josh. xiii. 3).

2. People of Avva (2 Kin. xvii. 31).
A'zal. See Azel.

Az-a-li'ah [Jehovah hath spared].

Son of MeshuUam and father of Shaphaa
the scribe (2 Kin. xxii. 3).

Az-a-ni'ah [Jehovah hath given ear].

A Levite, father of Jeshua (Neh. x. 9).

Az'a-rel, in A. V. A-zar'e-el, once A-zar'-
a-el (Neh. xii. 36) [God has helped].

1. A Levite who joined David at Ziklag (1
Chron. xii. 6).

2. A singer in David's time (1 Chron. xxv.
18). In ver. 4 he is called Uzziel (as king
Azariah was also known as Uzziah), and is
recorded as of the lineage of Hemau.

3. A son of Jeroham, the chief of the tri])e
of Dan (1 Chron. xxvii. 22).

4. A man whom Ezra persuaded to divorce
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 41).

5. A priest of the father's house of Immer
(Neh. xi. 13).

6. A musician of priestly descent (Neh. xii.
36).

Az-a-ri'ah [Jehovah hath helped].

1. A man of Judah, family of Zerah, house
of Ethan (1 Chnm. ii. 8).

2. A Levite, family of Kohath, line of
Izhar, and an ancestor of Samuel the prophet
and Heman the singer (1 Chron. vi. 36 ; per-
haps, 2 Chron. xxix. 12).

3. One of Solomon's ofiicials, son of the high
priest Zadok (1 Kin. iv. 2) and brother of
Ahimaaz.

4. Grandson of Zadok and son of Ahimaaz.
He was in the line of high-priestly succession
(1 Chron. vi. 9).

5. Son of Nathan, and hence probably Solo-
mon's nephew (2 Sam. v. 14), who was over
Solomon's twelve tax-collectors (1 Kin. iv. 5).

6. A prophet, son of Oded, who encouraged
king Asa to persevere in national religious
reformation (2 Chron. xv. 1-8).

7. Two sons of king Jehoshaphat (2 Chron.
xxi. 2).

Azarias

62

Azel

8. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Jerahmeel (1 Chroii. ii. 38, 39). His
grandfather was Obed (38) ; hence he was
perhaps the captain Azariah. son of Obed,
who assisted in overthrowing Athaliah and
placing Joash on the throne (2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

9. Another captain, son of Jeroham, who
aided in overthrowing Athaliah (2 Chron.
xxiii. 1).

10. A prince of Ephraim, son of Johanan,
who aided in persuading the soldiers of
Pekah's army to release the captives of Judah
(2 Chron. xxviii. 12).

11. A king of Judah, known also as Uzziah
(cp. 2 Kin. XV. 1 with 2 Chron. xxvi. 1) ; see
Uzziah. In Assyrian inscriptions he is called
Azriyahu.

12. A high priest (1 Chron. vi. 10), probably
he who rebuked Uzziah for encroaching on
the priest's office (2 Chron. xxvi. 17-20). Per-
haps he was still officiating in Hezekiah's
reign (xxxi. 10, 13), but probably the pontiflf
of the latter reign was another priest of the
name Azariah ; see High Priest.

13. A Levite, family of Merari, who as-
sisted in purifying the temple in Hezekiah's
reign (2 Chron. xxix. 12).

14. A high priest, son of Hilkiah and father
of Seraiah, not long before the exile (1 Chron.
vi. 13, 14 ; perhaps ix. 11). See Sekaiah 12.

15. A sou of Hoshaiah and an opponent of
the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xliii. 2).

16. The Hebrew and original name of
Abednego (Dan. i. 7; 1 Mac. ii. 59).

17. A prominent person, probably prince
of Judah, who marched in the procession at
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
xii. 32, 33).

18. A son of Maaseiah, who had a house
at Jerusalem in Nehemiah's time, and re-
paired the wall in its immediate vicinity
(Neh. iii. 23, 24).

19. One of those, apparently Levites, who
explained to the people the law which Ezra
read (Neh. viii. 7).

20. A priest, doubtless head of a father's
house, who in the days of Nehemiah sealed
the covenant to keep separate from foreigners
and observe the law of God (Neh. x. 2).

21. A descendant of Hilkiah who was ruler
of the hou.se of God after the exile (1 Chron.
ix. 11) ; see, however, Seraiah 12.

Besides these, a king of Israel (not Uzziah)
is called Azariah in 2 Chron. xxii. 6, but this
seems a coxiyist's error for Ahaziah, which is
given in the next verse (2 Chron. xxii. 6, 7 ;
cp. 2 Kin. viii. 29).

Az-a-ri'as [Greek form of Azariah].

One of two men appointed by Judas Mac-
cabseus to chief authority in Judsea during
his absence (1 Mac. v. 18), but who were de-
feated by Gorgias (56-60).

A'zaz [strong].

A Reubenite, line of Joel (1 Chron. v. 8).

A-za'zel [probably for ^azalzel, in the sense
of dismi.ssal or dismissed, separated one].

The word occurs originally in one passage
only (Lev. x^^. 8, 10, 26, E. V.) ; see Atone-
ment, Day of. The data for determining its
meaning are meager and insufficient, being
confined as yet to etymology, exegesis of the
passage, and general biblical teaching. Nu-
merous interpretations have been proposed,
but they are conjectures more or less satis-
factory. The word has been interpreted both
impersonally and personally, as meaning — 1.
A place : a solitary de.sert (Jonathan, Jerome) ;
2. A goat : the departing goat (Jewish revisers
of the Septuagint ; Vulgate) ; scape-goat, the
goat that is allowed to escape (A. V.) ; 3. An
abstract nouu : utter removal or dismissal
(Bahr, Winer, R. V.) ; 4. A personal being :
(a) some demotf of the wilderness (Stade) ;
(h) a fallen angel who seduces men to evil
(Book of Enoch vi. 7 ; viii. 1 et passim), later
identified with Sammael ; (c) an epithet ap-
plied to the devil (Origen, Hengstenberg,
Oehler, Kurtz, Keil ; see Milton, Paradise
Lost i.).

Either of two interpretations is satisfac-
tory : 1. To regard the word as an abstraction.
Aaron shall cast lots upon the goats, "one
lot for the Lord and the other lot for dis-
missal," and shall send the goat, upon which
the latter lot falls, away "as a dismissal to
the wilderness." The idea of the escaped
goat is virtually preserved by this interpre-
tation. 2. To regard the word as an epithet
of the devil, the apostate one. Those who
are laden with sin belong to the devil. The
objection to this interpretation is that Satan
is nowhere mentioned in any part of the
Pentateuch. The serpent indeed is, but it is
not certain that the devil was as yet recog-
nized as the possessor and actuator of the
serpent of the temptation.

Az-a-zi'ah [Jehovah is strong].

1. A harper for religious service during the
reign of David (1 Chron. xv. 21).

2. Father of a prince of Ephraim in David's
reign (1 Chron. xxvii. 20).

3. An overseer of the temple in the reign
of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 13).

Az'buk.

Father of a certain Nehemiah, contempo-
rary but not identical with the celebrated
governor of that name (Neh. iii. 16).

A-ze'kah [a field dug by a hoe and set out
with new vines].

A town in the lowland, near Socoh, to
which the kings besieging Gibeon were driven
by Joshua (Josh. x. 10, 11). It was assigned
to Judah (xv. 35). The Philistines pitched
their camp near it when they brought with
them Goliath (1 Sam.xvii. 1). It was fortified
by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 9). Nebuchad-
nezzar fought against it (Jer. xxxiv. 7), and
probably took it, but it continued to exist
after the captivity (Neh. xi. 30). Its site has
not been identified.

A'zel ; in A. V. once A'zal (Zech. xiv. 5), a
Hebrew pronunciation sometimes employed

Azem

63

Baal

when the word stands at a pause in the sen-
tence (as in text of 1 Chrou. viii. 38, but not
of ix. 44, R. V.) [perhaps, noble].

1. A descendant of Jonathan, Saul's son (1
Chron. viii. 37, 38; ix. 43, 44).

2. Probably a hamlet ; and if so, it lay to
the east of Jerusalem (Zech. xiv. 5). Per-
haps identical with Beth-ezel.

A'zem. See Ezem.

Az'gad [perhaps, strong of fiirtune].

Founder of a family, members of which re-
turned from Babylonia with both Zerubbabel
and Ezra (Ezra ii. r2 ; viii. 12). Its repre-
sentative sealed the covenant (Xeh. x. 15).

A'zi-el. See Jaaziel.
A-zi'za [robust].

A man whom Ezra induced to divorce his
foreign wife (Ezra x. 27).

Az'ma-veth [brave even to death].

1. A Barhumite, one of David's mighty
men (2 Sam. xxiii. 31).

2. A Benjamite, whose sons came to David
at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

3. The son of Adiel. He was over David's
treasures (1 C"hron. xxvii. 25).

4. A son of Jehoadah and descendant of
Jonathan, Saul's son (1 Chron. viii. 36).

5. A village in the vicinity of Jerusalem,
near Geba. Forty-two of its inhabitants re-
turned from the Babylonian captivity (Ezra
ii. 24). Some singers resided on its fields
(Neh. xii. 29). Called also Beth-azmaveth
(Neh. vii. 28). Its site has not been identified.

Az'mon [robust].

A place on the southern boundary of
Canaan, to the west of Kadesh-barnea and
near the brook of Egypt (Num. xxxiv. 4, 5 ;
Josh. XV. 4, K. V.t. Exact site unknown.

Az'noth-ta'bor [the ears, i. e. slopes or
tops, of Tabor].

A place on the boundary of Xaphtali, evi-
dently near mount Tabor (Josh. xix. 34).

A'zor.

An ancestor of Christ who lived after the
exile (Mat. i. 13, 14).

A-zo'tus. See Ashdod.

Az'ri-el [help of God].

1. A chief man of the half tribe of Manas-
seh, east of the Jordan (1 Chrou. v. 24).

2. A Xaphtalite of David's time, father of
Jerimoth (1 Chron. xxvii. 19).

3. Father of Seraiah of Jeremiah's time
(Jer. xxxvi. 26).

Az'ri-kain [help against an enemy, or help
hath arisen].

1. A son of Neariah (1 Chron. iii. 23).

2. A son of Azel, and descendant of Jona-
than, Saul's son (1 Chron. viii. 38 ; ix. 44).

3. A Levite, descended from Merari (1
Chron. ix. 14).

4. The governor of the palace under king
Ahaz. He was killed b3- an Ephraimite,
Zichri (2 Chron. xxviii. 7).

A-zu'baJi [forsaken or desolation] .

1. A wife of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 18, 19).

2. A daughter of Shilhi and mother of
Jehoshaphat (1 Kin. xxii. 42).

A'zur. See AzzuR.
Az'zah. See Gaza.
Az'zan [strong].

Father of Paltiel, prince of Issachar in the
days of Moses (Num. xxxiv. 26).
Az'zur, in A. V. twice A'zur [helpful].

1. Father of Hananiah the false prophet
(Jer. xxviii. 1).

2. Father of Jaazaniah (Ezek. xi. 1).

3. One of those who, with Nehemiah, sealed
the covenant (Neh. x. 17).

B.

Ba'al [master, lord, possessor].

1. A sun-god, exhibiting diflerent aspects of
the solar energy, the center of whose worship
was Phoenicia, whence it spread to the neigh-
boring countries. Baal was adored on high
places in Moab as early as the days of Balaam
and Balak (Num. xxii. 41). In the time of
the judges he had altars within the country
of the Israelites (Judg. ii. 13 ; vi. 28-32), and
when king Ahab married Jezebel, the daugh-
ter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians, the
worship of Baal almost supplanted that of
Jehovah. The life and death struggle be-
tween the two religions culminated on
mount Carmel when the prophet Elijah met
the priests of Baal (1 Kin. xvi. 31, 32 ; xviii.
17-40). Though it ended in the slaughter of
the priests of Baal, yet they soon swarmed
anew until crushed by Jehu (2 Kin. x. 18-
28). About this time, the worship of Baal
received new impulse in Judah through the
influence of Jezebel's daughter, Athaliah,
wife of Jehoram (2 Chron. xvii. 3 ; xxi. 6 ;
xxii. 2). On her overthrow, the temple of
Baal at Jerusalem was pulled dowu, the al-
tars and images were destroyed, and Mattan,
the chief priest, slain before the altar (2 Kin.
xi. 18). After a time the worship of Baal
was revived in both Israel (Hos. ii. 8 ; iv. 13)
and Judah. Ahaz made molten images for
the Baalim (2 Chron. xxviii. 2). Hezekiah,
indeed, wrought a reformation, but Manas-
seh erected altars to Baal (2 Kin. xxi. 3).
Josiah destroyed the vessels of Baal at Jeru-
salem, and made the public worship of Baal
for the time to cease (xxiii. 4, 5). Jeremiah
frequently denounced it, as did other prophets
(Jer. xix. 4, 5). The worship of Baal was ac-
companied with lascivious rites (cp. 1 Kin.
xiv. 24), the sacrifice of children in the fire
by parents (Jer. xix. 5), and kissing the
image (1 Kin. xix. 18 ; Hos. xiii. 2). Baal was
often associated with Ashtoreth, the moon-
god (Judg. ii. 13), and in the vicinity of his
altar there was often an Asherah (Judg. vi.
30 ; 1 Kin. xvi. 32, 33, both E. V.). Baal must

Baalah

64

Baal-shalishah

not be confounded with the Babylonian Bel,
though both are sun-gods.

2. A Keubeuite, house of Joel, who lived
before the captivity of the ten tribes (1 Chron.
V. 5, 6).

3. A Benjamite, son of king Saul's ancestor
Jeiel (1 Chron. viii. 30 ; ix. 35, 36, 39, R. V.).

4. A village of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 33) ;
the sjinic as Baalatli-beer (q. v.).

Ba'al-ah [mistress] .

1. A town better known as Kirjath-jearim
(Josh. XV. 9).

2. A mountain in Judah, some distance
westward of the town Baalah (Josh. xv. 11).
Exact situation unknown.

3. A town in the south of Judah (Josh. xv.
29) ; apjiarently the same as the Simeonite
town Balah (Josh. xix. 3) or Bilhah (1 Chron.
iv. 29). Site unknown.

Ba'al-ath [mistress].

A village of the original territory of Dan
(Josh. xix. 44), near Gezer (Antiq. viii. 6, 1).
Solomon fortified it (1 Kin. ix. IS; 2 Chron.
viii. 6).

Ba'al-atb-be'er [possessor of a well].

A town on the boundary line of the tribe
of Simeon. Called simply Baal (1 Chron. iv.
33), and known also as Eaniah of the South
(Josh. xix. 8, R. v.). Site unknown.

Ba'al-be'rith [lord of a covenant ; i. e. the
god who enters into a covenant with his wor-
shipers] .

A designation under which in the time of
the judges Baal was worshiped at Shechem,
where he had a temple (Judg. viii. 33 ; ix. 4).
Sometimes he was spoken of as El-berith, the
coveuant-keeping god (Judg. ix. 46, R. V. ;
where A. V. partly translates the name).

Ba'al-e, or rather, as in R. V., Baale Judah
[a CI instruct form, probably siuguhir, Eaal of
Judah].

A town of Judah, the same as Baalah and
Kirjath-baal and Kirjath-jearim (2 Sam. vi.
2; cp. 1 Chron. xiii. 6; Josh, xviii. 14). See

KlR,JATH-JEARIM.

Ba'al-gad (lord of fortune].

A place at the foot of mount Hermon, in
the valley of Lebanon, where apparently Gad,
the god of fortune, was worshiped. It consti-
tuted the extreme northern limit of Joshua's
conquests (Josh. xi. 17 ; xii. 7 ; xiii. 5). It
can scarcely be identified with either Banias
or Baalbek.

Ba'al-ha'mon [place of a multitude].

A place where Solomon had a vineyard
(Song viii. 11). Its identity with Balamon, a
town near Dothan (Judith viii. 3), which Gesc-
nius suggested, is extremely doubtful in view
of the variant spelling Belbaim, Belmaim,
Abelmaein (iv. 4 ; vii. 3).

Ba'al-ha'nan [lord of benignity].

1. Son of Achbor and king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 38; 1 Chron. i. 49).

2. Custodian of the olive and sycomore
trees under king David (1 Chron. xxvii. 28).

Ba'al-ha'zor [lord of a village].

A jilace beside Ephraim (2 Sam. xiii. 23).
Gesenius suggested Hazor in Benjamin (Neh.
xi. 33). Another view is that it was at Tell
'Asur, 4 miles northeast of Bethel.

Ba'al-her'mon [Baal or lord of Hermon].

A mountain marking the northwestern
limit of the half tribe of Manasseh east of
Jordan, and situated south or southwest
of mount Hermon proper (Judg. iii. 3 ; 1
Chron. v. 23). The comparison of Josh. xiii.
5 with Judg. iii. 3 is not sufficient to estab-
lish its identity with Baal-gad.

Ba'al-i [my master] (Hos. ii. 16).

Ba'al-im [Hebrew plural of Baal].

The sun-god Baal as worshiped under diflfer-
ent aspects by the nations neighbor to Israel,
or the old Canaanite plural of eminence in-
stead of the singular number (Judg. ii. 11 ;
iii. 7 : viii. 33; x. 10; 1 Sam. vii. 4; xii. 10).
Often coupled with Ashtaroth (q. v.).

Ba'a-lis.

A king of the Ammonites who reigned
shortly after Nebuchadnezzar's capture of
Jerusalem (Jcr. xl. 14).

Ba'al-me'on [lord of ]\Ieon or habitation].

An old Amorite city on the frontiers of
Moab, known fully as Beth-baal-meon (Num.
xxxii. 38 ; Ezek. xxv. 9 ; both forms on
Moabite Stone 9, 30). It was assigned to the
Eeubenites and rebuilt by them (Num. xxxii.
38 ; in ver. 3 called Beon ; Josh. xiii. 17 ; 1
Chron. v. 8). It was held by Mesha, king
of Moab (Stone 9, 30), and was in possession
of the same people in the sixth century b. c.
(Ezek. xxv. 9 ; and Jer. xlviii. 23, where it
is abbreviated to Beth-meon). It was still
a considerable town in the time of Jerome,
who gives its distance from Heshbon as 9
Roman miles. The ruins, now called Ma'in,
lie in the northern ]Moabite territory, 4 miles
southwest of JNIedeba. Tristram describes
them as occupying the crests and sides of
four adjacent hills, one being evidently the
site of the central city, connected with the
rest by a causeway. There are remains of
foundations, walls, streets, arches, carved
stones, caverns and cavei'uous dwellings,
wells, and cisterns.

Ba'al-pe'or [lord of Peor].

A Moabite deity worshiped with impure
rites on the top of mount Peor. The Israel-
ites, when encamped at Shittini, felt attracted
by it, and so sinned that a plague broke out
among them, and was not stayed till a slaugh-
ter had been ordered of the chief transgres-
sors (Num. xxv. 1-9 ; Ps. cvi. 28 ; Hos. ix.
10).

Ba'al-per'a-zim [i>lace of breaking forth].

A place near the valley of Rephaim where
David gained a victorv over the Philistines
(2 Sam. V. 18-20 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 9-11 ; cp. Is.
xxviii. 21).

Ba'al-shal'i-shali, in A. Y. Baal-shallsha
[lord of Shalishah, a third part].

Baal-tamar

65

Babel, Tower of

A village from which bread and corn of the
firstfruits were brought to Elisha when he
was at Gilgal, on the mountains, seven and a
half miles north of Bethel (2 Kin. iv. 42-44).
The gift was brought to Gilgal because a
sc-hool of the iirin>hets was there. Jerome
and Eusebius call Baal-shalishah Beth-shal-
ishah. and describe it as situated 15 Roman
miles to the north of Lydda. Conder locates
it at the present village of Kefr Thilth on
the lower hills of Eithraim, 16 English miles
northeast of Lydda and 13i miles northwest
of Gilgal. The distance and etymology favor
the identilication. Cp. 1 Sam. ix. 4.

Ba'al-ta'mar [lord or possessor of a palm].

A place in Benjamin where the Israelite
army totik their stand when about to assail
Gibeah (Judg. xx. 33). Exact site unknown.

Ba'al-ze'bub [lord of the fly].

The name under which the sun-god Baal
was worshii)ed at Ekron as the ])roducer of
flies, and consequently able to defend against
this pest. Ahaziah, king of Judah, applied
to him for a revelation (2 Kin. i. (J, 16). See
Beelzkbib.

Ba'al-ze'phon [lord of watchfulness, scarce-
ly Baal of the north or place of Typhon].

A place which was over against the Israel-
ites while they were encamped beside Pi-
hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, just
before they crossed through the sea (Ex.
xiv. 2, 9). So also in Num. xxxiii. 7, Pi-
hahiroth is said to be before Baal-zepbon.
Site disputed.

Ba'a-na, in A. V. once Baanali (1 Kin. iv.
16) [.^ramaic form of Baauah].

1. Solomon's purveyor for the southern dis-
trict of the plain of Jezreel from Megiddo to
the Jordan. He was a son of Ahilud and
probably brother of Jehoshaphat the recorder
(1 Kin. iv. 12; cp. ver. 3).

2. Solomon's purveyor for Asher and vicin-
ity. He was a son of Hushai, not unlikely
of that Hushai who was the friend and ad-
viser of David (1 Kin. iv. 16).

3. A certain Zadok's father (Neh. iii. 4).

Ba'a-nah.

1. A Beujamite, brother of Eechab, and
leader of a predatory band. Although the
brothers belonged to the tribe of Saul, they
nevertheless murdered his son Ish-bosheth,
and thus were partly instrumental in turning
the kingdom to David. They carried the
head of the murdered man to David at He-
bron in expectation of a reward ; but David
had them put to death as criminals (2 Sam.
iv. 1-12).

2. A Xetophathite. father of Heled, one of
David's worthies (1 Chrou. xi. 30).

3. One of Solomon's purveyors. SeeB.\AN.4..

4. A Jew who returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2: Neh. vii. 7). It was
probably the representative of his family who
sealed the covenant in Nehemiah's time (x.
27).

5

Ba'a-ra [perhaps stupidity].

A wife of Shaharaim (1 Cliron. viii. 8).

Ba-a-se'iah.

A Levitt', de^cendant of Gershom and an-
cestor of Asaph the singer (1 C'hron. vi. 40).

Ba'a-sha.

Son of Ahijah, of the tribe of Issachar, who
conspired against Nadab, the son and succes-
sor of Jeroboam I., king of Israel. When
Nadab was directing the siege of Gibbethon,
then in the hands of the Philistines, Baaslia
murdered him and all Jeroboam's descend-
ants, thus fulfilling the judgment denounced
against his house (1 Kin. xvi. 7; cp. Acts ii.
23). Then the assassin ascended the throne
of Israel in the third year of Asa, king of
Judah, and fixed his capital at Tirzah (1 Kin.
XV. 25-xvi. 4). He carried on a long war
with Asa. He began to fortify Ramah to
blockade the northern frontier of Judah, but
was diverted from his purpose by the in-
vasion of his kingdom by Benhadad, king
of Damascus, whom Asa hired (1 Kin. xv.
16-21 ; 2 Chrou. xvi. 1-6). Though Baasha
had extirpated the house of Jeroboam, yet
he imitated it in its calf-worship, and a
prophet, Jehu, son of Hanani, was sent to
threaten him and his house with a similar
fate. He died after a reign of 24 years, and
was buried in Tirzah, leaving his son Elah to
ascend the throne (1 Kin. xv. 34-xvi. 6).

Ba'bel [gate of God].

A city in the plain of Shinar. It was
the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom, i. e.
probably the earliest and chief seat of his
power (Gen. x. 10). Soon after the deluge it
became celebrated as the spot where the
famous tower was undertaken (xi. 9). In the
English versions the word Babel occurs in
these two passages only, being rendered
Babylon in all later notices.

Bab'el, Tower of.

A tower undertaken at Babylon shortly
after the flood. Those "wlio began to erect
it desired to establish a renowned center and
prevent the danger of their being scattered
over the earth. There is neither building-
stone nor lime on the alluvial plain of Shinar,
so bricks were used in jilace of stone in build-
ing this tower, and for mortar bitumen was
employed, abundant supplies of which were
found at Hit, about 140 miles higher up the
river. The tower was never finished, for those
erecting it were visited with a punishment
w"hich instantly or soon produced diflerence
of dialect and the withdrawal of men to new
regions. Hence the city was called Babel,
place of God's judgment. To describe the
event the Hebrew writer selected a word
which bears some resemblance in .sound to
Babel (Gen. xi. 1-9). Babylon was not wholly
deserted, a considerable number of the old
builders remaining there, so that the city soon
became a populous place. A groiindle.ss tradi-
tion identifies the tower of Babel with the

Babylon

Birs Nimrud.at Borsippa, about 7 miles from
the center of Babylou.

Bab'y-lon [Babel, Assyrian Bab-il, with
the (ireek ending on].

1. The eaj)ital of the Babylonian empire.
Its first mention in the Hebrew Scriptures is
in Gen. x. 10, with three other places, as the
beginning of Ninirod's kingdom (cp. Is. xxiii.
T.i). There the tower of Babel ((j. v.) was un-
dertaken and the eomsequent confusion of
tongues took place (Gen. xi. 1-9). It grew in
size and importance century after century
until it readied its greatest glory in the reign
of Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 b. c), who did
much for it, rendering it the largest and
most splendid capital of the then known
world, if not, indeed, of the ancient world
itself The earliest writer who estimated its
magnitude when at its greatest was Herod-
otus, who flourished about 443 b. c. He says
that Babylon, which he presumably visited,
was a square, each side being 120 stades, or
about fourteen miles, in length. This meas-
urement yields an area of nearly 200 square
miles, and includes Borsippa in the city
limits. Ctesias, also an eyewitness, who
flourished about the year 400 b. c, makes
each side of the square only about 90 stades,
or the length of the four sides together
360 stades, or 42 miles, in which case the
area would slightly exceed 100 square miles.
Other writers prior to the Christian era speak
of 365, 368, and 385 stades. The city was
surrounded by a wall (Jer. li. 58), or rather
douI)le walls "(Herod, i. 181). Without the
walls was a deep and broad moat. Between
the two walls, all round the square, was
a space within which no houses were al-
lowed to be built. AVithin the inner wall
were vast spaces connected by gardens and
open fields, which counted much for the area
but added little to the population of the city.
Herodotus says that the walls were 50 royal
cubits broad, or about 85 English feet; while
Quintus C'nrtius makes them the equivalent
of about 32 English feet. Eegarding the
height of the walls, Herodotus calls it 200
royal cubits, about 335 English feet ; Cli-
tarchus (as reported by Diodorus Siculus)
and Strabo agree in reducing this to 75 Eng-
lish feet. The city had a hundred gates
of brass, twenty-five on each side. From
these there ran broad streets at right angles
to the walls, thus dividing the whole area
into a large number of smaller squares. The
Euphrates ran through the midst of the city,
dividing it into two portions. The eastern
section was the larger, and contained the
palace, the hanging gardens (see NEBtJCH.\D-
nezzar), and the temx>le of Bel-Marduk,
patron deity of the city. A smaller palace
and a temple of Nebo stood in the western
section. Along each bank of the river there
was a continuous quay like the Thames em-
bankment. A wall cut the quay off from the
city ; but it was perforated by twenty-five
gateways with gates, whence there was a de-

66 Babylonia

scent to the river bank. There were ferry-
boats, a bridge, and even a tunnel. The
material of the walls, the quays, the palaces,
temples, and private edifices, was brick ; the
cement or mortar was bitumen (cp. Gen. xi.
3). The timber of the houses, which were
two, three, and four stories high, was of
palm wood (Herod, i. 178-186). The Scrip-
ture prophecies regarding Babylon have been
fulfilled (Is. xiii. ; xiv. 1-23 ; xxi. 1-10; xlvi.
1, 2; xlvii. 1-3 ; Jer. 1. and li.). Jeremiah (li.
37, cp. 1. 26) says that it should become heaps,
and mounds are all that remain of it now.
They commence 3i to 5 miles above the vil-
lage of Hillah, and extend from north to
south slightly above 3 miles, by 1| from east
to west, lying chiefly on the eastern side of
the river. The three most notable mounds
are now called by the Arabs the Babil, the
Kasr, and the Amram mounds. Babil marks
the site of Marduk's temple ; Kasr. that of
Nebuchadnezzar's palace, and has furnished
bricks stamped with his name ; the Amram
mound, apparently that of the palaces of
prior kings, possibly of the hanging gardens.
The eflort to trace the course of the lofty
walls has been unsuccessful.

2. The mystic Babylou of Kevelation xiv.
8; xvi. 19 : xvii., xviii., is the city of Eome,
which stood on seven hills (cp. xvii. 3, 5, 6, 9,
18).

Bal)-y-lo'ni-a.

A region of western Asia wliich had Baby-
lon for its capital. It is sometimes called, in
whole or in part, Shinar (Gen. x. 10; xi. 2;
Is. xi. 11), and sometimes land of the Chal-
deans (Jer. xxiv. 5; xxv. 12; Ezek. xii. 13).
It was bounded on the north by Upper Meso-
potamia, the dividing line between them run-
ning from near Hit on the Euphrates to a
little below Samarah on the Tigris. The
boundary is a natural one, separating the
slightly elevated jtlain of .secondary forma-
tion on the north from the low-lying alluvium
brought down bj' the Euphrates and the Ti-
gris on the south. Babylonia is bounded on
the east by the Tigris, on the south by the
Persian Gulf, and on the west by the Arabian
desert. In ancient historic times the area
Avas about 25,000 square miles, but the north-
ern part of the Persian Gulf is being grad-
ually filled with alluvium, so that now the
district is 430 miles long by 185 broad at the
widest part, and contains 30,000 square miles.
The deep rich alluvial soil, artificially irri-
gated, was of almost matchless fertility.
Cushites were early in the country (Gen. x.
8-10), and likewise the Semites. Cities were
built, notably Ur (xi. 28), Larsa (cp. xiv. 1),
Erech, Babel, Accad (x. 10), Cuthah (2 Kin.
xvii. 24), and Nipur. These towns were
sometimes independent kingdoms, at other
times under one monarchy. The Cushite
Nimrod early united four under his sway.
Sargon of Agade, who was a Semite by race
or had adopted the Semitic language, held
the entire region under his rule about 3750

Babylonia

67

Baean

B. c. But his dominion and that of his son
Naram-siu extended far beyond BiibyUmia,
and reached to tlie Mediterranean Sea. About
2285 B. c, Kudurnanhundi descended from
Elam and conquered Babyk)nia. To this
Elaniite dynasty Chedorlaomcr probably be-
k)nged (tJen. xiv. 1). About the sixteenth
century B. c, the officials of Palestine used
the Babylonian script and language in their
corresjtondeuce with the Egyjitian court.
About 1270 B. c. the Assyrians under Tukulti-
adar subjugated Babylonia, which for the
next 700 years remained a second-rate power,
though occasionally casting otf the Assyrian
yoke. Nabonassar achieved iudeiiendence in
747 B. c. It was reconquered by Tiglath-
pileser about 731 B. c. ; then, after successive
revolts, again by Sargon in 709 b. c, by Sen-
nacherib in 703 B. c, by Esarhaddon in 680
B. c, and by Ashurbanipal in 648 B. c. During
this period Merodach-baladan twice occupied
the throne, once from 721 to 709, and again
in 704 or 703. In 625 B. c, Babylonian inde-
pendence was tiually secured by Nabupalu-
sur, known to the Greeks as Nabopolassar, an
Assyrian nobleman of high rank. The As-
syrian empire was threatened by Medes and
restless Babylonians. Nabopolassar was or-
dered to defend it against all enemies. He
was faithless, and, soon after entering Baby-
lon, declared his independence, and laid the
foundations of what soon developed into the
great Babylonian empire. He reigned from
the year 625 to 604 b. c. He betrothed
his sou Nebuchadnezzar to Amuhia or Amy-
itis. daughter of Cyaxares, king of Media,
and the two fathers-in-law sent their united
forces to attack Nineveh. They were suc-
cessful. Nineveh was taken and destroyed
about 606 b. c, and the Assyrian empire
partitioned between the victors. The share
of Nabopolassar was Susiana, the vallej^ of
the Euphrates, Syria, and Palestine, which
were annexed to the Babylonian empire. He
made peace between the Syrians and the
Medes, who had l)een at war. In his old age
his territory was invaded by Pharaoh Necho,
king of Egypt, and, too inert or infirm to re-
si.st the enemy, he sent his son Nebuchadnez-
zar in his stead. Nebuchadnezzar totally de-
feated Necho at the battle of Carchemish,
fought 605 B. c, and pursuing him to or into
Egypt, meditated fresh victories, but was re-
called to Babylon by the news of his father's
death. He ascended the throne in 604 B. c,
and reigned nearly forty-four years. Under
him the Babylonian empire reached the far-
thest limits to which it ever attained ; and
almost all its engineering and architectural
achievements were carried out under his
direction. Jeru.salem was captured and de-
stroyed by him, and the people of Judah
carried into captivity ; see Nebuchadnez-
Z.A.R. On his death in 561 B. c, he was suc-
ceeded by his son Evil-merodach, who be-
friended the captive Jehoiachin (2 Kin. xxv.
27; Jer. lii. 31). After a reign of two years

(561-559 B. c.) Evil-nierodach was put to
death by conspirators, heade<l by Neriglissar,
husband of a daughter of Xol)uchadnezzar.
Neriglissiir, who is probably Nergal-sharezer
(Jer. xxxix. 3, 13), tlien a.sceuded the throne
and reigned between three and four years,
dying in 556 B. c. His .son and successor,
Ijaborosoarchod or Labossoracus, a mere boy,
was tortured to death a few months later, and
with him the house of Nabopolassar, which had
ruled seventy years, came to an end. The con-
spirators against the boy-king then invested
one of their number, Nabonadius, with the
sovereignty. In the seventeenth year of his
reign, 539 b. c. Cyrus the Persian entered
Babylon, terminating the Babylonian em-
pire ; see Cyrvs. In 520-19 B. c., and again
in 514, Babylon revolted against Darius Hys-
taspis, but on both occasions it was subdued,
and the last time was dismantled. From that
date it gradually decayed, the building of
Seleucia on the Tigris, in 322 B. c, hasten-
ing its ruin. Since then the territory on the
Lower Euphrates has passed successively to
the Persians, the Macedonians, the Greeks,
the Romans, the Parthians, the Persians
again, and finally to the Mohammedans,
whose misgoverument renders comparatively
unproductive a country which under firm
and enlightened rule would become well cul-
tivated and prove itself one of the most fer-
tile regions in the world. With the exception
of Ashur, the Babylonian gods were the same
as those of Assyria.

Ba'ca [a balsam tree, so named from its
shedding as it were tears of gum ; possibly
also a noun meaning weeping].

A valley in Palestine (Ps. Ixxxiv. 6), so
called from the balsam trees which grew in
it ; possibly the valley of Eephaim, where
such trees were found (2 Sam. v. 22, 23, E. V.
margin). Perhaps, however, the expression is
figurative, as the Greek and Syrian transla-
tors believed, like " valley of the shadow of
death," and denotes any vale of tears.

Bac'chi-des.

A Syrian general sent by Demetrius I. at
the close of 162 B. c. to place Alcimus in the
high priesthood, and to subjugate rebellious
Judah (1 Mac. vii. 8-20). The next year he
defeated Judas and Jonathan Maccab£eus ;
but his third campaign, which he undertook
in 157 B. c, was not successful, and he re-
turned discouraged {ix. 1-57 ; 59-72).

Badg'er.

The rendering of the Hebrew word Tahash
in the A. V. (Ex. xxvi. 14 ; xxxv. 7; Num.
iv. 25; Ezek. xvi. 10). It was an animal. Its
skin was used for the outer covering of the
tabernacle, and for sandals. Tristram says
that the common badger, 3Ieles rulgaris, is not
rare in the hilly and wooded parts of Pales-
tine, but it does not seem to be alluded to in
the Bible. See Seal, I.

Bse'an.

Probably a Bedouin tribe which made pred-

Bagpipe

68

Balak

atory incursions (1 Mac. v. 4). Blau has, how-
ever, suggested that it may be the uame of
the place which is called Bajaa in the in-
scription at Karnak. and which was situated
in the region indicated by the narrative.

Bag'pipe.

The rendering on the margin of the R. V.
of the Aramaic Sitmphoneya in Dan. iii. 5, 7,
10, 15. The texts of the A. V. and R. V.
translate it Dulcimer. Sumphoneya is ap-
parently from the Greek sumphonia, sym-
phony, unison of sounds. The bagpipe is
known in Italy by the name sambogna, and
in Asia Minor as s;imbonya, names which re-
call sumphoneya. The instrument is used also
in Egypt and Arabia, where it consists of a
leathern bag in which two pipes are inserted,
one for intiatiug the bag, the other for play-
ing upon with the fingers.

Ba-ha'rtun-ite.

An inhabitant of Bahurim (1 Chron. xi. 33).

Ba-hu'rim [young men].

A village near the mount of Olives, on the
road from Jerusalem to the Jordan (2 Sam.
xvi. 5). It is mentioned repeatedly in the
history of David. Thence came Shimei, who
cursed him. and in a well there Jonathan and
Ahiniaaz hid when pursued by the partisans
of Abs;iloui [2 Sam. iii. 16 ; xvi. 5 ; xvii. 18 ;
xix. 1(3 ; 1 Kin. ii. S).

Ba'jith [the house]. The Hebrew text has
the definite article.

A Moabite town or temple (Is. xv. 2).

Bak-bak'kar.

A Levite (1 Chron. ix. 15).

Bak'buk [a flagon].

One of the Xethinim, and founder of a
family, members of which returned from the
captivity (Ezra ii. 51 ; Neh. vii. 53).

Bak-bu-ki'ah [eflusion of Jehovah].

1. A Levite resident of Jerusalem, and in
high office immediatelv after the exile (Neh.
xi. 17).

2. A Levite, perhaps representative of the
family of the earlier Levite of this name,
who served as gatekeeper of the temple in
Nehemiah's time (Neh. xii. 25).

Ba'laam [perhaps, devouring].

A prophet, the son of Beor. and resident
of the Hittite city of Pethor, on the Euphrates.
Balak, king of Moab, sent an embassy to him,
consisting of elders of Moab and Midian,
offering him great reward to curse the Israel-
ites, that it might afterwards be more easy
to destroy them in battle. He answered the
deputies that he could not do so without the
consent of Jehovah, the God of Israel. Con-
sent was, of course, refused. Balak dispatched
more honorable negotiators, not elders, but
princes. Balaam replied that not for a house
full of gold and silver would he go beyond
the word of Jehovah. Applying again to
God for permission to go, he was allowed to
accompany the men, on condition of utter-
ing only tiie divine words put into his mouth.

On the way an angel of the Lord with drawn
sword, visible to the ass on which Balaam rode
but not to its rider, thrice disputed his progress.
The ass refused to go forward. When beaten,
voice was given to it, and it spoke out. and
finally Balaam himself was permitted to see
the angel, and learn the peril he was in. He
ottered to turn back, but was allowed to go
forward, on the same stringent condition as
before. Balak met him on the banks of the
Arnon, and conducted him to Kiriath-huzoth
(the city of streets), probably the same as
Kiriathaim, on the first conspicuous emi-
nence after passing the Arnon. After offer-
ing sacrifices, probably on the top of 'Attarus,
with its commanding prospect, the two. ac-
companied by the princes of Moab, went
northward to the high places of Baal, from,
which elevated spot the whole camp of Israel
was visible (Num. xxii. 1-41). After sacri-
fices on seven altars. Balaam went alone to a
bare height. There the word of the Lord
came to him. He returned to Balak. and
blessed the people he had been invited to^
curse (xxiii. 1-12). Balak was dreadfully
disappointed, but it occurred to him that the
Israelites when all visible at once looked too-
imposing ; if Balaam saw only the outlying-
part of their camp, perhaps he might be able
to 'curse them. He took Balaam to the top
of Pisgah and sacrificed as before ; but the
only result was fresh blessing instead of
cursing (13-26). A third attempt was made,
with the usual preliminaries, the station this
time being the top of Peor, on the ridge north
of Nebo. Not merely was there blessing in
the most decided language, but the utterance
ended with a prophecy that Israel should
ultimately conquer ^loab. Balak was en-
raged at what he considered Balaam's treach-
ery, and dismissed him to his own country
without conferring on him the intended honor
(xxiii. 27-xxiv. 25). Balaam, however, be-
fore quitting the country, suggested that if
the Israelites could be seduced into the idol-
atry and the impurity of the worship prac-
ticed in Baal-peor, Jehovah would leave them
to their fate. The evil counsel was taken,
with the result of heavy judgment on the
Israelites. In the war waged by the Israel-
ites to execute vengeance on the Midiauites.
Balaam was slain (xxxi. S. 16 ). Various other
O. T. books and some of the N. T. writers
refer to Balaam's character and fate (Dent.
xxiii. 4. 5 ; Josh. xxiv. 9, 10 ; Neh. xiii. 2 : Mic.
vi. 5; 2 Pet. ii. 15; Jude 11 ; Rev. ii. 14).

Ba'lac. See Balak.

Bal'a-dan [a son he hath given]. The name
is abbreviated by omission of the name of
some god who bestowed the son.

Father of Merodach-baladan (Is. xxxix. 1).

Ba'lali. See Baalah 3.

Ba'lak, in A. V. of N. T. Balac [emptying],

A Moabite king, son of Zippor, who luredi

Balaam from Pethor to curse Israel (Num..

Bald Locust

69

Baptism

xsii.-xxiv. : Josh. xxiv. 9 ; Judg. xi. 25; Mic.
vi. 5 : Rev. ii. 14).

Bald Lo'cust.

The reuderiug of the Hebrew S<il'am. con-
sumer. An unknown species of locust or
grasshopper (Lev. xi. 22). There is nothing
in the Hebrew etymology to suggest that the
auiuial had a bald appearance.

Balm, Balm of Gil'e-ad.

The rendering of the Hebrew word S'ri.
ooze. a vegetable pr<>duct obtained especially
in Gilead i Gen. xxxvii. 25 : Jer. viii. 22 ; xlvi.
11 1, and exported from Palestine (Gen. xxxvii.
25 : Ezek. xxvii. 17). It was used as an oint-
ment for the healing of wounds (Jer. li. S).
It was once strongly believed, and still is by
many, that the balm of Gilead was opobal-
~amum. a greenish-yellow oily resin of the
consistency of honey, to which wonderful
healing virtues were attributed. It comes
from a tree. Balsamodendron opobalsamum or
nUeadenie. belonging to the order Amyridacex

< Amy rids). It is from six to eight feet high.
But the identification of the opobalsamum
viiih the balm of Gilead is rendered doubtful
by the fact that the tree producing it is not
now found in Gilead. even in gardens, and
there is no proof that it ever existed in that
locality. It is a native of Arabia and Nubia,
and hence is often called the balm of Mecca.
Ou the margin of R. V. (Gen. xxxvii. 25) the
word is rendered by mastic. Pistacia lentiscu.^.
a bushy evergreen tree, about twelve feet
high. It grew in Palestine (Pliny 14, 25).
The transparent, pale yellow, fragrant gum
was used for incense and. when dissolved in
water, as an ointment; while oil obtained
from the bark, leaves, and berries was used
as a medicine. Josephus mentions a plant
bearing very precious balsam as cultivated at
Jericho, but he does not give details sufficient
for its identification ( Antiq. xiv. 4. 1 : xv. 4,
2 ; War i. 6. 6). Xor can it be examined now.
for it has been extinct, it is believed, since
the time of the crusades.

Bal'sam Tree.

The rendering of Hebrew Baka' on the
luargin of Ps. Ixxxiv. G ; 2 Sam. v. 23. 24 ; 1

< hron. xiv. 14. 15 in E. V. The plant grew
iiear Jerusalem. The Arabs apply the name
TO a bush which grows near Mecca, resembles
the balsam (see Balm), and has a white, acrid
sap.

Ba'mah [high place] (Ezek. xx. 29). See
High Place.*.

Ba'moth [high places].

An encampment of the Israelites north of
:he Arnon. probably an abbreviation of
Bamoth-baal i Xum. xxi. 19i.

Ba'moth-ba'al [high places of Baal].

A place north of the Arnon. probably that
at which the Israelites temporarily encamped,
to which Balak took Balaam, and whence
the plains of Moab were visible Num. xxi.
19; xxii. 41, R. V. margin). It was within

the limits of the tribe of Reuben i Josh. xiii.
17 : where it is named between Dibon and
Beth-baal-meon). It is believed to be one of
the peaks of the long ridge of Attarus on the
south bank of the Zerka ilain.

Ba'nl [built].

1. A Ciadite, one of David's mighty men (2
Sam.xxiii. 36 1. Textual criticism is still un-
able to determine the text of this verse and
of 1 Chron. xi. 3s. One or both may need
revision.

2. A descendant of Judah through Perez
(1 Chron. ix. 4. E. V.).

3. Founder of a family, members of which
returned from Babylonia with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii. 10 1. Some of them took foreign
wives IX. 29i. The family's representative
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 14'. Called also
Binnui (Xeh. vii. 15i.

4. A Levite of the family of ilerari (I
Chron. vi. 46).

5. A Levite who lived before the return
from exile, of the sons of Asaph and hence
of the family of GJershom Xeh. xi. 22 1.

6. A Levite. father of Rehum ( Neh. iii. 17) ;
perhaps he who took a prominent part at the
feast of tabernacles in Ezra's time (Xeh. ix.
4. 5). and in behalf of his house sealed the
covenant (s. 13 l

7. A Levite (Xeh. ix. 4i. As the name is
mentioned twice in ver. 4 and only once in
ver. 5. it is perhaps once corrupt in ver. 4.

8. Founder of house or family i Ezra x. 34),
among whose descendants was a person also
named Bani i3i).

Bap'tism.

The rite of washing with water as a sign
of religious purification and consecration.
Among the Jews, as elsewhere, such wash-
ing were frequent ; s<jme prescribed in the
O. T. (e. g. Ex. xxix. 4; xxx. -20; xl. 12; Lev.
XV.; xvi. 26. 2'?; xvii. 15: xxii. 4. 6; Xum.
xix. S) and others the product of later cus-
tom (see Mark vii. .3. 4; Heb. vi. 2i. Many
believe also that in Christ's time, as certainly
was the case later, proselytes to Judaism were
baptized. Hence John, the Forerunner, when
sent to call Israel to repentance, was directed
by God (John i. 33 1 to administer baptism to
those who accepted his message. His rite is
called ■■ the baptism of repentance unto remis-
sion of sins " I Mark i. 4. R. V. >. Recipients of
it thereby acknowledged their sins and pro-
fessed their faith that through the coming
Messiah they would be forgiven. Jesus sought
baptism partly to express his sympathy with
John's work, partly to dedicate himself to his
own work, and partly to express his assump-
tion of the sins of men. The mode of John's
baptism is not described, but. as Jesus entered
into the Jordan (Mark i. 9. 10. it was probably
by affusion or by immersion. At first Christ's
disciples continued to baptize the people as
John had done i John iv. 1. 2i. thus carrying'on
John's work, but after Christ's Galilaeau min-
istrv began, we read of this no more. But

Baptism

in his parting instructious (Mat. xxviii. 19),
Christ made baptism the initiatory rite of his
Church, one of the two sacraments to be ob-
served by his followers. Hence we find it
from the first required and administered by
the apostles and their co-laborers (Acts ii. 38,
41 ; viii. 12, 3b ; ix. lb ; x. 48 ; 1 Cor. i. 14, 16,
etc.). It signifies and seals a believer's union

Ancient representation of the Baptism of Christ,
from a Church in Ravenna. John stands on
the river bank, our Lord in the water. The
river Jordan is symbolized by the sitting figure.

with Christ through repentance and faith ;
the removal of his sins by Christ's death and
the Spirit's operation in him ; and his en-
gagement to be the Lord's (Eom. vi. 4 ; Gal.
iii. 27; Col. ii. 11, 12; 1 Pet. iii. 21). Chris-
tians have diflered, even from early times, as
to the mode of baptism. While the word is
derived from a verb, haptizo, which means
etymologically to immerse, this does not
prove that immersion was the mode always
practiced nor that it is necessary. In fact,
instances occur where the word plainly does
not mean immerse (e. g. Luke xi. 38, in Eng-
lish version "wash," and probably Mark vii.
4). The Scriptures nowhere describe, much
less pre.scribe, the mode. In the post-apos-
tolic times both immersion and affusion were
used. The Eastern churches and the Protes-
tant Baptists still practice immersion, the
Latin Church generally uses aflTusion, while
most Protestants use affusion or aspersion
(sprinkling). Probably the mode varied even
in apostolic times. According to Christ's com-
mand, it is to be administered in the name
of the Trinity. Modern Baptists contend
that baptism should only be administered to
adult believers. The Church, however, from
the earliest time has administered it also to
children who have sponsors to care for their
Christian nurture. It is certainly scriptural
to do this to children of believers, since St.
Paul expressly teaches (Gal. iii. 15-29) that
believers in Christ are under the gracious

70 Bar -Jonah

provisions of the covenant which God made
with Abraham. Under that covenant cir-
cumcision was administered to children as a
sign of their participation in the relation in
which their parents stood to God. The chil-
dren of Christian believers have therefore a
similar right to the ordinance which has re-
placed circumcision.

The phrase "baptized for the dead" (1
Cor. XV. 29) is difficult to explain. It prob-
ably either means "baptized with a view to
the world of the dead into which we are
going, "or refers to a custom of baptizing one
person in place of another who has died, a
custom which Paul might cite for his argu-
ment without approving. g. t. p.

Bar-ab'bas [son of a father].

A robber who had made an insurrection in
which he had committed murder. He was a
notable prisoner when Jesus was arrested.
Pilate, anxious that Jesus should be released,
otl'ered the Jews the option of releasing Jesus
or Barabbas, and they chose Barabbas (Mat.
XX vii. 16, 17, 20, 21, 26).

Bar'a-chel [God has blessed].
A Buzite, father of Elihu, Job's friend
(Job xxxii. 2, 6).

Bar-a-cM'ah, in A. V. Barachias, the

Greek modific^ation of the Hebrew name [Je-
hovah hath blessed].

Father of that prophet, Zachariah, who was
slain between the temple and the altar (Mat.
xxiii. 35). See Zachaeiah.

Ba'rak [lightning].

An Israelite, l)ele(iigingtothecityof Kedesh-
naphtali, who at the command of Deborah
the prophetess, called together 10,000 men of
Naphtali and Zebulun, with whom he routed
Sisera, Jabin's commander-in-chief, and de-
stroyed his army (Judg. iv. 1-24 ; v. 1, 12 ;
Heb. xi. 32).

Bar-ba'ri-an.

1. Originally one who did not speak the
Greek language. The phrase Hellenes and
barbarians embraced all nations (cp. Eom. i.
14). There being nothing offensive in the
word, the Eomans and the Jews were content
to be called barbarians.

2. Later, one who did not belong to the
cultivated Hellenic race (cp. Col. iii. 11).

3. One who spoke an unintelligible foreign
tongue (1 Cor. xiv. 11).

Bar-hu'mite.

Probably a misreading of Baharumite (2
Sam. xxiii. 31 with 1 Chron. xi. 33).

Ba-ri'ah [fugitive].

A descendant of Shecaniah (1 Chron. iii.
22).

Bar-je'sus. See Elymas.

Bar-Jo'nab, in A. V. Bar-jona [son of
Jonah].

A surname of the apostle Peter, meaning
that he was the son of a man named Jonah
(Mat. xvi. 17).

Barkos

Barzillai

Bar'kos [painter].

One of the Nethiniiii, who founded a fam-
ily, members of whicli returned from the cap-
tivity (Ezra ii. 53; Meh. vii. 55).

Bar'ley.

A cereal sraiu, called by the Hebrews
S''orah, the hairy, bristlinj^ thing, and by the
Greeks Krithai, and largely cultivated iu
Palestine (Ruth i. 22), Egypt (Ex. ix. 31), and
the adjacent regions, and made into cakes or
loaves (Judg. vii. 13 ; .John vi. 9). The sev-
eral barleys belong to the genus Hordeum.
They are cereal gras.ses. with the spikelets,
which are in threes, on opposite sides of the
rachis or flower axis, so as to form a two-
sided spike. Ten species are known, of which
Tristram found six iu Palestine, one of them,
Hordeum athaburense, from mount Tabor, being
peculiar to the Holy Land. That now culti-
vated in Palestine is chiefly Hordeum dis-
tichum, which has only the central floret fer-
tile, the two side ones being abortive.

Bar'na-bas [son of prophecy, especially of
prophesying which takes the form of ex-
hortation or consolation].

The surname of Joses, a Levite of Cyprus,
who. early converted to Christianity, sold his
land and laid the price at the feet of the
apostles in Jerusalem (Acts iv. 36, 37). When
the Christians of Jerusalem were afraid to re-
ceive the new convert Paul, Barnabas spoke
in his behalf, and removed their apprehen-
sions (ix. 27). On the report reaching Jeru-
salem that Christians of Cyprus and Cyrene
had been proclaiming the gospel with great
success to Greeks as well as to Jews at Antioch
of Syria, the Cliurch sent Barnabas thither,
and he aided iu the work (xi. 19-24). From
Antioch he went to Tarsus and brought back
Saul (xi. 22-26). Later the two were dis-
patched to carry alms to their brethren at
Jerusalem, then su|fering from famine (27-
30). Keturuing with John ]\Iark to Antioch
(xii. 25), they were sent forth by the church
on a mission to the gentiles (xiii. 2). They
visited Cyprus, and went thence to Perga,
Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and
Derbe. At Ly.stra the simple inhaliitants
mistook Barnabas for their supreme god
Jupiter, and Paul, who perhaps was the chief
speaker and less imposing in appearance, for
Mercury, the messenger of the gods (xiii. 3-
xiv. 28). Having returned to Antioch of
Syria, they were sent by the church to the
council of Jerusalem. Barnabas spoke, as
did Paul (xv. 1, 2, 12). At the close the two
were commissioned to carry the decrees of
the council to the churches in Syria and
Asia Minor (22-31). After further labors at
Antioch (35), Paul proposed a second mis-
sionary journey. Barnabas was quite willing,
but desired to have with him his young rela-
tive. John Mark (Col. iv. 10). To this Paul
objected, as John Mark had lost heart and
gone home from Perga on the former tour.
Each maintained his view pertinaciously, and

the two evangelists separated and went dif-
ferent ways. Barnabas with Mark sjviled
again to Cyprus, while Paul went on to Asisi.
Minor (36-41). But their mutual affection did
not cease. Paul, in his epistles, speaks in a
friendly way of Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6 : Gal.
ii. 1, 9, 13; Col. iv. 10), and yet more so of
.Tohu Mark, about whom the quarrel arose (2
Tim. iv. 11).

Bar-sab'bas, in A. V. Bar'sa-bas [son of
Sabba (?)].

1. The surname of the Joseph who stood
candidate for the apostleship against Matthias
(Acts i. 23).

2. The surname of the Judas who was sent
to Antioch as a delegate of the metropolitaa
church with Paul, Barnabas, and Silas (Acts
XV. 22).

Bar-thoro-mew [son of Tolmai].

One of the twelve apostles (Mat. x. 3 ; Mark
iii. l^i ; Luke vi. 14 ; Acts i. 13). As in the
first three of these passages the name of
Bartholomew immediately follows that of
Philip, and nearly does so in the fourth.
Bartholomew was probably the surname of
Nathanael, who was led to Christ by Philip
(John i. 45, 46).

Bar-ti-mse'us [son of Timseus].

A blind man healed by Jesus at Jericho
(Mark x. 46).

Ba'ruch [blessed].

1. A member of the family of Neriah, and
a friend of Jeremiah. He had custody of the
deed of the field purchased to testify thafc
land should again be bought after the exile
(Jer. xxxii. 12-16). In the fourth year of
Jehoiakim, he wrote the prophecies of Jere-
miah at the prophet's dictation (xxxvi. 1-8).
In the following year he publicly read theiu
on the fast day (10), and afterwards before
the princes, who took possession of the roll
(14-20). The king, on hearing the opening
sentences, burnt the roll and ordered the
seizure of the prophet and the scribe, but they
escaped (21-26). Baruch made a new copy
with additions (xxxvi. 27-32). When Zede-
kiah cast the prophet into prison, Baruch re-
mained by him (xxxii. 12, 16), and was one
of those taken with Jeremiah to Egypt (Jer.
xliii. 1-7). For the book bearing the name
of Baruch, see Apocrypha.

2. Son of Zabbai. He repaired part of the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 20). He is per-
haps the person of that name who sealed the
covenant (x. 6).

3. A man of Judah, of the Shilonite fam-
ily (Neh. xi. 5).

Bar-zil'la-i [made of iron].

1. A wealthy Gileadite of Eogelim, east of
the Jordan. He showed David princely hos-
pitality, sending him and his army food and
other necessaries while the fugitive king was
at Mahanaim during Absalom's rebellion (2
Sam. xvii. 27-29). After the victory, Barzil-
lai escorted David over the Jordan, and was
invited to become a member of the king's

Bascama

72

Bat

household and court at Jerusalem, but he
excused himself on account of his great age
— eighty years. It was therefore arranged
that his son Chimham should go in his stead
(xix. 31-40).

2. A Meholathite, whose son Adriel mar-
ried Saul's daughter Michal (2 Sara. xxi. 8).

3. A priest who married a daughter of Bar-
zillai the (lileadite, and assumed his father-
in-law's name (Ezra ii. 61 ; Neh. vii. 63).

Bas'ca-ma.

A town east of the Jordan near which
Jonathan Maccabseus was put to death, and
where for a time he was buried (1 Mac. xiii.
23 ; and Antiq. xiii. 6, 6, where it is called
Basca).

Bas'e-math, in A. V. Bashemath, once
Basmath (1 Kin. iv. 15) [fragrance].

1. One of Esau's wives, daugliter of Elon
the Hittite {Gen. xxvi. 34) ; in xxxvi. 2 called
Adah. See Adah.

2. One of Esau's wive.s, a daughter of Ish-
mael and sister of Nebaioth (Gen. xxxvi. 3,
4, 13, 17) ; in xxviii. 9 called Mahalath.

3. A daughter of Swlomon and wife of his
tax collector for Naphtali (1 Kin. iv. 15).

Ba'shan [broad, open land].

A region east of the Jordan. Its location
and extent in O. T. times is best learned from
its cities. Within its bounds were Golan,
north of the Yarmuk (Deut. iv. 43), Edrei and
Ashtaroth (Deut. i. 4), Salecah on the south-
ern slope of the Jebel Hauran (Deut. iii. 10;
Josh. xiii. 11, both R. V.). That is to say, it
extended southeastwardly from the neighbor-
hood of the upper Jordan to the border of
the Arabian desert south of the Hauran
mountain. It marched on the north with
Oeshur and Maacah (Josh. xii. 5 ; see Aram),
and contained '"the region of the Argob,"
famous for sixty cities high-walled (Deut. iii.
4, 5 ; 1 Kin. iv. 13). So large a number is
not incredible. In the mountainous parts of
the country there are still at least one hun-
dred deserted cities and villages, many of
them built of basalt and with hasaltic doors
(Porter, CUies of Bushan). Josephus identifies
Bashan with Gaulonitis and Batanea (Antiq.
iv. 5, 3 with 1 Kin. iv. 13 ; and ix. 8, 1 with
2 Kin. x. 33). In the days of Abraliam it
was occu]>ied by a people of especially large
and powerful build, known as Rephaim (Gen.
xiv. 5). The last king of this race was Og, who
•was defeated and slain at Edrei by the Israel-
ites in the time of Moses (Num. xxi. 33-35;
Deut. iii. 1-7). Bashan was assigned to the
half tribe of Manasseh (Deut. iii. 13). It is a
broad, fertile plateau, of volcanic formation,
and well adapted for pasture. It was celebrated
for its cattle (Ps. xxii. 12; Ezek. xxxix. 18;
Amos iv. 1), and for its breed of sheep (Dent,
xxxii. 14). It was celebrated also for its oak
trees (Is. ii. 13 ; Ezek. xxvii. 6 ; Zech. xi. 2).
Forests of evergreen oak still survive.

Ba'shan-ha'voth-ja'ir ; riglitly separated
by K. v., which renders " he called them.

even Bashan, after his own name, Havvoth-
jair" (Deut. iii. 14). See Havvoth-jaie.

Bash'e-math. See Basemath.

Bas'i-lisk.

The rendering of the R. V. of the Hebrew
Sepha' and i<iph 'oni, a venomous serpent living
in a hole (Is. xi. 8). It deposits eggs, from
which its young are hatched (lix. 5). It is
insensible to the charmer's arts (Jer. viii. 17).
The marginal rendering is adder, except in
Prov. xxiii. 32, where adder is used in the
text. Except in the last case, the A. V. trans-
lates the word by cockatrice.

Ba'sin, formerly spelled Bason.

A portable vessel for holding water for
washing and other purposes (John xiii. 5).

In the English version the word is used
for bowls and dishes of various kinds, espe-
cially for —

1. A small vessel, in Hebrew 'Aggan (Is.
xxii. 24, rendered cup), used for wine (Song
vii. 2, rendered goblet) and other liquids (Ex.
xxiv. 6).

2. A shallow vessel, in Hebrew Saph, used
for domestic purposes (2 Sara. xvii. 28) and to
receive the blood of .sacrifices (Ex. xii. 22)..
They were emploved in the temple (Jer. Iii.
19, R. v. cups; 2 Kin. xii. 13, A. V. bowl, R.
V. cup).

3. A large bowl, in Hebrew 3Iizral; used in
the tabernacle and temple, especially in min-
istrations at the great altar (Num. iv. 14), to
hold the meal oftering (Num. vii. 13. rendered
bowl), and to receive the blood of sacrifices
(Zech. ix. 15 with xiv. 20, rendered bowl).
It was made of gold, silver, or brass, and
burnished (Ex. xxvii. 3 ; Num. vii. 84, ren-
dered bowl : 1 Kin. vii. 45, 50). Revelers
sometimes drank wine from such vessels
(Amos vi. 6, rendered bowl).

Bas'ket.

Baskets of different sizes, shapes, and con-
struction were in use,' and various names
were employed for them. As ancient sculp-
tures and relics show, and as the etymology
denotes, they were woven open or close, were
made of the fiber or leaves of the palm tree
or of rushes, reeds, twigs, or ropes, tapered at
the top or at the bottom, were shallow or deep,
ornamented with colors or plain, small enough
to be carried in the hand, or so large that
they were carried on the shoulder or head or
borne on a pole between two men. They were
employed for carrying fniit (Deut. xxvi. 2;
Jer. vi. 9 ; xxiv. 2 ; Amos viii. 2, where in
each passage a difl'erent Hebrew word is
used) ; for carrying bread, cakes, and flesh
(Gen. xl. 17; Ex. xxix. 2, 3; Lev. viii, 2;
Judg, vi, 19 ; Mark viii, 19, 20, where still
another Hebrew and two Greek names occur) ;
for carrying clay to the brickyard and earth
for the building of embankments (Ps. Ixxxi.
6, R. V. ; see illustration under Egypt).

Bas'math. See Basemath.

Bat.

The rendering of the Hebrew word '"tal-

*l

Bath

73

Bealiah

leph. It was classed with fowls, and was
•ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi. i;j, I'J ; Deut.
xiv. 11, 1~, \s). It bides itself from observa-
tion iu dark places (Is. ii. 20). The reference
is pretty clearly to the bat order, of which
Tristram enumerates seventeen species as oc-
curring in Palestine. The bat is not a bird,
but is a quadruped, covered with hair instead
of feathers, having teeth instead of a bill, and
suckling its young instead of laying eggs.
Nor is its " wing " a flying apparatus of the
bird type ; it is an unfeathered membrane
connecting the fore and hind legs.
Bath.

A Hebrew measure of capacity used for
measuring liquids (1 Kin. vii. 26, 38 ; 2 Chrou.
ii. 10; iv. 5 ; Ezra vii. 22). It was the tenth
part of an homer, and corresponds to the dry
measure ephah in capacity (Ezek. xlv. 10,
11, 14).
Bath'ing.

In the warm climate of the East frequent
bathing is a necessity. The daughter of
Pharaoh bathed in the Nile (Ex. ii. 5). The
Egyptians wore linen garments, constantly
fresh-washed, and their priests washed them-
selves in cold water twice every day and twice
every night (Herod, ii. 37). Egyptians, He-
brews, and Syrians washed the dust of the
road from their feet when they tarried at a
house (Gen. xviii. 4 ; xix. 2 ; xxiv. 32 ; xliii.
24 ; John xiii. 10). If the Israelites con-
tracted ceremonial defilement, they bathed
the body and washed the raiment (Lev. xiv.
8 ; XV. 5 ; xvii. 15 ; Num. xix. 7, 8), either in
running water (Lev. xv. 13), at a fountain
{Judith xii. 7, 9 ; cp. John ix. 7), in a river (2
Kin. V. 10), or at home in court or garden
(2 Sam. xi. 2, 4 ; cp. Susanna 15). They washed
and anointed themselves and put on their best
garments for gala and court attire and on
putting away mourning (Ex. xl. 12, 13 ; Eutli
iii. 3 ; 2 Sam. xii. 20 ; Judith x. 3 ; Mat. vi.
17). The priests washed their hands and
feet before entering the sanctuary or burning
an offering on the altar (Ex. xxx. 19-21). The
high priest bathed at his inauguration and
on the day of atonement before each act of
propitiation (Lev. viii. 6 ; xvi. 4, 24). In the
time of Christ, the Jews washed their hands
before eating, and washed or sprinkled them-
selves on coming from the market (Mark vii.
3, 4) . At this time also, when Greek and Roman
customs had gained entrance among the Jews,
there were public baths. The warm springs
at Tiberias, Gadara, and Callirrhoe, near the
eastern shore of the Dead Sea, were resorted
to for health (Antiq. xvii. 6, 5 ; xviii. 2, 3).
The fish ponds connected with the palace at
Jericho were used for bathing and swimming
(Antiq. xv. 3. 3).

Bath-rab'bim [daughter of many people].
One of the gates of Heshbon (Song vii. 4).
Bath-she'ba [daughter of an oath].
Daughter of Eliam, and wife of Uriah the
Hittite ; thus perhaps the daughter of one,

as she was the wife of another, of David's
mighty men. She is the woman with whom
David so shamefully sinned, and who, after
the removal of her husband, became the wife
of David and mother of Solomon (2 Sam. xi.
3, 4; xii. 24 ; 1 Kin. i. 11). When Adonijah
was preparing to usurp the kingdom, Bath-
sheba, supported by the prophet Nathan, ap-
pealed to David in favor of her own son Solo-
mon, the result being that Adonijah's enter-
prise was thwarted (i Kin. i. 11-53), and him-
self ultimately put to death (ii. 13-25).

Batli'-shu-a [daughter of riches or salva-
tion].

1. The daughter of Shua (as the name is
rendered in A. V.) and wife of Judah (1
Chron. ii. 3 ; see Gen. xxxviii. 2, 12, both R. V.).

2. The text of 1 Chron. iii. 5 refers to the
mother of Solomon as Bath-shua, the daugh-
ter of Ammiel. Bath-shua is probably merely
a misreading of Bath-sheba, due to a par-
tial elfacement of the Hebrew letter beth. The
Septuagint has here the usual form for Bath-
sheba.

Bav'vai, in A. V. Ba'vai.

A sou of Heuadad, who superintended the
repair of part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
iii. IS).

Bay Tree.

The rendering in the A. Y. of the Hebrew
'Ezrah in Ps. xxxvii. 35. The plant referred
to by the translators is Laurus nobilis, a tree
thirty, forty, or more feet high, w'ith lance-
shaped evergreen aromatic leaves, inconspic-
uous flowers, and cherry -like fruits. Tristram
met with it on Carmel, Tabor, and in Gilead.
The R. V. renders 'Esrah "a green tree in its
native soil," which, of course, tends to flourish
better than a transplanted and, perhaps, a
sickly exotic. The same Hebrew word is
used in Lev. xvi. 29; xviii. 26, for a native
as distinguished from a man from another
country.

Baz'lith or Baz'luth [nakedness]. Either
form is in itself legitimate.

One of the Nethinim and founder of a
family, members of which returned from
captivity (Ezra ii. 52; Neh. vii. 54).

Bdell'ium.

The rendering of the Hebrew B'dolah, a
substance of the same color as manna (Num.
xi. 7), and found like gold and the onyx stone
or the beryl in the land of Havilah (Gen. ii.
12). The Greeks gave the name bdeltion to a
transparent, waxy, fragrant gum obtained
from a tree in Arabia, Babylonia, India, and
Media. The best came from Bactria. As
gold, the onyx, and the beryl, belong to the
mineral kingdom, b'dolah may perhaps also.
The Septuagint translates it in Gen. ii. 12
anihrax, the carbuncle, ruby, and garnet;
and in Num. xi. 7, krustallos, rock crystal.

Be-a-li'ah [Jehovah is Lord].
A Benjamite warrior who came to David at
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 5).

Bealoth

74

Bed

Be'a-loth [literally mistresses, possessors].

1. A village in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 24). Site unknown.

2. A locality in the vicinity of the tribe of
Asher, perhaps known by this name (1 Kin.
iv. 16, K. v.). See Aloth.

Bean.

Beans were used for food (2 Sam. svii. 28),
and occasionally, especially during famine,
were mixed with grain and made into a
coarse bread (Ezek. iv. 9). The common
bean, Vicia faba, is still known in Palestine
by the O. T. name for bean.

Bear.

The Syrian bear {Ursus syriaats) is of a
yellowish-brown color, and, unless pressed by
necessity, lives chiefly on vegetable food. But
all bears are dangerous when meddled with
(Is. xi. 7 ; Amos v. 19), especially when robbed
of their whelps (2 Sam. xvii. 8 ; Prov. xvii.
12 ; Hosea xiii. 8). Though now almost con-
fined to Lebanon, on the west of the Jordan,
and Hermon, Gilead, and Bashan, on the east
of the river, it anciently roamed over the
laud (cp. Prov. xxviii. 15). David killed one
in the vicinity of Bethlehem (1 Sam. xvii.
34), and near Bethel two she bears, which
came out of the woods, tore in pieces forty-
two young persons who mocked Elisha (2
Kin. ii. 24).

The bear of Dan. vii. 5, commissioned to
devour much flesh, was the Medo-Persiau
empire, one of four successive empires of the
world. The four beasts of Daniel are com-
bined in one beast in Eev. xiii. 2, to symbol-
ize all the power of the world. The feet are
bear's feet.

Beard.

The beard was cherished as the badge of
manly dignity. Its neglect was an outward
sign of mental aberration (1 Sam. xxi. 13) or
of alHiction (2 Sam. xix. 24). As a mark of
mourning it was customary to pluck it out
or cut it otf (Ezra ix. 3 ; Is. xv. 2 ; Jer. xli.
5; Herod, ii. 36). The king of the Ammon-
ites grievously insulted David's ambassadors
when, among other acts, he shaved oflf one
half of their beards (2 Sam. x. 4, 5 ; cp.
Herod, ii. 121, 4). The ancient Egyptians
shaved the head and the face, but often wore
a false beard. They let the hair and beard
grow as a sign of mourning (Herod, ii. 36).
Hence Joseph, when released from prison,
shaved the beard in order to appear before
Pharaoh (Gen. xli. 14). The practice of shav-
ing oflF the corners of the beard (Lev. xix. 27 ;
Jer. ix. 26 ; xxv. 23, both E. V.) was probably
a heathenish sign, as the Arabs shaved the
side of the face between the ear and the eye
in honor of their god Orotal (Herod, iii. 8).

Beast.

1. A mammal, not man, as distinguished
from a fowl of the air and a creeping thing
(Gen. i. 29, 30). The wild beasts are distin-
guished from domesticated animals (Lev.

xxvi. 22; Is. xiii. 21, 22; xxxiv. 14; Jer. 1.
39; Mark i. 13).

2. Any of the inferior animals, including
reptiles and birds, as distinguished from man
(Ps. cxlvii. 9 ; Ecc. iii. 19 ; Acts, xxviii. 5). In
this sense there was a distinction drawn un-
der the Mosaic law between ceremonially
clean and unclean beasts.

3. Figuratively, a fierce destructive power.
Four successive empires, beginning with the
Babylonian, are thus symbolized in Dan. vii.
The four beasts, combined into a compo.site
monster, represent the power of the world in
Eev. xiii. 1-10, with its seat transferred from
Babylon to Eome, xvii. 3-18. A beast with
lamb's horns represents false prophecy (xiii.
11-18), w^hich is a ravening wolf in sheep's
clothing. The beasts of Eev. iv. 6-9 of the
A. V. are very properly altered to "living
creatures" in the E. V.

Be'bai.

The founder of a family, some of whose
members returned from the captivity (Ezra
ii. 11 ; viii. 11 ; Xeh. vii. 16).

Be'cher [young camel].

1. A son of Benjamin (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; 1
Chrou. vii. 6). His descendants were ap-
parently too few at the beginning to form a
tribal family, at least they found no place in
the registry of families (Num. xxvi. 38; 1
Chron. viii. 1-6), but they ultimately in-
creased to nine fathers' houses, inhabiting
Anathoth and other towns in the territory
of Benjamin and mustering 20,200 men (1
Chron. vii. 8, 9).

2. A son of Ephraim, and founder of a
family (Num. xxvi. 35 ; reference to Becher
lacking in the Septuagint). He is not men-
tioned among the sons of Ephraim in 1 Chron.
vii. 20-27. Perhaps the children of Becher
the Benjamite were not so few in numbers
during the sojourn in Egypt as has been sup-
posed, but were principally identified with
Ephraim, perchance through a marriage of
Becher with Sheerah, and hence their family
as a whole, but not all the fathers' houses,
were enrolled with Ephraim.

Be-co'rath, in A. V. Be-cho'rath [primo-
geniture].

A Benjamite, an ancestor of king Saul (1
Sam. ix. 1).

The identification of Becorath with Becher
(1 Chron. vii. 6) is groundless. Becorath was
son of Aphiah, the son of a Benjamite, where-
as Becher was the son of Benjamin himself.

Bed.

An article of domestic furniture to sleep
upon. The poor and travelers often slept on
the ground, using their upper garment as a
covering (Gen. xxviii. 11 ; Ex. xxii. 26). A
bed might be no more than a rug or mat,
easily bundled up and carried away (Mat. ix.
6). But beds raised from the ground were
early in existence (2 Kin. i. 4, 6 ; iv. 10), with
bedsteads of wood, or of iron (Dent. iii. 11),
or among the wealthy of ivory (Amos vi. 4),

I

Bedad

75

Beelzebub

with silkeu cushions (Amos iii. 12, E. V.)
and rich coverings (Prov. vii. 16; Judith
X. -ill.

Be'dad [separation].

The father of Hadad, king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 3o; 1 Chron. i. 4(5).

Be'dan.

Apparently a Hebrew judge, ruling be-
tween Gideon and Jephthah, and distin-
guished enough to rank with them and with
Samuel (1 Sam. xii. 11). No such personage
is mentioned in the Book of Judges. Four
theories have been proposed in explanation.
1. Bedan ruled Israel, though no record of
his administration is found in the Book of
Judges. 2. Bedan means in Dan, or is a con-
traction of Beu-Dan, son of Dan, and is equiv-
alent to Samson. Better is 3. Bedan is the

Bee.

An insect which makes honey (Judg. xiv.
8, 18). It is compared to an army (Is. vii.
18) cliasiug man (Deut. i. 44), or surrounding
him (Ps. cxviii. 12). As Canaan was a land
flowing with milk and honey (Ex. iii. 8 ; cp.
Gen. xliii. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 17), bees must
have been there in large numbers. Their
nests were in rocks (Ps. Ixxxi. IB) and in
woods (1 Sam. xiv. 2Ji), especially in Judah
(Ezek. xxvii. 17; cp. Mat. iii. 4).

Be-e-li'a-da [the Lord hath known, i. e.
kindly regarded].

A son of king David, born at Jerusalem (1
Chron. xiv. 7). During his lifetime he may
have been called by the alternate name
Eliada, God hath known ; at any rate, when
the word Baal became distasteful on account

'Ain Muwt'ileh, the traditional Beer-lahai-roi.

judge Jair ; for a person called Bedan is reg-
istered in 1 Chron. vii. 14-17 as a descend-
ant of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of
Manasseh ; and Jair the judge was a Gileadite,
and belonged to the villages named from Jair,
a descendant of Machir (1 Chron. ii. 21, 22).
Bedan's descent from Manasseh diflered from
that of Jair who captured and named the
villages ; but this fact does not prevent Be-
dan from representing the de.scendants and
the district of Jair the conqueror, and being
officially called Jair. Best is 4. Bedan is an
early misreading for either Abdon (Judg. xii.
13) or for Barak, which is found in the Scp-
tuagint, Syriac and Arabic versions (cp. Heb.
xi. 32).

Be-de'iah.

A son of Bani, who was induced by Ezra to
put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 35).

of idolatrous associations, the Hebrew his-
torians were apt to write Eliada instead of
Beeliada (2 Sam. v. 16 ; 1 Chron. iii. 8).

Be-el'ze-bub.

The prince of the demons (Mat. x. 25 : xii.
24; Mark iii. 22; Luke xi. 15, 18, 19), whom
Jesus identifies with Satan (Mat. xii. 26 ;
Mark iii. 23; Luke xi. 18). The spelling
Beelzebub differs but slightly from Baalze-
bub, god of Ekron. The Greek text, how-
ever, has Beelzebul. The common explana-
tion is that, with the view of insulting the
Ekrouite god and his worshipers, the Jews
wished to make s'bub, fly, into sihbul or zebel,
dung. But as in Hebrew s'btd means habita-
tion, Baalzebul may signify lord of the habi-
tation, and the notion of insult falls to the
ground. Jesus played upon this meaning of
the name in Mat. x. 25. The notion of insult

Beer

76

Beer-sheba

also falls on the plausible supposition that
Beelzebul was merely a Greek nioditicatiou
of Beelzebub, adopted because the pronuncia-
tion was for the Greeks easier to the tongue
and more pleasant to the ear.
Be'er [a wellj.

1. A station of the Israelites on the con-
fines of Moab, at which a well was dug bj-
the leaders of Israel with their staves or un-
der their official supervision (Num. xxi. IB-
IS) ; possibly the same as Beer-elim.

2. A place to which Jotham fled from his
brother Abimelech (Judg. ix. 21). Situa-
tion unknown. Eusebius discriminates it from
Beeroth in Benjamin,and locates it in the plain
8 Roman miles to the north of Eleutheropolis,
i. e. Beit Jibrin. Josephus says that Jotham
lied to the mountains (Antiq. v. 7, 2).

Be-e'ra [a well].

An Asherite, family of Heber (1 Chron.
Tii. 37).

Be-e'rah [a well].

A i>rince of the Reubeuites, who was car-
ried captive by Tiglath-pileser, king of As-
syria (1 Chron. v. 6).

out to her by an angel when she and her son
Ishmael were in danger of perishing from
thirst (Gen. xvi. 10-15; xxiv. 62; xxv. 11).
The Bedouin connect 'Ain Muweileh, at the
eastei-u foot of Jebel Muweileh, a few miles
west of Kadesh, on the caravan route to
Egypt, with Hagar. (See illustration, p. 75.)
Be-e'roth [wells].

1. A Gibeonite town (Josh. ix. 17), after-
wards assigned to the Benjamites (xviii. 25;
2 Sam. iv. 2). It continued to be inhabited
after the captivity (Ezra ii. 25 ; Neh. vii. 29).
It still exists in the village el-Bireh, a little
more than 8 miles north of Jerusalem on
the way to Bethel. It is built on a ridge
running west to east, and is seen from a dis-
tance toward both the north and south.
Many large stones and various substructions
testify to the antiquity of the site.

2. Beeroth of the children of Jaakan ; wells
on the borders of Edom, belonging to the tribe
of Jaakan, by which the Israelites encamped
on their way to Canaan (Deut. x. 6). See
Jaakan.

Be-e'roth-ite, once Berothite.

Beer-sheba.

Be'er-e'lim [well of heroes or of tree.?].
A village of Moab (Is. xv. 8) ; possibly the
same as Beer 1.

Be-e'ri [man of a well].

1. A Hittite, father of Judith, one of Esau's
•wives (Gen. xxvi. 34). See Anah.

2. Father of the prophet Hosea (Hos. i. 1).
Be'er-la-hai'-roi [the well of the Living

One who seeth me].

The name given by Hagar to a well in the
desert between Kadesh and Bered, pointed

A native or inhabitant of Beeroth (2 Sam.
iv. 2 ; xxiii. 37 ; 1 Chron. xi. 39).

Be'er-she'ba [well of seven]. The pres-
ence of the word seven in the name was a
constant reminder that a covenant had been
sworn to.

A well dug by Abraham in the wilderness
adjacent to the Philistine country, and where
he and the king of Gerar made a covenant
not to molest each other. This well had
already been an object of strife between their

Beeshterah

BeU

respective herdsmen. Accordingly Abniham
gave Abimelecb seven ewe him))s :is ;i witness
of the Hebrew title, and to furtlier preserve
the memory of the trausjvction, called the
well Beer-sheba ^Geu. xxi. 22-'S2). He also
planted there a tamarisk tree, and called ou
the name of Jehovah, the everlasting God (33,
E. v.). Abraham resided for many years at
this place. Then he went to Hebron, and after-
wards sojourned at Beer-lahai-roi. During
the absence of the Hebrews from this part
of the wilderness, the Philistines rilled up
the wells ; but when Isaac came into au-
thority he returned to this district and be-
gan to reopen them. While at Beer-sheba,
engaged in clearing out that well also, the
king of Gerar came and made a covenant
with him. as he or his predecessor had done
with Abraham. The Philistine and his com-
panions had scarcely departed, when Isaac's
servants announced that they had reached
water. As in former like cases, Isaac piously
revived the old name, calling the well Shibah,
the feminine form of the numeral sheba',
thus confirming and preserving the name
Beer-sheba (xxvi. 32, 33, R. V.). It was from
this well that Jacob started on his journey to
Haran (xxviii. 10), and there he siicrificed on
his way to Egypt (xlvi. 1-5). A town ulti-
mately rose in the vicinity of the well (Josh.
XV. 28). It was situated in the extreme
south of Judah (Josh. xv. 28 : 2 Sam. xxiv.
7; 2 Kin. xxiii. 8), though allotted to the
Simeonites (Josh. xix. 1.2; 1 Chron. iv.28i,and
was also the southern limit of Palestine, so
that the expression became proverbial. " from
Dan to Beer-sheba," i. e. from the extreme
north to the extreme south of the Holy Land
(Judg. XX. 1 et pas.). Samuel's sons were
judges in Beer-sheba (1 Sam. viii. 2). Elijah
passed through it on his way to Horeb (1 Kin.
xix. 3). It was inhabited after the captivity
(Neh. xi. 27. 30). Robinson found two deep
wells, still called Bir es-Seba', on the north-
ern side of a wide watercourse or bed of a
torrent, wady es-Seba'. The wells are some
distance apart. They are circular and built
around with solid masonry. The largest he
found \2h feet in diameter and 44V deep, to
the surface of the water, 16 feet at the lower
part being cut through solid rock.

Be-esh'te-rah [house or temple of Astarte] .

The same place as Ashtaroth (Josh. xxi. 27
with 1 Chron. vi. 71). This contraction of
Beth-eshterah is like that of Bethshan to
Beisan.

Bee'tle. See Cricket.

Be'he-moth [probably derived from Egyp-
tian p-fhe-mau, water ox, and modified by
the Hebrews into b'hemoth, a plural of ex-
cellence denoting an animal which possesses
in a high degree the attributes of b'hemah,
a beast] .

A large animal described by Job. It eats
grass like an ox. Its body is thick and mas-
sive, with bones like bars of iron, and a tail,

which it moves like a cedar. It is am-
phibious, sometimes feeding with other ((Uad-
rupeds ui)on the mountains, and sometimes
lying in fens, among reeds, or under willows
or apparently in flooded rivers (Job. xl. 15-24 ;
R. V. margin "hippopotamus"'). It is prob-
ably the hipi)Opotannis of the Nile (llippo-
potamus amphibias). This has an unwieldy
body eleven or twelve feet long, a large
clumsy head, short stout legs, with four feet
bearing toes. The gape of its mouth is enor-
mous and the tusks of formidable .size. It
feeds on green corn, gniss, and young shrubs.
In ancient times it descended the Nile ; but
it was hunted for its valuable skin, teeth,
and flesh, and it was also taken in considera-
ble numbers to Rome for exhibition in the
circus. Now, therefore, these animals are
extinct in Egypt, though found on the Upper
Nile.

Be'ka, in A. V. Be'kah [division, half].

Haifa shekel (Ex. xxxviii. 26). The value
was about 16.8 pence or 33 cents. It was used
for weighing the precious metals (Gen. xxiv.
22). See Weights.

Bel [lord].

Title of the patron god of Babylon (Is.
xlvi. 1 ; Jer. 1. 2 ; li. 44 ; Bel and Dragon 3-
22; Herod, i. 181), whose proper name was
Marduk or, as pronounced by the Hebrews,.
Merodach. He was a sun-god, the sun of
early day and of spring ; and he was re-
garded as the son of Ea, god of the ocean
and other terrestrial waters. His festival was-
celebrated in the spring, at the beginning of
the year. Because the sun in this aspect ex-
erts such potent influence in nature, and be-
cause he was tlieir tutelary divinity, the men
of Babylon paid him supreme worship and as-
cribed to him the loftiest attributes. He was
not originally numbered among the chief
gods by the people on the lower Tigris and
Euphrates, but gi'ew in importance with the
increasing power and renown of the city of
Babylon.

Another Bel, god of the region between
earth and sky. and grouped in a triad with
Ann, heaven, and Ea, was one of the elevea
great gods.

Be'la, in A. V. once Be'lah (Gen. xlvi. 21)
[devouring, destruction].

1. A king of Edom, whose father's name
was Beor (Gen. xxxvi. 32).

2. A Reubenite chief (1 Chron. v. 8).

3. A son of Benjamin, and founder of a
family (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num. xxvi. 38).

4. One of the cities of the plain, the same
as Zoar (Gen. xiv. 2, 8).

Be'li-al [worthlessness, wickedness].

Ungodliness (Ps. xviii. 4, R. V.). The
phrase " men of belial " is a Semitic circum-
locution, in default of the appropriate ad-
jective, for ungodly men (Deut. xiii. 13).
Belial is personified in 2 Cor. vi. 15.

Bell.

Small golden bells, alternating with orna-

Bellows

78

Bene-jaakan

ments in the form of pomegranates, were at-
tached to the lower part of the official hlue
robe of the high priest in order to send forth
a sound that might be heard in the temple
for a memorial of the children of Israel, that
he die not (Ex. xxviii. 33, 34 ; Ecclus. xlv.
9). A string of flat pieces of brass was hung
around the neck of horses, or a single bell
was suspended from their throat (Zech. xiv.
20 ; cp. Judg. viii. 21). In either case the tink-
ling kept the horses together at night, and
made it easy to find a strayed beast.

Bellows.

An instrument for blowing the fire of a
smelting furnace (Jer. vi. 29 ; Iliad xviii. 470).
As used by the ancient Egyptians, the bellows
consisted of a pair of leather bags, fitted into
a frame, from each of which a pipe extended
to the fire. They were worked by the feet,
the operator standing upon them with one
under each foot, and pressing them alter-
nately while he pulled up the exhausted
skin with a string which he held in his
hand. A double pair was used for each fur-
nace.

Bel-shaz'zar [Babylonian Bel-shar-tisur,
Bel protect the king] .

A king of the Chaldeans, descended from
Nebuchadnezzar, and slain on the night that
the Medo-Persian army entered Babylon (Dan.
V. 1-31). It appears from contemporary in-
scriptions that he was the eldest sou of Nabu-
na'id, pronounced Nabonadios and Nabonidos
by the Greeks. As early as 551 b. c, the fifth
year of Nabuna'id, Belshazzar, the king's son,
was a man of aflairs, employing a scribe ; and
in the eleventh year he was a holder of prop-
erty, and had a steward over his house and
scribes. To the moon-god Nabuna'id prayed :
"As for me, Nabuna'id king of Babylon, de-
liver me from sin against thy great divine
nature and grant unto me length of days.
And concerning Belsharusur my firstborn, the
offspring of my body, his heart also fill thou
with awe of thy great divinity, that he may
never indulge in sins. With abundance of
days let him be satisfied." See Cyrus and
Daniel.

Bel-te-shaz'zar [Babylonian, BnlntsiMisur,
protect his life]. The name is abbreviated
by omitting the name of the deity invoked.

The name given bj' the prince of the Baby-
lonian eunuchs to the prophet Daniel (Dan.
i. 7). Bel, the god of Nebuchadnezzar, was
the deity invoked in the name (iv. 8).

Ben [sou].

A Levite (1 Chron. xv. 18), but probably
the name has erroneously crept into the text ;
cp. 20, 21.

Ben-a-bin'a-dab [son of Abinadab].

Son-in-law of Solomon and his purveyor in
the region of Dor (1 Kin. iv. 11, R. V.).

Be-na'iah [Jehovah hath built].
1. A Levite, the son of Jehoiada of Kab-
zeel in Judah (2 Sam. xxiii. 20). His father

was a priest (1 Chron. xxvii. 5). If the title
here denotes a minister at the altar, Benaiah's
father was probably the leader of the priests
who joined the army which placed David on
the throne (xii. 27). Benaiah was a valiant
man, celebrated for having descended into a
})it and killed a lion, for having slain two
lion-like men of Moab, and, when armed only
with a statf, for having met an Egyptian
giant, wrested away his spear, and killed him
with his own weajion (2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21 ;
1 Chron. xi. 22, 23). He was over the Cher-
ethites and Pelethites, David's bodyguard
(2 Sam. viii. 18). and also commanded the
military division for the third month (1
Chron. xxvii. 5, 6). He with the bodyguard
remained faithful to David during Absalom's
rebellion (cp. 2 Sam. xv. 18; xx. 23) and that
of Adonijah (1 Kin. i. 10). By David's order
he, at the head of the guard, escorted Solo-
mon to Gihon, to be anointed king (38), and
as chief of the guard he executed Adonijah
(ii. 25),Joab (29-34), and Shimei (46). The
death of Joab having left the oflice of com-
mander-in-chief vacant, Benaiah was pro-
moted to the same (35).

2. A Pirathonite, one of David's thirty
mighty men of the second rank (2 Sam. xxiii.
30 ; 1 Chron. xi. 31). He commanded the
military division for the eleventh month
(xxvii. 14).

3. A Levite of the second degree who
played the psaltery before the ark when it
was escorted to Jerusalem, and afterwards
in the tabernacle erected by David (1 Chron.
XV. 18, 20: xvi. 5).

4. A priest who blew a trumpet in the
company which escorted the ark to Jeru-
salem and afterwards in David's tabernacle
(1 Chron. xv. 24; xvi. 6).

5. A Levite, descended from Asaph, and
living before the reign of Jehoshaphat (2
Chron. xx. 14).

6. A Simeonite. possibly a contemporary
of Hezekiah (1 Chron. iv. 36 ; cp. 41).

7. A Levite, an overseer of dedicated offer-
ings in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron. xxxi. 13).

8. Father of Ezekiel's contemporary, prince
Pelatiah (Ezek. xi. 1, 13).

9-12. Four men, sons of Parosh, Pahath-
moab, Bani, and Nebo, respectively, who were
induced bv Ezra to put away their strange
wives (Ezra x. 25, 30, 35, 43).

Ben-am 'mi [son of my people ; a circum-
locution for my kinsman, and equivalent to
Amnion, kin].

Son of Lot's younger daughter, from whom
sprang the Ammonite tribe (Gen. xix. 38).

Ben-de'ker [son of Deker].
Solomon's purveyor in Bethshemesh and
some other towns (1 Kin. iv. 9, E. V.).

Ben'e-be'rak [sons of Berak].
A town of Dan (Josh. xix. 45), now Ibn
Ibrak, 4 miles east of Jaffa.

Ben'e-ja'a-kan. See Jaakan.

Ben-geber

79

Benjamin

Ben-ge'ber [sou of Geber].
Solomons purveyor in Ramoth-gilead (1
Kin. iv. lo. K. V.)-

Ben-ha'dad [sou of Hadad, the supreme
god of Syria]. See H.A.D.VD.

The name of three kings ruling at Da-
mascus.

1. Benhadad, son of Tabrimmon aud grand-
son of Ilozion. When Baasha, king of Israel,
built Kaniali to blockade the entrance into
Judah from the north, Asa, king of Judah,
hired Benhadad to break his treaty with
Baasha and invade the kingdom of Israel.
The army of Benhadad entered the territory
of the ten tribes, captured the cities of Ijon,
Dan, aud Abel-maacah, and ravaged the laud
west of the lake of Genuesaret. The diver-
sion caused Baasha to withdraw from Eamah
and terminate tlie blockade of the kingdom
of Judah (1 Kiu. xv. 18-21 ; 2Chron. xvi. 1-6).

2. Benhadad, contemporary of Ahab. His
full name appears to have been Benhadadidri,
the son of Hadad is my help. He besieged
Samaria, but drove Ahab to desperation and
forced him to battle by insulting demands,
and was defeated. The next year Benhadad
renewed the war, but sustained a still heavier
defeat than on the previous occasion. Ahab
granted him conditions of peace, making a
covenant with him aud letting him go (1 Kin.
XX. 1-34;. The arrival of a common enemy,
Shalmaueser king of Assyria, in the west in
856 B. c. necessitated the preservation of the
peace, aud it continued three years (1 Kin.
xxii. 1). In 854 Benhadad, assisted by Ahab
and other royal allies, ofi'ered resistance to
the Assyrians at Karkar near Hamath, but
was defeated. In the following year, as is
probable, in early spring Ahab unsuccessfully
attempted to wrest Eamotb-gilead out of the
hands of Benhadad (xxii. 1-36). For some
time Benhadad waged predatory warfare with
the Israelites, and later he invaded Israel
with his army and laid siege to Samaria (2
Kin. V. 2; vi. 8-vii. 20), but these varied hos-
tilities were repeatedly interrupted by Shal-
maneser's operations against Benhadad in
the years 850, 849, and 846. Between 845
aud the close of 843, Benhadad was murdered
and succeeded by Hazael (2 Kin. viii. 15).

3. Benhadad, son of Hazael, aud called by
the murdered king's name. In the reign of
Jchoahaz, king of Israel, Hazael aud then
Benhadad oppressed the ten tribes (2 Kin.
xiii. 3-13). But Joash, sou of Jehoahaz, in-
flicted three defeats on Benhadad. and re-
covered the cities of Israel which had been
under Syrian rule (22-25). His son, Jeroboam
II.. followed up these victories by retaking
Hamath, aud eveu temporarily occupying
Damascus (xiv. 28).

The palaces of Benhadad are the palaces
of Damascus (Jer. xlix. 27 ; Amos i. 4).

Ben-ha'il [sou of strength, virtuous].
One of the princes sent by Jehoshaphat to
teach iu the cities of Judah (2 Chron. xvii. 7).

Ben-ha'nan [son of the kind one].
A sou of Sliin)ou, registered with the tribe
of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 20).

Ben-he'sed [sou of benevolence or of
Hesed].

Solomon's purveyor in Aruboth (1 Kin. iv.
10, R. v.).

Ben'hur [sou of Hur].

Solomon's purvevor in mount Ephraim (1
Kin. iv. 8, R. Y.). '

Be-ni'nu [our sou].

A Levite who with Nehemiah and others
sealed a covenant with Jehovah (Neh. x. 13).

Ben'ja-min [sou of the right hand, i. e. of
happiness] .

1. The youngest of Jacob's twelve sous. He
was the full brother of Joseph, both being
children of Rachel. As Jacob was approach-
ing Bethlehem, Rachel gave birth toBeujamiu,
aud, feeling that his advent into the world
was about to cost her her life, named him
Benoui, sou of my sorrow, but Jacob called
him Benjamin (Gen. xxxv. 16-20). Being
the youngest, aud associated with such mem-
ories, he was peculiarly dear to his father,
especially after the supposed death of Joseph.
With excessive reluctance his pareut allowed
him to go to Egypt with his other brothers
(Gen. xliii. 1-17), aud Judah was probably
right in supposing that the father would die
of grief if any untoward occurrence happened
to the son of his old age. Joseph also felt
much afl'ection for Benjamin (xliii. 29-34;
xliv. 1-34). Ultimately Benjamin had, be-
sides other descendants, five sons and two
grandsons, through whom he became the
founder of families and a tribe in Israel
(Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num. xxvi. 38-41 ; 1 Chron.
vii. 6-12; viii).

2. The tribe to which Benjamin gave ori-
gin, and the territory that it obtained. Jacob
prophesied : "Benjamin is a wolf that ravin-
eth. In the morning he shall devour the
prey, and at eveu he shall divide the spoil"
(Gen. xlix. 27, R.V.); and Moses: " The beloved
of the Lord shall dwell in safety by him. He
covereth him all the day long and he dwell-
eth between his shoulders" (Dent, xxxiii.
12, R. v.). In the distribution of the land by
lot under Joshua at Shiloh, after Judali and
Ephraim had received territory, the first lot
came to Benjamin, who was assigned the dis-
trict lying between those of Judah and Eph-
raim. Its northern boundary ran from Jor-
dan through Bethel to Ataroth-addar, south
of nether Bethhoron. Its western border ran
from this poiut to Kirjath-jearim. Its south-
ern boundary went thence through the val-
ley of the son of Hinnom, immediately south
of Jerusalem, to the northern point of the
Dead Sea. Its easteru limit was the Jordan
(Josh, xviii. 11-20). The territory thus
marked out extended from west to east about
28 miles, and from north to south about 12
miles. It was a hilly country, but extremely
fertile (Autiq. v. 1, 22) and it was studded

Beno

80

Bemice

with towns, the chief of which were Jerusalem,
Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gibeath, and Mizpeh
(Josh, xviii. 21-28). The tribe early furnished
Israel with a deliverer from foreign oppres-
sion (Judg. iii. 15). The tribe was nearly ex-
terminated for protecting the guilty inhabi-
tants of Gibeah (xix.-xxi.). Later it gave the
first king to Israel, and long clung to the
house of Saul (2 Sam. ii. 9, 15 ; 1 Chron. xii.
29). Even after David had become king of
all Israel, Benjamites occasionally showed
dissatisfaction (2 Sam. xvi. 5 ; xx. 1-22 ; Ps.
vii. title) ; but a large part of the tribe re-
mained true to the house of David when
the ten tribes separated under Jeroboam (1
Kin. xii. 21), and shared the fortunes of
Judah to the end (Ezra iv. 1). From this
tribe sprang the apostle of the gentiles (Phil,
iii. 5).

Two gates at Jerusalem bore the name of
Benjamin. The upper or high gate of Ben-
jamin was in the temple (Jer. xx. 2). For
the other gate of Benjamin, see Jerusalem
II. 3.

3. A Beujamite, a son of Bilhan, family of
Jediael (1 Chron. vii. 10).

4. A son of Harim, who had taken a foreign
wife (Ezra x. 32).

Be'no [his son].

A descendant of Merari through Jaaziah
(1 Chron. xxiv. 26, 27), if Beno is a proper
name, as it seems to be iu ver. 27.

Ben-o'ni [son of my sorrow].

The name designed by Eachel for the child
whose birth was causing her death. But
Jacob changed it to Benjamin (Gen. xxxv.
18).

Ben-zo'lietli [son of Zoheth].

A descendant of Ishi, registered with the
tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 20). Perhaps,
however, a name has dropped out of the text
before this name. If so, the passage should
be translated : ' ' And the sons of Ishi, Zoheth
and .... the son of Zoheth."

Be 'on. See B.\al-meon.

Be'or [a torch].

1. Father of Bela, king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. .32; 1 Chron. i. 43).

2. Father of Balaam (Num. xxii. 5). Called
in A. V. of 2 Pet. ii. 15 Bosor.

Be'ra [excellence].

A king of Sodom, defeated by Chedorlaomer
and his confederates (Gen. xiv. 2).
Ber'a-chah [blessing].

1. A Beujamite who joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

2. A valley in Judah near Tekoa. Jehosh-
aphat gave it its name because he and his
army there returned thanks to God for a
great victory over the Ammonites, Moabites,
and Edomites (2 Chron. xx. 26). The name
still lingers as Bereikiit, a ruin about 4 miles
northwest of Tekoa, 6 miles southwest of
Bethlehem, and a little east of the road from
the latter village to Hebron.

Ber-a-chi'ah. See Berechiah.

Be-ra'iah [Jehovah hath created].

A son of Shimei (1 Chron. viii. 21, R. V.),
descendant of Shaharaim who had his regis-
try with Benjamin (8, 11-13).

Be're-a.

A town in Judsea near which Judas Mac-
cabfeus was slain (1 Mac. ix. 4). Not iden-
tified.

For Be-re'a, a city of Macedonia (Acts xvii.
10, A. v.), .see Berce.a..

Ber-e-cM'ah, in A. V. once Berachiah (1
Chron. vi. 39) [Jehovah hath blessed].

1. A Levite, the father of Asaph, descended
from Gershom (1 Chron. vi. 39 ; xv. 17).

2. A Levite, one of the four doorkeepers
for the ark in David's reign (1 Chron. xv. 23,
24).

3. One of the chief men of Ephraim in the
reign of Pekah. He took the part of the cap-
tives from Judah. He was a son of Meshil-
lemoth (2 Chron. xxviii. 12).

4. A son of Zeinibbabel (1 Chron. iii. 20).

5. A Levite. descended from Elkanah of
Netophah (1 Chron. ix. 16).

6. A son of Meshezabel. His son repaired
part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 4, 30).

7. Father of the prophet Zechariah (Zech.
i. 1, 7).

Be'red [hail].

1. A place in the wilderness of Shur, to the
west of Kadesh, and not far from Beer-lahai-
roi (Gen. xvi. 7, 14). Its exact locality has
not been determined.

2. An Ephraimite, of the family of Shu-
thelah (1 Chron. vii. 20).

Be'ri [man of a well].
An Asherite, son of Zophah, family of
Heber (1 Chron. vii. 36).

Be-ri'ah [perhaps, with an outcrv, or in
evil].

1. A son of Asher, and founder of a family
(Gen. xlvi. 17; Num. xxvi. 44).

2. A son of Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 23).

3. A Beujamite, head of a father's house
among the inhabitants of Aijalon (1 Chron.
viii. 13),

4. A Levite, a son of Shimei, the Gershon-
ite (1 Chron. xxiii. 10). His sons were united
with the children of his brother Jeush into
one father's house (11).

Be 'rite.

Apparently a people living near Abel-beth-
maacah (2 Sam. xx. 14), but it is questionable
if the present text is correct.

Be'rith. See Baal-berith.

Ber-ni'ce [for Pherenilr, carrying off vic-
tory, victorious].

The eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I.
She was married to her uncle, Herod, ruler
of Chalcis, who soon afterwards died. She
was so much with her brother Agrippa that
scandal arose in consequence. She tried to
allaj' it by a marriage with Polemo, king of

Berodach-baladan

81

Bethany

Cilicia. She soon became tired of him. and,
deserting him, returned to her brother Agrip-
pa (Antiq. xx. 7, 3; War ii. 11, 'y). She was
with him when Paul made his defense before
him (Acts sxv. 23; xxvi. 30i. She afterwards
became the mistress, first of Vespasiiin and
then of Titus.
Ber'o-dach-bal'a-dan. See Mekodach-

BAHDAN.

Be-rcE'a, iu A. V. Be-re'a.

1. A city of Macedonia, about 50 miles west
of Thessalonica and S.i or 24 miles from the
sea. where Paul preached on his first journey
to Europe (Acts xvii. 10-14; xx. 4). It is now
called Verria or Boor.

2. A Syrian city between Antioch and
Hierapolis. where Menelaus was smothered
in a tower of ashes 1 2 Mac. xiii. 4). An earlier
name of the town survives in Aleppo, the
designation Beroea. which was given by Se-
leucus Xicator, having had a transient ex-
istence.

3. .See Beeea 1.

Be-ro'tliali or Ber'o-tliai [wells].

Berothah was a town situated between Ha-
math and Daniascus (Ezek. xlvii. 16). It is
probably identical with Berothai. a city which
was once subject to Hadadezer, king of Zobah,
but was captured by David and yielded him
large booty in brass (2 Sam. viii. 8 ; in 1
Chron. xviii. S called Cun. in A. V. Chun :
probably a corruption, for the Seventy read
the noun Mibhur. of which the letters are
much like those of Berothai). Site unknown.

Ber'yl.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Tarshish,
a precious stone brought doubtless from the
place bearing the same name. It was the
first stone of the fourth row on the Jewish
high priest's brea5t])late (E.y. xxviii. 20;
xsxix. 13: Song v. 14; Ezek. i. 16 ; x. 9;
xxviii. 13 ; Dan. x. 6). None of these pas-
sages tells the color of the stone. On the
margin of the E. V. of Song v. 14 iar^hish is
rendered topaz, and on that of Ex. xxviii. 20
chalcedony. The .Septuagiut renders the word
by chrys<jlite in Ex. xxviii. 20; xxxix. 13;
Ezek. xxviii. 13 : and bv anthrajr. carbuncle,
in Ezek. x. 9. '

2. The Greek BeruUos (Rev, xxi. 20), the
eighth foundation of the wall of the New
Jerusalem. The beryl is an earthy mineral,
having asits chief constituents silica, alumina,
and beryllium (glucinum). It may be color-
less or aquamarine, bluish green, or various
blues and violet, or yellow and brown. It is
closely allied to the emerald. It is found in
Siberia. India. Brazil, and in some parts of
Great Britain.

Be 'sal.

<»ne of the Nethinim and founder of a
family (Ezra ii. 49; Neh. vii. .52).

Bes-0-de'iali [in familiarity with Jehovah].
Father of MeshuUam. who helped to repair
a gate of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6).

Be'sor [perhapscoldness, or, jiossibly, haste].

A brook south of Ziklag (1 Siim. xxx. 9. 10,
21). iK-rhaps the Xahr Ghazzeh, which rises
near Beer-sheba and empties into the Medi-
terranean south of Gaza.

Be'tah [trust, confidence].

A citv of Aram-zobah (2 Sam. viii. 8). prob-
ably to" be read Tebah. Called Tibhath in
1 Chron. xviii. 8. .Site unknown.

Be 'ten [body, belly, or valley].

A village of Asher (Josh. xix. 25). Eusebius
identified it with a village Beth-beten, 8 Re-
man miles east of Acre.

Beth.

The second letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
Griginally it was a rude representation of a
dwelling, and from this circumstance it de-
rives its name, which means a house. The
English letter B has the same origin. Betli
stands at the head of the second section of
Ps. cxix. iu many versions, in which section
each verse begins with this letter.

The Hebrew letters, beth, caph, mem. and
pe. or b, k. m. and p, have at different stages
of their development been so siniilar as to
cause readers some difficulty in distinguish-
ing them, and open the waj- to misreadiugs ;
for example, they are written, in the order
just named, on

O/dMrnrCwB ^ ^^ y^ ^^ t

%mb of James -v w , .

WffifnyBC '-' O J

^■miso<iuealliefr -^ «-
Bir^m ~'

Palmyrpne

M

5

8

if

Beth-ab'a-ra [house of the ford].

A place beyond Jordan at which John bap-
tized (John i. 28, A. V.). The oldest manu-
scripts have Bethany, as now the R. V. : but
Origen. not being able to find a place of this
name, decided in favor of the reading Beth-
abara. If the correct reading be Bethat)ara,
then the site is evidently at one of the nu-
merous fords of the Jordan, and of these only-
one is now called Makbadet "Abarah. It is a.
main ford of the river just above the place
where the Jalud stream, flowing dowai the
valley of Jezreel by Beisan. enters the Jor-
dan. The traditional site, however, is east
of Jericho.

Beth-a'nath [house of the goddess Anath].

A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38 1,
from which, however, that tribe failed to
drive out the Canaanite inhabitants (Judg. i.
33). Suitably lc<-ated at the village of 'Anata,
'Ainata. or Ainitha. 6 miles west of Kedesh-

Beth-a'natli [house of the goddess Anath].

A town in the mountains of Judah (Josh.
XV. ,59) ; commonly sought at Beit 'Ainun. Ii
miles southeast of Halhul.

Beth'a-ny [house of the afflicted one ; in
Talmud, house of non-maturing dates].

Beth-arabah

82

Beth-biri

1. A small towu ou the mount of (Jlives
(Mark xi. 1 ; Luke xix. 29), about 15 furlongs
from Jerusalem (John xi. 18) on the road to
Jericho. Our Lord often lodged there (Mat.
xxi. 17 ; xxvi. (J ; Mark xi. 1, 11, 12 ; xiv. 3).
It was the town of Lazarus, of Martha, and
of Mary (John xi. 1 ; xii. 1), as well as of
Simon the leper, in whose house one of the
anointings of Jesus took place (Mat. xxvi. 6-
13; Mark xiv. 3). From near the town Jesus
ascended to heaven (Lukexxiv. 50, 51). It has
been generally identitied as the village of el-
'Aziriyeh (Lazarus' village), ou the farther
side of a shallow valley on the eastern slope
of the mount of Olives, southeast from Jeru-
salem. It is now a miserable village with a
few ancient stones built into modern habita-
tions. The houses of Simon and of Martha

Beth-ar'bel [house of God's ambush].

A town destroyed by Shalman with hor-
rible cruelty (Hos. x. 14). The best identifi-
cation that has been proposed is with Arbela
of Galilee (Antiq. xii. 11, 1; xiv. 15, 4; cp.
1 Mac. ix. 2), now Irbid, 4 miles west-north-
west of Tiberias. There are many natural cav-
erns in a limestone precipice, which have been
connected by artificial passages cut througli
the rock, with defenses wherever access was
possible. Herod the Great found these cav-
erns the abode of robbers, whom he rooted
out.

Beth-a'ven [house of nothingness or idol-
atry].

1. A town in the territory of Benjamin,
near Ai, east of Bethel (Josh. vii. 2), west of
Michmash (1 Sam. xiii. 5; cp. xiv. 23), and

Bethany.

and Mary and the tomb of Lazarus are all
shown, but there is no reason to believe that
they are genuine. Presumably when the vil-
lage was first named date palms grew in the
vicinity. They do not do so now. but in
their place are olives, figs, and pomegranates.
2. A place east of the Jordan, probably a
village, where John was baptizing when
Jesus returned from the temptation (John i.
28, R. Y. ; cp. x. 40). See Beth.-vbar.^.

Beth-ar'a-bah [house of the wilderness].

A village in the wilderness of Judah, on
the boundary line between Judah and Benja-
min (Josh. XV. 61 ; xviii. 22). Called simply
Arabah in xviii. 18 ; unless the reading of
the Scptuagint be correct, Beth-arabah in-
stead of "the side over against the Arabah.'^
Site not yet identified.

Betb-a'ram. See Beth-haram.

on the border of a wilderness (Josh, xviii.
12). Not yet identified.

2. A name applied by Hosea contemptu-
ously to Bethel after it had become a seat of
idolatry (Hos. iv. 15; v. 8; x. 5).

Beth-az'ma-veth. See Azmaveth.

Beth-ba'al-me'on. See Baal-meon.

Beth-ba'rah [perhaps for Beth-abarah,
house of the ford].

A place on the Jordan, probal)ly on the
right bank (Judg. vii. 24).

Beth-ba'si.

A place in the wilderness (1 Mac. ix. 62),
probably the wilderness of Tekoa (33). Jose-
phus calls it Bethalaga (Antiq. xiii. 1, 5).

Beth-bi'ri, in A. V. Beth-bir'e-i [house of
my creation].

A Simeonite town (1 Chron. iv. 31). The

Beth-car

83

Bethesda

name is luobably a corruptiou of Betli-
lebaoth (c\). Josh. xix. 6).

Beth'-car [house of pasture, a place fit for
grazing].

A place which is named to indicate the point
to which the Philistines were pursued by the
Israelites after the second and decisive battle
of Ebenezer (1 Sam. vii. 11). The use of the
word "under" seems to imply that it over-
looked a plain.

Beth-da'gon [house of Dagon].

1. A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 33, 41), apparently in the vicinity of
Eleutheropolis. Not identified.

2. A town of Asher, on the frontier toward
Zebulun (Josh. xix. 27). Not identified.

Beth-dib-la-tha'im [house of fig cakes].

A town on the tat)lelan<l of Moab, territory
once in possession of Israel (Jer. xlviii. 21,
22). Probably the same as Almou-diblathaim.

Beth-e'den. See Edex 2.

Beth'el [house of God].

1. A town of Palestine, west of Ai, south
of Shiloh (Geu. xii. 8 ; Judg. xxi. 19), and
near Michmasli (1 Sam. xiii. 2). Abraham
on his first journey into Palestine, and sub-
sequently, pitched his tent near it (Gen. xiii.
3). The town was called Luz by the Canaan-
ites ; but Jacob called the name of the place
close by, where he passed the night sleeping
on the ground, Bethel on account of the
vision which he saw there, and he erected a
pillar to mark the spot (Gen. xxviii. 19 seq. ;
xxxi. 13). The two are distinguished (Josh.
xvi. 2) ; but the name Bethel soon supplanted
Luz as designation of the town. On the re-
turn of Jacob from Paddan-arani he went to
Bethel, built an altar, and reaffirmed the name
(Gen. XXXV. 1-15 ; Hos. xii. 4). The people of
the town helped those of Ai in the second bat-
tle with Joshua (Josh. viii. 9, 12, 17). Later it
was taken and its king slain (xii. 9, 16). It
was assigned to Benjamin, and stood on the
boundary line between that tribe and Eph-
raim (Josh. xvi. 2 ; xviii. 13, 22). It was en-
tered and its Cauaanite inhabitants were
slain by the men of Ephraim when they were
engaged in securing their recently acquired
territory (Judg. i. 22 seq.). Its villages on
the north of the boundary line belonged to
Ephraim, and so perhaps did the town, as a
result of this extermination of the Canaanites
within its walls (1 Chron. vii. 28). When
the Israelites were gathered at Mizpah near
Gibeah to war against Benjamin, the ark was
brought from Shiloh, 18 miles distant, to
Bethel, 8 miles oflF (Judg. xx. 1, 27). Thither
the men of Israel repaired to ask counsel of
God, and there they built a temporary altar
and offered sacrifices (18, 26, R. V.). At the
end of the war they came again to Bethel,
sat there before the Lord, built a new altar
or repaired the old one. and offered sacrifices
(xxi. 2-4, R. v.). When the regular ser-
vices of the sanctuary at Shiloh were sus-

pended during the loss and seclusion of the
ark, Bethel was one of the places where
Samuel judged Israel, and whither men went
with their otierings to God (1 Sam. vii. 16;
X. 3). Jeroboam fixed one of his calves there
(1 Kin. xii. 29-33), and Bethel became a great
center of idolatry (1 Kin. xiii. 1 32 ; 2 Kin.
x. 29). It was taken and temporarily held
by Abijah (2 Chron. xiii. 19). Elijah passed
through it (2 Kin. ii. 1-3), and it was from
Bethel that the youths came who mocked
Elisha (23, 24). The prophets denounced it
for its idolatries (Jer. xlviii. 13; Hos. x. 15;
Amos iii. 14 ; iv. 4 ; v. 5, 6), and called it
Beth-aven, house of naught (Hos. iv. 15; v.
8 ; X. 5). Amos was in danger in Bethel for
his bold preaching (Amos vii. 1(3-13). Josiah
broke down its altars and its iiigh places, and,
as foretold, burned the bones of the priests
taken from its sepulchers (2 Kin. xxiii. 4,
15-20). Some of its inhabitants returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 28 ;
Nell. vii. 32), the place again reverting to the
Benjamites (xi. 31). In Maccabee times it
was fortified by the Syrian Bacchides (1 Mac.
ix. 50). In the Jewish war it was captured
by Vespasian, later Roman emperor (War iv.
9, 9). The ruins, called Beitin, lie on the
watershed of Palestine, about 11 miles north
from Jerusalem. They are on the summit
of a hill sloping to the southeast, and cover
three or four acres. A range of hills trends
to the southeast (cp. 1 Sam. xiii. 2). In the
valley to the west is a broken reservoir, 314
feet long by 217 broad, with two brooks of
living water. Two other brooks are in the
vicinity. There are sepulchers cut in a low
cliff. All the country round is of gray stone
or white chalk, with a great deficiency of
vegetable mould. As in Abraham's time, it is
a pastoral region.

2. A town in the territory of Simeon (1
Sam. XXX. 27). See Bethuel.

Beth-e'mek [house of the valley].

A town within the territory of Asher (Josh.
xix. 27). Not identified.

Be'ther [separation, division].

Not a mountain range near the strong
fortress Bether, where the Jews under Bar-
cocheba made their last stand in their contest
with the Romans, for this word has a diflerent
orthography, Beth-ther. Bether is probably
a common noun, and describes the mountains
as cleft and rugged (Song ii. 17).

Be-thes'da [house of mercy].

Earlier manuscripts of the N. T. have other
spellings, as Bethsaida, house of fishing, and
Bethzatha, house of the olive.

A pool at Jerusalem, which was near the
sheep gate and had five porches, that were
sufficiently ample to accommodate a great
multitude (John v. 2 seq.). Its waters were
supposed to possess healing virtue. The
fourth verse of the A. V.. which mentions a
periodic troubling of the waters, and ascribes
it to an angel, is omitted in R. V. as being

Beth-ezel

84

Bethlehem

insufficiently supported by early texts. Tra-
dition located Bethesda at the Birket Israel,
north of tlie temjile, or at an adjacent pool.
Tlie tradition was well founded, even if it
iiltimatelj' went astray. 1. In a. d. 333 the
Bordeaux pilgrim stated that there were two
pools and five porches. 2. Early manuscripts,
e. g. the Sinaitic, have Bethzatha, abbreviated
Bezatha, instead of Bethesda. These words
are apparently variations of Bezetha, the
name of the quarter of the citj' north of the
temple hill, and imply that the pool was in
the Bezethan section of the city. 3. The
pool was near the sheep gate, and the natural
explanation of Neh. iii. determines the loca-
tion of this gate to have been north of the
temple area. 4. In the autumn of 1888 ex-
cavation in the northeast part of Jerusalem,
in connection with the repair of the church
of St. Anne, laid bare at some depth below
that building a pool with five porches. A
faded fresco on the wall depicts an angel and
water, and shows that in the early Christian
ages tins pool was regarded as Bethesda.

Beth-e'zel [house of root],

A town of Judah or Samaria — it is uncer-
tain which (Mic. i. 11). Perhaps identical
with Azal, i. e. Azel (q. v.), mentioned in
Zech. xiv. 5.

Beth-ga'der [house of a wall].
A town of Judah (1 Chrou. ii. 51). See
Gedee.

Beth-ga'mul [house of perfection].
A Moabite town (Jer. xlviii. 23), possibly
Jemail, east of Dibon.

Beth-hac'che-rem, in A. V. Beth-hac'ce-

rem [house of the vineyard].

A town of Judah (Neh. iii. 14; Jer. vi. 1).
Jerome knew a village Beta-charma. It was
visible from Bethlehem where he resided,
and was situated on a hill between Tekoa
and Jerusalem. Accordingly its site has been
sought a( the Frank mountain, 3i miles south-
east of Bethlehem.

Beth-ha'ran, Beth-a'ram, Beth-ha'ram

[last two forms may signify place of the
height].

A town in the Jordan valley, rebuilt by
the children of Gad (Num. xxxii. 36; Josh.
xiii. 27). Tristram well identified it with
the mound called Beth-haran, in the plain
east of the Jordan, opposite Jericho on the
southeast. This mound must be distinguished
from Tell er-Rameh, 3 miles farther up the
wady to the east, the site of Betharamphtha,
where Herod had a palace (Antiq. xviii. 2, 1 ;
War ii. 4, 2 ; 9, 1).

Beth-hog'lah, in A. V. once Beth-hogla
[house of the partridge].

A village of Benjamin on the boundary
line between that tribe and Judah, and near
the river Jordan (Jo.sh. xv. 6; xviii. 19, 21).
The name and site are found at 'Ain Hajlah,
4 miles southeast of Jericho.

Beth-ho'ron [house of hoUowness].

Twin towns of Ephraim, Ij miles apart,
but with a difference of 600 feet in altitude,
on the boundary between Ei)hraim and Ben-
jamin, built by a woman of Ephraim called
Sherah (Josh. xvi. 3, 5; xviii. 13; 1 Chron.
vii. 24). One of them was assigned as residence
to the Levites of the family of Kohath (Josh.
xxi. 22 ; 1 Chron. vi. 68). The towns lay in
a mountain pass, on the ancient highway be-
tween Jerusalem and the plain, 12 Roman
miles northwest of the cai»ital. They con-
trolled the pass, and were fortified by Solo-
mon (2 Chron. viii. 5) ; but especially did the
walls of the upper town engage military at-
tention, for it occupied the more .strategic
position (1 Kin. ix. 17; 1 Mac. ix. 50; cp.
Judith iv, 4). Up and down, past these
towns, repeatedly surged the tide of war.
The Amorites fled down this pass before
Joshua (Josh. x. 10 seq.). The Phili.stines
ascended it to make war with Saul (1 Sam.
xiii. 18). Judas Maccabteus fought two bat-
tles here (1 Mac. iii. 15 seq. : vii. 39 seq.), and
the army of Cestius Gallus, governor of Syria,
was almost annihilated here by the Jews
(War ii. 19, 8). The towns still exist under
the names Beit 'IJr et-Tahta and el-F6ka.

Beth-jesh'i-motli, in A. V. once Beth-
jes'i-motli [house of the wastes].

A town east of the Jordan, near Pisgah
and the Dead Sea (Josh. xii. 3 ; xiii. 20; War
iv. 7, 6). When the Israelites encamped at
Shittim, it formed the southern limit of the
camp (Num. xxxiii. 49). It was 10 Roman
miles southeast of Jericho. Direction and
distance indicate 'Ain es-Suwemch, and this
name seems an echo of Jeshimoth. It was
assigned to the Reubenites, but in the time
of Ezekiel was in the hands of the Moabites
(Josh. xiii. 20; Ezek. xxv. 9).

Beth-le-aph'rah. See Aphrah.

Beth-leb'a-oth [house of lionesses].

A town in the south of Judah, assigned to
the Simeonites (Josh. xv. 32 ; xix. 6) ; see
Beth-biri. Not identified.

Beth'le-hem [house of bread].

1. A town in the hill country of Judah,
originally called Ephrath ; hence, to distin-
guish it from a place of the same name in
Zebulun, called also Bethlchem-judah and
Bethlehem-ephrathah (Gen. xxxv. 19; Judg.
xvii. 7; Mic. v. 2). Bethlehem is not men-
tioned among the cities a.ssigned to Judah
(Josh. XV. ; see, however, ver. 59, Septuagint).
But as a village it existed as early as the time
of Jacob. Rachel died and was buried in its
vicinity (Gen. xxxv. 16, 19; xlviii. 7). Its
citizens were hospitable to the Levites (Judg.
xvii. 7; xix. 1). A branch of Caleb's family
settled in the town and attained to great in-
fluence (1 Chron. ii. 51, 54; cp. Ruth. iv. 20).
It was the residence of Boaz, of Ruth (i. 19;
iv. 9-11), doubtless of Obed (iv. 21, 22), and
of Jesse, the father of David (Ruth iv. 11.
17 ; 1 Sam. xvi. 1, 4). As the birthplace and

Beth-maacah

86

Bethsaida

ancestral home of David, it was the city of
David (Luke ii. 11). It was a walled town
as early as the time of David. It fell tem-
porarily into the hands of the Philistines (2
Sam. xxiii. 14, 15). Rehohoam strengthened
its fortifications (2 Chron. xi. 0). Bethlehem-
ites returned from captivity with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii. 21 ; Neh. vii. 26). It was looked to
as the place where the Messiah should be
born (Mic. v. 2 : Mat. ii. 5), and accordingly
when the fullness of time had come Jesus be-
came incarnate at Bethlehem. In its vicinity
the annunciation to the shepherds took place
(Luke ii. 1-20). Thither the Magi went to
salute the newborn babe, and it was the in-
fants of Bethlehem who were murdered by
Herod to make sure that among them he had
cut ofi'the future king (Mat. ii. 1-18). There
has never been any doubt as to its site. It is
5 miles south of Jerusalem, at the modern
village of Beit Lahm, on the east and north-
east slope of a long ridge, which to the west
is higher than the village. The town has
several gates. The houses are mostly small,
but well built. The inhabitants, who may
be 4000 or more, are mostly Christians be-
longing to the Greek Church. There are in
the vicinity vineyards, orchards of fig trees,
and olive trees. The fields, though stony,
produce grain abundantly, and at harvest
gleaning may be seen as it was in the days
of Ruth. A little east of the town is the
church built by Helena, the mother of Cou-
stantine, over the cave said to be the stable
in which the nativity took place. Half a
mile to the north of the town is the tradi-
tional tomb of Rachel. On the southern side
of the town is a valley running to the Dead
Sea, while almost at the walls on the east a
valley begins which joins the Avady es-Surar or
vale of Sorek, and near by is also an upper
branch of the wady es-Sunt or vale of Elah
(cp. 1 Sam. xvii. 2).

2. A town with dependent villages within
the territory of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 15). It
seems to have been this Bethlehem which
gave birth to the judge Ibzan (Judg. xii.
8-10: cp. 11). It is believed to have been on
the site of the modern Beit Lahm, a small
and wretched village 7 miles northwest of
Nazareth.

Beth-ma'a-cah, in A. V. Betli-maacliah
[house of Maacah].

A town near the foot of mount Hermon
(2 Sam. XX. 14, 15). See Abel-beth-maacah.

Beth-mar'ca-both [house of the chariots].

A town of the Simeonites (Josh. xix. 5 ; 1
Chron. iv. 31). Exact site unknown. Per-
haps Madmannah was a chariot station, and
was spoken of by this name (Josh. xv. 31).

Beth-me'on. See Baal-meon.

Beth-mer'hak [house of removal].

Probably only a house beside the brook
Kidron, between Jerusalem and the mount
of Olives (2 Sam. xv. 17, R. V.). The margin

renders it the Far House ; the A. V., a place
that was far off.

Beth-nim'rah [house of limpid fresh
water].

A town in the Jordan valley east of the
river, assigned to Gad and rebuilt by that
tribe (Num. xxxii. 36 ; Josh. xiii. 27). Euse-
bius and Jerome locate it 5 Roman miles to
the north of Livias, now Tell er-Rameh. At
the place tlius indicated ruins bear the name
Nimrin. They lie amidst rich, well-watered
pasture land.

Beth-pa'let. See Beth-pelet.

Beth-paz'zez [house of dispersion].

A town within the territory of Issachar
(Josh. xix. 21). Exact site unknown.

Beth-pe'let ; in A. V. Beth-phelet and
Beth-palet [house of escape].

A town iu the most southerly part of Judah
(Josh. XV. 27 ; Neh. xi. 26). Exact site un-
known.

Beth-pe'or [house of Peor].

A town near Pi-sgah. In the valley opposite
to it the Israelites had their main encamp-
ment, elsewhere referred to as in the mouu-
tains of Abarim, when their army was war-
ring with Sihon and Og (cp. Deut iii. 29; iv.
46; with Num. xxi. 20; xxiii. 28; xxxiii.
47-49). In this valley Moses was afterwards
buried (Deut. xxxiv. 6). The town was as-
signed to the Reubenites (Josh. xiii. 20). Ac-
cording to Eusebius, it lay 6 Roman miles
above, that is in the mountains east of, Livias,
now Tell er-Rameh.

Beth'pha-ge [house of figs].

A village near Bethany, on or near the
road from Jericho to Jerusalem (Mark xi. 1 ;
Luke xix. 29). It probably stood between
Bethany and Jerusalem, not far from the
descent of the mount of Olives (Mat. xxi. 1 ;
John xii. 1, 12, 14). The site has not been
satisfactorily identified.

Beth-phe'let. See Beth-pelet.

Beth-ra'pha [house of Kapha, house of a
giant].

A family of Judah, or a town whose inhabi-
tants belonged to that tribe (1 Chron. iv. 12).

Beth-re'hob [house of a street].

A town in the north of Palestine, by the
valley of the upper Jordan (Num. xiii. 21,
where it is called simply Rehob ; Judg. xviii.
28). It was inhabited by Syrians, who joined
the Ammonites in a great war with David (2
Sam. X. 6). Robinson doubtfully located it
at the modern fortress of Hunin command-
ing the plain of Huleh, in which Dan was
situated ; but the location is improbable.

Beth-sa'i-da [house of hunting or fishing].

A town on the lake of Gennesaret, near
the Jordan, rebuilt by Philip the tetrarch,
and named by him Julias in honor of the
daughter of the emperor Augustus (Antiq.
xviii. 2, 1 ; Life 72). To this town, which
was on the other side of the sea (actually at

Beth-shean

87

Beth-shemesh

the northern end), Jesus withdrew on re-
ceiving news of the murder of John the Bap-
tist (Luke is. 10; cp. :Mat. xiv. 13; John
vi. 1). Goinj; forth to a desert grassy place,
apparently about 2 miles down the eastern
side of the lake, he was followed by the mul-
titude. In the evening he miraculously fed
them. Tlie disciples then entered into a boat
to precede him " unto the other side to [or
toward] Bethsaida " (Mark vi. 4."). R. V.). Dur-
ing the evening and night, the disciples were
in the midst of the sea distressed in rowing,
for the wind was contrary unto them. Jesus
came walking on the sea, and was taken into
the boat. And when they had crossed over
they came to the land unto Gennesaret (ver.
53). Do these statements, taken in connec-
tion with John's mention of '' Bethsaida of
Galilee" (xii. 21), imply another Bethsaida?
Notable scholars, like Robinson, think so, and
locate it, among other places, at 'Ain et-Tabi-
ghah, about 3 miles southwest of the mouth
of the Jordan. But the existence of two towns
of the same name on the same lake, and at most
only a few miles apart, is so improbable that
the words of the evangelists must be subjected
to careful scrutiny to learn whether they re-
quire this assumption ; and 1. The ultimate
destination of the disciples was Capernaum
(John vi. IT) ; but it was determined that
they should sail "toward Bethsaida," keep-
ing nearer the shore than the direct course
to Capernaum would require (Thomson). 2.
Even if their pui-pose was to make a stop at
Beth.saida, it was proper to .speak of going
" to the other side to Bethsaida," for Josephus
uses a similar expression for proceeding by
boat from Tiberias 33 miles to Taricheje. He
"sailed over to Tarichefe " (Life 59, quoted
by G. A. Smith). 3. Philip was of Bethsaida
of Galilee (John xii. 21). Thomson suggests
that any city built at the mouth of the nar-
row Jordan, as Beth.saida-Julias admittedly
was, would almost necessarily have part of
its houses or a suburb on the west bank of
the river, which would be in Galilee. Peter,
Andrew, and Philip, were born there and were
Galilseans. Thomson further suggests that
probably the whole city on both banks of
the river was ordinarily attached to Galilee.
Geo. Adam Smith atBrms that "the province
of Galilee ran right round the lake." His
opinion is based on Josephus' mention of a
certain Judas, who belonged to Gamala in
Gaulonitis, as a Galilaean (War ii. 8, 1 with
Antiq. xviii. 1, 1).

Beth-she'an, or, contracted, Beth'-shan
[house of quiet or restful security].

A city splendidly situated on the brow of
a hill just where the valley of Jezreel drops
down 300 feet to the level of the Jordan. In
addition to enjoying the security afforded by
the natural strength of the city, its inhabi-
tants early rendered themselves formidable
by the use of war chariots of iron (Josh.
xvii. 16). Beth-shean, with its dependent

towns, fell within the area of Is.sachar, but
was given to the ^lanassites (Josh. xvii. 11 ;
1 Chron. vii. 29). They failed, however, to
drive out the Canaanites, but were strong
enough to make them pay tribute (Josh. xvii.
12-1() ; Judg. i. 27, 28). After the battle of
Gilboa, the Philistines fastened the bodies of
Saul and his sons to the wall of Beth-shean
(1 Sam. xxxi. 10-13; 2 Sam. xxi. 12-14). In
the Greek period it was sometimes called
Nyssa, but its common name in Greek and
Latin literature is Scythopolis. It bore this
name as early as the time of Judas Maccabseus.
In several instances Scythopolis is written
^Kveiav TToAcs, city of the Scythians (Judg. i. 27.
Septuagint; Judith iii. 10; 2 Mac. xii. 29) ;
and it has been supposed that a remnant of
the Scythian hordes settled here, who are
said to have advanced through Palestine
against Egypt in the latter half of the seventh
century before Christ (Herod, i. 103, 10.5;
Pliny, hist. nat. v. 16). The name Scythopolis
may, however, be the echo of some Semitic
word. In the first century a. d. the popula-
tion of the citv was predominantly gentile
(2 Mac. xii. 30'; War ii. 18, 1, 3, 4 ;" Life 6),
and the Jews consequently sacked it during
the war with the Eomans. The citizens re-
taliated by massacring the Jewish residents.
Jo.sephus says that it was the largest of the
ten cities called Decapolis, apparently disre-
garding Damascus, possibly because the city
on the Abanah was not at this moment a mem-
ber of the league (War iii. 9, 7). It was the
only one of the ten cities that lay west of the
Jordan. It continued to figure in history
as late as the crusades. Though the name
Scythopolis lasted for centuries, it did not
ultimately take root, and the Arab village
which now marks its .site' is called Beisan.
Extensive ruinsof the city .still remain, which
date largely from the Greco-Eoman period.
Its walls must have been between 2 and 3
miles round. The city was divided into three
parts by two streams flowing through deep
ravines. The southern section contains the
modern village and hi]i]i(iilr()ine (race course),
a theater, with a ruinetl mosque, and part of
the ancient city walls. The central section
is almost surrounded by the two streams, and
includes the present mound or tell, which
rises about 200 feet high, with sides nearly
perpendicular, and at its top traces of the
thick wall which once enclosed the summit.
The northerly one has a church, tombs, and
fort. The principal edifices were built of
black basalt, the region around being vol-
canic.

Beth-she'mesh [hou.se of the sun].

1. A town of the lowland, in the vale of
Sorek, now called Ain Shems. The name
suggests that it was once a seat of the Canaan-
ite worship of the sun. It was allotted to
Judah, and lay on the assigned boundary
line (Josh. xv. 10) ; but as this tribe found
itself possessed of more territory than neces-

Beth-shemite

Bezek

sary (xix. 9), it was trausferred with several
other towns to Dan {41,where the synonymous
name Ir-shcmesh is used). The Danites did
not occupy it; and when provision was made
for the tribe of Levi, it was given to the
priests the sons of Aaron, and reclioned as
set apart from the tribe of Judah (xxi. 16,
€p. 9 ; 1 Oliron. vi. 59). Of course, after the
formation of the kingdom it was within
Judah (2 Kin. xiv. 11). When the ark was
sent back from the Philistine country on a
new cart drawn by two milch kine without
liuman guidance, the animals took the way
to Beth-shemesh. The townspeople, profanely
looking into the ark, were struck by a plague
which was fatal to seventy of their number
(Antiq. vi. 1,4). After the words seventy men
there is the strange insertion in the Hebrew
text, rendered suspicions by the absence of the
conjunction, of the further words fifty thou-
sand men (1 Sam. vi. 1-21, E. V.). One of Solo-
mon's twelve purveyors drew supplies of
food from the town and district (1 Kin. iv.
7, 9). It was the scene of a battle between
Amaziah, king of Judah, and Joash, king of
Israel, in which the former was defeated (2
Kin. xiv. 11; 2 Chron. xxv. 21), and it was
taken by the Philistines during the reign of
Ahaz (xxviii. 18).

2. A town on the boundary of Issachar, be-
tween Tabor and the Jordan (Josh. xix. 22).
Not identified.

3. A fenced city of the tribe of Naphtali,
from which, however, the Canaanites were
not driven (Josh. xix. 38; Judg. i. 33). Not
identified. Possibly the town of this name,
already mentioned as on the boundary of
Issachar, is intended.

4. An Egyptian city where the sun was
worshiped (Jer. xliii. 13) ; doubtless On.

Beth-she'mite.

A native of Beth-shemesh (1 Sam. vi. 14,
18).

Beth-shit'tali [house of the acacia].

A town between the valley of Jezreel and
Zererah in the Jordan valley (Judg. vii. 22,
E. v.). The fact that it is coupled with
Zererah, and not with Beth-shean, excludes
its identification with Shutta.

Beth-su'ra. See Beth-zur.

Beth-tap'pu-ah [house of apples or similar
fruit].

A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh.
XV. 53), the modern village of Tuffuh, about
4 miles west of Hebron (cp. 1 Chron. ii. 43).

Be-thu'el [perha])s abode of God].

1. Son of J^ahor by his wife Milcah. He
was the father of Laban and Eebekah, and
nephew of Abraham (Gen. xxii. 20, 22, 23 ;
xxiv. 15, 29; xxv. 20; xxviii. 2, 5).

2. A town of the Simeonites (1 Chron. iv.
:^0 ; in Josh. xix. 4 Bethul). David sent
thither part of the recaptured spoil of Ziklag
(1 Sam. XXX. 27). In this latter passage it is
called Bethel, a modified form of the name,
more suggestive to the Hebrew ear. It seems

to be the Chesil of Josh. xv. 30. Not identi-
fied. Possibly the small village of Beit Aula,
()j miles northwest of Hebron.

Be'thul. See Bethuel 2.

Beth-zach-a-ri'as.

A town (1 Mac. vi. 32, 33), 70 stades or 8
miles from Bethsura (Antiq. xii. 9, 4). It is
identified with the modern Beit Zakariya, 9
Roman miles by road north of Bethsura.

Beth'-zur, in Maccabees Bethsura [house
of a rock].

A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh.
XV. 58). It was fortified by Rehoboam (2
Chron. xi. 7). In Nehemiah's time half of
its district was subject to Azbuk (Neh. iii. 16).
In the Greek period the name was written
Bethsura, and it was important as a frontier
town toward Idumsea. Here Judas Macca-
bseus gained a gi-eat victory over the Syrian
general Lysias (1 Mac. iv. 29; 2 Mac. xi. 5;
xiii. 19, 22). The patriot leader afterwards
fortified it (1 Mac. iv. 61 ; vi. 7, 26, 31). Want
of food compelled the garrison to surrender
it to the Syrians (49, 50). Its defenses were
strengthened by Bacchides (ix. 52). but it was
recaptured by Simon (xi. 65, 66 ; xiv. 7) and
refortified (33). The name lingers in the
ruins Beit Sur, 4 miles to the north of He-
bron.

Bet'o-nim [pistachio-uuts].

A town of Gad (Josh. xiii. 26). Not prop-
erly identified.

Beu'lah [married].

A name prophetically applied to the once
forsaken laud of Palestine when it was re-
stored to God's favor and repeopled after the
cajitivity (Is. Ixii. 4).

Be'zai.

Founder of a family, some of whom re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 17 ; Neh. vii. 23). A representative of the
family signed the covenant of fidelity to Je-
hovah (Neh. X. 18).

Be'zal-el, in A. V. Be-zal'e-el [in the
shadow (/. e. under the protection) of God].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Caleb, and a grandson of Hur (1
Chron. ii. 20) ; a skillful artificer raised up
of God and appointed to work in gold, silver,
copper, in the setting of precious stones, and
the carving of wood for the furni.shing of the
tabernacle (Ex. xxxi. 1-11; xxxv. 30-35).

2. A son of Pahath-moab, induced by Ezi-a
to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 30).

Be'zek [dissemination, sowing, plantation].

A town evidently in central Palestine, not
a great distance from Jabesh-gilead (1 Sam.
xi. 8, 11). Twin villages of this name ex-
isted in Eusebius' time 17 Roman miles from
Shechem toward Beth-shean. Conder iden-
tifies the site with the ruin Ibzik, 13 miles
northeast of Shechem. With this town may
be identified Bezek mentioned in Judg. i. 4
seq.. on theassumi)tion that Adoni-bezek ad-
vanced southward with his forces to unite

Bezer

89

Bible

witb the southern Canaanites, was met and
repulsed by Judah and Simeon, and pureued
to his capital.
Be'zer [gold or silver ore].

1. An Asherite, sou of Zophah (1 Chron.
vii. 37).

2. A city in the wilderness, on the plateau
within the territory of Reuben. It was given
to the Levites, and was one of the cities of
refuge (Deut. iv. 43; Josh. xx. S; xxi. 'SG; 1
Mac. V. SG). It afterwards came into the
possession of Moab, and Mesha, kiug of Moab,
fortilied it (Moabite Stone 27). Not identified.

Be'zeth.

A place not far from Jerusalem, where
Bacchides pitched his camp (1 Mac. vii. 19),
the village of Beth-zetho or Berzetho (Autiq.
xii. 10, 2), doubtless Bezetha, the northern
suburb of Jerusalem. See Jerusalem II. 3.

Bi'ble [Greek BibJia, books, ecclesiastical
Latin Bibiia], It is believed that the Greek
word Bibiia was first applied to the sacred
books by John Chrysostom, patriarch of Cou-
stautiuople from A. D. 398 to 404.

Etymologically viewed, the Bible means
"the Books," and that no qualifying adjec-
tive stands before the nouu imjilies that these
writings were regarded by those who used
the term as forming a class by themselves
and as superior to all other literary produc-
tions. They are uniquely and preemiueutly
the books. The same view is suggested by
the etymology of the word Scripture and
Scriptures, and the fact is rendered all the
more significant that both terms occur fre-
qnentlv with this implied meaning in the
N. T. '(Mat. xxi. 42 ; Acts. viii. 32). The
term Bible is absent from the s^icred page ;
it is of ecclesiastical origin. The plural term
Bibiia marks the important fact that the
Bible is not a single book, but a great many.
The words Bible and Scripture, on the other
hand, being both in the singular number, em-
phasize the fact that, under the diversity of
human authorship, there lies a wonderful
unity, pointing to the operation of one direct-
ing Miud, which acted during more than a
thousand consecutive years when these writ-
ings were being prod uced . The claims to divine
authority made by Scripture are investigated
by the science of Apologetics. The word is
used in a Greek rather than in an English
sense, and is. therefore, liable to be misun-
derstood. It is related that when George III.
wa.s told that Bishop Watson had published
an Apolufiy fur the Bible, he drily remarked
that he did not know before that the Bible
required an apology. The bishop used the
word "Apology'' like the Greek apolo(iia,
to mean defense ; and the science of Apolo-
getics (lefeuili the Bible. A second science is
that of BiV)lical Criticism. This is divided
into Higher ("ritici-sm, which inquires into
the origin and character of the several books,
and seeks to determine by whom, under what
circumstances, and with what design they

were written; and Lower or Textual Criticism,
which seeks, by the aid of the ancient manu-
scripts and versions, to J)ringthe text of these
books to the highest practicable level of ac-
curacy. Cp. ApotKYPH.\, C.\NON. The science
of Hermeneutics investigates the i)rinciples
of interpretation, while Exegesis applies them.
The contents of the Bible are then methodi-
cally arranged. It will be found when this
is done that they touch geography, history,
science, philosophy, ethics — in fact, nearly
every department of human thought. Further,
Biblical Theology investigates the doctrines
of the Bible in their historical development,
and Dogmatic or Systematic Theology seeks to
arrange the doctrines into the system which
is contained in Scripture, sliow their relation
to each other and to other truths, and to state
them with precision. The Bible is naturally
divided into the Old and the New Testa-
ments or covenants. The O. T. was written
in Hebrew, except a few verses in Aramaic,
and the N. T. in Greek. For the several books
of the O. T. and N. T., see the articles which
hear their names ; and for the versions of the
Scripture into other tongues, see Samari-
tan, Septuagint, Versions, and Vulgate.
Each of the sacred books on its original pub-
lication came forth as a more or less con-
tinuous roll, with no division into chapters or
verses. To find a passage under these circum-
stances was difficult ; to tell another where to
find it was far from easy. Hence eftbrts at
some sort of division and classification began
early to be made ; then improvements were
introduced, till the process of development
ended in our present system of chaptei-s and
verses. The credit of the division into chaj)-
ters is generally given to cardinal Hugo, who
lived in the thirteenth century; that into
verses was apparently borrowed from the
Jewish Masorites of the ninth century. The
present division into chapters and verses was
first adopted in its entirety in the Geneva
N. T., published in 1517, and the Geneva
Bible, in 1560. They are of great convenience,
but are not perfect. Regarding chaptei-s,
there is an imperfection in drawing the line
between the i. and ii. of Genesis at the place
where the separation is now made. Gen. i.
should also include Gen. ii. 1-3, and chajjter
ii. begin at ii. 4. where "God" is succeeded
by "the Lord God." Is. liii. should begin
with lii. 13. and John vii. should take in also
viii. 1. Regarding the verses, they are abso-
lutely indLsjiensable for the purpose of refer-
ence, but they should be ignored when one is
following the thread of an argument or of a
narrative. The R. V. enables one to do this
easily, giving as it does less prominence to
the division into verses; but the danger of
inaccuracy as to numbers is diminished by
quoting from the A. V., where the verses are
sepai-ated. The Bible in whole or in part has
been printed in more than three hundred lan-
guages or dialects. It would not be a great ex-
aggeration were one, referring to the inspired

Bichri

90

Birsha

writers of the Bible, to adopt the language
of the psalmist, meant originally for the
silent theological teaching of the starry skj^:
"Their line is gone out through all the earth,
and their words to the end of the world (Ps.
xix. 4).

Bich'ri [youthful].

Father of the rebel Sheba (2 Sam. xx. 1).

Bid'kar.

A captain under Jehu (2 Kin. ix. 25).

Big'tha.

A chamberlain who ministered in the pres-
ence of Xerxes (Esth. i. 10).

Big'than or Big'tha-na [Persian and San-
scrit BiifiiKh'iiui, gift of fortune].

A chaiiilKTlain, keeper of the palace door,
who cousjiired against king Xerxes (Esth. ii.
21 ; vi. 2).

Big'vai.

1. One of the leaders of the exiles who re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 2).

2. Founder of a family, of which some 2000
returned from Bal)ylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 14; Neh. vii. 19), and several score after-
wards with Ezra (Ezra viii. 14).

Bil'dad.

A Shuhite, one of Job's friends (Job ii. 11),
who made three speeches to the patriarch
(viii., xviii., xxv.).

Bil'e-am [perhaps greed, consumption, de-
struction].

A town of Manasseh, west of the Jordan,
which was assigned to the Levites of the
family of Kohath (1 Chron. vi. 70) ; see
Ibleam. In its stead Gath-rimmon appears
in the present Hebrew text of Josh. xxi. 25.
This latter name has probably been errone-
ously copied from the preceding verse. The
Septuagint (Vat. and Alex.) lends confirma-
tion to this view.

Bil'gah [cheerful].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of David,
and was made the fifteenth course of the
priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 14).

2. A chief of the priests, perhaps repre-
senting the priestly course of this name, who
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh.
xii. 5, 7). In the next generation a father's
house among the priests bore this name (ver.
18) ; cp. BiLGAi.

Bil'gai [cheerful].

One of the priests who, doubtless in behalf
of a father's house, sealed the covenant in
the days of Nehemiah (Neh. x. 8) ; cp. under
the similar name Bilgah.

Bil'hah [perhaps bashfuluess].

1. Rachel's maidservant, who, at her mis-
tress' desire, became one of Jacob's secondary
wives. She was the mother of Dan and Naph-
tali (Gen. xxx. 1-8 ; 1 Chron. vii. 13). Ulti-
mat«ly she committed sin with Reuben (Gen.
XXXV. 22).

2. A Simeonite town (1 Chron. iv. 29). See
Baalah.

Bil'han [perhaps bashful].

1. A Horite, son of Ezer (Gen. xxxvi. 27).

2. A Benjamite, family of Jediael, and
himself the ancestor of several fathers' houses
(1 Chron. vii. 10).

Bil'shan.

One of the twelve chief men who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2 ;
Neh. vii. 7).

Bim'hal.

An Asherite, family of Beriah, house of
Japhlet (1 Chron. vii. 33).

Bin'e-a.

A son of Moza, a descendant of Jonathan,
Saul's son (1 Chron. viii. 37; ix. 43).

Bin'nu-i [built].

1. The head of a family, of which several
hundred returned from the captivity. His
name is also pronounced Bani (Ezra ii. 10 ;
Neh. vii. 15).

2. A son of Pahath-moab, induced by Ezra
to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 30).

3. A Levite who went from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 8). He was a son of

i Henadad (x. 9). His son was one who re-
ceived the silver and gold brought from
Babylon to the temple by Ezra (Ezra viii. 33),
and his family was represented at the build-
ing of the wall (Neh. iii. 24), and its repre-
sentative sealed the covenant (x. 9).

Birds.

The Hebrews classed as birds all animals
which fly, including the bat and winged in-
sects. Tristram enumerates 348 species of
birds as either indigenous or visitants to Pales-
tine. Of these 27i belong to the Palaearctic
zone of Sclater — that to which most of the
European birds belong ; 40 to the Ethiopian,
and 7 to the Indian zone ; while 30, as far as
is known, are peculiar to Palestine itself.
The Ethiopian and Indian types are almost
exclusively confined to the Dead Sea basin,
but it is so depressed beneath the level of the
ocean that it is really a small tropical region
located in the midst of the temperate zone.
In the Mosaic law twenty or twenty-one birds
and, in the case of four of them, their kind
are expressly named as unclean (Lev. xi. 13-
19 ; Deut. xiv. 11-20). The flesh and the eggs
of all clean birds were eaten (cj). Is. x. 14 ; Luke
xi. 12), but the only birds used for sacrifice
were turtle doves and young i)igeons (Lev. i.
14). Doves were domesticated (Is. Ix. 8), and
later, chickens. The cock is mentioned (Mat.
xxvi. 34), and the hen (xxiii. 37; Luke xiii.
34). Wild fowl were hunted, among other
ways, by decoy birds (Ecclus. xi. 30), with
snares (Amos iii. 5), and with nets (Prov. i.
17). The migration of birds is referred to
(Jer. viii. 7).

Bir'sha.

A king of Gomorrah who was defeated by

Birthday

91

Bithynia

C'hedorliiomeraud his cou federates (Gen. xiv.
2, 8, 10).

Birth'day.

The birth of a child, especially of a son,
was a glad occasion, and was often celebrated
by a feast (Jer. xx. 15; Antiq. xii. 4, 7). The
anniversary of one's birth was celebrated by
the Egyptians and Persians (Gen. xl. 20 ;
Herod, "i. IXi). Herod the tetrarch kept the
anniversary of either his birth or his acces-
sion, it is debated which (Mat. xiv. 6).

Birth'right.

A certain right or privilege considered to
belong to the firstborn son in a family, and
which is not shared by his younger brothers.
The eldest son ordinarily succeeded to his
father's rank and position, as head of the
family or tribe, and as representative of its
prerogatives. He also inherited a double
portion of his father's property, a right guar-
anteed to the firstborn even when his mother
was the less loved of two wives (Deut. xxi.
17; cp. 2 Kin. ii. 9). A birthright might be
sold to a younger brother, as Esau sold his
birthright to Jacob (Gen. xxv. 29, 34 ; Heb.
xii. 16). It might also be forfeited on account
of misconduct (1 Chrou. v. 1).

Bir'za-ith, in A. V. Bir'za-vith [openings,
wounds]. The form in E. V. is the tradi-
tional reading, that in A. V. represents the
consonants of the present text.

An Asherite, family of Malchiel (1 Chron.
vii. 31).

Bish'lam [son of peace].

A Persian otlicial who joined in the com-
plaint to Artaxerxes that the Jews were re-
building Jerusiilem (Ezra iv. 7).

Blsh'op [a corruption of Latin episcopits,
Greek episl:o2ws, an overseer].

The Greek word is used in the Septuagint for
an official overseer, whether civil or religious,
as Elcazar the priest (Num. iv. 16). and offi-
cers of the army (sxxi. 14). In the N. T. the
word occurs first in the exhortation of Paul to
the elders or, as in the margin, presbyters of
the church at Ephesus, when he said, " Take
heed unto yourselves, and to all the flock, in
the which the Holy Ghost hath made you
bishops," or, as in the margin, "'overseers"
(Acts XX. 17. 28, R. V.). Here and elsewhere
Paul identifies elders, presbyters, and bishops
(Tit. i. 5-7). The terms are diff'erent desig-
nations for the incumbent of the same office.
Elsewhere he distinguishes simply between
bishop and deacon (Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 1-8).
Peter, using the verb ephkopeo, exhorts the
elders to tend the flock of God, "exercising
the oversight, not of constraint, but will-
ingly " (1 Pet. V. 2, E. v.). In the church of
the N. T. the duties of the bishop were to
care for the flock of God (Acts xx. 28 ; 1 Pet.
V. 2). He was the shepherd, bearing rule
and watching in behalf of souls, admonish-
ing, encouraging, and supporting (1 Thes. v.
14; Heb. xiii. 17), and some among them la-

bored in the word and in teaching (1 Tim. v.
17^. His qualifications are enumerated in 1
Tim. iii. 1-7 and Tit. i. 7-9. A iilurality of them
existed in the church at Phili])pi, as in that
of Ephesus (Phil. i. 1); and the college of
presbyter-bishops ordained by the laying on
of hands (1 Tim. iv. 14). In the church at
Jerusalem the elders and apostles consulted
together, and the decision of the council was
given in the name of the apostles and elders
(Acts XV. 6, 22 ; xvi. 4 ; xxi. 18) ; see Eldkr.
The name is applied figuratively to Jesus (1
Pet. ii. 25). A distinction, however, grew up
very early in the Church between elder or
presbyter and bishop. It appears in the sec-
ond century, being mentioned in the epistles
of Ignatius, who died in 107 or 116. Accord-
ing to the Roman Catholic Council of Trent
in the sixteenth century, '' Bishops, being the
successors of the apostles, are placed by the
Holy Ghost to govern the Church of God, and
to be superior to their presbyters or priests."
Roman Catholic opinion assumes that the
apostles had a general supervision of the con-
gregation, while the elders whom they had
ordained had the local oversight; but as the
congregations increased in number, the apos-
tles ordained assistants whom they appointed
their successors, to be overseers of the con-
gregation in a district. Such were the angels
of the seven churches (Eev. i. 20) ; see Angel.
High Anglicans find the institution implied
in the position of the apostle James in the
church at Jerusalem, in the angels of the
seven churches, and in the work of Timothy
and Titus. Paul did indeed exhort Timothy
to tarry at Ephesus, order public worship, ex-
hort and teach (1 Tim. i. 3 ff.) ; and Titus,
whom Paul had before employed as a mes-
senger to the Corinthians (2 Cor. xii. 18), he
left in Crete to set in order things that M'ere
wanting, and to appoint elders, called also
bishops, in every city (Tit. i. 5-7). But it is
to be noted that Timothy was in the first in-
stance ordained bj- presbytery (1 Tim. iv. 14),
and there is not a trace in the N. T. of the
apostles appointing any man to succeed them.

Bi-thi'ah [a daughter, in the sense of a
wor.shiper, of Jehovah].

A daughter of Pharaoh and wife of Mered,
a man of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 18). Her name
indicates that she was a convert to the wor-
ship of Jehovah.

Bith'ron [cut, division, gorge].

A region, doubtless a valley, north of the
Jabbok near Mahauaim (2 Sam. ii. 2Q).

Bi-thyn'i-a.

A country in the northwestern part of Asia
Minor, bounded on the north by the Black
Sea, on the south by Phrygia and Galatia, on
the east by Paphlagonia and part of Phrygia,
and on the west by Mysia. But its boundaries
varied at different times. It was colonized
by the Thyni or Bithyni from Thrace, in
Europe, who conquered or drove out the Beb-
ryces, its original inhabitants, and imparted

Bittern

92

Blindness

to it their own name (Herod, vii. 75). Under
tbe Persian empire it constituted a satrapy.
Nicomedes III. bequeathed it to the Romans
in 74 B. c. Palil and Silas attempted to en-
ter Bithynia, but the Spirit sufiered tliem not
(Acts xvi. 7). The gospel was carried thither
by other means. Peter was able to address
Christians of Bithynia in his first letter (1 Pet.
i. 1). and at the beginning of the second cen-
tury Pliny the younger reported numerous
Christians there. Laterstill, in two of its towns,
Nicgea and Chalcedou, great councils of the
Church were held. It is a fertile country, in
which the vine is largely cultivated. In
various parts, especially in the chain of mount
Olympus, which ruusalong its southern bound-
ary, there are forests of oak, interspersed with
beech trees, chestnuts, and walnuts.

Bit'tern.

The rendering in A. V. of the Hebrew word
Kippod, the one contracting or rolling itself
together; an animal frequenting ruins (Is.
siv. 23; xxxiv. 11), which ascended to the
top of ruined doors or to window sills, and
thence made its voice heard (Zeph. ii. 14).
The bittern {Botaurus stellaris) is a long-
necked and long-legged wading bird, habit-
ually frequenting pools of water, but not
likely to be heard giving voice from a ruined
window. The E. V. considers the animal to
be the porcupine, while Tristram identifies it
as probably the Scops Owl {Scojis gin), a mi-
grant in Palestine for the summer months,
breeding in the walls of old ruins and in hol-
low trees.

Bi-tu'men.

Mineral pitch. There are three varieties
of it : (1) Earthy bitumen ; (2) elastic bitu-
men, elaterite or mineral caoutchouc ; (3)
compact bitumen or asphalt, asphaltum, or
Jew's pitch. In its appearance it resembles
common pitch. It sinks in water, is easily
melted, is very inflammable, and when set
on fire burns with a red smoky flame. It is
produced in the chemistry of nature by the
enclosure of vegetable matter in the crust of
the earth, so that it is in immediate contact
with water, while atmospheric air is quite
shut out. There is a pitch lake in Trinidad.
Bitumen or asphalt exists at or near the Dead
Sea. called, in consequence, by the Greeks
and Romans, Lake Asphaltites. It is found
also at Hit, on the Euphrates, above Babylon,
and in other places. Bitumen was the slime
with which the bricks used for the erection
of the tower of Babel were cemented (Gen.
xi. 3). The slime pits in which the defeated
kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fell were bitu-
men pits (xiv. 10).

Biz'i-o-thi'ah, in A. V. Biz-joth'jah [con-
tempt of Jehovah] .

A town in the most southerly portion of
Judah (Josh. xv. 28). The text is suspicious.
Almost the same consonants would mean "its
daughters or suburbs" (Septuagint, cp. Neh.
xi. 27).

Biz'tha.

A chamberlain at the court of Xerxes (Esth.
1. 10).

Blain.

The rendering of the Hebrew '"ba'bii'oth,
pustules. It signifies a bleb, a bubble of mat-
ter, a blister full of serum arising upon the
skin. It would now probably be ranked un-
der the skin disease called pemphigus. Blains
accompanied by boils is the disease which con-
stituted the sixth of the ten plagues of Egypt
(Ex. ix. 8-11).

Blas'phe-my.

Defamatory or other wicked language di-
rected against God (Ps. Ixxiv. 10-18 ; Is. Hi.
5; Rev. xvi. 9, 11, 21). Under the Mosaic
law it was punished by stoning (Lev. xxiv.
16). The charge of blasphemy was falsely
brought against Naboth (1 Kin. xxi. 10-13),
Stephen (Acts vi. 11), and our Lord (Mat. ix.
3 ; xxvi. 65, 66: John x. 36).

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost con-
sisted in attributing the miracles of Christ,
which were wrought by the Spirit of God, to
Satanic power (Mat. xii. 22-32 ; Mark iii.
22-30).

Blas'tus [a sprout or shoot, a sucker].

A palace functionary who had charge of
Herod Agrippa's bedchamber (Acts xii. 20).

Bless.

The three leading meanings which the verb
bless has in Scripture are :

1. To bestow divine favor and confer di-
vine benefits (Gen. i. 22; ii. 3 ; ix. 1-7).

2. To adore God for his goodness and re-
turn thanks (Ps. ciii. 1 ; and Mat. xxvi. 26 ;
Mark xiv. 22 with Luke xxii. 19 and 1 Cor.
xi. 24).

3. To invoke God's favor on a person (Gen.
xxvii. 4, 27-29; 1 Chrou. xvi. 2 : Ps. cxxix.
8), including salutation and even the ordi-
nary greeting, "Peace be to you" (1 Sam.
XXV. 5, 6, 14; 2 Kin. iv. 29).

Bless 'ing.

Any ad\autage conferred or wished for.
Specially —

1. Favors, advantages, conferred by God,
and bringing pleasure or happiness in their
train (Gen. xxxix. 5 : Dent, xxviii. 8 ; Prov.
X. 22, etc.).

2. The invocation of God's favor upon a
person (Gen. xxvii. 12).

3. A present, a token of good will (Gen
xxxiii. 11 ; Josh. xv. 19 : 2 Kin. v. 15).

Blind'ness.

Blindness is extremely prevalent in the
east. Its main causes are smallpox, and es-
pecially ophthalmia, aggravated by peculiar
conditions, such as the perpetual glare of the
sun, the quantity of fine dust in the air, and
flies. Children are also sometimes born blind
(John ix. 1). Consequently blind beggars are
frequent (Mat. ix. 27 ; xii. 22 ; xx. 30 ; xxi.
14). Total or pai'tial blindness may result
from old age (Gen. xxvii. 1 ; 1 Sam. iv. 15 ;

Blood

93

Boil

1 Kin. xiv. 4). The cyos of caiitives taken
in war were frequently put out hy l)arl)ar()us
victore, as by the Ammonites, Philistines, As-
syrians, and Babylonians (Judg. xvi. 21 ; 1
&un. xi. 2 ; 2 Kin. xxv. 7). In a few in-
stances men were miraculously smitten with
temporary blindness ((Jen. xix. 11 ; 2 Kin. vi.
18-22 ; Acts ix. II ; xiii. 11). The Mosaic law
inculcated the exercise of humanity toward
the blind (Lev. xix. 14; Deut. xxvii. 18).

Assyrian King piercing the Eyes of Captives.

Blood.

The vital fluid circulating through the
body, and conveyed by a system of deep-
seated arteries from the heart to the extrem-
ities, and by a system of superficial veins
back again to the heart. Arterial blood is
Horid red, while venous blood is of a dark
])urple or modena hue. The life is in the
blood (Lev. xvii. 11, 14) ; or the blood is the
life (Deut. xii. 23), though not exclusively
(Ps. civ. 30). The blood represented the life,
and so sacred is life before God that the blood
of murdered Abel could be described as cry-
ing to God from the ground for vengeance
(Gen. iv. 10) ; and immediately after the
flood the eating of the blood of the lower
animals was forbidden, although their slaugh-
ter f(n" food was authorized (ix. 3, 4 ; Acts xv.
20, 29), and the law was laid down. " Whoso
sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood
be shed" (Gen. ix. G). The loss of life is the
penalty for sin, and its typical vicarious sur-
render was necessary to remission (Heb. ix.
22), and so, under the Mosaic law, the blood of
animals was used in all offerings for sin, and
the blood of beasts killed on the hunt or
slaughtered for food was poured out and cov-
ered with earth, because withheld by God
from man's consumption and reserved for
purposes of atonement (Lev. xvii. 10-14; Deut.
xii. 1.5, 16). The "blood of Jesus," the " blood
of Christ," the "blood of Jesus Christ," or
" the blood of the Lamb." are figurative ex-
pressions for Ids atoning deatli (1 Cor. x. 16 ;
Eph. ii. 13 ; Heb. ix. 14 ; x. 19 : 1 Pet. i. 2, 19 ;
1 John i. 7; Rev. vii. 14; xii. 11).

For revenger, or rather avenger, of blood,
see Avenger.

Blood'y Flux. See Dysentery.
Blood'y Sweat. See Sweat.

Bo-a-ner'ges [sons of tumult or thunder].

A name given by Jesus to James and John
on account of their impetuosity (Mark iii. 17;
cp. Luke ix. 54, 55).

Boar.

The rendering of the Hebrew H'zir, when
it refers to wild swine, and especially to the
male of wild swine (Ps. Ixxx. 13). When the
reference is to the domesticated animal, it is
rendered swine. The wild boar is three or
more feet long, not counting the tail. The
canine teeth project beyond the upper lip,
constituting formidable tusks, with which it
seeks to rip up its assailants. The female is
smaller than the male, and has smaller tusks.
The animal is still found in Palestine, espe-
cially in the ravines east of the Jordan, in
the valley near Jericho, in the swamps of the
waters of Merom, on Tabor, Lebanon, and
Carmel, and in the plain of Sharon.

Bo'az, in A. V. of N. T. Bo'oz [commonly
interpreted as meaning " In liim is strength."
but both spelling and accentuation are against
this explanation].

1. A wealthy and honorable Bethlehemite,
kinsman to the husband of Ruth the Moab-
ite.ss. He respected the memory of tlie dead
by marrying Ruth after the decease of her
husband, and became ancestor of David and
of Christ (Ruth ii.-iv. ; Mat. i. 5). Late Jew-
ish tradition, destitute of all probability, iden-
tifies him with the judge Ibzan.

2. One of two pillars, that on the left, set
u.p in the porch of Solomon's temple (1 Kin.
vii. 15-22).

Boch'e-ru [firstborn].

A son of Azel and a descendant of Jona-
than, Saul's son (1 Chron. viii. 38).

Bo'cMm [weepers].

A ]ilace near Gilgal, where the Israelites
repented and wept under the rebuke of the
angel of the Lord for their disobedience of
God's commands (Judg. ii. 1-5). Its exact
site is unknown.

Bo'han [thumb].

1. A son of Reuben (Josh. xv. 6; xviii. 17).

2. The stone of Bohan was a place on the
boundary between Judah and Benjamin, not
a great distance from the Jordan (Josh. xv.
6 ; xviii. 17). Exact site unknown.

Boil.

An inflamed ulcer. It was inflicted along
with blains as the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex.
ix. 8-11 ; cp. Deut. xxviii. 27, 35). It was a
prominent symptom in leprosy (Lev. xiii. 18-
20). It constituted the main feature of Heze-
kiah's disease, which brought his life into
imminent danger (2 Kin. xx. 7 ; Is. xxxviii.
21). Job was smitten by .Satan with boils
from head to foot (Job ii. 7). Ordinary boils
are common, in the warmer parts of the East,
1 during the rainy season. They are unsightly,

Bolster

94

Borrow

but are not dangerous. One type of boil,
however, the carbuncle, arising from poisoned
blood and eating away the flesh like an ulcer,
may terminate the life. This was probably
Hezekiah's disease. The application of a
poultice of figs would do it good, but the
rapid cure was due to God.

Bol'ster.

The usual Hebrew word which is rendered
bolster or pillow means simply at the head,
and the Greek word rendered pillow in A. V.
does not necessarily mean a cushion for the
head. Jacob, sleeping in the open field, took
a stone to support his head (Gen. xxviii. 11,
18). Jesus probably placed the leather cushion
of the steersman's seat under his head when
he lay down to sleep in the stern of the boat
(Mark iv. 38). Michal jiut some article of
goats' hair at the head of the teraphim which
she laid in the bed to deceive the messengers
who were sent to take David. She did this
perhaps to give the appearance of human
hair or of a covering laid over the sleeper
(1 Sam. xix. 13).

Bon'net.

Originally a head dress for men (Ezek. xliv.
18), a sense which the word still retains in
Scotland. Then it was applied to a head dress
for women (Is. iii. 20). The R. V. renders it
head tires and tires (q. v.).

Book.

Documents were early inscribed on clay or
graven on stone. Skin or parchment and
papyrus came into use at an early period also.
When written on skin, a long document took
the form of a roll with wi'iting on one or
both of its sides. Of this type of book there
is a memorial in the word volume, Latin
volumen, properly, something rolled up (Ps.
xl. 7; Jer. xxxvi. 2; Ezek. ii. 9). Books are
first mentioned as written by the Hebrews
after the sojourn in Egypt, where written
literature had existed for centuries (Ex. xvii.
14). The 39 books of the O. T. and the 27
of the N. T., which constitute the canon of
Scripture, do not represent the entire literary
activity of the Hebrews during the time em-
braced by the canon. There were, for exam-
ple, the books of the Apocrypha. Later there
were memoirs of Jesus (Luke i. 1). In the
O. T. period there were two poetical books at
least, the Book of the Wars of Jehovah and
the Book of Jashar (Num. xxi. 14 ; Josh. x.
13). The events of the reigns of David and
Solomon were recorded in the History of
Samuel the Seer, the History of Nathan the
Prophet, the History of Gad the Seer (1 Chron.
xxix. 29; 2 Chron. ix. 29), and also in the
Chronicles of King David, which apparently
mark the beginning of the custom of keep-
ing royal annals (1 Chron. xxvii. 24). The
reigns of Solomon and Jeroboam found record
in the Visions of Iddo the Seer (2 Chron. ix.
29), and Eehoboam's reign in the History of
Shemaiah the Prophet and in the History of
Iddo the Seer (xii. 15). The Chronicles of the

Kings of Israel and the Chronicles of the
Kings of Judah recorded the history of the
two kingdoms from the time of Rehoboam and
Jeroboam, until as late as the reign of Jehoia-
kim (1 Kin. xiv. 19, 29;2Kin.xxiv. 5; 2Chron.
xxxvi. 8) ; see Kings. In addition to these
works, there was quite a library in existence
at the time when the books of Chronicles were
written, consisting largely of monographs,
of which not a few titles are cited (2 Chron.
ix. 29; xiii. 22; xx. 34; xxiv. 27; xxvi. 22;
xxxii. 32; xxxiii. 18, 19; xxxv. 25; see also
Prov. XXV. 1; 1 Kin. iv. 32, 33).

Booth.

A rude habitation designed in most cases
for a longer occupation than a tent, but not
for permanence like a house. It was often
formed with branches of trees. Jacob made
booths at Shechem for his cattle, the place
in consequence being afterwards called Suc-
coth (Gen. xxxiii. 17). The keeper of a vine-
yard occupied a booth (Job xxvii. 18; Is. i. 8,
R. v.), which during the vintage sheltered the
owner and his friends. The Israelites were
required to form booths of branches of trees,
palm leaves, etc., and dwell in them for seven
days at the feast of tabernacles. The booths
at this harvest festival were a reminder of the
vintage life ; but with this recollection there
was also to be associated the memory of their
deliverance from Egypt, when tliej^ sojourned
in the wilderness without permanent habita-
tion (Lev. xxiii. 39-43; Neh. viii. 14).

Boo'ty.

The j)lunder of a conquered district or
town. It consisted of everything of value —
household goods, gold, silver, cattle, and cap-
tives to be used as slaves (Gen. xiv. 11, 12,
16 ; Num. xxxi. 9, 26-52 ; Josh. vii. 21). At
the conquest of Canaan the Israelites were
required to slay everything that breathed
and to destroy all idols and places of idola-
trous worship, but in foreign conquests they
were bidden to slay the men only, and were
authorized to take the remaining spoil (Num.
xxxiii. 52 ; Deut. xx. 14-16). Exceptions were
occasionally made when everything was de-
voted, the living to destruction, the goods to
the treasury of the sanctuary, or when a cer-
tain portion of the spoil was dedicated to the
Lord (Num. xxxi. 26-47 ; Josh. vi. 19 ; 1 Sam.
XV. 2, 3). David made a law that the troops
detailed to guard the baggage should share
equally with those who engaged in the battle
(1 Sam. XXX. 23-25).

Bo'oz. See Boaz.

Bor'row.

To ask in loan. Did the Israelites, when
the Egyptians urged them to leave the coun-
try, borrow goods from the Egyptians or ob-
tain them as gifts ? The word rendered bor-
row in A. V. of Ex. iii. 22; xi. 2; xii. 35,
means simply a.sk (R. V.) or request, whether
the object desired was to be returned (2 Kin.
vi. 5) or not (Judg. v. 25 ; viii. 24) ; and the
word translated lend (Ex. xii. 36, A. V.) is a

Boscath

95

Bozrali

form of the same verb, and means to grant a
request or let one have what one asks (E. V. ;
cp. 1 Sam. i. 28).

Bos'cath. See Bozkath.

Bo'sor.

1. A town of Gilead, Gilead being doubtless
used in a broad sense (1 Mac. v. 26, 36) ; per-
haps Bezcr in the former territory of Reuben
(Jo.sh. XX. 8).

2. See Beok.
Bos'o-ra.

A town of Gilead (1 Mac. v. 26, 28), either
Bozrah in Edom or Bostra in Haurau.

Botch.

The rendering in A.V.of Deut. xxviii. 27,35
of tlie Hebrew word elsewhere translated boil.

Bot'tle.

1. A hollow vessel of leather, or the hollow
hide of an animal, used for holding liquids
(Job xxxii. 19 ; Mat. ix. 17). See under Butter.

Skin Bottles.

2. A small vessel of earthenware formed by
potters, and which was capable of being broken
(Jer. xix. 1, 10, 11). If any glass bottle is re-
ferred to in Scripture, it was probably a small
lachrymatory for holding tears (Ps. Ivi. 8).

Bow.

A weapon used for shooting arrows (2 Kin.

35; Job XX. 24), with a cord stretched be-
tween its two ends (Ps. xi. 2), and was held
in the left hand (Ezek. xxxix. 3). It was used
both in hunting and war ((ien. xxvii. 3 ;
xlviii. 22). Its use was general among the
nations of antiquity (1 Sam. xxxi. 3; 1 Kin.
xxii. 34 ; Jer. xlvi. 9; xlix. 35). There were
archers among the soldiers of Reuben, Gad,
the half tribe of Manasseh, Ephraim, and es-
pecially Benjamin (1 Chrou. v. 18: 2 Chron.
xiv. 8; Ps. Ixxviii. 9). The bow was carried
by officers and soldiers on foot, in chariots, or
on horseback {2 Kin. ix. 24). The archers
carried the little shield and a sword (1 Sam.
xviii. 4; 1 Chron. v. 18; 2 Chron. xiv. 8),
and with the slingers constituted the light-
armed troops.

The arrows were of cane or polished wood,
and were carried in a quiver (Lam. iii. 13;
Is. xlix. 2; Ezek. xxxix. 9). Their heads
were made of iron, copper, or stone, and were
sometimes poisoned (Job vi. 4).

Bowl. See Basin.

Box.

1. A small case or vessel with a cover. In
Scripture times they were used to hold oil,
ointment, etc. (2 Kin. ix. 1 ; Mat. xxvi. 7).

2. The rendering of the Hebrew T^'ash-
shilr, meaning a straight tree. Boat seats were
made of it (Ezek. xxvii. 6, R. V.). With the
fir tree and the pine tree it constituted the
glory of Lebanon (Is. Ix. 13 ; on R. V. margin
of Is. xli. 19 cypress). The species of box
which grows on Lebanon is Buxus lomjifolia,
a small evergreen tree about 20 feet high.

Bo'zez [shining].

Of two crags near Gibeah, the northern-
most, in front of Michmash (1 Sam. xiv. 4, 5).
It overlooked the Wady Suweinit.

Boz'kath, in A. V. once Bos'cath [elevated,
stony ground].

A town iu the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 39). Josiah's maternal grandfather,
Adaiah, was of the place (2 Kin. xxii. 1)-
Exact site unknown.

Boz'rah [an enclosure, a sheepfold].

Bow used iu Battle between Assyrians and their Foes.

vi. 22; 1 Chrou. xii. 2). It was made of a | 1. An important city of Edom (Gen. xxxvi.
strip of elastic wood or metal (2 Sam. xxii. 33; 1 Chron. i. 44; Is. xxxiv. 6; Ixiii. 1).

Bracelet

96

Bread

Amos predicted that its palaces should be
destroyed (Amos i. 12) ; aud Jeremiah fore-
told its utter destructiou (.ler. xlix. 13, 22).
It was noted for its sheej) (Mic. ii. 12). Burck-
hardt and Robinson located it at el-Buseira,
a village of some fifty houses, about 18 miles
southeast of the Dead Sea. This identifica-
tion is generally accepted.

2. A city of Moab mentioned with Kerioth,
Beth-meon, Dibon, aud other towns of the
plateau (Jer. xlviii. 24) ; probably the same
as Bezer (in Septuagint, Bosor).

Bracelet.

An ornament for the wrist or for the arm,
worn by both sexes (Ezek. xvi. 11). One was
put on Eebekah's wrist by Abraham's servant
(Gen. xxiv. 22). Bracelets were given by the
Israelites in the wilderness to furnish gold or
silver for the construction of the vessels of

Egyptian Bracelets.

the tabernacle (Num. xxxi. 50). Saul wore
one, unless what he had on was rather an
armlet (2 Sam. i. 10). For bracelet in A. V. in
Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25, R. V. substitutes cord ;
in Ex. XXXV. 22, brooches; and in Is. iii. 19,
on the margin, chains.

Bram'tole.

The rendering of the Hebrew word 'Atad
in Judg. ix. 14, 15. The plant is named from
its firmness. The R. V. renders it on the
margin by thorn, and both versions so trans-
late the word in Ps. Iviii. 9. It is doubtless a
variety of Bhamnus. The Septuagint and Vul-
gate render it by Rhammm. This thorn is
quite common in the warmer parts of Pales-
tine, especially in the vicinity of the Dead
Sea (cp. Gen. 1. 10), in the Jordan valley, and
about the Sea of Galilee. It is also found at
Jerusalem. The Rhamnus is still called by the
Arabs 'atad or nabk, applying the name not
only to Christ's Thorn (Zizyphns spina Christi),
which takes its name from the tradition that
the crown placed on Christ's head was made
from its twigs, but apparently also to Rham-
nus palinrus.

Branch.

A title applied to the Messiah as the off-
spring of David (Jer. xxiii. 5 ; xxxiii. 15 :
Zech. iii. 8 ; vi. 12).

Brass.

The rendering of the Hebrew word N'ho-
sheth and the Greek Chalkos. The margin of
the R. v., however, at Gen. iv. 22 gives cop-
per as a constant alternative. Copper was
smelted from the ore dug from the ground
(Deut. viii. 9 ; Job xxviii. 2). Traces of an-

cient copper works exist in Lebanon and in
Edom. It was obtained notably in the penin-
sula of Sinai, in Cyprus, and in Meshech and
Tubal (Ezek. xxvii. 13). Brass is an alloy of
copper with from 28 to 34 per cent, of zinc.
Unless accidentally associated with calamine,
it does not occur in nature, but is an artificial
product. The assertion used to be made that
it was not known till it was accidentally
formed by the running together of ditferent
melted metals when Corinth was burned, 146
B. c, by the consul Mummius. But vessels
of brass have been found of much higher an-
tiquity in Egyptian tombs. Bronze is another
artificial product from copper, being an alloy
of copper and tin. From copper and its alloys
utensils were made : pots, shovels, basins,
pans, spoons, snufters (Ex. xxxviii. 3; Lev.
vi. 28 ; Num. xvi. 39 ; Jer. Hi. 18) ; armor,
also, such as helmets, coats of mail, greaves,
shields, spear points, and even bows (2 Sam.
xxi. 16 ; xxii. 35, R.V. ; 2 Chron. xii. 10) ; fetters
also, mirrors, city gates, musical instruments,
idols, and in later times coins (Ex. xxxviii.
8 ; 2 Kin. xxv. 7, 13; Is. xlv. 2 ; Mat. x. 9 ;
1 Cor. xiii. 1 ; Rev. ix. 20). Where casting is
spoken of, the metal was bronze. Thus were
made the plating and railing for the altar,
the lavers and the sea with its pedestal of
oxen, and two magnificent pillars for the
temple (1 Kin. vii. 41-46; 2 Chron. iv. 1-17).

Bra'zen Ser'pent.

The figure of a serpent, made of metal, aud
erected by Moses on a pole in the wilderness,
that the Israelites who were bitten by fiery
serpents might look at it with faith in God's
promise to heal those who looked (Num. xxi.
8, 9). In after years the Isi-aelites began to
use it as an idol, and Hezekiah had it broken
in pieces, contemptuously calling it N^hnshtan,
that is to say, only a piece of brass (2 Kin.
xviii. 4). Jesus in foi'etelling his crucifixion
explained its spiritual significance by com-
paring it with the rearing of the brazen ser-
pent (John iii. 14, 15).

Bread.

The bread in use among the Israelites con-
sisted generally of small flat cakes of wheaten
flour or, among the poor, of barley flour.
The grain was ground daily in a hand mill,
and fresh bread baked everyday. When this
bi-ead was to be eaten at once, it was often
unleavened (Gen. xix. 3; 1 Sam. xxviii. 24),
but the art of making leavened bread was
also understood (Mat. xiii. .33). The show-
bread which was edible after eight days was
evidently leavened. The flour was made into
a paste or dough by mixing with water, and
might be leavened some time after mixing ;
for example, at the first passover the dough
was already mixed in the troughs, but not
yet leavened when the order came to march
(Ex. xii. 34).

The oven used by private fiimilies was a
poi-table jar in which, after it had been heated,
the loaves were laid or were stuck against the

Breastplate

97

Brick

sides, tlie cakes baked in this later fashion
heiii>; very thin.

Besides the l)read l)aked in the oven (Lev.
ii. 4), cakes also were baked on a slightly
concave pan i)Utovera tii'e. these being some-
thing like i)aucakes (Lev. ii. 5). Bread was
also l)aked on the heated heartli or on any
hot stones after the ashes were swept aside (I
Kin. xix. 6). This kind was made especially
when food was wanted in a luirry (Gen. xviii.
ti). The Bedouin at jiresent commonly bake
by placing their loaves iu a hole in the ground

distinguished leader of the Jerusalem churcli
(Acts xii. 17 ; xv. 13: <ial. ii. It;, and was the
author of the ejjistle which goes by his name.
In what sense tliey were Christ's "brethren "
has been much disputed. In very early times
they were regarded as tiie children of Josci>li
by a former marriage. Tlie disa])i)earance of
Joseph from the CiosiJcls suggests tliat he liad
died, and may have been nnich older than
Mary, and may have l)ee7i previously mar-
ried. But this would x>revent Jesus from
being Joseph's legal heir, which he is repre-

Egyptian Bakers.

which has previously held a fire and then
been cleared out. The hole is carefullj' cov-
ered and the bread allowed to bake all night.
This method was probably well known to the
Israelites. Baking was ordinarily done by
the women (Gen. xviii. 6: 1 Sam. viii. 13;
Lev. xxvi. 2<5; but Judg. vi. 19), and in large
hou.seholds by the slaves, but in the cities
there were also bakers who sold bread (Jer.
xxxvii. 21 ; cp. Hos. vii. 4, 6). In the second
chapter of Leviticus is given a list of the
different kinds of bread which were accepta-
ble as offerings. In some places the word is
applied to all kinds of food (Luke xi. 3).

Breast'plate.

1. A sa(n<l article of dress w'oni by the
Jewish high prie.st (Ex. xxviii. 15-30'. See
High Priest.

"2. Armor designed to protect the body in
battle (Rev. ix. 9) : see Armor. Figuratively,
righteousness (Is. lix. 17; Eph. vi. 14; Wisd.
V. 19), or faith and love, constitute a spiritual
breastplate (1 Thes. v. 8).

Bretli'ren of the Lord.

Their names are given in the Gospels as
James, Jose])h or Joses, Simon, and .ludas
(Mat. xiii. ?,?,, E. Y. ; Mark vi. 3). They ap-
pear in company with Mary (Mat. xii. 47-50 ;
Mark iii. 31-.35: Luke viii. 19-21), moved to
Capernaum with her and Jesus and the lat-
ter's disciples at the beginning of Christ's
ministry (John ii. 12), but are said not to
have believed in .Jesus even toward the close
of his life (John vii. 4, 5). After the resur-
rection, however, they are found united with
the disciples (Acts i. 14), and are afterwards
mentioned as Christian workers (1 Cor. ix. 5).
One of them, James (Gal. i. 19), became a

sented to have been in Mat. i. In the fourth
century Jerome proposed another view ; viz.,
that they were Christ's cousins on his moth-
er's side, the children of Alphseus (or Clopas)
and Mary's sister of the same name. This is
inferred mainly from a comlnnation of Mark
XV. 40 and John xix. 25 (the latter being
thought to mention but three women), and
from the identity of the names Alphieus and
Clopa.s. On this view one (James the son of
Alphfeus) and perhaps more (Simon and
Judas) of the apostles were Christ's brethren.
But the ajjostles are distinguished from his
brethren ; the latter did not believe in him,
and it is unlikely that two sisters had the
same name. Another very old view was that
they were cousins on .Joseph's side, and some
have even supposed they were the children
of the widow of Joseph's brother (Deut. xxv.
5-10). But all these theories appear to have
originated from a wish to maintain the per-
petual virginity of JIary. That they were
the children of Joseph and Mary, born after
Jesus, is the natural view, and that Mar^- had
other children is implied in Mat. i. 25; Luke
ii. 7. This view explains also the constant
association of "the brethren" with Mary.

tJ. T. P.

Brick.

A mass of clay tempered, made rectangular
in shape, and hardened either by burning in
a kiln (Gen. xi. 3) or by drying in the sun
(Herod, ii. 136). They were of course sun-dried
when the clay was mixed \\'ith straw (Ex. v. 7).
Both bricks and tiles are often found stamped
w-ith names and in.scriptions. from which we
have derived much of our knowledge of
those ancient times, as well as from the tab-

Brickkiln

98

Bullock

lets of burnt clay specially prepared as docu-
ments in a similar way (cp. Ezek. iv. 1). For
illustration of brickmaking, see Egypt.

Brick bearins Niime and Inscription of
Nebucliadnezzar.

Brick 'kiln.

A kiln for enclosing bricks while they are
being burned (2 Sam. xii. 31 and Nah. iii.
14, where R. V. margin translates brickmould ;
Jer. xliii. 9, in R. V. brickwork).

Bri'er.

The rendering of six distinct Hebrew words
and of one Greek word.

1. Barkan ( Judg. viii. 7, 16) ; perhaps, as
etymology suggests, so named because it
grows in stony ground.

2. Shamir, bristling, prickly (Is. ix. 18 ; x.
17 ; xxvii. 4 ; xxxii. 13), such as springs up
in abandoned vineyards (v. 6; vii. 23).

3. Sirpad (Is. Iv. 13). Septuagint and Vul-
gate render it nettle.

4. Sarah, refractory (Ezek. ii. 6).

5. Sillon (Ezek. xxviii. 24 ; in ii. 6 rendered
thorn).

6. Hedeh (Mic. vii. 4), used in hedges (Prov.
XV. 19, where it is rendered thorn). The cor-
responding word in Arabic means the Egg-
plant, Mad-apple, Jew's-appleorBrinjal {Sola-
niim melongeiia), one variety of which is thorny.
It is a native of India and, it is believed, of
Arabia. It is of the same genus as the potato,
but tlie edible part is the fruit, which is much
used in curries in the East.

7. Greek Akanthn, a thorn or a prickly
]>lant or thorny tree (Heb. vi. 8, A. V.).

Brig'an-dine.

A name for a coat of mail, composed of
light thin-jointed scales, or of thin pliant
plate armor (.Jer. xlvi. 4 ; Ii. 3). The R. V.
substitutes coat of mail.

Brim'stone.

Sulphur (Gen. xix. 24; Deut. xxix. 23).

Brook.

A small perennial stream, as the KLshon
(1 Kin. xviii.40) and the Jabl)ok (Gen. xxxii.
23, A. v.). Generally, however, in Scripture
the word is used for a stream which flows in
the rainy, winter season, but is dry in sum-

mer, as the brook of Egyjit (Num. xxxiv. .5,
R. V. ; see River), the Zered (Deut. ii. 13),
and the Kidron (2 Sam. xv. 23 ; John xviii. 1,
R. v.).

Broom.

A much-branched bush, with twiggy, nearly
leafless, branches, and clusters of pinkish-
white flowers, which grows in the Jordan
valley and Arabia, and is common in the
peninsula of Sinai (Job xxx. 4 ; 1 Kin. xix.
4). Its large root stalk is made into charcoal
(Ps. cxx. 4). In the text of the last two pas-
sages in the R. V., and in all the three in the
A. v., it is rendered juniper, but the He-
brew word corresponds to the still existing
Arabic name for Retama, broom.

Broth'er.

1. A kinsman born of the same parents n&
the person to whom he is brother (Gen. xxvii.
6), or at least of the same father (xxviii. 2) or
the same mother (Judg. viii. 19).

2. A man of the same near ancestry (as a
nephew. Gen. xiv. 16), or of the same race or
of a kindred nation (Deut. xxiii. 7 ; Neh. v.
7 ; Jer. xxxiv. 9).

3. An ally (Amos i. 9) or co-religionist (Acts
ix. 17 ; 1 Cor. vi. 6 ; 2 Cor. ii. 13) ; often in the
plural applied to Christian disciples (Mat.
xxiii. 8; Rom. i. 13).

4. One of the male sex greatly beloved or
politely addressed by the i)erson who calls
him brother (2 Sam. i. 26; 1 Kin. xx. 32).

5. Any man whatever, the common broth-
erhood of the human race being recognized
(Gen. ix. 5; Mat. v. 22; xviii. .35).

Buckler. See Armor.

Buk'ki [abbreviation of Bukkiah].

1. Prince of the tribe of Dan and member
of the commission for allotting the land (Num.
xxxiv. 22).

2. A descendant of Aaron, in the high-
priestly line of Phinehas (1 Chron. vi. .5, 51;
Ezra vii. 4).

Buk-ki'ah [devastation sent by Jehovah].

A Levite, son of Heman, and head of the
sixth of the twenty-four companies of twelve
musicians each which David appointed for
the service of the sanctuarv (1 Chron. xxv.
4, 13).

Bui [growth].

The eighth month of the Jewish year (1
Kin. vi. 38). See Ye.\r.

Bull.

The male of the species called by natural-
ists Bos t((iirus (Job. xxi. 10 ; Ps. Ixviii. 30 ;
Is. xxxiv. 7; Jer. Iii. 20); see Ox. A par-
ticularly strong and tierce breed of bulls ex-
isted in Bashan (Ps. xxii. 12).

The word To\ rendered wild ox and wilil
bull in A. V. (Deut. xiv. 5 ; Ls. Ii. 20), is trans-
lated in R. V. by antelope 'q. v.).

Bun'ock.

A young bull, though the Hebrew word is
u.sed once of an animal seven years old (Judg.
vi. 25). Bullocks were used as draught animals-

Bulrush

99

Cabul

bearing a yoke (.Tor. xxxi. 18, A. V.), and
were largely oflerod in sacrifice (Ex. xxix.
1 : 1 Chron. xxix. 21).
Bul'rusli [bull, i. e. a large, rush].

1. llibrew Gome' (Ex. ii. 3; Is. xviii. 2,
A. \.) : luipyrus ((}. v.).

2. Hebrew 'A<imo)i. The etymology sug-
gests that it grows in swam{)s ; and it is a low
plant (Is. ix. 14 ; xix. 1.")), bows the head
(Iviii. 5), and was twisted into ropes (Job xli.
2. K. ^^ margin).

Bu'nah [prudence].

A descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel
(1 Chron. ii. 25).
Bun'ni [built, erected].

1. A Levite who lived before the exile
(Neh. xi. 15).

2. A Levite, contemporary of Nehemiah
(Xeh. ix. 4).

3. Eepresentative of a family or father's
house who sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 15).

Bur'den.

1. A heavy load to be borne ; used in a lite-
ral or a figurative sense (Ex. xxiii. 5; Num.
xi. 11, etc.).

2. An utterance or prophecy, in almost
every instance denouncing heavy judgment
on a place or people (Is. xiv. 28 ; xv. 1 ; Ezek.
xii. 10; Hos. viii. 10; Nah. i. 1).

Bur'i-al.

Interment, the committal of a corpse to
tlie ground, or its disposal in another rev-
erential way. When a death occurred friends,
especially women, hurried to the house and
made loud lamentation (Mark v. 38). Mourn-
ers were even hired (Jer. ix. 17). The body
was washed (Acts ix. 37), and wrapped in a
cloth or closely bound in bands (Mat. xxvii.
59 ; John xi. 44). The wealthy added spices
and perfumes (John xii. 7 ; xix. .39) or burned
fragrant materials (Jer. xxxiv. 5). The body
was carried upon a bier to the grave (2 Sam.
iii. 31 ; Luke vii. 14). Burial was generally
in a cave or in a sepulcher scooped horizon-
tally in the rock (Gen. xxv. 9, 10 ; Mat. xxvii.
60)." See Mournincj and Sepulcher.

Burnt Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Burnt Sac'ri-flce, the same as burnt offer-
ing. See Offerings.

Bush.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew S^neh and
(ireek Batos, a thorny bu.sh (Luke vi. 44).
which Moses saw burning and from which
Jehovah spoke (Ex. iii. 2, 3; Dent, xxxiii.
16; Mark xii. 26). Tristram believes it to
have been the Acacia vera or nilotica, the
Egyptian thorn. It is a withered-looking
thorny tree. 12 feet high, with bipinnate
leaves and white flowers. It grows through-
out a large jiart of Africa, also in the Sinai
Peninsula, and, in Palestine, on the shores
of the Dead Sea. It yields the gum arabic of
commerce, which naturally exudes in a nearly
fluid state from the trunk and branches, har-
dening on exposure to the air.

2. Hebrew SHah (Job. xxx. 4, 7; and Gen.
ii. 5, where it is rendered ])lant) ; a shrub
large enough to aflbrd some shade (Gen. xxi.
15, where it is rendered shrub).

3. Hebrew Niih"lol (Is. vii. 19), rendered in
the text of K. V. by pasture, and on the mar-
gin of the .v. V. by commendable trees.

Bush'el.

The rendering of the Greek Modios, a dry
measure containing more than two gallons
(Mat. V. 15 ; Mark iv. 21). See Measure.

But'ler. See Cupbearer.

But'ter.

In Scripture, curdled milk or curds (Gen.
xviii. 8; Dent, xxxii. 14; Prov. xxx. 33; Is.
vii. 15, 22). On margin of R. V. of Is. vii. 15
the translation is curds. Thomson says that
neither the ancient nor the modern Orientals
have made butter in our sense of the word.
The butter given to Sisera by Jael was sour
milk, called in Arabic leben. The butter, so
called, of Prov. xxx. 33 is a produ<tion made
in this way. A bottle formed by stripping off
the entire skin of a young buflalo is filled
with milk and then perseveringly kneaded
or shaken by women. Then the contents are
taken out, boiled or melted, and put into
bottles of goats' skins. In winter it resem-
bles candied honey, and in summer is mere
oil.

Buz [contempt].

1. An Aramfean tribe, descended from a
son of Nahor (Gen. xxii. 20, 21), and proba-
bly dwelling in Jeremiah's time near Dedan
and Tema in Arabia (Jer. xxv. 23).

2. A Gadite, founder of a tribal family or
house (1 Chron. v. 14).

Bu'zi [descendant of Buz] .

Father of the priest and prophet Ezekiel
(Ezek. i. 3).

Buz'ite.

One belonging to the Arabian tribe of Buz
(Job. xxxii. 2).

C.

Cab, in R. V. Kab [a hollow vessel].

A Hebrew measure of capacity for dry ar-
ticles (2 Kin. vi. 25). It held, according to
Rabbinical tradition, the sixth part of a seah
or one hundred and eightieth part of a homer.

Cab'bon [a cake, or perhaps a binding].

A village of Judah in the lowland (Josh.
XV. 40). Perhaps identical with Machbenah
(1 Chron. ii. 49). The radical letters are the
same and the location is suitable.

Ca'bul [perhaps, fettered land ; proverbial
for hard, drj- land which produces no fruit].

1. A town of Asher (Josh. xix. 27; Life
43, 45). It is still known as Kabiil, a village
9 miles east-southeast of Acre.

2. A district of Galilee, that is, of the north-
ern part of the territory of Naphtali, for the

Caesar

100

Caesar

luost part iubabited liy people other than Is-
raelites (Is. ix. 1). It contained twenty towns,
which Solomon i)resented to Hiram, king of
Tyre, in return for services rendered in con-
nection with the l)uilding of the temple.
Hiram was displeased with the gift, and
therefore called the region C'abul (1 Kin. ix.
13). Hiram thus apparently rejected the
l>roffered compensation as inadequate, and
returned the district to Solomon, who there-
upon fortified the cities thus put back on his
hands, and caused Israelites to dwell in them
(2 C'hron. viii. 2; Antiq. viii. 5, 3).

Cse'sar.

The family name of a branch of the Julian
house or clan in Rome. According to Pliny
(7, 9), the first who bore the name was so
called quod casso mortuie matris utero natus
fnerit. Though it is traceable from 501 B. c,
it did not gain extensive celebrity till it was
borne by C'aius Julius Cai-sar, who ranks with
Alexander the Great and Napoleon as one of
the three most remarkable conquerors the
civilized world has produced. On the assas-
sination of Julius Ca?sar, 44 b. c, his will re-
quested his grandnephew Octavius, after-
wards the emperor Augustus, to assume the
name of Cicsar. Tiberius, who succeeded
Augustus, and Caligula, Claudius, and Nero,
who followed in succession, were all entitled
by relationship to the great dictator to bear
the family name ; the seven succeeding em-
perors— Galba, Otho. Vitellius, Vespasian,
Titus, Domitian, and Nerva — assumed it, so
tliat it is customar,y to speak of the twelve
Csesars. From having been the name of one
mighty conqueror, and then of a series of
emperors, the name Caesar became the type
or symbol of the civil power in general, and
it is continually used in this sense in discus-
sions as to the relative domains of civil and
ecclesiastical rulers (cp. Mat. sxii. 17, 21 ;
Mark xii. 14, 16, 17; Luke xx. 22, 24, 25).

The name Csesar is applied in the N. T. to :

1. Au-gus'tus Cse'sar, the first Roman
emperor (Luke ii. 1). In 43 b. c. he was
named one of the second triumvirate, Marc
Antony and Lepidus being the other two.
Lepidus was found incompetent and forced
to retire ; and after the defeat of Antony
at Actium in 31 B. c. Augustus was sole
ruler of the Roman world, and was given
the title of emperor. It was in consequence
of a decree of Augustus that Joseph and
Mary went to Bethlehem to be taxed, at the
time of Christ's birth. Although Augustus
was not fond of the Jews, he favored them
from policy, and caused sacrifices to be made
daily in the temple at Jerusalem at his ex-
pense. He was friendly to Herod, recogniz-
ing that in him he had a valuable ally.
Csesarea Philip]ii and Csesarea by the Sea
were built in his honor by Herod. Augustus
died A. D. 14, in the sixty-seventh year of his
age.

2. Ti-be'ri-us CiE'sAR, the second Roman

emperor (Mat. xxii. 17 ; Mark xii. 14 ; Luke
iii. 1 ; XX. 21, 22; John xix. 12), born 42 b. c.,
was the adopted son, also stepson and son-in-
law, of Augustus. He was of a morose and
gloomy temper, and spent a large part of his
reign in voluntary exile on the island of
Capri. During his reign Judaea was governed

Bust of Tiberius.

by Valerius Gratus and Pontius Pilatus. At
one time he banished the Jews from Rome,
but later recalled the edict, and gave them
redress for the severity of the provincial
governors. Tiberias, on the sea of Galilee,
was built in his honor by Herod Antipas. His
death was hastened by the hand of Caligula,
A. D. 37.

Coin with Head of Claudius.

3. Clau'di-us, the fourth Roman emperor.
He was a weak, vacillating man, a nephew
of Tiberius. He was made emperor almost

Caesar

101

Caesarea

against his will, and loft the real power in
the hands of unprincipled favorites. Ilerod
Agrippa I. had been in Konie, and had as-
sisted in his eoronatitin, and in eonsequenee
was given the wliole of Palestine as a mark
of favor. In the beginning of his reign
Claudius favored the Jews, and reinstated
the Ale.xandrian .Tews in their former privi-
leges, but later he banished all Jews from
Rome (Acts xviii. 2). He died a. D. 54, in the
fourteenth year of his reign.

4. Ne'ro, the fifth Komau emperor (Acts
XXV. 1-2, 21 ; xxvi. 32; Phil. iv. 22). He was
the adopted son of his predecessor Claudius,
and secured his own position by poisoning his
stepbrother Britannicus. Nero was a mon-
ster of lust and cruelty, though, jierhaps, his
crimes have been exaggerated. In the tenth
year of his reign, A. D. 64, a great fire broke
out at Rome, in large measure destroying
three of the fourteen districts into which the
city was divided. The emperor was believed,
apparently on iusuliicieut evidence, to have

Head of Nero.

been himself the incendiary, and was in con-
sequence in danger of his life. To screen
himself, he falsely accused the Christians of
having caused the fire, and put many of
them to cruel deaths, tradition adding that
both Paul and Peter were among the sufier-
ers. Nero is the " lion '" of 2 Tim. iv. 17.
Finding that he was deserted by his troops,
and that he would soon be put to death, he
anticipated his fate. Like Saul, he attempted
suicide, and, failing, induced one of his sup-
porters to complete the act of slaughter. He
died A. D. 68, in the thirty-second year of his
age and the fourteenth of his reign.

Titus, son of Vespasian, and tenth Roman
emperor. In a. d. 66 Vespasian was sent to
Palestine to quell a revolt of the Jews, and
Titus accompanied him. In 69, when Ves-
pasian hurried from .Tudjea to Rome to secure
the imperial oflice for himself, he left Titus
in command of the army, and Titus con-
ducted the siege of Jerusalem in a. d. 70
(War iii. 1, 3-vii. 3, 1) ; see Jerusalem II. 3.

Coin with Head of Titus.

Titus became emperor in 79 ; and died in 81,
in the fortieth year of his age.

Cses-a-re'a [pertaining to Caesar].

A city on the coast of Palestine, about 23
miles south of mount Carmel. It was built by
Herod the Great, on the site of a town called
Strato's Tower. Twelve years, from 25 to 13
B. c, were spent in its erection. A sea mole
was built of stones 50 feet long, 18 broad, and
9 deep. It was 200 feet wide, stood in 20
fathoms of water, and enclosed a harbor as
large as that at Athens. The entrance to the
artificial port was on the north, where there
was a tower. The city was provided with a,
temple, a theater, and an amphitheater, and
had a complete system of drainage. Herod
named the place Csesarea, after his patron
Augustus Caesar (Antiq. xv. 9, 6 ; War i. 21, 5,
seq.). It was sometimes called Caesarea of
Palestine, or Caesarea by the Sea, to distin-
guish it from Caesarea Philip])i. It became
the Roman capital of Palestine. The gospel
was carried thither by Philip the evangelist,
who made it his residence (Acts viii. 40 ; xxi.
8). When Paul, soon after his conversion,
was in danger of being murdered by the
Jews of Jerusalem, his Christian brethren
brought hira down to Caesarea, whence he
sailed to his birthplace. Tarsus, in Asia Minor
(ix. 30). It was at Caesarea that the Romau
centurion Cornelius lived, to whom Peter
preached Christ, and that the calling of the
gentiles took place (x. 1. 24 ; xi. 11). Herod
Agrijjpa died at Caesarea in a. d. 44 (Acts xii.
19. 23 ; Antiq. xix. 8, 2). Paul twice revisited
the city, and found a church existing (Acts
xviii. 22 ; xxi. 8. 16). He was afterwards taken
thither as a prisoner (xxiii. 23, 33), and it
was there that his trial before Festus and
Agrippa took place (xxv. 1-4, 6-13). The
pojjulation of the city was mixed, and race
jealousies existed to such an extent that in
the reign of Nero the Syrians made a whole-
sale massacre of the Jews, commencing the

Caesarea Philippi

102

Caiaphas

troubles which culminated in A. D. 70 in the
destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (War ii. 18,
1). In the second century A. d. Caesarea lie-
came the residence of a bishop, who down to
451 was metropolitan of Palsestina Prima.
In 195 a council was held there. A Chris-
tian school was established in the city, in
which Origen taught and where Eusebius,
afterwards bishop of Csesarea, was educated.
In 548 the Jews and Samaritans joined in
assaulting the Christians. In 638 the city
was captured by the Mohammedans. In
1102 it was taken by the crusaders, led by
Baldwin I. Saladin retook it from them in
1189 ; the crusaders recovered it in 1191, but
lost it to the sultan Bibars in 1265.

The existing ruins are of two periods.
There is, first, a Roman town with walls,
containing a theater, a hippodrome (race-
course), a mole, a temple, and aqueducts;
then, secondly, there is the Crusading town
with walls, a castle, a cathedral, a smaller
church, and a harbor. The Roman wall ex-
tends 4800 feet from north to south, and 2700
from east to west. The harbor measures 540
feet across. A reef running into the sea is
probably the old mole. Csesarea is still called
Kaisarieh.

Tiberius Caesar (Antiq. xviii. 2, 1 ; War ii.
9, 1). Jesus and his disciples visited it at
least once, and it was there that the remark-
able conversation took place between him and
Peter arising out of the question " Who do
men say that I am?" {Mat. xvi. 13; Mark
viii. 27). Agrippa II. still further embellished
it, and changed the name to Nerouias, to
compliment the emperor Nero ; but on the
emperor's death the name speedilj' lapsed
(Antiq. xx. 9, 4). After the destruction of
Jerusalem Titus exhibited gladiatorial shows
in this town also, one part of the spectacle
being Jewish captives thrown to the wild
beasts, or compelled to encounter each other
in deadly warfare (War vii. 2, 1 ; 3, 1). Part
of its fortifications still remain, and there are
Greek inscriptions on the adjacent rocks.
The town has dwindled to a small village
called Banias, an alteration of its early name
Paneas.

Cage.

A box or basket, Hebrew K'luh, in which
birds were kept, especially for purposes of
decoy (.Ter. v. 27; Ecclus. xi. 30). Sen-
nacherib boasts of having shut up Hezekiah
in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage.

Ruins of Caesarea Philippi.

Cses-a-re'a PM-lip'pi [Csesarea of Philip,
in distinction from Caesarea of Palestine].

A city at the foot of mount Hermon, at the
main source of the Jordan, and in the angle
of a small plain, with hills on all sides of it
except on the west. It has sometimes been
identified with the O. T. Dan, but was more
probably Baal-gad. The worship of the Ro-
man god Pan long prevailed in the locality ;
and Herod the Great having built a temple
of fine marble near the sacred spot, the place
was called Paneas (Antiq. xv. 10, 3). The
town was afterwards enlarged and adorned
by Philip the tetrarch, and its name altered
to Caesarea in honor of the Roman emperor

Ca'ia-phas [depression].

Joseph Caiaphas, who was appointed to the
high priesthood in A. D. 26 at the latest by Va-
lerius Gratus, the Roman procurator and im-
mediate predecessor of Pontius Pilate (Antiq.
xviii. 2, 2). Caiaphas and his father-in-law
Annas (John xviii. 13) were high priests when
John the Baptist commenced his ministry
(Luke iii. 2). Caiajihas proposed the death
of Jesus, and, speaking of its import more
significantly than he was aware, said : " It is
expedient for us, that one man should die for
the people, and that the whole nation perish
not " (John xi. 49-53 ; xviii. 14). At his pal-
ace the council of chief priests, scribes, and

Cain

103

Caleb

cltUis was held to devise measures for the
arrest of our Lord (Mat. xxvi. 3-r>). Wheu
Jesus was apjirehended, he was taken first to
the palace of Annas, who sent him hound to
Caiaphas (Jolm xviii. "24), whence lie was led
next to the pnelorium of Pilate (28). l)eei)ly
responsible for the. judicial murder of the in-
nocent prisoner, t'aia])has afterwards t<)ok
jiart in the trial of Peter and John (Acts iv. 6).
in A. I). 3(i he was deposed by Vitellius, the
Kdinan ])resident of Syria (Antiq. xviii. 4,2).
Cain [fabrication, forged instrument, smith].

1. The firstborn sou of Adam, by calling an
agriculturist. He brought of the fruits of
tiie ground an otlering to (iod, an implied
acknowledgment of gratitude to tiod for the
jiroduce of the earth. But Cain was at heart
a wicked man, and his otlering was rejected.
Then his character was revealed. He showed
envy and anger, refused the exhortation to
strive against sin, committed murder, denied
his guilt ; and when judgment was pro-
nounced, gave no evidence of repentance for
his sin, but only of fear of the i)unishment.
Sent into exile, he lived in the land of Nod,
eastward of Eden. He had a wife, one of the
unnamed daughters or granddaughters of
Adam. In early ages no impropriety existed
or was felt in such a marriage (cp. Gen. xi.
27. 29; XX. 12). In his exile Cain built a
fortified hamlet, and became the progenitor
of a race which made considerable progress
in the mechanical arts (Gen. iv. 1-25; 1 John
iii. 12; Jude 11).

2. The progenitor of the Kenites. SeeKAiN.
.'3. A village in the mountains of Judah

(Josh. XV. 57). Doubtfully located at the
ruin Yukin, 3 miles southeast of Hebron.

Cai'nan, in A. V. once Kenan (1 Chron. 1.
2), as always in R. V. of O. T.

1. Son of Enos (Gen. v. 9-14 ; 1 Chron. i. 2 ;
Luke iii. 37, 38).

2. Son of Arphaxad, and father of Shelah
(Luke iii. 36, E. V.). The corresponding
genealogy of Gen. xi. 12 has no Cainan ; the
Septuagint, however, has, and it was from the
Septuagint that Luke quotes.

Ca'lah.

A city of Assyria, built by Ninirod or by
people from his country, and forming part of
that complex of cities which collectively were
called by the Hebrews that great city (Gen.
X. 11, 12; cp. Jon. i. 2). According to Ashur-
nasirpal (about 88.5-860 B. c.) it was built or
rebuilt, embellished, and fortified by Shal-
maneser, who reigned about 1300 b. c. Early
in the ninth century B. c. it had fallen into
decay, but was restored by Ashurnasirpal,
who erected a palace and made the city the
place of royal residence. Calah remained
the favorite dwelling place of the Assyrian
kings for more than one hundred and fifty
years. Its ruins, now called Nimrud, lie
about 20 miles south of Nineveh.

Cal'a-mus [Greek kalamos, a reed, a cane].

The rendering of the Hebrew K'neh bosem,

reed of fragrance, and Kaneh. cane, reed,
when an odorous variety is intended. The
plant was sweet smelling (Song. iv. 14), a con-
stituent of the anointing oil (Ex. xxx. 23),
and used in connection with .sacrifice (Is.
xliii. 24 and Jer. vi. 20, margin of R. V.). It
was brought from a far country (Jer. vi. 20).
The Tyrians obtained it apparently from
Javan, the regions of western Asia Minor
and Greece (Ezek. xxvii. 19). What came
from Europe was probably the Acorns atUimus,
or common Sweet Sedge of England, an en-
dogenous plant, with a spadix and spathe,
akin to the Aroids, but belonging to the al-
lied order of the Oroutiacew or Orontiads.
The rhizome or underground stem is aro-
matic. If an Indian plant is permissible,
then the calamus was pi-obably the Andro-
'pogon calatiiits (tromaticiis, a genuine grass,
which, like its near ally, the Lemon Grass,
A. sc]i(rnantliii», is highly scented.

Cal'col, in A. V. once Chalcol [sustenance,
maintenance].

One of three sons of Mahol, each of whom
was celebrated for wisdom (1 Kin. iv. 31 ; 1
Chron. ii. 6).

Cal'dron. See Pot.

Ca'lel).

1. Son of Hezron, and brother of Jerahmeel
(1 Chron. ii. 18, 42). A variant form of the
name is Chelubai (ver. 9). In tribal registra-
tion, his posterity constituted a subdivision
of the house of Hezron, family of Perez, tribe
of Judah (1 Sam. xxv. 3 ; 1 Chron. ii. 3, R. V.,
seq.). Among his more immediate descend-
ants were Hur, Aaron's associate, and Hur's
grandson, the skilled artificer Bezalel (1
Chron. ii. 19, E. V., seq.).

2. Son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite and an
elder brother of Othniel (Num. xxxii. 12, R.
V. ; Josh. XV. 17 ; 1 Chron. iv. 15, cp. 13). He
was the head of a father's house of the tribe
of Judah ; was one of the twelve men sent
to spy out the land of Canaan : and one of
the two members of this commission who
kept their faith in Jehovah, and forty years
later participated in the conquest of Canaan
(Num. xiii. 1, 3, 6 ; xiv. 6, 24, 38; Josh. xiv.

6, 14; 1 Mac. ii. 56). He was 85 years old
when the conquest was completed (Josh. xiv.

7, 10). He was one of tho.se appointed by
Moses before the conquest to portion out the
land by lot, and he represented, as before, the
tribe of Judah (Num. xxxiv. 19). He received
as his own portion the town of Hebron (Josh,
xiv. 14), from which he expelled the Anakim
by whom it had been previously occupied
(xv. 13, 14) ; see Hebron. He had also to
do with the taking of the adjacent town of
Kirjath-sepher, or Debir (15-19). The south
of Caleb mentioned in 1 Sam. xxx. 14 was
probably the south of the Hebron district or
the vicinity of Debir.

In 1 Chron. ii. 49 (cp. 19, 42. 46) Achsah,
the well-known daughter of Caleb the spy, is
registered as daughter or descendant of Caleb

Caleb-ephrathali

104

Calvary

the brother of Jerahmeel. To judge from
this register, Caleb the son of Jephuuneh
and father of Aehsah was descended from
the elder Caleb, and perhaps his concubine
Maacah, and hence through Hezrou and
Perez from Judah. There are many details
tobeaccounted for, and the ordinary difficulty
of interpreting an ancient Hebi-ew genealogy
is in this case greatly increased by the imper-
fect state of the test in 1 Chrou. ii. and iv.
The general explanation probably is that a
member of the tribe of Kenizzites became
identified with the Israelites by taking ser-
vice with Judah before the Israelites went
into Egypt, and he or his descendant married
a woman descended from Judah through
Perez. Various modifications of this general
theory are possible. All genealogical and his-
torical references, and the peculiarities of.
the register are satisfied by the assumption
that shortly before the exodus Jephunneh
the Kenizzite married a woman of the house-
hold of Caleb the brother of Jerahmeel, and
by her had a firstborn son to whom was given
the family name Caleb. This youth inherited
the prerogatives of the family, and in time
became head of the house and a chief of
Judah. Jephunneh the Kenizzite took a
second wife, by whom he had Othniel and
Seraiah. Hence they are called sons of Kenez
or Kenizzites, and are enrolled loosely with
the tribe of Judah, and reckoned like Je-
lihunneh as Kenizzites.

Ca'leb-eph'ra-thah, in A.V. Caleb-eph'ra-
tah.

The community formed by the descendants
of Caleb and his wife Ephrath (1 {'hron. ii.
19, 24). The Septuagint had a slightly ditter-
ent text. If the present Hebrew text is cor-
rect, and the genealogy is here dealing strictly
with persons, then Hezron, the father of
Caleb, late in life married a grand-daughter
of Manasseh. Their descendants were after-
wards reckoned through the ancestress with
the tribe of Manasseh, but in this register
they are included with Hezron's descendants
through Caleb and Ephrath. In this con-
nection it is recorded that Hezron died in
Caleb-ephrathah ; that is, either in that pai-t
of Goshen where the branch of his family
known as Caleb-ephrath resided, or in Pal-
estine, whither Caleb had gone back fi-om
Egypt.

Calf.

A young bull or cow. Bos tnunts. Calves
were killed for food (Gen. xviii. 7) and for
sacrifice (Heb. ix. 12, 19). Aaron made a
golden calf that the people might worship
Jehovah under this form (Ex. xxxii. 4). He
seems to have borrowed the idea from the
calf worship of Egypt, where the Israelites
had often seen the inhabitants adore the bull
Apis. On the division of the kingdom Jero-
boam instituted the calf worship anew, set-
ting uj) two calves, one at Bethel and one at
Dan (1 Kin. xii. 29). He, too, had seen the

Apis worshiped in Egypt while he was a
refugee at the court of Shishak (1 Kin. xi.
40), but he was influenced more by the de-

Image of Apis, the Sacred Bull of Egypt.

sire to adhere to ancient traditions, for in
recommending the calves he quoted the words
of Ex. xxxii. 4.

Cal'neh.

A city of Babylonia, belonging to the king-
dom of Nimrod (Gen. x.^ 10). A town of this
name is also mentioned by Amos (Amos vi. 2).
Not identified. Jerusalem Talmud, Eusebius,
Jerome, indicate Ctesiphou easfof the Tigris.
Friedrich Delitzsch has suggested Kuluuu.

Cal'no.

A city, probably in northern Syria, which
the Assyrians cited as an example of the
futility of ofl'ering resistance to Assyria (Is.
X. 9).

Cal'va-ry [skull].

A place close to Jerusalem, but outside the
city walls, where Christ was crucified, and in
the vicinity of M'hich he was buried (Mat.
xxviii. 11 ; John xix. 17, 20, 41 : Heb. xiii.
11-13). It appears to have been a consjjicu-
ous spot (Mark xv. 40; Luke xxiii. 49), and
was perhaps near a highway (Mat. xxvii. 39).
The name is derived from the Latin calvaria,
more rarely calvarium. a skull (Luke xxiii.
33), corresponding to the Aramaic Golgotha
(Mat. xxvii. 33; Mark xv. 22; John xix. 17,
41). Jerome supposed that the name arose
from uncovered or unburied skulls; others
have thought rather of a place of execution.
The common explanation is that the name
w'as due to the cranial shape of the rock or
hillock, although the expression mount Cal-
vary is modern.

The question of the site of the crucifixion
is involved with that of the location of the
sepulcher. The theory advanced by Fergus-
.son, that the tomb was in the rock under the
dome of the Mosque of Omar, has not ob-
tained favor. Two sites contend for accept-
ance: 1. The church of the Holy Sepulcher,
within the walls of the modern city. 2. The
hill in which is Jeremiah's grotto, about 250

Camel

lOo

Camp

j-arils northeast of the Damascus gate. The
churcli of the Holy .Seimk-her lias aiu-ient
tradition iu its favor. Eiisebiiis, born in
Ctesarea about a. d. 2(51, is the earliest his-
torian who jiives any information on the sub-
ject. He states that impious men had cov-
ered the seiiulcher with earth and built a
temjile to tiie goddess Venus over it, and that
the place had long been given over to forget-
fulness and oblivion. Constantine erected a
church where the te7nple of Venus stood, and
the site of C'onstantine's building is occnjiied
by the present church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Is this church on ground that was outside the
second wall? This question can be decided
only by costly excavation to determine the
course of the second wall.

The theory that the hill above Jeremiah's
grotto marks the site of Calvary is at present
in the ascendant. It was suggested by Otto
Thenius some thirty or tV)rty years ago, and
has been adojjted or independently reached
by other scholars, and greatly elaborated.
This location unquestionably satisfies all the
conditions of the problem. The hill iu which
is Jeremiah's grotto admittedly rises beyond
the course of the second wall. The rounded
summit of the hill, and the two hollow cave
entrances beneath, present a striking resem-
blance to a skull, perhaps that of an animal
rather than a man. Its commanding position
renders it visible from a distance. Near it
was the great highway to the north. In the
neighborhood are gardens and rock-hewn
tombs.

Cam'el [borrowed from Semitic gamal].

The one-humped camel, which runs into
two well marked varieties, the camel prop-
erly .so called, which is a slow-going draught
animal (2 Kin. viii. 9), and the dromedary,
which is swift of foot (ep. Is. Ixvi. 20, margin
of E. v.). The two-humped Bactrian camel
may be referred to iu Tobit ix. 2. The camel
has been called the ship of the desert, and
its whole organization tits it to cross sandy

"n^Jtv

wastes. It is a ruminating animal, but be-
longs to that aberrant portion of the Rnmi-
nantia in which, in place of the ordinary

cloven hoof, the foot is enveloped in a hard-
ened skin, enclosing the cushion-like soles,
which can be spread out sidewise so as to
adapt it to walk, without sinking deeply, over
soft and yielding sand. Another adaptation
is that in the walls of the paunch or lirst
stomach there are two collections of water
cells on which the animal can draw when no
other water is procurable. Yet another adapta-
tion is its ability to subsist on thr; poorest
food. Even the hump is another adaptation.
It is a storehouse of food, and becomes larger
or smaller according as the animal is in good
or ill had condition. The camel is stupid, ill-
tempered, and sometimes vindictive : but its
passive obedience and power of endurance
render it very valuable. It is not now any-
where found wild, nor has it been known
wild in historical times. Abraham and Ja( oh
had camels (Gen. xii. 16 ; xxx. 43), and so
had later nomads in the south of Palestine
(1 Sam. xxvii. 9 ; 2 t'hron. xiv. 15). The Ish-
maelites who bought Joseph also had camels
(Gen. xxxvii. 25). The camel was not, how-
ever, so much at home in Palestine, which is a
hilly country, as iu the Arabian and the x\fri-
can deserts (Ex. ix. 3; Judg. vi. 5 ; 1 Kin. x. 2 ;
1 Chron. v. 18-21). But it is still bred abund-
antly on the plains of Moab and in the south
of Jndfea. 'The milk was used (cp. Gen.
xxxii. 15), but the animal was ceremonially
unclean (Lev. xi. 4). From its hair a coarse
cloth was woven, which w'as sometimes made
into clothing (Mar. iii. 4) and used for tents.
The burden was borne on the hump (Is. xxx.
6). When the camel is ridden, a saddle is
commonly used, and sometimes a palanquin
(cp. Gen. xxxi. 34). The Arabs commonly
deck their camels' necks with ornaments (cp.
Judg. viii. 21, 26).

Ca'mon. See Kamon.

Camp.

The station of an army or other body of peo-
ple, where temporary structures are erected
for their accommodation (Ex. xiv. 19 ; 1 Sam.
iv. 5; xvii. 4; 2 Kin. vii. 7). Strict regula-
tions were prescribed for the army of Israel
in order to secure cleanliness iu their camp

Camp of Dan

Dan.^sher^'uphtali .

Camp

-r

Bphraifrj

tfihraim,'
Monasseh,

[ilZD

Moses Judah

Aaron incluiiutf

AininiSiva Judah.
I fssachar.

Zebuion.

Camp o/ Reuben

(Deut. xxiii. 9-14). The arrangement of the
camp of the migrating Hebrew nation, which
was adopted for the journey through the
w'ilderuess, is described in Num. i. 47-ii. 34 ;
iii. 14-39 ; cp. x. 11-28, and see Shittim.

CampMre

106

Canaan

It was, of course, absolutely regular only
when the people were encamped on a broad,
level plain. For the encampments of Israel
during the journey through the wilderness,
see Wilderness of the Wandering.

Cam'phire [old form of English Camphor ;
Greek kaphoura, Arabic kafur ; all from
Malay kapnr, chalk].

The rendering of the Hebrew word Kopher
in Song i. 14 ; iv. 13. The R. V. renders it
henna.

Ca'na [place of reeds].

A village, more fully named Cana of Gali-
lee, the .scene of our Lord's first recorded
miracle, the transformation of water into
wine (John ii. 1, 11 ; iv. 46). Nathanael the
apostle was of Cana (xxi. 2). Possibly the
words " of Galilee " are added to this Cana to
distinguish it from another in Ccelesyria
{Antiq. xv. 5, 1). Josephus also mentions
Cana of Galilee (Life 16, 71). The tradi-
tional site of the N. T. Cana is at Kefr Keuna,
a village about 3? miles northeast of Nazareth,
on the road to Tiberias. Robinson advocated
the view, held by some inquirers in the
Crusading period, that Cana of Galilee was
at Kana-el-Jelil, which is the old name
scarcely changed, about 8 miles north by
east of Nazareth. It is a miserable village
on a nearly isolated hill, but has many an-
cient cisterns in its vicinity. The Palestine
explorers, who call the place Khurbet Kana,
revert to the ti-aditional view.

Ca'naan, in A. V. of N. T. twice Cha'naan
[low, lowland].

1. Son of Ham and grandson of Noah ; or
better, the descendants of Ham who occupied
Canaan and took their name from that coun-
try, and in whom the low traits manifested by
their progenitor were .strongly marked (Gen.
X. 6, 1.5 ; Hos. xii. 7, margin). The continuance
of Ham's character in a branch of his descend-
ants had been prophesied by Noah, and the
consequence of yielding to the bestial im-
pulses had been foretold (Gen. ix. 18-27). In
this passage the progenitor of the Canaanites
is called Canaan proleptically by a late trans-
mitter of the venerable prophecy. Wishing
to indicate the forefather of the Canaanites
among the sons of Ham, the narrator gives
to their ancestor the name borne by his de-
scendants, and by which he had come to be
familiarly known, irrespective of the ques-
tion whether it was his personal name or not.

2. A name probably given at first only to
the low-lying coast line of Palestine to dis-
tinguish it from the neighboring hill country
(Num. xiii. 29; Josh. xi. 3). Afterwards the
name Canaan was extended first to the Jor-
dan valley, and then to the whole of Pales-
tine west of the river, and became one of the
most common designations of the country in-
habited by the Hebrews, though what they
occupied was really the liighland portion of
Palestine and the Jordan valley, with little
of the coast line (Gen. xi. 31 ; Num. xiii. 2).

The language of Canaan after the conquest
of the country by the Israelites was Hebrew,
the .speech of the people of God (Is. xix. 18).

The Hebrews conquered Canaan under the
leadership of Joshua after the death of Moses.
The plan of the campaign included the estab-
lishment of a fixed camp at Gilgal. The site
was on the east of Jericho, in the plain (Josh,
iv. 19; V. 10). From it the Israelites uent up
to Ai and Gibeon (vii. 3 ; viii. 1, 3 ; x. 9). The
advantages of this location for the camp of
Israel were great. At Gilgal Joshua had no
enemies in his rear, had water in abundance
for the people, could draw supplies from the
two tribes and a half which had settled in
the country east of the Jordan, and had a
safe place for hoarding spoil. The charac-
teristic objects in this camp were the taber-
nacle (Josh. vi. 24 ; cp. ix. 23 ; xviii. 1 ; xxii. 19) ;
the ark (iii. 17; vi. 11, etc. ; vii. 6) ; the altar
(ix. 27 ; cp. xxii. 19, 28, 29) ; Eleazar the priest
(xiv. 1 ; cp. 6), besides other priests (vi. 6, 12,
etc. ; viii. 33) ; twelve stones which had been
taken out of the bed of the Jordan and set
up as a memorial of the passage of the river
(iv. 20). Joshua's plan further included a.
preliminary campaign for the overthrow of
the enemies which threatened the camp. He
took Jericho, the outpost of Canaan, the mis-
tress of the valley. Then he marched into
the mountain, directly to the west, and over-
threw Ai. This town lay at the head of the
valley which emerged opposite Gilgal, and
from it troops might be poured down against
the camp. After this preliminary campaign
he fulfilled the injunction of Moses to erect
an altar on Ebal (Josh. viii. 30-3.5 ; Deut.
xxvii.). According to .Tosephus, this solem-
nity was performed after the conquest of the
entire country (Antiq. v. 1, 19). At this
juncture ambassadors from the town of
Gibeon appeared, with whom Joshua made a
treaty without asking counsel of the Lord.
It was an unfortunate step, as will be shown
presently. Having obtained secure foothold
in the country, Joshua proceeded to conquer
Canaan in two campaigns. The alliance of
the five kings determined the southern expe-
dition (Josh. X.). The king of Jerusalem
summoned the kings of Hebron, Lachish,
Eglon, and Jarmuth to war against Gibeon ;
and Joshua was obliged to help those with
whom he was in treaty. The five kings were
routed, and fied down the pass of Beth-horon.
Following up the victory, Joshua captured
Makkedah, in or hard by the maritime plain,
and pitched a temporary camp there ; took
Libnah, which was likewise in the plain ;
Lachish, where the king of Gezer also was
defeated ; Eglon. where another temporary
camp was fixed ; and Hebron. From Hebron
he turned and smote Debir, in the hill coun-
try. Thus the entire region included be-
tween Gibeon, Gaza, and Kadesh-barnea was
smitten, and Joshua returned to Gilgal.

It was during this campaign that Joshua
bade the sun to stand still. This event oc-

Canaan

107

Canaan

curved ilurin}i::i niiraclc period ; see Miracle.
It followed the miracle of the Jordan allow-
ing a passiige for the Israelites. But it is cited
from the book of Jashar, which contained
poems accompanied by remarks in prose. If
X. 12-15 are ([uoted from this book, the ([ues-
tion arises whether tlie passage should not be
interpreted on the principles of poetr.v, and
understood to mean that Joshua apostro-
phized the sun and moon for their ell'ect
upon the army, not to work a miracle, and
that before the light of day tailed the people
had avenged themselves of their enemies.

Having conquered the central region and
the south, Joshua determined as a matter of
expediency, or under compulsion of the north-
f rn confederacy, to neglect the inconsidera-
ble towns on the coast north of the Philistine
country, and to strike at the populous and
powerful north (Josh. xi.). With this end in
view, he undertook a northern campaign.
The king of Hazor was head of a confed-
eracy of petty monarchs, and on hearing of
the Israelitish victories in the south he sum-
moned the remaining kings of the country
to a united attempt to crush Joshua. The
allied armies met at the waters of Merom.
Joshua had reached the same neighborhood,
and he attacked them. He routed them, pur-
sued the fugitives as far as Sidon toward the
northwest and eastward to Mizpeh. He then
returned, and captured and destroyed the
town of Hazor and the capitals of the other
petty kingdoms which had been in alliance.
By these campaigns the power of the Canaan-
ites to resist was broken. In xi. 16-xii. 24 a
summary of the conquest is given.

The time occupied in the conquest of Ca-
naan was long, because not a city made peace
with Israel save the five cities of the Gibeon-
ites (xi. 18, 19). It may be calculated with a
considerable degree of accuracy. From the
sending forth of the spies in the second year
(cp. Num. X. 11; xiii. 20; Deut. i. 2) to the
time of assigning the reconquest of Hebron
to Caleb when the land was about to be dis-
tributed was (Josh. xiv. 7, 10) 45 years; from
the sending forth of the spies to the crossing
of the Zered was (Deut. ii. 14) 38 years;
leaving for the conquest of the country, both
east and west of the Jordan, about 6 or 7 years.
From this is to be deducted the time con-
sumed in the conquest of the eastern coun-
try and by the events at Shittim. The death
of Aaron (Xum. xxxiii. 38) occurred in the
40th year, 5th month, 1st day, and the cross-
ing of Jordan (Josh. iv. 19) in 1st month, 10th
day ; leaving for the conquest of the country
of Sihon and Og, and for the events at Shit-
tim, nearly 8 months, 9 days, of which period
the events at Shittim occupied about two
months (cp. Deut. i. 3, 4, with Josh. iv. 19;
Deut. xxxiv. 8 ; Josh. ii. 22. etc. ; Ant. iv. 8,
49 and iv. 8, 1), leaving for the conquest of
western Palestine 5 or 6 years. Josephus as-

I signs 5 years to this conquest (Antiq. v. 1, 19).

1 Three political blunders were committed

by .Joshua : his making a treaty with the
(ribeonites; allowing the Jebusites to hold
Jerusalem; and failure to dis])ossess the
Philistines and control the country to the
sea. A study of the map will show that, as
a result of these mistakes, Judah and Simeon
were isolated from the ri'st of the nation.
The main road from Judah to the north was
commanded by the Jebusite stronghold at
Jerusalem, and was skirted for 10 miles on
the west by the settlements of the ftibeonites.
Between Jerusalem and .Jericho on the east
was a tract of wild, rocky, uninhabited moun-
tain land crossed east and west by impassable
gorges. From Jerusalem to the Mediterranean
Sea a strip of country stretched, which was
occupied by foreigners : first Gibeonites, next
Cauaanites in Dan, then Philistines as far as
the sea. The consequences of this isolation
of Judah and Simeon were serious, distinctly
affecting the course of history in the years
that followed.

Was the extermination of the Canaanites
by the Israelites a justifiable act? The mere
matter of their dispossessing the Canaanites
presents no moral difficulties. This procedure
accorded with the spirit of the age. The Is-
raelites doubtless had as much right to Ca-
naan as had the inhabitants whom they drove
out. They despoiled despoilers. Nor does
the manner of warfare present moral diffi-
culties, for the conduct of the Hebrews in
war compares favorably with the practices
of the time. Judged by the standards of
their own age, they were not bloodthirsty or
cruel. The Assyrians have pictured their own
wars. It was not infrequent for them to de-
capitate the inhabitants of captured cities,
and pile the heads in heaps; to crucify or
impale prisoners, pierce their eyeballs with a
spear, or fiay them alive. In the battles of
Israel with the Canaanites there is record of
death, but not of torture. The moral diffi-
culty connected with the extermination of
the Canaanites is that God commanded it.
God's character is involved. But it is to be
remembered that God had a twofold end in
view in the utter extermination by death and
expulsion which he commanded. It was
punitive (Gen. xv. 16; Lev. xviii. 25; Deut.
ix. 3, 4; xviii. 12) and preventive (Ex. xxiii.
31-.33 ; xxxiv. 12-16 ; Deut. vii. 2-4). It was
to punish the Canaanites for their outrageous
wickedness, and to prevent them from con-
taminating the people of God. It is not as-
serted that the Canaanites were sinners above
all men that ever lived. Their personal morals
were perhaps not worse than those of other
heathen as described in Eom. i. The Canaan-
ites were idolaters, they indulged in shame-
ful and abominable vice, they went beyond
other nations in practicing human sacrifice.
It is appointed unto all men to die. God
holds nations as well as individuals responsi-
ble, and deals with them accordingly. He
doomed the nations of Canaan to extermina-
tion as a punishment for their wickedness,

Canaan

108

Canaanite

and to prevent them from seducing the people
of God. He had exterminated tlie wicked
race of men in the days of Noah by the
flood ; he had swept away the iniquitous
cities of the phiin by an eruption, it wouUi
seem, of burning naphtlia ; he had over-
thrown Pharaoh and his host in the Eed
Sea ; he had destroyed Korah and his rebel-
lious crew by an earthquake and by fire.
Now, instead of using the forces of nature to
effect his punitory ends, he employed the
Israelites as the ministers of his justice; as
the public executioner, employed by the civil
tribunal, is the minister of human justice.
This truth was taught to the Israelites. They
were informed that they were the instru--
ments of divine justice. For these reasons
the extermination of the Canaanites by the
Israelites was just: the employment of the
Israelites for the purpose was right ; and in
connection with the righteous judgment was
an intention to benefit the world. The fail-
ure of the Israelites to carry out God's com-
mand fully was one of the great blunders
which they committed, as well as a sin, and
it resulted in lasting injury to the nation.

The distril)ution of the conquered territory
on the west of the Jordan was made partly at
Gilgal and partly at Shiloh, whither the taber-
nacle was removed (Josh. xiv. 1, 2, 6-xviii. 1,
2). It was conducted by Eleazar the priest,
Joshua, and ten heads of fathers' houses (xvii.
4 ; cp. Num. xxxiv. 17, 18), and was made by
lot (Josh, xviii. 6). The law to govern the dis-
tribution had already been enacted ; namely,
to the more numerous a larger inheritance,
and wheresoever the lot falleth to any man
(Num. XX vi. 52-56 ; xxxiii. 54). The rabbis state
that two urns were used ; in one were placed
tickets with the names of the tribes, and in
the other were tickets with the names of tlie
districts. A tribe was drawn and the district
which it should possess. The size of the ter-
ritory was then determined by the populous-
ness of the tribe. Probably, however, the
commission selected a district without nar-
rowly defining its boundaries, and merely de-
termined by lot what tribe should possess it;
for — 1. Compare the form of the question in
Judg. i. 1. 2. This theory satisfies Num.
xxxiii. 54. 3. Compare Josh, xviii. 1-10,
where the land is first described in seven por-
tions, and Joshua then cast lots for the tribes.
4. This tbeory also satisfies Josh. xix. 1, etc.,
where it is stated that at the final allot-
ment the second lot came out for Simeon, the
third for Zebulun, etc. 5. The districts were
assigned for occupation, not as though de-
termined by lot, but in regular order, build-
ing up the nation compactly as the allotment
proceeded, and notleajjing hither and thither.
6. Much was evidently left to the discretion
of the supervisors, (^aleb must have Hebron
whether the lot of the main body of the tribe
of Judah allowed them to settle in that neigh-
borhood or not. Jacob's last wishes would ))e
observed so far as the lot permitted (Gen.

xlix.), though the lot did not permit Zebulun
to possess the seacoast, but his possession was
doubtless adjusted as nearly as possible to the
patriarch's desire. Mistakes were made and
rectified. Before the allotment was com-
pleted— and it was not carried out in a day
or a week — Judah reported that it had been
granted too much territory. Tlie surplus was
accordingly added to the undistributed do-
main. The children of Joseph, on the other
hand, informed Joshua that they had re-
ceived too little land, and they asked and re-
ceived more. It was intended, in accordance
with Jacob's wish, that Ephraim and Mauas-
seh should dwell side by side : lience the lot
was not cast for them separately, but for them
unitedly as the children of Joseph (Josh. xvi.
1, 4). In this manner the nation was com-
pactly built up, the territory which lay near-
est the camp being distributed first.

1. Southern hill coun- To Judah, 4th son of

try. Leah.

2. Central hill countrv. To Joseph, firstborn of

Rachel.

3. Intervening hill To Benjamin, 2d son of

country. Rachel.

4. Part of" the surplus To Simeon, 2d son of

of the southern hill Leah.
country which Ju-
dah gave back.
5, 6. Territory bounding (To Zebulon, 6th son of
central hill country ■( Leah,
on the north. " (To Issachar, 5th son of
Leah.

7. Adjoining seacoast. To Asher, 2d son of

Leah's maid.

8. Territory north of To Naphtali, 2d son of

Issachar and Zebvi- Rachel's maid.
Ion.

9. Remaining part of To Dan, 1st son of Ra-

Judah's surplus. chers maid.

Reuben, firstborn of Leah, Gad, son of
Leah's maid, and half tribe of Manasseli,
descendant of Rachel, had obtained lands
east of the Jordan. These with Levi, son of
Leah, did not participate in the distribution.

Ca'naan-ite.

1. An inhabitant of Canaan, especially one
of Hainitic blood, although persons and tribes
incorporated with the descendants of Ham in
this region acquired the name. According as
the geographical designation Canaan is used
in its broader or its narrower scn.se, the word
Canaanite has a broader or narrower signifi-
cation. In the narrow sense, the Canaanites
were the people of the coast and valleys
(Gen. XV. 21; Josh. ix. 1). In the broad
sense, they were the tribes <>numerated in
Gen. X. 15-19. The Canaanites were doomed
to destruction on account of their sins (Deut.
XX. 17). But the Israelites to a certain ex-
tent failed to carry out the injunction. They
in many cases contented themselves with
putting the Canaanite inhabitants to tribute
(Judg. i. 27-36). Solomon levied on them a
tribute of bondservice ; in other words, made
them perform forced labor (1 Kin. ix. 20. 21).
The Canaanites eventually devoted them-

PALESTINE

lis (lividoil iiiiioii!; tlio

Twelve Tribes.

SCALE OF MIIES.

Keforciicc to Culuriiii;,

Showing ElfVtttiuns aud Dciiressiuus.
f -ilBuluw Sen Ltvcl

1 I Sea Level to 500 ft. atiove

I 1 500 ft. to 1 .000 ft. aliove

I 1 1 .000 ft . to ■-' .0110 It. • •

I . I a.ooo ft . to :),ooo ft. "

I "1 3.000 n. to 5.000 ft. "
I jl .\bove 5,000 ft.

I.oriL'itii.te 3^^ Ka^i

3.'. :in ' firccnwioli

Canaanitess

i09

Cane

selves extensively to trade, aud their name
became syuonyinous with trader (Is. ssiii. 8).

2. A ineuilier of a Jewish patriotic party.
See Canax.kax.

Ca'naan-i'tess.

A woman of t'aiiaan (1 fbrou. ii. 3).

Ca-na-nse'an, in A. V. Canaanite [translit-
eration ol' the Aruniaic word kait'ihi, zeall.

A member oCa Jewish patriotic party, which

. was also known hy the syiiunynious (ireek

name Zealot ((j. v.i. 8imou the apostle bore

this epithet to distinguish him from Simon

Peter (Mat. x. 4; ep. Luke vi. 13, K. V.).

Can'da-ce.

A (jueen of Ethiopia, (. e., probably of
Meroe, in southern Nubia. A eunuch of
great authority at her court, when returning
home from a visit to Jerusalem, where he had
gone to worsliip. was converted to C'liristiau-
ity through the instrumentality (if Philip the
evangelist (Acts viii. 26-39). Strabo, Dion
(.'assius, and Pliny, all concur in stating that
Meroe in the first century of the Christian
era was governed by a succession of queens,
each called Canrlace.

Candle. See Lamp.

solid gold, and it supported seven lamps. It
stood on the south side of the sanctuarv (Ex.
XXV. 31-40; xl. 24; Lev. xxiv. 2-4). ' Pure
olive oil was u.sed in the lamps, and the light
burned from evening to nnjrning (Ex. xxvii.
20, 21 : XXX. 7, 8 : 1 Sam. iii. 3). According to
Jo.sei)hus, three of the lamps were allowed to
burn by day (Antiij. iii. f<, 3). This continuous
burning api>arently symbolized the uninter-
rupted worshii), even by night, and the unceas-
ing emission of light liy the peojile of (iod (cj).
Zech. iv.). For the temjile Solomon made ten
candlesticks, five for the right and live for the
left of the oracle (1 Kiu. vii. 49; 2 Chrou. iv.
7). They were carried away to Babylon (Jer.
Iii. 19). Zerubbabel returned to the earlier ar-
rangement, and had but a single candlestick ;
this was carried oti' by Antiochus Epiphanes
(1 Mac. i. 21). Being replaced (iv. 49), it con-
tinued till the cajjture of Jerusalem by Titus,
when it was carried oQ' to Kome, figured in
Titus" triumjth, and was sculptured on his
arch (War vii. 5, 5).

Cane [from Hebrew kaneh, a reed].
The rendering of the Hebrew word Kaneh
in Is. xliii. 24 and Jer. vi. 20. In both places

The Seven-branched Candlestick of Herod's Temple. {From the Arch of Titus.)

Can'dle-stick.

A stand for a candle. That in the taber-
nacle was for lamps. It consisted of a base
and a shaft with six branches, beaten out of

on the margin of the R. V. it is rendered
calamus, and so it is elsewhere translated in
both versions, where a specific odorous cane
is intended.

Cankerworm

110

Canon

Can'ker-worm.

The reudering of the Hebrew Yelek in Joel
and Nahum, and also in R. V. of Ps. cv. 34
and JtT. li. 27. In the two latter passages A.
y. has caterpillar. It is a winged insect (Nah.
iii. 16, E. v.), rough (Jer. li. 27), and very de-
structive to growing crops. As it is men-
tioned with the typical locust (Joel i. 4 ; Nah.
iii. 15), which it resembles also in the num-
bers in which it appears (Joel ii. 25), it is prob-
ably a locust of some species or in some stage
of development.

Can'neh.

A place, evidently in Mesopotamia, per-
haps the same as Calueh (Ezek. xxvii. 23).

Can'on [reed, cane].

The meaning of the word was extended to
denote : (1) any straight rod or bar, such as a
rod or level used by masons in building ; (2)
figuratively, anything which serves to regu-
late or determine other things, especially
classical books ; a guide or model (Gal. vi.
16 ; Phil. iii. 16) ; (3) a type of Christian doc-
trine, the orthodox as opposed to the hetero-
dox ; (4) the Scriptures viewed as a rule of
faith and conduct. The word is Greek. It
was first used in this fourth sense by the
early fathers, but the idea denoted was an-
cient. A book entitled to a place in the Bible
is called a canonical book, one not so entitled
an uncanonical book, and the title itself
canonicity.

The Old Testament Canon. Authorita-
tive literature grew up by degrees and was
carefully preserved. The ten commandments,
written on tables of stone, were deposited in
tlie ark (Ex. xl. 20). The book of the law,
written by Moses, was put by the side of the
ark (Deut. xxxi. 24-26). Joshua added to
the collection what he wrote (Josh. xxiv. 26).
Samuel wrote the manner of the kingdom in
a book, and laid it up before the Lord (1 Sam.
X. 25). In the days of Josiah the book of the
law of the Lord, the well known book, was
found in the temple and recognized by king,
priests, prophets, and people, as authorita-
tive and ancient (2 Kin. xxii. 8-20). Copies
of the law were made (Deut. xvii. 18-20).
Prophets committed their words to writing
{e. g. Jer. xxxvi. 32), and they were acquainted
with each other's writings and quoted them as
authority (Is. ii. 2-4 with Mic. iv. 1-3). The
law and the words of the prophets were
recognized as authoritative, inspired by the
Spirit of God, and jealously guarded by Je-
hovah (Zech. i. 4 ; vii. 7, 12).

The law of ]\Ioses, comprising the five books
of Moses, circulated as a distinct portion of
the .sacred literature in the time of Ezra. It
was in Ezra's hand (Ezra vii. 14), and he was
a ready scribe in it (6, 11). At the request
of the people, he read the book publicly to
them (Neh. viii. 1, 5, 8). About this time also,
before the schism between the Jews and
Samaritans had become final, the Pentateuch
was taken to Samaria. The arrangement of

the minor prophets into a group of twelve is
attested by Jesus, son of Sirach, as in vogue
by tlie year 200 B. c. (Ecclus. xlix. 10). His
language further suggests the great group of
books — Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve (xlvi.-
xlix.) — which constitute the second division
of the Hebrew canon. The existence of the
threefold division of all the Scriptures into
"the law, the prophets, and the others that
have followed in their steps," or "the law,
the prophets, and the other books," or, "the
law, the prophecies, and the rest of the
books," is attested as early as the year 132
B. c, and the exi.stence of a Greek version
of them at the same time ; for the grandson
of Jesus, son of Sirach, states these things
(Ecclus. prologue). Reference is made in a
passage which dates from about 100 b. c. to
"the sacred books which are now in our
hands" (1 Mac. xii. 9). Philo Judseus, who
was born at Alexandria in 20 b. c, and died
there in the reign of Claudius, had the pres-
ent canon, and quotes from nearly all the
books while he cites nothing from the Apoc-
rypha.

The N. T. refers to "the Scriptures'" a's
a body of authoritative writings (Mat. xxi.
42 ; xxvi. 56 ; Mark xiv. 49 ; John x. 35 ; 2
Tim. iii. 16), as holy (Rom. i. 2 ; 2 Tim. iii.
15), and as the oracles of God (Rom. iii. 2 ;
Heb. V. 12 ; 1 Pet. iv. 11) ; mentions a three-
fold division into " the law of Moses, and the
prophets, and the psalms" (Luke xxiv. 44); and
quotes from or refers to all the books except
Obadiah and Nahum, Ezra and Nehemiali,
Esther, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. Jo-
sephus, a contemporary of the apostle Paul,
writing about A. d. 100, and speaking for
his nation, says: "We have but twenty-
two [books], containing the history of all
time, books that are justly believed in,"
or, according to the usual reading, "be-
lieved to be divine," and he speaks in the
strongest terms of the exclusive authority
of these writings, continuing: "From the
days of Artaxerxes to our own times every
event has indeed been recorded ; but these
recent records have not been deemed worthy
of equal credit with those which preceded
them, on account of the failure of the exact
succession of the prophets. There is i)ractical
proof of the spirit in which we treat our
Scriptures; for although so great an interval
of time has now passed, not a soul has ven-
tured either to add or to remove or to alter a
syllable, and it is the instinct of every Jew,
from the day of his birth, to consider these
Scriptures as the teaching of God, and to
abide by them and, if need be, clieerfully to
lay down his life in their behalf" (against
Apion, i. 8). Josei)hus states the contents of
Scripture under three heads: (1) "Five be-
long to Moses, which contain his laws and
the traditions of the origin of mankind till
his death." (2) "From the death of Moses
to Artaxerxes the prophets who were after

Canon

111

Canon

Moses wrote down what was done in their
time in thirteen books." Joscphus followed
the arran^ienient of the Sei)tua>;int probably,
and the enumeration of the Alexandrians. The
thirteen books are jirobably Joshua, Judges
with Ruth, Samuel. Kings, Chronieles, Ezra
with Nehcmiali, Esther, Job, Daniel, Isaiah,
Jeremiah with Lamentaticnis, E/.ekiel, the
Twelve Minor Pmiiliets. i'.i) " Tlie remain-
ing four Ixioks contain hymns to (Tod and
precepts for tlie conduct of human life."
These were doubtless Psalms. Song of Songs,
Proverbs, Ecclesia.stes.

So far facts. There was also a tradition
current that the canon was arranged in the
time of Ezra and Xehemiah. Josephus, as
already cited, exjires-ses the universal belief
of his countrymen that no books had been
added since the time of Artaxcrxes — that is,
since the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. An
extravagant legend of the latter part of the
first century of the Christian era (2 Esd. xiv.)
grew out of the current tradition that Ezra
restored the law and even the entire O. T.
(21, 22, 40), of which the temple copies had
been lost. It attests that the Jews of Pales-
tine in that age reckoned the canonical books
at twenty-four (24 + 70= 94 ; vers. 44-46, E.
v.). A passage of doubtful date and authen-
ticity, perhaps penned about 100 b. c. (2 Mac.
ii. 13), alludes to Nehemiah 's activity in con-
nection with the second and third divisions
of the canon. Irenpeus transmits the tradi-
tion thus: "After the sacred writings had
been destroyed in the exile under Nebuchad-
nezzar, when the Jews after seventy years
had returned to their own country, He in the
days of Artaxerxes inspired Ezra the priest,
of the tribe of Levi, to rearrange all the
words of the prophets who had gone before,
and to restore to the people the legi.slation of
Moses." Elias Levita, writing in 1538, states
the belief of his peojtle in this wise: "In
Ezra's time the twenty-four books were not
yet united in a .single volume. Ezra and his
associates united them together and divided
them into three parts, the law, the prophets,
and the hagiograidia." This tradition con-
tains truth. Whether it can be accepted in
every particular depends on the settlement
of the date when certain books were written,
such as Nehemiah and Chronicles.

The Pentateuch as the work of Moses, and
:i- embodying the fundamental law of the
nation, formed one division of the canon, and
with chronological fitness occupied the first
I'lace in the collection. To the second di-
\ i-ion books written by the i)rophets were

-igned. as the name and largely the con-

;its indicate. The books were eight in num-
ber— Jo.shua, .Judges, Samuel, and Kings,
which came to be known as the f(jrmer
prophets, and Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
tlie Twelve, which were called the later
Iii'oi)hets. For Joshua, regarded as a prophet,
SI (■ Ecclus. xlvi. 1. The nucleus of the third
division consisted of sections of the books

of Psalms and Proverbs. They had two
characteristics — they were poetry, and their
authors were not ollicial iiro]>hcts. They at-
tracted to thcm.selves all other, similar au-
thoritative literature. The prayer of Moses
(Ps. xc), though written by a prophet, was
placed in this division of Scrii)ture because
it is poetry. So, too. Lamentations, though
written by a projihet, yet being jxietry, like-
wise found jilace in the third division of the
Hebrew canon. An additional reason ex-
isted for separating it from Jeremiah. It
was read on the anniversary of the destruc-
tion of both temples, and hence was i)ut with
four other short books which were read on
four other anniversaries. Song, Ruth, Eccle-
siastes, and Esther. They con.stitute the five
rolls or Megilloth. The book of Daniel was
placed here because written by a man who,
although gifted with prophecy, was not by
office a prophet. In all probability Chroni-
cles was written, not by a prophet, but by a
priest ; hence it belonged in the third di-
vision of the canon. The mere fact of its
late authorship does not account for its place
in this division, for books and sections of
books in this division were in existence be-
fore Zechariah and Malachi, which were put
in the second division. It is proper to add
that while the contents of the several di-
visions of the canon M'ere fixed, the order of
the books in the third division varied from
time to time ; and even in the second division
the Talmud knew Isaiah as standing between
Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets. This order
of the four prophetical books i Jeremiah, Eze-
kiel, Isaiah, and Minor Projihets), was evi-
dently determined by size, the largest being
placed first. As late as the close of the first
century A. D., the right of several books of
the third division to remain in the canon was
discussed. The books were in the canon, none
questioned that. The discussions concerned
the contents of the books and difficulties in
reconciling them with other books; but the
debates were proV)ably mere intellectual dis-
plays. There was no intention of removing
any book from the canon, but rather the pur-
pose to establish its right to the place it al-
ready occu])ied. J. d. d.

Canon of thk New Testament. The
apostolic church received from the Jewish
the belief in a written rule of faith. Christ
himself confirmed this belief by appealing
to the O. T. as the written word of God (e. g.
John V. 37-47: Mat. v. 17, 18; Mark xii. 36,
37 ; Luke xvi. 31), and by instructing his dis-
ciples out of it (Luke xxiv. 45) ; and the ai)os-
tles habitually refer to the O. T. as authori-
tative (c. g. Rom. iii. 2, 21 ; 1 Cor. iv. 6; Rom.
XV. 4; 2 Tim. iii. 15-17: 2 Pet. i. 21). In
the next place, the apostles claimed for theii'
own teaching, oral and written, like author-
ity with the O. T. (1 Cor. ii. 7-13; xiv. 37; 1
Thess. ii. 13 ; Rev. i. 3), and directed the pub-
lic reading of their epistles (1 Thess. v. 27;
Col. iv. 16, 17 ; 2 Thess. ii. 15 ; 2 Pet. i. 15 ;

Canon

112

Capernaum

iii. 1, 2), while revelations, given to the
church through inspired prophets, were con-
sidered to form, with apostolic instruction,
the foundation of the church (Ei)h. ii. 20).
It was therefore both natural and right that
the N. T. literature should be added to the
Old, and thus the written canon of faith be
enlarged. In the N. T. itself we may see
this beginning to be done (1 Tim. v. 18;
2 Pet. iii. 1, 2, 1(5), and in the generations
which followed the apostles, the writings
which were known to have apostolic au-
thority were gradually collected into the
second half of the church's canon, and final-
ly called the New Testament. For, from the
beginning, the proof that a book had a right
to a place in the canon was its aposfolicity, by
which was meant that it was bequeathed to
the church with apostolic sanction, having
either been written by an apostle or else
guaranteed by one as authoritative. This,
as we have said, was the apostolic doctrine ;
and evidence is abundant that, in the second
and third centuries, this was the principle on
which the N. T. collection was made. The
complete collection, however, was formed
slowly for various reasons. At first certain
books were known only in some churches to
be apostolic, and it was not until the whole
body of believers throughout the Eoman em-
pire was united in one ecclesiastical con-
sciousness that all the books, which in the
several parts of the chui-ch were known to
be apostolic, were universally accepted. The
process of collection also did not at first have
the incentive which it afterwards received
through the rise of hei-esy and of spurious
writings claiming apostolic authority. But,
while the process of collection was slow, the
books which in any church were accepted
were regarded as canonical because apostolic.
The teaching of the apostles was the rule of
faith. Their works were read in public wor-
ship. Early in the second century we find
them directly called Scripture (Ep. of Poly-
carp 12 ; Ep. of Barnabas 4). The books by
Mark and Luke were received because stamp-
ed with the authority of Peter and Paul.
Even commentaries began to be made upon
them, and their statements and i)hraseology
saturate the literature of the post-apostolic
age. Then, as to the extent and rapidity
with which the collection itself was made,
the following facts are the most noteworthy.
The four gospels were everywhei'e received
from the beginning of the second century,
while 2 Pet iii. Hi shows that its readers
were already familiar with a collection of
Paul's epistles. Very early we find the
phrases "gospel " and "apostles " used to de-
scribe the two parts of the new collection. The
evidence of the canonicity of The Acts like-
wise carries us back to the first half of the
second century. Some books indeed were
disputed in some sections of the church, but
this only shows that their final acceptance
was based on sutdcient evidence. Finally it

appears that the Syrian church in the second
century received all our N. T. except Rev.,
Jude, 2 Pet., 2 and 3 John ; the Eoman
church, all except Heb., Epp. of Pet., Jas.,
3 John ; the North African, all except Heb.,
2 Pet., and perhaps James. These collections,
however, only contained the books formally
received in the respective churches, and do
not prove that no other apostolic books were
known. The remainder were in fact univer-
sally accepted in the course of the third cen-
turj% though difference of opinion existed
about some; and, when the age of councils
came, our present N. T. canon appears in the
lists as the accepted one. In the fourth cen-
tury ten fathers and two councils have left
lists of canonical books. Of these three omit
Eevelation, against which prejudice existed
in some quarters, though earlier testimony to
it is abundant. The rest give the N. T. as
we have it.

In view of these facts it should be noted :
(1) That while the collection of the N.T. into
one volume was slow, the belief in a written
rule of faith was primitive and apostolic.
The history of the formation of the collec-
tion should not be thought to give the rise
into authority of a written rule of faith. It
only shows the stages by which the books
rightly belonging to the canon were recog-
nized and brought together. (2) Differences
of opinion and usage, as to what books were
canonical, and as to the degree of certainty
with which a book could be received, appear
in the writers and churches even of the sec-
ond century. This fact, however, again only
marks the stages by which the evidence for
the books was gradually accepted by the
church as a whole, and the carefulness of
the primitive Christians in receiving Ixmks
as apostolic. In like manner the occasional
acceptance of spurious wi'itings was corrected
in due time. (3) The proof on which tee
should accept the several N. T. books as
canonical is historical evidence. As to this,
the judgment of the early church that our
twenty -seven books are apostolic is entitled
to acceptance unless it can be proved false.
We should not, however, receive them merely
because ecclesiastical councils decreed them
canonical; nor, on the other hand, because
of their contents. The question is one of
historical evidence alone. (4) Finally, we
note tliat the name cnuoii is not known to
have been applied to the cfiUection of sacred
books until the fourth century. But while
this term, now universal, was not at first
used, the thing denoted by it — viz. that the
sacred books were the rule of faith — was, as
we have seen, an apostolic doctrine.

G. T. p.

Can'ti-cles. See Song of Solomon.

Ca-per'na-um [village of Nahum or of
consolation].

A town on the northwestern shore of the
sea of Galilee, near or on the boundary be-

Capernaum

113

CaDharsalama

twiTii Zohuliiu jiiul Nai)htali (Mat. i v. 13-16;
cp. Luke iv. 31 ; Jolin vi. 17. '24). At an
early period of our Lord's iiiiiiistry he re-
moved tliitlier from Nazareth, and so con-
tinually made it the lieadquarters of his
itinerant ministry that it came to be called
his own city (Mat. ix. 1 ; cp. JIark ii. 1).
It was there that he healed the centurion's
palsied servant (Mat. viii. 5-13; Lnke vii.
1-101, Peter's wife's mother when she was
prostrate with fever (Mat. viii. 14-17 ; Mark
i. 29-31; Luke iv. 38. 39). tme of the de-
moniacs (Mark i. 21-2?^; Luke iv. 31-37),
a man atUicted hy ])alsy home of four
(Mark ii. 1-13: cp." Mat. ix. 1-8), a noble-
man's servant (.Tohn iv. 46-54), with quite a
number of other diseased people (Mat. viii.
16-17 ; Mark i. 32-34 ; Luke iv. 23, 40, 41).
The discourse recorded iu John vi. 24-71,

Genncsaret, he says: " It is also watered by
a fountain. The i>eople of the country call
it C'apharnaum. Some have thought it to be
a vein of the Nile, because it produced the
coracin fish, as well as that lake does which
is near to Alexandria '' (War iii. 10, 8).

Two spots contend for the distinction of
being the site of ( 'apernaum. They are about
2' miles apart. The more northerly is called
Tell Hum, and the more southerly Khan Min-
yeh or Minia. Kobinson decided in favor of
Khan Minyeh. Conder takes the same view.
But the prevalent opinion favors Tell Hum.
Caper represents the Hebrew word for vil-
lage, and might well be supplanted by the
Arabic Tell, mound, when the place became
a ruin. Hum in Arabic means '"a herd of
camels;" if Hebrew, it is probably part of
the word Nahum. It is in favor of Tell Hum

Tell Hum.

which followed on the feeding of the 5000,
with many other addresses, was delivered in
the sjTiagogue at Capernaum or el.sewhere in
the town (Mark ix. 33-50). It was at Caper-
naum also that Jesus called to the apostleship
Matthew or Levi, as he was sitting at the
receipt of custom (Mat. ix. 9-13: Mark ii.
14-17 ; Luke v. 27-32 : cp. Mat. xvii. 24). It
might have been expected that a place so
specially favored would make proper use of
its privileges. It did the opposite, and its
ruin was predicted by Jesus because of its im-
penitence (Mat. xi. 23, 24; Luke x. 15).

Capernaum is not mentioned in the O. T.,
and perhaps did not arise till after the cap-
tivity. Josephus was carried with brui.sed
wrist from near Julias (not far from the spot
where the Jordan enters the sea of Galilee)
into a village named Cepharnome or Caper-
naum (Life 72). Describing the plain of

that there are extensive ruins of an ancient
city piled along the shore, and for at least
800 feet up the hill. The houses must nearly
all have been of black basalt, while the ruins
of a synagogue, either that in which Jesus
preached or its successor, are of marble, or
of fine limestone quarried in the mountains
northwest of the locality.

Caph.

The eleventh letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
English K comes from the same source ; but
C and, especially before e and i, or when final,
Ch are employed as its representative in an-
glicized Hebrew names. Caph stands at the
head of the eleventh .section of Ps. cxix., in
which section each verse begins with this
letter in the original. See Beth.

Caph-ar-sara-ma [village of Salem].

A town (1 Mac. vii. 31 : Antiq. xii. 10, 4 ,
perhaps the later Carvasalim, near Eamleh.

Caphenatha

114

Captivity

Ca-phen'a-tha. See Chaphenatha.
Caph'tor.

Au isle or seacoast, from which the Philis-
tines originally came (Jer.xlvii. 4; Amosix. 7).
The Philistines as a whole were Cherethites,
that is, probably Cretans (1 Sam. xxx. 14 ;
Ezek. XXV. 16; Zeph. ii. 5), and C'aphtor was
perhaps the island Crete. However, an Egyp-
tian nome in the delta bore the name Ka-
pet-hor. This word may be the original of
Caphtor. If so, the ancestors of the Philis-
tines went thence to Crete and later to Pliilis-
tia, or they went thither from Crete and ulti-
mately to Philistia.

Caph'to-rim ; in A. Y. once Caphtorims
and once Caphthorim.

A tribe descended from the Egyptians (Gen.
X. 14 : 1 Chron. i. 12), and inhabiting Caphtor
(Dent. ii. 23).

Cap-pa-do'ci-a.

A highland i)rovince of Asia Minor, bound-
ed on the north by Pontus, on the south by
Cilicia, on the east by Syria and Lesser Ar-
menia, and on the west by Lycaonia. It pro- j
duced excellent wheat and horses, but was I
regarded as a region of uncultivated minds j
and immoral practices. Worshipers from Cap-
padocia were present at the feast of Pente-
cost, rendered memorable by the descent of •
the Holy Spirit (Acts ii. 9). Some of the Dis-
persion to whom Peter addressed his first
epistle sojourned in Cappadocia (1 Pet. i. 1).

Cap'tain.

As a military title, captain is generally in
O. T. the rendering of the Hebrew word Sar.
It is a broad designation for an official,
whether he be the commander-in-chief of
the army (Gen. xxi. 22 ; Judg. iv. 2 ; 1 Sam.
xiv. 50 ; 2 Sam. x. 16), or the commander of
a division of the army (2 Sam. xviii. 2 with
5), or part of a division (1 Kin. xvi. 9) ; an
officer over 1000 men or 100 men or 50 men
(Num. xxxi. 14, 48; 1 Sam. viii. 12; xvii. 18;
xviii. 13 ; xxii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 1 ; 2 Kin. i. 9 ;
Is. iii. 3) ; the commander of the king's body
guard (Gen. xxxvii. 36 ; and 2 Kin. xxv. 8 ;
Dan. ii. 14, where the word is Rah), or of a
post of sentries (Jer. xxxvii. 13, in Hebrew
Ba'al). The word rendered captain in A. V.
of Num. ii. is Nasi', and denotes a tribal
prince. Kami is thrice rendered captain in
A. V. (Josh. X. 24; Judg. xi. 6, 11), where it
refers to leaders of the host ; but the word is
a general term for one with whom decision
rests, and it is applied to civil rulers (Is. i.
10; iii. 6, 7; Mic. iii. 1, 9), whose duties in-
cluded that of judging (Prov. vi. 7 ; xxv. 15,
E. V. margin).

In N. T. the chief captain was a chiliarchos,
a term which originally denoted the com-
mander of 1000 men, but was used broadly
for the commandant of a garrison, and as the
equivalent of the Roman military tribune
(John xviii. 12, R. V. margin). He was one of
the general officers of a legion, and higher in
rank than a centurion (Acts xxi. 31, 32, R. Y.

margin ; xxii. 25). The captain of the guard at
Rome (Acts xxviii. 16, A. Y.) was a stratoped-
archos, or commander of a legion, in this par-
ticular instance the chief officer of the legion
known as the praetorian guard (R. Y. margin).
The captain of the temple was not a military,
officer, but the commander of the guard of
Levites who kept watch at the temple (Acts
iv. 1; V. 24; 2 Mac. iii. 4; Antiq. xx. 6, 2;
War vi. 5, 3). Under him were subordinate
officers of the several divisions of the guard
(Luke xxii. 4, 52).

Cap-tiv'i-ty.

The state of being in bondage to enemies,
especially in a foreign land. In O. T. times
the Assyrians introduced, and the Babylon-
ians adopted, the practice of making a whole-
sale deportation of at least the leading men
belonging to each country which they con-
quered, and locating them in districts where
they would be removed from familiar asso-
ciations and patriotic memories, and would
be under the eye of the central government.
Deportation was generally resorted to as an
extreme measure when other means failed..
The sti-onger state was usuallj^ content with
imposing tribute. The withholding of the
customary tribute was treated as rebellion,
and was punished by a military invasion and
pillage of the country. If these harsh meas-
ures proved ineffective, resort was had to de-
portation.

Two principal captivities are mentioned in
the Bible :

I. The Captivity of the Ten Tribes.
As early as 842 b. c. Jehu paid tribute to
Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. About 803
Rammannirari reports receiving tribute from
the Israelites. But it was not until the reign
of Tiglath-pileser, 745-727, that the Assyrians
began emptying the land of the ten tribes of
its inhabitants. That king received tribute
from Menahem. In the reign of Pekah he
captured cities of Naphtali and carried otf
the inhabitants to Assyria (2 Kin. xv. 29).
He overran the country east of the Jordan
and deported the Reubenites, Gadites, and
half tribe of Manasseh to Mesopotamia (1
Chron. v. 26). By his connivance also Pekah
was eventually slain and Hoshea placed on
the throne. His successor Shalmaneser be-
sieged Samaria, the city was taken in the
accession year of Sargon, 722 b. c, and a
large number of the inhabitants were trans-
ported to Mesopotamia and Media (2 Kin.
xvii. 5, 6), and the rest were placed under
tribute. This remnant, in alliance with
Hamath and Damascus, presently attempted
to throw ofl" tlie Assyrian yoke ; but Sargon
crushed the rebellion and began introducing
foreigners into Samaria, a process which his
successors continued until a new and hetei'o-
geneous people occupied the former territory
of the ten tribes. Some of the Israelites
eventually returned to Jerusalem (Luke ii.
36), but most of them remained in the coun-

Carbuncle

115

Carmel

tries whither they h:ul been earried, })re-
serving their i-.ieial distinetiuns, continuing
their religious observances, and visiting Jeru-
siilem from time to time (Acts ii. 9 ; xxvi. 7).
II. The CAiniviTY of Judah. Senna-
cherib has recorded that he removed 'ifKl.OOO
captives from Judali (cp. 2 Kin. xviii. 13).
But by the captivity of Judah is meant tlie
deportation of the peoph> to Babyh)nia. Ju-
dah's captivity was i)redicted a century and
a half before its occurrence (Is. vi. 11, 12; xi.
12), and Babylonia as the i)lace was foretold
by Micah (iv. ID) and Isjiiah (xi. 11 ; xxxix.
6). The prophet Jeremiah announced that
it should continue seventy years (Jer. xxv.
1, 11, 12). It was elTected by Nebuchadnez-
zar. In 60.5 B. c"., in the third or fourth year
of Jehoiakim, according to the method of
reckoning which one adopts, he came unto
Jeru.salem, took the vessels of the temple to
Babylon, and carried off certain of the seed
royal as captives (2 Chron. xxxvi. 2-7 ; Dan.
i. 1-3). Seven years later he carried off Je-
hoiachin. the king's mother, wives, and chief
officers, 7000 men of might and 1000 artisans
(2 Kin. xxiv. 15, IG). Eleven years later his
army burned the temple, destroyed Jerusa-
lem, and carried off the residue of the people,
leaving only the poorest of the land to be
vinedressers and husbandmen (2 Kin. xxv.
2-21). Five years after the destruction of
the city, another batch was deported to Baby-
lonia {Jer. Hi. 30). In their exile the Jews
enjoyed many privileges. They were per-
mitted to build and occupy houses, keej) ser-
vants, and engage in business (Jer. xxix.
5-7; Ezra ii. 65), and there was nothing to
hinder them from rising to the highest posi-
tions in the state (Dan. ii. 48; Xeh. i. 11).
Their priests and teachers were with them
(Jer. xxix. 1 ; Ezra i. 5), and they had the
instructions and encouragement of Ezekiel
(Ezek. i. 1). In 539 b. c. Daniel understood
by the books that the cajitivity was to last
for seventy years, and, as the time was draw-
ing to a close, began to supplicate God for the
restoration of divine favor to his people (Dan.
ix. 2). In 538 Cyrus issued a decree author-
izing the Jews to return to the land of their
fathers and rebuild the temple (Ezra i. 1-4),
when about 43,000 of them embraced the op-
portunity (ii. 64). Many, however, preferred
to remain in Babylonia and the east, and with
the Israelites in Mesopotamia and Media
formed part of what became known as the
Diaspora (Zech. vi. 10; Acts ii. 9). See Dis-
persion.

Car'bun-cle.

1. The rendering of Hebrew Bareheth and
Bar'kath, .shining like lightning. It denotes
a gem (Ezek. xxviii. 13), and was the third
stone in the first row in the high priest's
breastplate (Ex. xxviii. 17). In both cases
the margin of the R. V., following the Septua-
gint, the Vulgate, and Josephus, makes it an
emerald.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew ' Ekdnh,
blaze, sparkle. It denotes a precious stone
(Is. liv. 12).

According to Dana three distinct minerals
are called by Pliny carbuncles. They are the
garnet, the ruby spinel, and the sapphire.
The garnet specially included under Pliny's
carbuncles is the precious or Oriental garnet
or almandine. It is of a fine deep trans-
parent color; the best are from Pegu. The
ruby spinel is a spinel of a clear red or red-
dish color, transparent or translucent. For
the sapphire, see the article.

Car'cas.

One of seven chamberlains who .served in
the presence of king Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10).

Car'che-mish, in A. V. once Cliarcheinisli
(2 Chron. xxxv. 20).

The eastern capital of the Hittites, west of
the Euphrates, at. a ford of the river, and
north of the confluence with the Sajur. Ad-
mirably situated for commercial purposes, it
became very wealthy. The Assyrian king,
Ashurnasirpal (885 to 860 B. c.) was about to
assault it, but was bouglit off by the promise
of rich tril)ute. In 717 B. c. it was captured
by Sargon, and with it fell the Hittite empire
(Is. X. 9). Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt, was
heavily defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchad-
nezzar in 605 B. C. (2 Chron. xxxv. 20 ; Jer.
xlvi. 2). Its site is called Jerabis. It is ou
the western bank of the Euphrates, midway
between Birejik and the mouth of the Sajur,
about 200 miles northwest of Circesium. Au
artificial mound covers ruins. The human
figures on the sculptured blocks have boots
with upturned tips, which is believed to settle
conclusively that they are of Hittite origin.

Ca-re'ah. See Kare.\h.

Ca'ri-a.

A country at the southwestern point of
Asia Minor. It was part of the territory con-
quered by the Eomans from Antiochus the
Great. The Eoman senate bestowed it on
the Ehodians, but released it again in 168
B. c. It was still a separate district in 139
B. c. (1 Mac. XV. 23), but it was finally incor-
porated in the province of Asia.

Car'ites. . See Cherethites.

Car'mel [fruitful field, garden, park].

1. A range of hills, about 8 miles long, con-
nected by a chain of lower hills with the
mountainous region of central Palestine and
terminating in a promontory which juts into
the Mediterranean (Jer. xlvi. 18), and con-
stitutes the southern boundary of the bay
of Acre. Near its southeastern end it is 1742
feet high, a little further onward it is 1715,
and it gradually falls more and more, till at
the Oorthwestern top, which constitutes the
promontory, it is only 556 feet high. The
range constitutes the southwestern boundary
of the valley of Esdraelon, through which
the Kishon runs, and at one place that brook
washes the northern slope of Carmel (1 Kin.

Carmi

116

Cart

xviii. 40). The summit of the range consists
ol' a series of eminences with table-lauds on
their tops, sometimes bare and rocky, and
sometimes covered with shrubs, especially the
prickly oak and the juniper. The strata are
of limestone, and there are caves on the sides
of the mountain chain, though not on its
summit. The view from its higher parts is
line. It is now called Jebel Kurmul. . Car-
mel was on the southern boundary of Asher
(Josh. xix. 26), within the limits of that tribe
(cp. xvii. 11). On the top of Carmel Elijah
brought to a decisive issue the question be-
tween Jehovah and the worsliip of Baal (1
Kin. xviii. 17-40), and from the top of the
same range his servant saw the ascent from
the Mediterranean of the little cloud like a
man's hand which heralded the rain storm
and the termination of the drought (41-46).
Carmel was visited by Elisha (2 Kin. ii. 25;
iv. 2.')). It is believed to have been anciently
cultivated to the summit, with fruit trees in
orchards or gardens, as its name imports, and
as the fruitfulness ascribed to it indicates
(Is. xxxiii. 9; xxxv. 2; Jer. 1. 19). A forest,
probably consisting chiefly of fruit trees, was
in its midst (Mic. vii. 14). When in Song
vii. 5 the lover says to the object of his affec-
tion, " Thine head upon thee is like Carmel,"
he probably means covered with luxuriant
hair, as Carmel is with fruit trees. Amos
prophesied : " The top of Carmel shall wither "
(i. 2). There has long been a convent on
mount Carmel, after which the Carmelite
monks are named.

2. A town in the mountainous part of Ju-
dah (Josh. xv. 55 ; cp. 1 Sam. xv. 12 ; xxv. 2).
The churlish Nabal's possessions lay in the
vicinity (1 Sam. xxv. 2-40). The name is
still retained in the modern Kurmul, a ruin
about 7 miles south-southeast of Hebron.
From this town one of David's wives hailed
(1 Sam. XXX. 5), and also one of his mighty
men (2 Sam. xxiii. 35).

Car'mi [vinedresser].

1. A son of Reuben, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 6).

2. A descendant of Judah and father of
Achan (Josh. vii. 1 ; 1 Chron. ii. 6, 7).

Car'na-im. See Ashtkroth-karnaim.

Car'pen-ter.

The tirst mention of carpentry in the Bible
as a distinct occupation is on occasion of car-
penters being brought from Tyre to build
David a palace (2 Sam. v. 11). Among car-
penter's tools were the axe, saw (Is. x. 15),
measuring line, plane, compass (xliv. 13),
iron nails, hammers (Jer. x. 4 ; 1 Chron. xxii.
3). Joseph, husband of Mary, was a carpen-
ter (Mat. xiii. 55), and Jesus in his youth
worked at the same calling (Mark vi. 3).

Car 'pus [the wrist].

. A resident at Troas, with whom Paul left
his cloak, for which he afterwards sent (2
Tim. iv. 13).

Car'riage.

That which is carried ; baggage (1 Sam.
xvii. 22 ; Is. x. 2S ; 1 Mac. ix. 35, 39 ; Acts xxi.
15), heavy matters or goods (Judg. xviii. 21),
a burden (Is. xlvi. 1). The place of the car-
riage (1 Sam. xvii. 20; xxvi. 5, 7, A. V. mar-
gin) was the enclosure formed by the carts
which were used to transport goods for the
army, and which were drawn up in a circle
around the camp. In all passages K. V. has
abandoned this ob.solete sense of carriage and
substituted the appropriate modern word.

Car'she-na [perhaps pillage of war, spoiler].

One of the seven leading princes of Persia
at the court of king Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 14).

Cart.

A wheeled vehicle employed in peaceful oc-
cupations, and distinguished from the chariot,
which was used for state and war. It was
made of wood (1 Sam. vi. 14), was either cov-
ered or uncovered (Num. vii. 3, where the
Hebrew word is I'endered wagon), was drawn
by cattle (vii. 7 ; 1 Sam. vi. 7 ; 2 Sam. vi.
6), though horses occasionally dragged the
threshing cart, it would seem (Is. xxviii. 28),
and was used in threshing in lieu of a sledge'
(Is. xxviii. 27), for transporting goods (2 Sam.
•vi. 3), hauling grain (Amos ii. 13). and con-
veying persons (Gen. xlv. 19, rendered wag-

Ancient Egyptian Cart.

on). In Egyj)t a cart was used like that
which is now employed universally in west-
ern Asia, with two wheels of solid wood.

Cart with Captive Women of Lachlsh.

Asiatic carts, including the one in which
Jewish captive women of Lachish are riding
on sacks of grain, are represented in As-
syrian bas-reliefs as having two wheels with
eight, six, or four spokes each and drawn by

Carving

ii:

Caterpillar

oxen. They arc also depicted as drawn by
mules, iir by two men.

Carv'ing.

The art of cutting letters, images, or orna-
mental designs in wood, stone, ivory, or
other material. Heziileel, a man of Judali,
and Aholiah, a Hanite, were gifted for this
work, and wrouglit the carving for the taber-
nacle (Ex. xxxi. 1-7 ; xxxv. 30-35). There was
carved work in Solomon's temple — flowers,
palm trees, and cherubim (1 Kin. vi. 18, 29) ;
in that of Zerubbabel (I's. Ixxiv. 6), and in
tlie superior kind of domestic architecture
iProv. vii. It)).

Case'ment.

A sash which moves on a hinge ; or part of
a window, made movable by a hinge, so that
it may be opened while the rest of the win-
dow remains shut (Prov. vii. (i, A. V.). But
in Judg. V. 28 and in R. V. of lioth passiiges
the Hebrew word is rendered lattice.

Ca-slph'i-a.

A ]ilace not fiir from the route between
Babylon and .Terusaleui, and in or near Baby-
lonia (Ezra viii. 17).

Cas'lu-him.

A people descended from the Egyptians (or
possibly only coucpiered and incorporated
with them), and standing somewhere in the
ancestral line of the Philistines (Gen. x. 14 ;
1 Chron. i. 12). Apparently they were the
immediate ancestors of the Philistines. Per-
haps they were the inhabitants of Casiotis, a
district on the Mediterranean Sea extend-
ing from the eastern mouth of the Nile to
Philistia.

Cas'phor.

A fortified town east of the Jordan, cap-
tured by Judas Maccabieus (1 Mac. v. 26, 36).
In the latter verse A. V. gives the name as
C'asphon. Josephus calls it Casphoma (Antiq.
xii. 8. 3).

Cas'sia.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew word KUl-
dah (Ezek. xxvii. 19). It denotes an aromatic
wood, and was an ingredient of the anoint-
ing oil (Ex. XXX. 24). The translation cassia
is .supported by the Syriac version, the Tar-
gum, and the Vulgate. If correct, the word
probably denotes a species of the wood. On
the margin R. V. has costus. The Custits of
the ancients was discovered by Falconer to
be a composite plant with purple flowers now
called A plot ax is lappa, growing in Cashmere
from 8CM10 to 90(X) feet above the sea level.
It is exported to various countries, the valua-
ble part being the root. The Chinese burn it
in their temples for incense.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew word
K'.)i'ah. It is fragrant (Ps. xlv. 8). Cassia
bark is derived from various species of Cin-
naniomitiii. See CINN.4.MON.

Cas'ta-net.

In the plural the rendering of the Hebrew
M'iuVaH''im, moving to and fro (2 Sam. vi. 5,

R. v.), a musical instrument which David and
his subjects played. The margin, following
the Vulgate, has sistra, and the A. V. cornets.
Castanets are a pair of small spoon-shaped
cymbals fastened to the thumb and beaten
together by the middle finger. The word
castanets is derived from castiuiea, a chest-
nut, two of these fruits being anciently at-
tached to the fingers and beaten together.
Castanets were employed in Greece and Home
as an accomi)animcnt to hymns in honor of
the goddess Artemis or Diana.

Cas'tle.

A fortified building or stronghold (Prov.
xviii. 19). David took the Jebu.site castle
and converted it into his residence ; and it
was afterwards called the city of David (1
Chron. xi. 5, 7). Jehoshaphat built castles in
the cities of .Tndah (2 Chron. xvii. 12 ; mar-
gin of A. V. palaces), and Jotham in its forests
(xxvii. 4). The habitations of the descend-
ants of Aaron (1 Chron. vi. .54), and probably
those of the Lshmaelite chieftains and of the
Midianites (Gen. xxv. 16 ; Num. xxxi. 10), were
encampments (R. V.) and not castles (A. V.).

The castle which Nehemiah erected was pre-
sumably succeeded by the stronghold event-
ually known as Antonia, and in which Paul
was confined at Jerusalem. See Antonia,

TOWEK OF.

Cas'tor and Pollux.

Two Greek and Roman divinities, born of
the same mother, Leda, but by diSerent fa-
thers. Castor's father was Tyndareus, a Spar-
tan king, while that of Pollux was Zeus, the
Greek supreme god. By another account,
however. Castor was also the son of Zeus.
Castor was a great charioteer and horse-mas-
ter, who was eventually killed in a fight.
Pollux was a highly distinguished pugilist.
His father Zeus offered him immortality, but
he begged to be allowed to share it day and
day about with the deceased Castor. The
request was granted, and both brothers were
worshiped, especially at Sparta, under the
name of the Dioscuri, or sons of Zeus. They
were regarded as the special protectors of dis-
tressed mariners. The Alexandrian vessel in
which Paul sailed from Melita to Puteoli had
for its sign or figurehead Dioskouroi. This
the R. V. renders The Twin Brothers and the
A. v., with more latitude. Castor and Pollux
(Acts xxviii. 11). The constellation Gemini
(the Twins) is called after the affectionate
brothers, and its two leading stars are named
Castor and Pollux.

Cat'er-pil-lar.

The n lulering of the Hebrew word Hasil,
devourer. It is associated with the locust,
and is a destroyer of vegetation (1 Kin. viii.
37; 2 Chron. vi. 28; Ps. Ixxviii. 46; Is. xxxiii.
4; Joel i. 4; ii. 25). Probably a species of
locust, or the common migratory locust in
one stage of development (cp. Joel i. 4 ; ii. 25,
margin of R. V.). For Ps. cv. 34 and Jer. Ii.
27 of A. v., see Cankerworm.

Cattle

118

Census

Cat'tle.

A comprehensive term used in the O. T.
for domestic animals, large and small, for
camels, horses, sheep, goats, oxen, and asses
(Gen. xiii. 2; xxvi. 13, 14; xxx. 32, A. V. ;
xxxi. 8, 9, 38, 41 ; xlvii. 16-18).

Cau'da. See Clauda.

Caul.

1. A net worn over the hair by Hebrew wo-
men (Is. iii. 18) ; rendered networks on the
margin of both the 11. V. and the A. V.

2. The lesser omentum, a layer of the inner
lining of the cavity of the belly, partly en-
veloping the liver, as the greater omentum
does the stomach (Ex. xxix. 13, 22; Lev. iii.
4, 10, 15).

Cave.

A hollow place or cavern in the side of a
hill or in any similar situation. Caves tend
to occur in all cliffs which are now or have
at any former time been washed by sea waves ;
they are, however, mo.st numerous and largest
in limestone countries, of which Palestine is
one. Caves served as dwellings for the
aborigines of mount Seir, as the name Horite
indicates (Gen. xxxvi. 20). Even in later
times they were used as temporary abodes,
as by Lot and his daughters after the de-
struction of Sodom (xix. 30), and by Elijah
(1 Kin. xix. 9). They were natural tombs,
and were constantly employed for burial pur-
l)oses ; for example, the cave of Machpelah
(Gen. xxiii. 1-20; xlix. 29) and the tomb of
Lazarus (John xi. 38). In times of war and
oppression they afforded a place of refuge
(Judg. vi. 2 ; 1 Sam. xiii. 6 ; xxiv. 3-10 ; 1
Mac. i. 53; 2 Mac. vi. 11), the most noted
being the caves at Makkedah (Josh. x. 16-27)
and Adullam (1 Sam. xxii. 1; 2 Sam. xxiii.
13).

Ce'dar.

A famous tree of Lebanon (1 Kin. v. 6), tall
and stately (Is. ii. 13 ; Ezek. xvii. 22 ; xxxi.
3). It furnished a timber much prized in
the construction of palaces and temples (2
Sam. V. 11 ; 1 Kin. v. 5, 6 ; vii. 1-12 ; Ezra
iii. 7). From it pillars, beams, and planks
were cut (1 Kin. vi. 9, 10, 18; vii. 2, 7) ; idols
were hewn (Is. xliv. 14) ; masts were made
for ships (Ezek. xxvii. 5). It is fragrant
(Song iv. 11 ; Hos. xiv. 7), and it was used in
ceremonial purifications (Lev. xiv. 4 ; Num.
xix. 6). The tree is evidently the Cedar of
Lebanon (Abies cedrus or Cedrus lihani), is
called 'erez in Hebrew, and bears the same
name in Arabic, namely 'arz. It is a large
tree of dome-shaped form, with long, spread-
ing, contorted branches, evergreen leaves,
and cones 3 to 5 inches long. It is wild on
mount Taurus as well as in Lebanon. The
little grove of trees on the latter range gen-
erally visited by travelers was long believed
to be the only one ; but others have now been
discovered on the back of the mountain. It
is doubtful whether the Deodar of the Hima-
laya mountains is really a distinct species.

Ce'dron. See Kidron.
Cel-o-syr'i-a. See Ccelesyria.

Cen'clire-se, in A. V. Cenchrea [millet].

The eastern of the two pints of Corinth,
that which gave access to the Archipelago.
It was about 9 miles from the city. It was
visited by Paul (Acts xviii. 18) ; and it pos-
sessed a Christian church, of which Phebe
was a servant or deaconess (Eom. xvi. 1). The
village of Kikries marks the site and pre-
serves the old name a little changed.

Cen-de-bse'us, in A. V. Cendebeus.

A general placed in command of the sea-
coast of Judfea by Antiochus VII. (1 Mac.
XV. 38). He was routed by Judas and John,
sons of Simon Maccabieus (xvi. 1-10).

Cen'ser.

A vessel for holding incense whilst it is
being burned (Num. xvi. 6, 7, 39). Theceusers
of the tabernacle were of brass (Lev. xvi. 12 ;
cp. Ex. xxvii. 3, firepans) ; those of the tem-
ple were of gold (1 Kin. vii. 50 ; 2 Chrou. iv.
22 ; Heb. ix. 4). The censers of the book of
Eevelation (viii. 3, 5) were also of gold.

Cen'sus.

An enumeration and registration of a peo-
jile, conveniently made among the Hebrews
according to tribe, family, and house (Num.
i. 18), and in the wilderness iirobably based
on the reports of the officers over thousands,
hundreds, fifties, and tens (Ex. xviii. 25 ; cp.
round numbers, Num. i. 21,23, etc.). Besides
enumerations of classes of the people, like
that of the firstborn (Num. iii. 43), a formal
census of all the Israelites of military age is
recorded in the O. T. as having been taken on
three different occasions. The first was taken
at mount Sinai in the second month of the
second year after they had left Egypt (Num.
i). Omitting the Levites (47-54), there were
of males above 20 years of age, and capable
of bearing arms, 603,5.50 (4.5-47 ; xi. 21). The
recordsof those who had recently paid tribute
were probably used in making uji the lists
(Ex. xxxviii. 26). The Levites fnmi one
month old and upward were counted sepa-
rately, and numbered 22,000 (Num. iii. 39).
The second census was taken 38 years later
at the camp at Shittim in the Moabite coun-
try at the close of the forty years' wandering.
The number of men had altered but slightly,
and now was 601,730 (Num. xxvi. 1-51), Le-
vites 23,000 (xxvi. 62). The third census was
made by order of David, who found that there
were of fighting men in Israel 800,000, in
Judah .500,000 (2 Sam. xxiv. 1-9; cp. 1 Chron.
xxi. 1-6). About the same time the Levites,
from 30 years old and upward, numbered
38,000 (1 "Chron. xxiii. 3). An enumeration
was made of the exiles who rettirned to .Teru-
salem from Babj-lonia with Zcrubbabel (Ezra
ii.), and an enrollment was ordered by the
emperor Augustus for the Roman empire
shortly before the birth of Christ (Luke ii.
1 ; see Quieinius).

Centurion

119

Chaldea

Cen-tu'ri-on [from Latin centum, one hun-
dred].

All Dtficer in the Roman army (Acts xxi.
32 ; sxii. 26), who at first coninianded 1(X)
soldiers and afterwards about that number
(cp. xxiii. 23). Two are mentioned by name
in tlie N. T. : Cornelius, stationed at (.'a'sarea,
throufth whom it was made evident that the

Roman Centurion.

Holy Spirit is given to gentile believers not
less than to Jewish (Acts x.), and Julius, who
conducted Paul and other prisoners to Rome
and treated Paul kindly (Acts xxvii. 1, 3,
43). Two centurions, besides Cornelius, be-
lieved— one at Capernaum (]Mat. viii. 5-13),
the other at the cross (xxvii. 54).

Ce'phas [Aramaic, rock or stone].

An appellation given by Jesus to the apos-
tle Simon (John i. 42 ; 1 Cor. i. 12 ; iii. 22 ; ix.
5 ; XV. 5 ; Gal. ii. 9) ; from it his best-known
name Peter, which is the Greek equivalent of
Cephas, arose.

Chal-ced'o-ny [from Chalkedmi, Kalkedon,
a town in Asia Minor where the mineral was
found] .

A precious stone, the third foundation of the
wall ofthe New Jerusalem (Hev.xxi.lJ)). Chal-
cedony u.sed to be regarded as a distinct .species
of siliceous ( tlinty ) mineral, but is now reduced
to a variety of the species quartz. It is hard,
its largest ingredient being silica. It is of a
waxy luster, and therefore much duller than
typical quartz. It is white-gray, brown, blue,
etc. It is not perfectly crystallized,
but often coats crystals of quartz. It
occurs mas.sive, in veins, in nodules
of botryoidal form (/. e. resembling a
(Ulster of grapes), or in stalactites.
This stone, however, did not receive
the name chalcedony, it is believed,
until the Middle Ages, so that John,
it would seem, had a dilferent stone
of Chalcedon in mind, perhaps the
Chalcedonian emerald or the Chal-
cedonian jasper which are mentioned
by Pliny (37, 18 and 37).

Chal'col. See Calcol.

Chal-de'a [akin to Hebrew A'«s-
(Vim, and perhaps meaning land of the
conquerors or of the Cushlanders].

Originally the southern portion of
Babylonia, at the head of the Persian
Gulf, but the designation was ulti-
mately extended to the whole of the
alluvial plain stretching from above
Hit to the gulf. In the southern por-
tion were situated Ur and Erech ; in
the northern part Babylon, Cutha.
Sippara. There were other cities in
the country which are not mentioned
in the Scriptures or are not identified.
There is no evidence that the term
Chaldea included the plateau to the
north, in whole or in part. The
theory that it did is ultimately based
on the identification of the river
Chebar, which was in the laud ofthe
Chaldeans (Kzek. i. 3), with the river
of Mesopotamia called by the Greeks
Chaboras. But this identification can-
not be maintained, for the Hebrews
distinguished the two rivers by names
radically difterent, K'^bar and Habor.
Again, the presence of people called Chal-
deans in the mountains of Kurdistan dur-
ing the retreat of the ten thousand under
Xenophon (Anabasis iv. 3, 4, etc.), and of
others in Pontus mentioned by Strabo (.549)
has been urged as proof that the primitive
home of the Chaldeans was in Armenia. That
theory seems now to be abandoned ; partly
doubtless because, although the Kurdish
mountains and adjacent country were re-
peatedly traversed by the armies of Assyria
during a period of seven hundred years, be-
ginning in the fourteenth century B. C. and
the geographical notices in the records of
these military expeditioiisare full and minute,
yet there is no report of the Assyrians having
found a people or country called Kaldu in all
that region. If the people called Chaldeans

Chaldean

120

Chariot

by the classical writers referred toare jjroperly
named, aud have any couuectiou with the
Chaldeans of the south, they are late immi-
grants, relics perhajis of the imperial army
of Babylonia, rather than the original stock.
Chal-de'an, in N. T. Chaldaean.

1. A native or inhabitant of C'haldea. Chal-
deans are mentioned in the literature of
Babylonia and Assyria in documents of the
ninth century B. c, as already established
on the shores of the Persian gulf and having
Bit-yakin for their capital. Under Merodacb-
baladan they conquered Babylonia, aud later
gave their name to the whole of that country.
Job speaks of their predatory bands (i. 17),
Isaiah mentions their maritime tendencies
(xliii. 14), and Ezekiel desci-ibes their luxury
and display (xxiii. 15).

2. One of the priests of Bel-marduk at
Babylon (Herod, i. 181, 183), who were es-
teemed as possessors of wisdom (Dan. i. 4;
ii. 2, 4).

Chal-dees'.

A variant form of Chaldeans used in the
expression Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. xi. 31 ;
Neh. ix. 7), and also sometimes in A. V. when
there is no mention of Ur (2 Kin. xxiv. 2 ;
XXV. 4, 10, 13, 25, 26 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17 ; Is.
xiii. 19).

Chalk'stone.

A stone taken from the limestone rocks
which constitute a marked feature of Pales-
tine (Is. xxvii. 9).

Chal'pM, in A. V. CalpM.

Father of Judas, one of the two captains
who stood by Jonathan Maccabseus at Hazor
(1 Mac. xi. 70).

Cliam'ber-lain.

One who looks after the private chambers
of a palace or mansion ; as Blastus, who was
over Herod's bedchamber (Acts xii. 20) ; or
one who has charge of the treasure chamber,
as Erastus, the treasurer of the city of Corinth
(Rom. xvi. 23, A. V. ; in R. V. treasurer). In
the O. T. the word rendered chamberlain sig-
nifies eunuch, and is often translated so; see
Eunuch.

Cha-me'le-on [the ground lion].

A reptile which belongs to the same order
as lizards, but, according to the present classi-
fication, not to the same group. The name is
found in Lev. xi. 30. In R. V. it is the ren-
dering of the Hebrew Tinshemeih, breathing,
inflation (in A. V. mole), whereas in A. V. it
represents the Hebrew word Koah (in R. V.
land crocodile; see Lizard). The lungs of
the lizard are very large and, when ex-
jianded, render it semi-transparent. Its eye-
balls protrude from the head, and are inde-
pendent in their action, so that it can turn
one eye up and the other down, or look in
difierent directions and at different objects at
the .same time. It has also the faculty of
changing its hue in accordance with the color
of the objects about it or with its temper

when disturbed. This power is due to the
presence of clear or pigment-bearing cells in
the skin, their contractions and dilatations
being controlled by the nervous system. It
lives in trees. Its feet are fitted for use as
hands and its tail is prehensile, so that it is
able to cling to the branches. It feeds upon
insects which it captures by means of its long
tongue covered at the end with a viscous sub-
stance.

Cham'ois.

The rendering of the Hebrew Zemei; leaper.
The animal is ruminant. (Deut. xiv. 5). It
is not the real chamois, which is a native of
the European mountains from the Pyrenees
to the Caucasus, but does not occur in Pales-
tine.

Cham-paign' [open country] (Deut. xi. 30,
A. v.). See Arabah.

Cha'naan. See Canaan.

Cha-phen'a-tha, in A. V. Caphenatha.

Apparently a portion of the eastern wall
of Jerusalem, perhaps one of the towers or
other mural fortifications (1 Mac. xii. 37), and
possibly even the tower that stood out from
the upper house of the king (Neh. iii. 25).

Chap'i-ter.

The capital, i. e. the head or uppermost
part of a column, pillar, or pilaster (1 Kin.
vii. 16). It can be varied in form and orna-
mentation, according to the order of archi-
tecture used in the building (Ex. xxxvi. 38;
xxxviii. 17, 19; 1 Kin. vii. 19, 20).

Chap 'man.

Originally a merchant ; then a mere ped-
lar (2 Chron. ix. 14).

Char'a-shim [craftsmen], in R. V. Ge-har-
ashim [valley of craftsmen].

A valley in Judah (1 Chron. iv. 14), in-
habited after the exile by the tribe of Ben-
jamin (Neh. xi. 35). Conder suggests the
ruin Hirsha as an echo of the name, on the
slope of a wady 1| miles southeast of Aijalon
and 11 miles west-northwest of Jerusalem.

Char'clie-inish. See Carchemish.

Char'ger.

A large dish or platter. The name is ap-
propriately used in the English version for
the dish on which the head of John the Bap-
tist was brought to Herodias' daughter (Mat.
xiv. 8), and for the silver dishes of 1.30
shekels' weight presented by the tribal princes
at the dedication of the altar (Num. vii. 13).
The Hebrew word rendered charger in the
last passage denotes the golden dishes which
stood on the table of showbread (Ex. xxvi.
29 ; Num. iv. 7).

Char'i-ot.

A two-wheeled vehicle, of various forms,
drawn by horses (2 Sam. viii. 4), and used
for military (Ex. xiv. 9; 1 Sam. xiii. 5), state
(Gen. xii. 43 ; 2 Sam. xv. 1 ; 1 Kin. i. 5), and
private purposes (Gen. xlvi. 29 ; 2 Kin. v. 9;
Acts viii. 28). The bed was open behind, and

Charity

121

Chemarim

rested on the axle without springs. The
wheels were" not clumsy, but cousisted of
felloes, spokes, and naves, and were often
of metal (1 Kin. vii. 33j. Chariots were hut
poorly adapted to the hills of l^alestine, and
were not much used, but they were common
among the Canaauites iu the valley (Josh.
xvii. 16 ; Judg. iv. 3), and among the Egyp-
tians (Is. xxxi. ll, Ethiopians (2 Chron. xvi.
8), Syrians (2 Kin. v. 9), Hittites (2 Kin. vii.

Royal Assyrian Chariot.

6), and Assyrians (Xah. ii. 3, 4 ; iii. 2). The
war chariots commonly carried a driver (2
Chron. xviii. 33), and occasionally a shield-
bearer, besides the warrior himself. Probably
among the Hebrews a third person, perhaps
shieldbearer, sometimes occupied the chariot
(2 Kin. ix. 25). The war chariot was at times
constructed of iron or covered with iron
plates (Josh. xvii. 16, 18 ; Judg. i. 19; iv. 3).
The Persians armed the axles and sometimes
the tongue with scythes. Cruel chariots of
this sort were seen iu Palestine in the Seleuci-
dan period (2 i\Iac. xiii. 2). A four-wheeled
vehicle may be intended in Eev. xviii. 13.
See additional illustration under Bow.

Char'i-ty.

Love, often manifested by almsgiving. The
charity described iu 1 Cor. xiii. is not alms-
giving, as is evident from ver. 3; it is love,
charity in the broad sense, love toward all.
It is so rendered by the R. V.

Char'ran. See Haran.

Che'bar.

A river in the land of the Chaldeans, on
the banks of which some of the .Jewish ex-
iles, including the prophet Ezekiel, were set-
tled. It was there that the prophet saw sev-
eral of his visions (Ezek. i. 1, 3; iii. 15, 23 ; x.
15, 20). It is not the river called by the Greeks
Chaboras, which rises near Nisibis in upper
Mesopotamia, and falls into the Euphrates
at Circesium, for the Hebrew name of this
river was Habor. The Chebar was doubtless
a Babylonian canal. These streams were
known by the name nar, river.

Ched-or-la'o-mer [Elamite, servant of the
god Lagamar].

A king of Elam. who evidently held the
sovereignty over Babylonia. In the days of

Abraham, in alliance with Amraphel, king of
Shinar, Ariocli, king of EUasar, and Tidal,
king of Goiim, he made an expedition to the
west and subjugated the country about the
Dead Sea. The i)eople of the plain served
him twelve years and then revolted. The
next year Chedorlaomer came with his allies
and smote the region east of the Jordan from
Bashan southward, the land of Edoni to the
head of the Red Sea, the country afterwards
inhabited by the Amalekites, and the pli'.iu
about the Dead Sea. This conquest gave
him control of the caravan routes from
Arabia past the head of the Red Sea to
Egypt, Canaan, and the north. But he
carried oti' Lot from Sodom. This in-
duced Abraham to lead his numerous
servants and his allied chieftains to the
pursuit. They fell upon Chedorlaomer
by night at Dan, put him and his fol-
lowers to flight, and recovered the captives
and the spoil (Gen. xiv. 1-16). Much light
has been thrown on this narrative by the
cuneiform inscriptions on the Assyrian and
. Babylonian monuments. Kudurnanhundi,
king of Elam. plundered the city of Erech
in Babylonia about 2285 B. c. Later the
sovereignty over Babylonia was exercised in
succession by the Elamite kings Simtishil-
hak and his son Kudurmabug. The latter
appears to have ruled over Canaan also, and
he was not the first Babylonian king by any
means who had been master in the far west.
His son was Eriaku, king of Larsa, probably
Arioch, king of Ellasar. Chedorlaomer's
name, in its native form Kudurlagamar,
proves that he was an Elamite, and his as-
sociation with Arioch and the extent of his
sway, strongly indicate that he was a mem-
ber of this dynasty and a successor of Kudur-
mabug.

Cheese.

The curd of milk, coagulated, separated
from the whey, and pressed (Job x. 10 ; cp.
1 Sam. xvii. 18 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). A valley
at Jerusalem bore the name Cheesemongers
(War V. 4, 1).

Che'lal [consummation, completion].
A son of Pahath-moab, whom Ezra induced
to divorce his foreign wife (Ezra x. 30).

Che'lub [wicker basket ; bird's cage].

1. A brother of Shuah. whose lineage is not
traced but who was entitled to registry in the
tribe of Judah (1 Chron iv. 11).

2. The father of David's officer over the
cultivators (1 Chron. xxvii. 26).

Che-lu'bai. See Caleb 1.

Cheru-hi, in A. V. Chel'luh.

A son of Bani, whom Ezra induced to di-
vorce his foreign wife (Ezra x. 35).

Chem'a-rim, in text of A. Y. Chemarims.

Priests of the high places (2 Kin. xxiii. 5,
margin), of the calves at Bethel (Hos. x. 5,
margin), and of Baal (Zeph. i. 4).

Chemosh

122

Cherub

Cbe'mosh [probably subduer].

The god of the Moabites (Num. xxi. 29 ;
Jer. xlviii. 40 ; Moabite Stone 3), worshiped in
the same manner as was Molech, by the sac-
rifice of children as burnt oflerings (2 Kin.
iii. 27). His identity with Molech appears
further from Judg. xi. 24, where the god of
the Ammonites, who was Molech (1 Kin. xi.
7), is called Chemosh. Solomon erected a
high place for him near Jerusalem (1 Kin. xi.
7), which was afterwards defiled by Josiah (2
Kin. xxiii. 13).

Che-na'a-nali [feminine of Canaan].

1. A Benjamite. family of Jediael (1 Chron.
vii. 10).

2. The father of the false prophet Zedekiah
who deluded Ahab (1 Kin. xxii. 11 ; 2 Chron.
xviii. 10).

Cben'a-ni [firm].

A Levite who assisted in bringing the re-
turned exiles to such a frame of mind that
they agreed to enter iuto a covenant to wor-
ship Jehovah (Neh. ix. 4).

Chen-a-ni'ah [Jehovah is firm].

A chief of the Levites in David's reign, of
the house of Izhar, who was appointed super-
intendent of the outward business, such as
judging (1 Chron. xxvi. 29), and the trans-
portation of the ark (xv. 22, 27, margin ; in
text, song).

Che-phar-arn'mo-ni, in A. V. Che-phar-
ha-am'mo-nai [village of the Ammonite].

A village of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 24).
Site unknown.

Che-pM'rah [village].

A city of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17), al-
lotted to the Benjamites (xviii. 26). It con-
tinued to exist after the captivity (Ezra ii.
25 ; Neh. vii. 29). Its site is the ruin Kef ireh,
8 miles west-northwe.st of Jerusalem.

Che'ran [possibly cither or lute] .

A Horite, a son of Dishon (Gen. xxxvi. 26 ;
1 Cliron. i. 41).

Cher'eth-ites, in A. V. once Cherethims
[probably Cretans] .

A nation or tribe inhabiting the Philistine
country or its southern portion (1 Sam. xxx.
14 ; Ezek. xxv. 16 ; Zeph. ii. 5, 6). They may
be identical with the Philistines who came
from Caphtor (q. v.), or may represent a di-
rect emigration from Crete. Some of them
were members of David's bodyguard (2 Sam.
viii. 18 with xxiii. 23; xv. 18). In three
places the name Carite appears in their stead
(2 Sam. XX. 23; 2 Kin. xi. 4, 19, both E. V.).
It has been suggested that this name preserves
the memory of Carian inhabitants of Crete,
alluded to by classical writers.

Che'rith [cut, gorge].

A brook before Jordan, by which Elijah
sojourned (1 Kin. xvii. 3, 5). Whether east
or west of the Jordan is uncertain.

Cher'ul), plural Cher'u-biin ; in A. V.
Cherubims.

1. Guardians placed east of the garden of

Eden to prevent the approach of our first pa-
rents to the tree of life after thefr expulsion
from the garden (Gen. iii. 24). When the ark
was constructed for the tabernacle, cherubim
wrought of ^Id were placed facing each,
other, one at each side of the mercy seat,
overshadowing it with their wings (Ex. xxv.
18-20; xxxvii. 7-9). They symbolized the
presence and unapproachability of Jehovah,
whose glory was manifested between them
(Lev. xvi. 2), who thus dwelt in the midst of
his people, and was present in the tabernacle
to receive worship (Ex. xxv. 22; Lev. i. 1).
Frequent reference is made to Jehovah dwell-
ing between the cherubim (Num. vii. 89; 1
Sam. iv. 4 ; 2 Sam. vi. 2 ; 2 Kin. xix. 15 ; Ps.
Ixxx. 1; xcix. 1; Is. xxxvii. 16). Cherubim
were also embroidered on the hangings of the
tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 1). For the grander
temple Solomon had two gigantic cherubs
made. The height was ten cubits, or about
fifteen feet, and the expansion of their
wings as many more. They were of olive
wood, and were overlaid with gold (1 Kin. vi.
23-23; viii. 7: 2 Chron. iii. 10-13; v. 7, 8;
Heb. ix. 5). Cherubs, with palm trees and
open flowers, were also carved all round the
walls of the temple (1 Kin. vi. 29). In a
poem David represented Jehovah as riding
upon a cherub and flying (2 Sam. xxii. 11 ;
Ps. xviii. 10). Ezekiel had a vision of cherubs
by the river Chebar. Each had four faces
and four wings (Ezek. x. 1-22 ; cp. is. 3), and
since they seem to be identical with the
four living creatures previously seen by the
prophet, these four faces were those of a man,
a lion, an ox, and an eagle (cp. i. 5-12 with
X. 20, 21). They carried the throne of Jeho-
vali (i. 26-28 ; ix. 3). Finally the apostle John
in the apocalypse describes four living crea-
tures, who had faces like those of the same
four animals (Rev. iv. 6 9).

It is possible, though not yet proven, that
the Assyrians had acquaintance with the
same idea. Their winged, man-headed bulls
have a certain external physical resemlilauce
to cherubim as sometimes described in the
Hebrew Scriptures ; and they performed the
same function, being placed at the entrance
of palaces and temples whore majesty dwelt.
It is especially ])remature, however, to assert
that the bulls of Assyria bore a name similar
to that of the Hebrew cherubim.

The varying forms assumed by the cherubim
in art and poetic imagery show that they
were symbols. But symbols of what ? The
flaming sword (Gen. iii. 24). and the dark-
ness under Him who did ride upon a cherub
and flew upon the wings of the Mund (Ps.
xviii. 10), have been cited as the main sup-
port of the theory that the cherub is in ulti-
mate analy.sis the storm cloud. It is true
that the cherubim might represent some
power of nature, or all the powers of nature,
as the servants of Jehovah and guardians of
his abode. But the biblical writers represent
the cherubim, symbolically at least, as ani-

Chesalon

123

Chorazin

mate beings with the intelligence of man,
the strength of the ox, thi\ courage of the
lion, and the free motion of the eagle through
the air. The facts at preseut obtainable in-
dicate an order of angels.

2. A place in Babylonia, from which cer-
tain persons came who could not prove their
Israelite descent (Ezra ii. 59; Neh. vii. Gl).
Situation unknown. Pronounced ke'rub.

Ches'a-lon [trust, hope].

A town on the boundary line of Judah, on
mount Jearim (Josh. xv. 10), commonly iden-
tilied with the village of Kesla, 10 miles west
of Jernsiileni.

Che'sed [jierhaps the noun from which
Kdxd'nn, Chaldoans. is derived].

A son of Xahor by his wife Milcah (Gen.
xxii. 22).

Che'sil [a fool].

A village in the most southerly region of
Judah (Josh. xv. 30) ; apparently called also
Bet lull and Bethuel.

Chesfnut. See Plank.

Che- sul 'loth [trusts, or perhaps the loins
or slojics].

A town on the boundary line of Issachar
(Josh. xix. 18), probably the same as Chisloth-
tabor (q. v.).

Cheth, in E. V. Heth.

The eighth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
English H, which developed out of the same
original, and Ch, though neither ispronounced
with the guttural sound of cheth, represent
it in anglicized Hebrew names, as Haran,
Chezib. It stands at the beginning of the
eighth section of Ps. cxix. in several versions,
in which section each verse begins with this
letter.

Che'zib. See Achzib.

Chi'don [a javelin].

A name for the threshing floor at which
Uzza was struck dead for touching the ark
(1 Chron. xiii. 9). In 2 Sam. vi. 6 called
Nachon. The diflerence of name has not
been satisfactorily explained. Exact site un-
known.

Chil'e-ab.

David's second son, born at Hebron. His
mother was Abigail (2 Sam. iii. 3). He is
called in 1 Chron. iii. 1 Daniel.

CMl'i-on [a wasting away].

The vounger son of Elimelecli and Xaomi
(Ruth i'. 2, 5).

Chil'mad.

A ])lace which traded with Tyre, mentioned
in connection with Sheba and Asshur (Ezek.
xxvii. 23).

CMm'liain [longing].

The son of Barzillai the Gileadite. When
the father was invited by David to Jerusalem,
and declined the honor on account of liis ad-
vanced age, Chimham was sent in his place
(2 Sam. xix. 37, 3b;. He seems to have set-

tled in the vicinity of Bethlehem and erected
a caravansary (Jer. xli. 17).

CMn'ne-retli and Chinneroth, in A. V. once
Cinneroth d Kin. xv. 20) [lute, harp].

1. A fortified city of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
35; cj). also Deut. iii. 17).

2. The region around the city of Chinnereth
(1 Kin. XV. 20 ; cp. also Josh. xi. 2), com-
monlv identified with the plain of Gennesaret
(Mat."xiv. 34).

3. The sheet of water adjacent to the forti-
fied city and region of Chinnereth (Num.
xxxiv. 11: Josh. xii. 3; xiii. 27; 1 Kin. xv.
20). In later times known as the lake of
Gennesaret (Luke v. 1) and sea of Galilee or
Tiberias (John vi. 1).

Chi'os.

An island, now called Scio or Chio, in the
Greek Archipelago, at the entrance of the
Gulf of Smyrna. It has Lesbos on the north
and Samos on the south. It is about 32 miles
long from north to south, 18 broad from east
to west, and has an area of about 400 square
miles. Paul's vessel passed it on his last voy-
age to Palestine (Acts xx. 15).

Chis'lev, in A. V. Chisleu.
The ninth month of the Hebrew year (Neh.
i. 1; Zech. vii. 1 ; 1 Mac. i. 54). See Year.

Chis'lon [trust, hope].
Father of the prince of Benjamin in the
time of Moses (Num. xxxiv. 21).

Chis'lotli-ta'bor [the flanks of Tabor or
the trust of Tabor].

A town at the lower part of mount Tabor,
on the boundary line of Zebulun (Josh. xix.
12) ; probably the same as Chesulloth, a town
on the border of Lssachar (ver. 18). The two
names are radically identical ; they differ
merely in the vocalization, and this difler-
ence of pronunciation is not supported by
the Septuagint. Eusebius mentions a vil-
lage Chasalus in the plain near mount Tabor.
The place is commonly identified with the
modern village of Iksal or Ksal, which stands
on a rocky eminence west of Tabor.

CMth'lisli, in A. Y. Kithlisn.

A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 40).

CMt'tim. See Kittim.

CM'un.

A word occurring but once in the Hebrew
Bible, in Amos. v. 26, and of doubtful mean-
ing. It is probably the planet Saturn, known
to the Syrians as Kewan or Kaivan, and which
was looked upon as unpropitious.

Chlo'e [the fir,st shoot of green grass].

A Christian woman, apparentlv of Corinth
(1 Cor. i. 11).

Chor-a'shan. See Ashan.

Cho-ra'zin.

A town mentioned along with Bethsaida
and Capernaum, and probably, like them,
near the sea of Galilee. Like the two other

Chozeba

124

Chronicles, Books of the

places, Choraziu had at times been the scene
of the Saviour's preaching and beneficent
miracles ; but it tailed to turn its spiritual
privileges to account, and was di)omed to
suft'er the penalty of its neglect (Mat. xi. 21 ;
Luke s. 13). Eusebius, in the fourth cen-
tury, said that it was 2 Eonian miles from
Capernaum. In 1842 the Ke»-. G. Williams
believed that he had found it at Kerazeh,
about 2} miles north of Tell Hum. The

name was first given at Antioch, about a. d.
43, and apparently by foes rather than friends
(Acts xi. 2(j). Though destiued ultimately to
become universal, yet it took root so slowly
that it is found only twice again in the N. T.,
once in the mouth of Agrippa II., when Paul
preached repentance and remission of sins
through Jesus and testified to the resurrec-
tion of Christ (Acts xxvi. 1«, 23, 28), and
once in a letter from Peter to comfort the

Kerazeh, Site of Chorazin.

identification is now generally accepted. It
is a little inland, in a side valley branching
off from another one which goes down to the
lake. The spot is marked by extensive ruins,
including a synagogue.

Cho-ze'ba. See Cozeba.

Christ [Greek, anointed].

The Anointed One. a title corresponding to
the Hebrew name Messiah, which denoted
the anointed king of Israel, and, after Saul's
reign, the royal son of David. The term was
borrowed from the Septuagint, specially from
Ps. ii. 2 ; Dan. ix. 25. When used in the N.
T. it generally has the word the prefixed, and
means the Messiah of O. T. prophecy (Mat.
xvi. 16, 20 ; xxvi. 63 : Mark viii. 29 ; Luke iii.
la: John i. 41). Sometimes (he is omitted
(Mat. xxvi. 68; John iv. 25).

Christ, though really used in the primary
sense, is so constantly appended to Jesus, the
distinctive personal name of our Lord, given
from his birth, as virtually to constitute part
of the .proper name (John i. 17 ; Acts xi. 17 ;
Rom. i. 1 ; v. 1 ; Philemon 1, etc.).

Chris 'tian.

A follower of the Lord Jesus Christ.

The

faithful whose adherence to Christ brought
persecution upon them (1 Pet. iv. 16).

Chron'i-cles, Books of the.

Two historical books of the O. T. They
are evidently the work of a single author,
for they have unity of plan and purpose, and
are incomplete if one is sundered from the
other. In fact they actually formed one book
in the old Hebrew canon. The Septuagint
translators divided them into two, and this
division was finally admitted into priuted
editions of the Hebrew canon. The Hebrew
name of the books is " Acts of the Days," ;. e.
of the Times. The Septuagint calls them
Paraleipomena, or things left over. The title
is unfortunate, since it incorrectly implies
that the book was intended as a suii])lement,
whereas it has an indejiendent aim. The
name Chronicles is derived from the title
Ch ro)iico)i applied to these writings by Jerome,
who describes them as "a chronicle of the
whole of sacred history."

The work naturally divides itself into two
parts: 1. The genealogies, especially of Jndah,
Benjamin, and Levi, from the creation to the
return from the Babylonian exile (1 Chron.

Chronicles, Books of the

125

Chronology

i.-viii.), with a rejiister of those who, prob-
ably before the exile, dwelt in Jerus;ileui (ix.
1-84). The transition to part seeond is af-
forded by means of the genealogy and death
of Saul and Jonathan (ix. 35-x. 14). 2. His-
tory of the Israelites, more esjiecially of
Judah, from the accession of David to the
return from the Babylonian exile (xi.-2
C'hron. xxxvi.).

The abrupt conclusion of the work, and
the identity of its closing verses with the
opening verses of Ezra, have been thought
to indicate that Chronicles and Ezra were
originally one continuous history. But the.se
verses are a quotation either in both Chroni-
cles and Ezra from the same state document,
or, more probably, in one book from the
other. The books themselves never consti-
tuted one work. They are entirely different
in plan, and ancient tradition never reckoned
them as one. They may, however, have had
one and the same author.

The first datum which bears on the ques-
tion as to when the work was composed is
found in the genealogies. The line of David is
brought down to a date later than any other.
The grandchildren of Zerubbabel are men-
tioned (1 Chron. iii. 19-21), consequently the
work cannot have been composed a great
while before the time of Ezra. It is, how-
ever, frequently affirmed that yet later de-
scendants of Zerubbabel are registered, even
the sixth generation after him (21-24). But
there is not the shadow of i)roof that the
families enumerated in verse 21, latter part,
were descendants of Hananiah, son of Zerub-
babel. Their descent and that of Shecaniah,
whose posterity is given at considerable
length (21-24). are not indicated. The phe-
nomenon of unattached families is of com-
mon occurrence in these genealogies, and,
when the text is not at fault, indicates that
the family thus loosely catalogued belonged
to the clan or tribe with which it is registered,
though its connection is not traced. The
four families enumerated in verse 21 be-
longed to the lineage of David, and were col-
lateral with the royal line which descended
through Hananiah. son of Zerubbabel. The
other indications likewise point to the time
of Ezra. The amount contributed toward
the erection of the temple is stated in Per-
sian coins, not in Greek (1 Chron. xxix. 7,
R. v., darics), which indicates that the Greek
empire had not supplanted the Persian when
the work was composed. The designation
of the temple as "the Birah," the castle or
the palace (1 Chron. xxix. 1, 19), indicates a
time not later than Xehemiah ; for after his
time '■ the Birah " denoted not the temple,
but a structure erected by him (Xeh. ii. 8;
vii. 2. both R. V.), which came to be distin-
guished from the temple and all other build-
ings as the castle; see Axtoxia, Tower of.

Ancient opinion was that Chronicles was
written by Ezra. This tradition cannot be
proved, and it is not vital that it should be.

But there is no valid objection to it ; and it
is strengthened by peculiarities of language
common to Chronicles and Ezra. These i)ecu-
liarities have led most modern critics, even
when inrtuenced by the unwarranted inter-
l)retation of the genealogy in iii. 19-24 to as-
sign a late date to Chronicles, nevertheless to
hold that the two books in their jtresent form
are from the siime hand.

Chronicles stands among the Hagiographa,
the last division of the Hebrew canon, and
not among " the prophets." This is evidence
that the author was not a prophet ; see
Canon. The Masorites, followed as a rule
by Spanish manuscripts, placed Chronicles
first in order among the Hagiographa and
immediately before the Psalms. In the
printed editions of the Hebrew Bible, and
in German and French manuscripts, it fol-
lows Ezra-Nehemiah, and is the last book in
the division. This position it probably oc-
cui)ied at the time of Christ, for Zechariah is
cited as the la.st [named] prophet who suf-
fered a violent death (JIat. xxiii. 35; Luke
xi. 51 ; cp. 2 Chron. xxiv. 20-22).

Chro-nol'o-gy.

The nations of antiquity did not have a
uniform system of chronology ; nor did they
entertain the same notions and feel the same
need of an exact and unvarying chronological
method as does the modern world. The As-
syrians and Babylonians ajipear to have been
confident of their ability to date events of re-
mote antiquity : but, so far as known, they did
not ha^e an era serving as a fixed standard
from which to reckon all occurrences, but
named each year after a public official, and
kept a list of these annual eponyms. An
event having been dated by the eponymy in
whicli it happened, its remoteness was readily
ascertained by counting on the list or canon
the number of eponyms that had intervened.
In Babylonia, Assyria, Palestine, and Egypt,
documents were frequently dated by the reg-
nal year of the reigning monarch. Unfortu-
nately the scribes did not always reckon uni-
formly; but under the same king some re-
garded the accession year as the first regnal
year, while others considered the civil twelve-
month which followed the accession as the
first year of the reign. Furthenuore, a son
was not infrequently associated with his
father on the throne, and some scribes treated
the first year of a.ssociation with the father,
and others the first year of sole reign, as the
first regnal year. The deficient sense of
chronology, estimated by modern concep-
tions, is seen in the fact that Josephus deter-
mines the duration of the kingdom of Israel
by simply adding together the number of
years that each king ruled, regardless of the
fact that the reigns regularly overlapped one
year, since the death of a king and the ac-
ces.sion of his successor fell in the same year,
and this year was apt to be reckoned to both
reigns. Pursuing this method, he states that

Chronology

126

Chronology

the kingdom of Israel lasted 240 years, 7
months, and 7 days (Antlq. ix. 14, 1) ; yet by
other calculations, which he makes on the
basis of the reigns of the kings of Judah, he
implies that the period was 263 years (e. g.
Antiq. x. 8, 5 with viii. 7, 8 and x. 9, 7). The
same lack of a nice chronological sense ap-
pears in the fact that Josephus estimates the
number of years that elapsed from the ex-
odus to the founding of the temple at 592
(Antiq. viii. 3, 1), at other times at 612 (xx.
10 ; con. Apion. ii. 2), the Hebrew writer at
480 (1 Kin. vi. 1), and Paul apparently at
about 574 (Acts xiii. 18-21 and 1 Kin. ii. 11 ;
vi. 1). These diverse statements appear con-
tradictory to the modern reader who lacks
the historic sense and cannot divest himself
of modern chronological conceptions ; but
they are accurate in the sense in which they
were intended, and in which they were un-
derstood.

The era, as it is used in modern chronology,
came into use at a comparatively late date.
The exodus from Egypt served the Hebrews
for a brief time as a point from which to
reckon (Ex. xvi. 1 ; Num. is. 1 ; x. 11 ; xxxiii.
38). The Eomans dated all documents by
the name of the consul in office, and later
they added the regnal year of the emperor.
Their historians began to date from the foun-
dation of the city, A. u. c, but the custom
did not arise until some centuries after the
event. Varro's date for the founding of the
city, 753 B. c, is generally accepted as the
commencement of this era. The Greeks
reckoned by periods of four years called
Olympiads. The first began in 776 b. c, the
year in which Coroebus was victor in the
Olympic games. The Syrians used the Se-
leucidan era, beginning with October 312
B. c. It was used by the Jews in Maccabsean
times (1 Mac. i. 10). The Mohammedans date
from the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from
Mecca, in a. d. 622. The Jews use a world's
era, dating from the creation, which they
place in the year 3760-61 b. c. Christian
nations have adopted the birth of Christ as
an era. At the beginning of the sixth cen-
tury, the Eoman abbot Dionysius in his
Easter tables counted from the incarnation
of the Lord. The abbot erred in his calcula-
tion of the date of Christ's birth, but the
year which he fixed upon, A. u. c. 754, has
been accepted as the commencement of the
Christian era. The Christian era began, not
with no year, but with a first year. Events
which occurred within the civil year which
included Christ's birth are dated in the first
year.

Dates were placed in the margin of A. V.
in 1701. They represent the chronological
scheme of Usher, archbishop of Armagh,
which he published in his Annales Veteris et
Novi Testamenti in 1650-54. His work was
careful and scholarly, and served a useful
purpose for two centuries and a half. But
it is inaccurate and obsolete. It gives only

one of several possible arrangements. It is
based in critical points on Usher's private in-
terpretation of disputed passages, in some of
which he clearly erred, as has been proved in
recent years. His system was worked out
from the standpoint of modern chronologica.1
conceptions, and fails to do justice to the
diti'erent notions which prevailed in an-
tiquity. It was constructed without the in-
valuable aid of data which have been brought
to light by modern research. But although
Usher's system is obsolete, it cannot as yet be
superseded by a complete and final scheme.
A few dates are fixed, and the chronology of
certain periods is established. Other dates
are still under investigation or are awaiting
disclosure from undiscovered ancient records.
Much is tentative.

Feom the Creation of the World to
THE Birth of Abraham.

The data are furnished by the Hebrew
records in Gen. v. 1-32 ; vii. 11 ; xi. 10-26.
There are several possible methods of inter-
preting them, among which may be men-
tioned :

I. The genealogy was constructed by the
ancient writers in the same manner that it
would be framed by people of the present
day.

Adam having lived 130 years,

begat

Seth, who " '

105

'

Enosb, " " <

90

'

Kenan, << " '

70

Mahalalel, " " "

65

'

Jared, " << <

162

'

Enoch, '< " '

65

'

Methuselah," " '

187

'

Lamech, <■ " '

182 "

Noah, in whose

600th yeai

the flood

From the creation to

came.

the flood.

1656 ye

ars.

Noah having lived 500 years, begat

Shem, who " "100 " ''

Arpachshad" " " 35 " "

Shelah, " " " 30 "
Eber, " " " 34 "

Peleg, " " " 30 " "

Eeu, " " " 32 "

Serug, " " " 30 "

Nahor, " " " 29 " "

Terah, " " " 70 "

Abram. Nahor, and
Haran, 890 years after birth

of Noah.
290 " after the

flood.
1946 " after the

creation.

The two years of Gen. xi. 10 are added to
this result by Usher, according to whom
Terah begat his sons 1948 years after the
creation. On this interpretation Shem was
not the eldest son of Noah, as is generally be-

Chronology

127

Chronology

lieved, born when his father was 500 yoai-s old
(Geu. V. 32). But xi. 10 has another exphina-
tiou. Interpreting the data of the genealogy
as before, Noah having lived 500 years begat
Shem, who having lived 100 years, begat
Arpachshad. Arpachshad was thus born in
the GOlst year of Noah's life. He was born
in the second civil year after the flood year,
counting it the first. The flood year was the
600th of Noah's life (vii. 6, 11). the flood
itself prevailing during five mouths of that
year. Noah lived 350 full years after the
flood year, counting it the first (ix. 28). In
the flood year he was 599 years and some
months old. As he lived 350 years longer, he
died when he was 949 years and some months
old, in the 950th year of his age (ix. 29). There
are discrepancies between the Hebrew, the
Septuauint, and the Samaritan Pentateuch.
The Hebrew text is evidently the most ac-
curate one with respect to dates. The Sep-
tuagint, probably on the ground that the long-
lived antediluvians were not likely to beget
a sou while they were less than 150 years old,
took the liberty of adding a century to the
Hebrew date, where it was said that they
had done so, as in the case of Adam, Seth,
Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch. The
minor variations are that to Lamech the
Alexandrian text and Lucian assign 188 +
565 = 753 vears ; and Lucian divides Methu-
selah's life into 167 + 802 = 969 years. The
Samaritan Pentateuch, on the contrary, ap-
parently on the ground that an antediluvian
was not likely to have lived 150 years with-
out begetting his first son, finding by the He-
brew text that Jared did so at 162, Methuse-
lah at 187 {according to Lucian at 167), and
Lamech at 182, cut the figures down to 62, 67,
and 53. This reduced the total length of their
lives, whereas the Septuagint had carefully
balanced its additions to the first part of the
lives by corresponding subtractions from the
later part, so that the total length of each life
was the same in that version as in the He-
brew original, except in the case of Lamech.
Similarly, in the case of the postdiluvian pa-
triarchs who preceded Abraham, the Septua-
gint hesitates to allow them to beget a son till
they are 100 years old. It adds 100 years to
the ages at which sons were begotten by
Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and
Serug, and 50 (Alexandrian manuscript and
Lucian) to the time of life when Nahor begat
Terah. After Arjmchshad it inserts Kenan,
and states that he begat Shelah when 1.30
years old. The Samaritan Pentateuch allows
them to beget a son after 50 ; and in the case
of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and
Serug adds 100 years to the age assigned by
the Hebrew text, and 50 years in the case of
Nahor.

II. Many links are omitted. As in other
Hebrew genealogies, each member is said to
have begotten his successor, although the
latter may be a grandson or even remoter
descendant; as in the royal genealogy given

in Matthew, the three kings Ahaziah, Joash,
and Amaziah are passed over and Joram is
said to have begotten Uzziah, his great-great-
grandson (i. 8, R. v.). Only prominent mem-
bers of the line are enumerated, or else, as an
aid to memory, a definite number is chosen ;
in Matthew groups of twice seven, in Genesis
groups of ten.

Adam, at the age of 130 begat
Seth, who at the age of 105 begat

Ancestor of Enosh or Enosh himself.
Enosh, at the age of 90 l)egat

Ancestor of Kenan or Kenan himself.
Kenan, at the age of 70 begat

Ancestor of Mahalalel or Mahalalel him-
self.

According to this theory, the Hebrew records
aflbrd no basis for a chronology from Adam
to Abraham. It assumes, further, that the
age assigned to the patriarchs is that of their
natural life. Adam lived 930 years. This
extraordinary longevity is accounted for by
the fact that sin, which has a physical effect
and works disease and death, had only be-
gun its malign influence on the race, and had
not reached its normal hereditary power.
The balance between man in a sinless state
and man in the condition of sinner had not
been attained.

III. The names denote an individual and
his family spoken of collectively ; as Israel
denotes a patriarch and his descendants, Kain
is used for the Kenites (Num. xxiv. 22, R. V.),
David for the royal house (1 Kin. xii. 16),
Sometimes the family takes its name from its
progenitor or later leading member of the
tribe ; sometimes the name of the tribe or
of the country it inhabits is applied to its
chief representative, as to-day men are con-
stantly addressed by their family name, and
nobles are called by the name of their duchy
or county. In Gen. x. the names in the gen-
ealogy are sometimes individuals, sometimes
peoples, sometimes cities, sometimes coun-
tries; and in the pedigree of Abraham given
in this chapter Arpachshad, whom Shem be-
gat (x. 22), is apparently a country whose in-
habitants were descendants of Shem, and this
country produced Shelah. The longevity is
the period during which the family had
prominence and leadership.

Adam, 1

F'amilvof Seth originated when Adam
was"l30 years old (v. 3). 130

Adam and his direct line were at the
head of affairs for 930 years (ver. 5),
when thev were superseded by
Family of Seth, 930

In Seth, 105 years after it attained
headship, the family of Enosh took
its rise (ver. 6). 1035

After being at the head of affairs for
912 years (ver. 8), Seth was suc-
ceeded by

Chronology

128

Chronology

1842
1932

2747

6848

7030

7625

8125
8225

8227

Pamily of Eiiosh,

Niuety years after Euosh attained to
headship there spraug from it the
family of Kenau (ver. 9).
After Euosh had held the leadership
815 years longer (ver. 10), Euosh
gave place to
Family of Kenan,
Family of Lamech,

Family which took its name from Noah

originated,
Lamech is succeeded by
Family of Noah,

Shem, Ham, and Japheth born about
Flood,

Arpachshad originates.
The race of Shem, as distinct frbm the
other descendants of Noah, become
preeminent, 8575

Hence the years from the creation of Adam
to the flood were 8225, and from Adam to the
death of Terah may be 11,571. This outline
exhibits one application of the theory; but
it must he remembered that at different points
in the genealogy various interpretations are
possible, which must be subject to individual
preference until further data come to light.

From the Birth of Abraham to the
Exodus.

How long after the flood Abraham was
born cannot be determined from the biblical
record, not even by the flrst method enume-
rated above and employed by Usher in inter-
preting the genealogy from Adam to Abra-
ham, for the age of Terah at the birth of Ab-
raham is not so stated in Gen. xi. 26, 32 as to be
unquestionable ; see Abraham. According
to Usher, Abraham's birth occurred in 1996
B. c. The period from the birth of Abraham
to the descent into Egypt can be measured :

Birth of Abraham to

" " Isaac 100 years (Gen. xxi. 5).
" " Jacob 60 years (Gen. xxv. 26).
Jacob's age at de-
scent into Egypt 130 years (Gen. xlvii. 9).

290 years.
The sojourn of the children of Israel in
Egypt was 430 years (Ex. xii. 40, 41). But
from what initial date is this period reck-
oned ? From the covenant with Abraham
(Gen. XV.), when he was between 75 and 85
years old (xii. 4 ; xvi. 3), as Usher and many
others believe, or from the descent into
Egypt? Probably from the latter event;
see Egypt III. 3.

It is generally believed that Eamses II.
was the Pharaoh of the oppression, and one
of his successors, probably Mer-n-ptah (a name
more familiar in the form Meneptah), was
the Pharaoh of the exodus ; see Egypt III. 8.
The date of Eamses II. may be approxi-
mately fixed by the fact that Amen-hetep, or as
the Greeks pronounced the name, Amenophis
IV. of Egypt was a contemporary of Ashuru-

ballit of Assyria. Tukulti-adar, fifth in descent
from Ashuruballit, reigned, according to a
statement of Sennacherib, about 1300 B. c.
The fifth or sixth king on the throne of Egypt
after Amenophis IV. was Ramses II., an indi-
cation that Ramses II. reigned about 1300 B. c.
The date of Meneptah's reign was deter-
mined in the following manner : Menophres,
apparently Meneptah, is the king in whose
reign the Sothic period of 1460 years is said
to have begun. According to Theon the as-
tronomer, the Sothic period ended in A. D.
139. It began, therefore, in 1321 B. c. Hence
Meneptah's reign included the year 1321.
On the basis oi" these calculations for the date
of the reigns of Ramses II. and Meneptah,
the exodus has been provisionally fixed at
about 1320. This date will be lowered about
forty years if Dr. Mahler, astronomer at
Vienna, proves to be correct in his opinion,
founded on astronomical data, that Ramses
II. reigned from 1348 to 1281 b. c.

From the Exodus to the Foundation
OF Solomon's Temple.

This interval was doubtless reckoned as
twelve periods of forty years each (1 Kin.
vi. 1), of which the first covered the sojourn
in the wilderness (Ex. xvi. 35 ; Num. xiv. 33),
six certainly, and probably eight, were al-
lowed for the time of the judges proper, the
oppression and rest being frequently included
in the statement (Judg. iii. 11, 30 — double
period ; v. 31 ; viii. 28 ; xiii. 1 ; and prob-
ably X. 1-4 and xii. 7-14), the high xiriest-
hood of Eli counted as one (1 Sam. iv. 18),
Saul's reign probal)ly as another (Acts xiii.
21), while David's reign made the twelfth
(1 Kin. ii. 11). But the forty years are a
round number, and not always exact. The
periods enumerated were sometimes in whole
or in part contemporary ; see Judges. Jeph-
thah speaks of the Israelites having occupied
the country about Heshbon for 300 yeai-s
(Judg. xi. 26), some seven periods of forty
years. Josephus, reckoning in a diflerent man-
ner, estimates the time from the exodus to the
temple at 592 or 612 years (Antiq. viii. 3, 1 ;
XX. 10), while Paul, according to the received
text, refers to the period of the judges as
lasting about. 450 years (Acts xiii. 20). As
already pointed out, these diverse results do
not contradict each other, although they do
not agree. The variations are due to the
difi'ereut methods employed in calculating.
The sum was not supposed to represent the
exact duration of the period, as would a
modern chronological statement. The length
of the period cannot be given in modern
terms until new data come to light.

From the Found.vtion of the Temple to
THE Exile and Return.

The temple was founded in the fourth year
of Solomon (1 Kin. vi. 1). Solomon reigned
forty years, and was succeeded by Rehoboam,

Chronology

129

Chronology

ou whose ascensiou of the throne the teu
tribes revolted. The data obtained from both
Hebrew and foreign sources may be arranged
according to the following scheme. For dis-
cussion of the details, see the articles in this
Manual which are devoted to the several
kings, and a brief monograph on the chronol-
ogy by Prof. Davis in the Piesbyteridii and Re-
formed Kevieir, l.s91. pp. 98-114. In general it
may be remarked that this scheme recognizes
the existence of co-reigns. They were com-
mon in the neighboring monarchies, and are
proven in individual cases for the Hebrews.
David when incajiacitated by age for govern-
ment, and in danger of having his throne
usurped, had Solomon made king (1 Kin. i.).
When Uzziah was compelled to seclude him-
self because he had become a leper, Jotham
assumed the duties of royalty (2 Kin. xv. 5).
The scheme further recognizes that among the
Hebrews, as among neighboring nations, no
fixed rule existed as to whether the acces.siou
year of a king or the civil year which fol-
lowed should be counted as the first regnal
year. Some recorders followed one method,
others another. Examples might be multi-
plied ; one will suffice. In Ptolemy's canon

1 K. 14 : 21. Rehoboam. i

2

2 C. 11 : 17. Three years' godliness. 3

4
1 K. 14 : 25. Shishak's invasion. 5

6

604, the civil year following accession is
treated as the first regnal year. So it is by
Josephus also, and likewise in the record
whence Jer. Hi. 28-30 is taken. On the other
hand Jeremiah himself and Daniel and Pales-
tinian writers of their day generally num-
bered the accession year of Nebuchadnezzar
his first year, synchronizing Jehoiakim 4
with Nebuchadnezzar 1, and Zedekiah 11 with
Nebuchadnezzar 19. It will be oli.served,
finally, that two events, the slaughter of
Ahaziah of Judah and Jehoram of Israel by
Jehu and the fall of Samaria, divide the his-
tory of the divided monarchy into three
])eriods, each chronologically complete in
itself. The dates of these two events are
established. The chronology, therefore, of
each of these periods must be settled by
itself. Ditliculties whicli arise in matters
of adjustment atiect only their own period,
not the others.

This scheme is not offered as final in every
particular. Slightly different arrangements
of the data are possible at several points : for
exam])le, in the matter of Athaliah's usurpa-
tion. Such minor modifications, however, do
not affect the chrouologv as a whole.

1 Jeroboam.

2
3
4
5
6

1 K. 14 : 20.

IK 15

2 C. 13

1 K. 15 : 9, 10.

2 C. 14 : 1.

2 C. 14 : 9-15.

2 C. 15 : 10
15:19)*
16: 1-2/

17 915 17

Abijam. 1 18

2 19

Asa ascends throne . . . ^ 20

1st regnal year. ( 1 21

I 2 12- Nadab. 1 Kin. 15 : 25.

Land quiet ten years. \ ^ • ■ g„,- " ' ' ?, ^aasha. 1 K. 15 : 28-33.

[ 10 8

f 11 9

War with Zerah be- I 12 .900 10

tween years 11 and 14 ] 13 11

t 14 12

Reformation. 15 13

Buys aid of Benhadad 16 14

against Baasha.

25 887 23

26 1 2< . Elah. 1 K. 16 : 8.

27 Vf. . . Zimri (7 days). IK. 16:10,15.

28 2 Omri. 1 K. 16 : 15, 16.

29 3

30 4
31 5

LXX.1K.16:28.
2 C. 16 : 12.

36

876

10

Omri prevails and reigns with un-
disputed authority. 1 K. 16 : 22, 23.

Jehoshaphat associated. 1 11

2-38 12.

Asa diseased 3 39

4 40

1 Abab.

fLXX IK. 16: 29.
t Heb. do.

♦The dates 35 and 36 given in these verses in the Hebrew text were explained by the older
commentators as reckoned from the commencement of the kingdom of Judah. The immbers are
then correct. Modern interpreters generally regard the Hebrew text as corrupt, and read 15 or 25
and 16 or 26 for 35 and .36 respectively. They are'doubtless ripht in doing so : for the text of Chron-
icles has not been transmitted as carefully as it should have been, and the phrase " year of Asa "
•or other king always refers to his regnal year, and Baasha was dead before the 3.3th and 36th years
of Asa.

Chronology

130

Chronology

IK. 22:41,42.

2 K. 8 : 25, 26.
2 C. 22 : 1.

Jehoshaphat. 5 41

1st vear of sole reign. 1
2

Marries his first-born ( 3
Jehoram to daugh-- 4
ter of Aliab. ( 5

870

Jehoram associated.

19

20

1 21

Ahaziah. l K. 22 : 51.

Ahab and Benhadad defeated by
Shalmaneser near Hamath. Ob. 54.

2 K. 8:16,17.

2 C. 21 : 18, 19.
2 K. 9 : jy.
2 K. 8 : 25, 26.

2 K. 11 : 1-3.

Jehoram sole king.

2..18

3 19

4 20

5 21

1 .

4

5
Sorely disea.sed, hence 6
Ahaziah made regent. . . 7
Ahaziah, king. . . 8

Slain by Jehu.
Joash, sole surviving heir
and legitimate king.
In concealment torsi.\;
years from Athaliah,
who usurped the
power.

2 K. 11 : 4 ; 12 : 1. Placed on throne and
Athaliah slain.

850

840

Jehoram.

War with Moab.

2 K. 1:17; 3:1.
2 K. 3: 4seq.

Shalmaneserat war with Benhadad.
Shalmaneserat war with Benhadad.
Benhadad besieges Samaria.

2 K. 6 : 24.

Shalmaneser at war with Benhadad.

Benhadad murdered and succeeded
by Hazael between 845-3.

Jehoram slain by Jehu.
Jehu seizes the throne.

Jehu and Hazael pay tribute to
Shalmaneser. III. K. 5, No. 6, 40-65.

Shalmaneser at war
with Hazael.

Obelisk 102.

2 K. 12 : 6.

2 K. 12 : 17

2 Chron. 24 : 25.

Ant. ix. 9 : 3.

2K.
2K.

2 K. 14 : 17.
2 K. 14 : 19.

2 K. 14 : 22.
2 K. 15 : 1.

2 K. 15 : 5.

Kenewed attempt to re- 23
pair temple.

28
Hazael against <";ath
and.lerusalem. When
he ili'iiarts.he leaves
Joash sorely diseased. 37 .
Amaziah accordingly 1 ,
undertakes the govern-
ment. 2

Joash slain and Ama- (40) 3
ziah sole king.

Defeated and his cap-
ital taken by Je-
hoash.

Conspired against.
Uzziah <>r Azariah pro-
claimed by populace.

On account of Jehu's increasing
age and incapacity for war,
.... 21 1 Jehoahaz associated. Antiq. ix. 8, 5,
820 2 and 2 K. 13 : 10, correcting ver. 1.

3 Hazael against Israel. 2 K. 10 : 32.

1

Amaziah survives Je-

hoash 15 years.
Amaziah slain and Uz- (29) 11

ziah supreme. 12

Builds Elath after

death of Amaziah.
In special sense

" reigns."

Becomes leprous.

(28

803

791 15

775

•>7

25

28

36
37

750

39
40

Jehoahaz alone. 2 K. 10 : 36.

Hazael continues to
oppress Israel all the
days of Jehoahaz. 2 K. 13 : 3, 22.
Jehoash. 2 K. is : lo.

[Bin-addn]-mari, king of Damascus,
besieged by Kamman-nirari.

Moabites invade Israel. 2 K. 13 : 20.
Jehoash victorious over
Benhadad. 2 K. 13 : 25.

Jeroboam ascends.
1st regnal year.

2 K. 11 : 23.

Ant. ix. 10, 3-

Earthquake hereabouts.

Chronology

131

Chronology

2 K. 15 : 32, 33. Jotham.

2 K. lv> : 32.
2K. 16: 1,2.

2K. 18:1,2.
Ant. ix. 13, 1.

2 K. 18 : 9 : 1
Ant. ix. 14, 1. J

2 K. 18 : 10.

2K. 18: 13; 1
2C. 32: 1-8;^
Is. 36 : 1. )
2 K. 20 : 1-6 ; 1
Is. 38 : 1-8. J

2 K. 20 : 12.
Is. 39 : 1.

Is. 20 : 1.

1 38| . .

2 (39) I ■. '.

Ahaz associated.

Uzziah dies and
Jotliam sncceeds.
Ahaz alone.

Hezekiah ascends.
1st regnal year.
Ahaz dies."
Hezekiah sole king.

3
4
5

9
10
11
12

13 (50)
14

15 (52)

■«}.

740

9
10
11

12 . (20)

30

Sennacherib invades
Judah.

Hezekiah sick.

Receives embassy from
Merodach-baladan
about this date.

Sargon against Ashdod.

720

715

713
712

711
710

2K.

18

14 seq.

Besieged by Senna-

27

701

cherib.

28
29

700
699

Dies and ~)

2K.

21

1.

Manasseh ascends V
throne. J

698

1st year.

1
2

697
696

2K.

19

37.

18
30

680
668

2C.

11.

Carried in chains to
Babylon by the As-
•syrians, probably at
this time.

Dies and \
Amon ascends throne, j

5
55

648-7

643
642

2K.

21

19.

1st year.

1
2

641
640

. 1

13

14 3

15 1 4

16 2 5
3 6
4 7

5 8

6 . . 722 . . 9

7 721

Contemporary with Jotliam.

1 (;. 5 : 17.
Zechariali. 2 K. 15 : 8.

Shallum. 2 K. 15 : 13.

Menahem ascends. 2 K. 15 : 17.

1st regnal year.

Pul, i. e. Tiglath-pilescr, ascends

throne of Assyria.
.\zariah of Judah mentioned by

Tighith-pileser about this time.

Menahem ])avs tribute to Pul.

2 K. 1.') : 19.
PekaMah. 2 K. 15 : 23.

Pekah. 2 K. 15 : 27.*

Tiglath-pileser captures Gaza.

Tiglath-pileser against Damascus.
" " still against Damascus.
Receives tribute from Ahaz.
Hoshea. 2 K. 15 : 30.

2 K. 17 : 1.

Tiglath-pileser succeeded by Shal-
maneser.

Hoshea seeks an alliance with So
of Egypt. 2 K. 17 : 4.

Fall of Samaria.

1st year <if Sargon, who had as-
cended the throne of Assyria in
loth month of the preceding year.

Defeats Sibe, i. e. So, of Egj'pt.

Assyrian troops in Samaria and
Arabia. Tribute from Egypt.

Assyrian troops "subJuKatcd Ju-
dah," perhajis under command
of Sennacherib, probably end of
715 or beginning of 714. Nimr.
tablet.

Judah tributarv to Assyria (Octag.
Cyl. 32-35). "Merodach-baladan
incites neighboring nations
against Assyria.
Sargon against Ashdod,
Sargon dethrones Merodach-
baladan.
Sennacherib ascends throne of As-
syria.

Against Hezekiah and Jerusalem.

Esarhaddon.

Receives tribute from Manasseh
of Judah.

Ashurbanipal.

Captures Babylon and dethrones
its king, who had incited peoples
from Elam to the Mediterranean
to revolt against Assyria. Re-
ceives tribute from Manasseh of
Judah [about 647 (Schrader)].

* Usher and the older chronologists assumed that anarchy prevailed for several years between
the death of Pekah and the accession of Hoshea. Both the Hebrew and the Assyrian" records, how-
ever, clearly indicate that no interregnum occurred, but that Hoshea slew Pekah and succeeded
him on the throne. For the twenty years assigned to the reign of Pekah, see Pek.\h.

Clironology

132

Chronology

K.:

2 C. 34 : 3.

2 C. 34 : 3.
Jer. 1 : 1, 2.

Jer. 25 : 1, 3.

2 K. 23 : 29.
2 K. 23 : 31.
2 K. 23 : 36.

Jer. 25 : 1 ; 46
Ant. X. 6, 1.

Jer. 36 : 9.

Josiah.

Seeks Jehovah.

Ant. X
Dan. 2

10,3.
: 1.

2 K. 24 : 1.
Ant. X. 6, 1.

2K. 24:8-1-
2 C. 36 : 10.

2 K. 24 : 18.

Jer. 51 : 59.

2 K. 25 : 1.
Jer. 32 : 1.
2 K. 25 : 8, 9 ;
Ant. X. 8, 5;
C. Apion. i. 21.
Ezek. 33 : 21.

Jer. 44 : 30.

Jer. 52 : 30.
Ant. X. 9, 7.

2 K. 25 ; 27.

2 C. 36 : 22, 23.

Ezra. 3 ; 8.
C. Apion i. 21.

Begin.s to purge nation.
Jeremiah begins.

13th Josiah to 4th Je-
hoiakim inclusive =
23 years.

8hiin by Necho.
Jehoahaz king 3 months.
Jehoiakim.

He and Necho subju-
gated by Nebuchad-
nezzar.

9th month, public fast.
Jeremiah's roll
burned.

Two years nfler the de-
struction of Egypt
Nebuchadnezzar
dreams.

Pays tribute to Neb.
three years.

Yields to Neb.
Jehoiachin, 3 montlis.
Goes captive to Baby-
lon toward close of
year.
Zedekiah.

Visits Babylon.

Jerusalem besieged.

Temple burned in 5th
month.

News reaches Ezekiel.

Hophra, i. e. Apries,
mentioned.

Captives carried to
Babylon 5th yr. after
destruction of Jeru-
salem = 23d Neb.

37th year of Jehoia-
chin's captivity.

Rebuilding of temple
authorized.

Reltuilding begun in]
2d month, having re-
mained waste for 50
years— I. e. 49 years
and 9 months.

1

639

2

638

8

632

12

628

13

627

14

626

15

625

30

610

31

609

I

608

1

2

607

3

606

4 .

605

5

604

6 .

. 603

601

598

597

594

589
588

587

,582

568

562
561

539
538

Nabopolassar.

Necbo. king of Egypt.

Nebuchadnezzar.

2d or 1st year.
3d or 2d year.

4th year.

8th or 7th year.

Psammetick II. of Egj-pt.

Apries, king of Egypt.
18th or 17th of Nebuchadnezzar.

19th or 18th of Nebuchadnezzar.

23d of Nebuchadnezzar.

Nebuchadnezzar invades Egypt in
37th year of his reign.

Evil-merodacli.

1st year.

Cyrus takes Babylon.
1st year.

2d year.

From the Return from Exile to the Birth of Christ.

Cyrus on throne of Babylon.

Judaoa under Persian rule.

Zerubbabel leads back 42,000 Jews to Jerusalem.
Foundation of the temple laid, but the work
is soon interrupted.

Haggai and Zechariah exhort the people to re-
sume work on the temple.

Temple completed in 12th month of 6th year,
in the early spring.

539

538
537

529
521

520

515

Cambyses.
Darius Hystaspis.

Clironology

133

Chronology

Ezra leads back 1755 Jews to Jerusalem.
Neheiiiiali sent by Artaxerxes to Jerusalem in

luiinth Nisan.
Kei>air (if city wall begun on 3d day of 5th

month, and" completed on 25th of Elul, the

fith month.
Nehemiah returns to the Persian court.

Alexander the Great visits Jerusalem, and is
met by the high priest Jaddua.

Judaea annexed to Egypt by Ptolemy Soter.
He ca|itnre.s Jerusalem and plants colonies in
Alexandria and Cvrene.

After the battle of Raphia, 217 B. c, Ptolemy
Philopator sacrifices at Jerusalem. Being pre-
vented from entering the holy of holies, he
attempts to destroy the Jews in Alexandria.

Antiochus takes Jerusalem.

Scopas recovers Juda-a for Egypt.
Judsea annexed to Syria, being finally wrested

by Antiochus from Egypt at the battle of Paneas.

The high priest Onias removed, and Jason of

the Grecian party put in office.
Antiochus takes Jerusalem, massacres citizens,

and defiles the temple.
Antiochus orders an idolatrous altar to be

erected on the temple altar and heathen

sacrifices to be offered.
The priest Mattathias raises the standard of

revolt.
Tlie Maccabees. Judas placed in command.
Defeats < ;nri;ias.
Defeats Lysias, and on 25th Chislev rededicates

the temple.

Falls in battle, and is succeeded by Jonathan.

Jonathan Maccabseus murdered by Tryphon,

and succeeded by Simon.
First year of the Freedom of Jerusalem and

of Simon, high priest and captain.

Simon murdered; succeeded by John Hyr-

canus.
Pompey takes Jerusalem.
Julius Csesar appoints Antipater procurator of

Judsea.

Assassination of Antipater,
Parthians take Jerusalem and place .vntigonus,
the Maccabee, on the throne. The Roman
senate, however, toward the end of the year
appoint Herod to be king of Judsea.
Herod takes Jerusalem, slays Antigonus. the
last of the Maccabaean priest-kings, and be-
comes king of Judsea.

490
486
480

479
465
459-8
445

434-33

424

359

338

336

334
333
332

331
330
323
320

312
223

203
199
198

175
174

170

168

166
165

162
160
1.50
146

143

142

138
135

63
47

44
43
40

37
31

Defeated by the Greeks at Marathon.
Xerxes, called by the Jews Ahasuerus.
Persians victorious alTherraopyla,', but

(U'rcateil at Salaniis.
Persians defeated at Plata-a.

Artaxerxes Longimanus.

Darius Nothus.

Ochus.

Arses or Amgus.

Darius Codomannus.

Alexander ascends throne of Macedon.
Alexander victorious at the (iranicus.
" " " Issus.

Alexander defeats Darius at Arbela.
Darius assassinated.
Death of Alexander.

Seleucus founds the kingdom of the

Seleucidte.
Antioclius tbe Great.

Antiochus Epiphaues.

Death of Antiochus and accession of
Antiochus Eupator.
Demetrius I.

Alexander Balas.

Antiochus VI. ascends the throne with
the aid of his general Tryphon. De-
metrius 11. his rival.

Murder of Antiochus.
Antiochus VII. regent until 128.

Assassination of Julius Caesar.

Augustus becomes Roman emperor.

Chrysolite

134

Chrysoprase

Rebuilding of the temple begun.
Uirth of Jesus Christ. Close of

or beginning of
Death of Herod and division of the kingdom

among liis tliree sons, Archelaus receiving

Judsea.

Fkom the Death of Herod to the Destruction of Jerusalem.

The chronology of the life of Christ and of Paul is treated under the respective articles,
chronology of Paul's life hinges on the date of Festus' appointment to the procuratorship.

B. c.
On the death of Herod the Great his kingdom is 4

<livided among his three sons: Archelaus be-

omes king of Judfea ; Herod Antipas, tetrarch

of Galilee and Peraa; Philip, tetrarch of

Itursea and Trachonitis. A. D.

Deposition of Archelaus; Judfea and Samaria 6

incorporated with the province of Syria, and

placed under procurators. Coponius pro-
curator.
Marcus Ambivius procurator. 10

The

Valerius Gratus fourth procurator.

Pontius Pilate procurator.

Jesus begins his public ministry (Luke iii. 1, 23;
op. John ii. 20) probably early" in

Death of Philip the tetrarch. His tetrarchy is
annexed to Syria.

Pontius Pilate deposed by Vitellius, governor of
Syria, and sent to Rome.

Herod Antipas attends Passover at Jerusalem;
Caligula appoints Herod Agrippa to be king
of the tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias, and
sends MaruUus to be procurator.

Herod Antipas banished to Gaul, and his tet-
rarchy given to Icing Herod Agrippa.

Claudius makes Herod Agrippa king of Judsea
and Samaria.

Death of Herod Agrippa. Judfea again placed
under procurators. Cuspius Fadus procurator.

Tiberius Alexander, renegade Jew of Alexan-
dria, procurator.

Ventiiiius (yumanusprocurator, probably jointly
with Felix.

Antonius Felix procurator.

46

52

or, as some believe, 13. Tiberius asso-
ciated with Augustus, receiving from
the senate imperium proconsulare in all
provinces.

Augustus dies Aug. 19th, and Tiberius is
emperor.

Tiberius smothered March 16th, and
Caligula is emperor.

Caligula assassinated Jan. 24th,
Claudius becomes emperor.

and

Porcius Festus succeeds Felix; but if the pro- 59 or 60
curatorship of Felix be reckoned from a. d. 48,
it is possible to date Festus' appointment in 55
or 56.

Albinus procurator.

Ge.ssius Florus procurator.

Outbreak of the Jewish war.

62
64
66
68

69

Destruction of Jerusalem.

Ohrys'o-lite, iu A. V. Chrysolyte [Greek,
gold stonel.

A unisilicate mineral consisting mainly of
magnesia and silica. There are two varieties
of it, one precious, the other common. The
former, which is transparent and of a piile
yellowish-green, is brought from the Levant.
It is disputed whether the chry.solite of Pliny
and of tlie N. T. was a gold-colored chryso-
lite or a topaz. It constitutes the seventh

Claudius expels the Jews and sorcerers

and astrologers from Rome.
Claudius dies of poison Oct. 13th, and

Nero becomes emperor.

Persecutions under Nero begin.

Nero ends his life. Galba and Otho
become emperors successively and die
violent deaths.

Vitellius obtains the empire and is
slain.

Vespasian becomes emperor.

foundation of the New Jerusalem (Eev. xxi.
20).

Chrys'o-prase, in A. V. Chrysoprasus
[Greek, golden-green stone].

A variety of chalcedony of an apple-green
hue, the color being produced by the pres-
ence of oxide of nickel. Its best-known lo-
cality is in Silesia. It constitutes the tenth
foundation of the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi.
20).

Chub

135

Circumcision

Chub. See Cub.
Chun. See Berothai.

Church [probablj-from Greek, kmnakon, the
Lord's liousc].

The reudering in the N. T. of the Greek
Ekklesia, which in the states of Greece
meant the assembly of citizens summoned
for legislative or other purposes (Acts xix.
3"2, 41, rendered asi^enibly). The sacred wri-
ters use the word ckklcsia to denote an organ-
ized comnuinity acknowledging the Lord
Jesus Christ as their supreme ruler, and
meeting statedly or as opportunities otler for
religious worship (Mat. xvi. 18; xviii. 17;
Acts ii. 47; v. 11; Eph. v. 23, 25). As fol-
lowers of Jesus arose in many different cities,
the plural "churches" began to be em-
ployed, the Christian community in each
separate locality being considered a church
(Acts ix. 31 ; xv. 41 ; Rom. xvi. 4 ; 1 Cor. vii.
17; 1 Thes. ii. 14). Church is nowhere un-
equivocally used in the N. T. for the build-
ing in which any particular Christian com-
munity met. The Protestant doctrine of the
church is that the church may exist without
a visible form, because it is both invisible
and visible. The invisible church is com-
posed of all who are really united to Christ
(1 Cor. i. 2 ; xii. 12, 13, 27, 28 ; Col. i. 24 : 1
Pet. ii. 9, 10). It is not an external organ-
ization. Its members are known to God,
though they cannot always be infallibly de-
tected by the human eye, and many of them
are in heaven or are yet to be born. The
visible church consists of all who profess to
be united to Christ.

The apostles occupied a peculiar position
of authority (Acts v. 2 ; vi. 6 ; 1 Cor. xii. 28 ;
Eph. ii. 20 ; 2 Pet. iii. 2) ; but they were not
the sole governing body, the elders or bishops
also exercised rule (Acts xv. 2, 4, 6, 22, 23 ;
1 Tim. iv. 14 ; V. 17 ; 1 Pet. v. 1). The officers
of the local churches were elders or bishops
and deacons (Acts vi. 3 ; xiv. 23 ; xx. 17 ; 1
Tim. iii. 1, 8 ; Titus i. 5-9). The apostles
sometimes appointed commissioners for spe-
cial work (1 Tim. i. 3 ; Titus i. 5).

The public worship of the church was en-
grafted upon the synagogue service. It con-
sisted of preaching (Mat. xxviii. 20 ; Acts
XX. 7; 1 Cor. xiv. 19, 26-36), reading of
Scripture (Jas. i. 22 ; Col. iv. 16 ; 1 Thes. v.
27 ; cp. Acts xiii. 15), prayer (1 Cor. xiv. 14,
16). singing (Eph. v. 19; Col. iii. 16; and cp.
the hymns Eph. v. 14 ; 1 Tim. iii. 16), admin-
istration of the sacraments of baptism and
the Lord's Supper (Mat. xxviii. 19; Acts ii.
41 ; 1 Cor. xi. 18-34), and almsgiving (1 Cor.
xvi. 1, 2). When the spiritual gift was pres-
ent, there were alsoprophesyingsand tongues.

Chu'shan-rish-a-tha'im. See Cushan-

RISHATHAIM.

Chu'za [perhaps Aramaic knza', modest, or
jug].
Herod the tetrarch's steward, whose wife

Joanna ministered to the wants of Jesus
(Luke viii. 3).

Ci-li'ci-a.

A province of Asia Minor, separated on
the north by the Taurus mountains from
Cappadocia, Lycaouia, and Isauria, and on
the east by mount Auianus from Syria ;
bounded on the south by the Mediterranean,
and on the west by Pamphylia. It was an-
ciently divided into two portions, the western
one, which was mountainous, called the
Rough, and the eastern one, which was level,
the Plain Cilicia. The chief town in the lat-
ter was Tarsus, the birthplace of St. Paul
(Acts xxi. 39; xxii. 3; xxiii. 34). Cilicia
formed part of the kingdom of Syria ; and
when in 148-7 B. c. Demetrius II. landed on
its shores and set himself up for king of
Syria, the bulk of its inhabitants supported
him (1 Mac. xi. 14; Antiq. xiii. 4, 3). Jews
from Cilicia disputed with Stephen (Acts vi.
9). The gospel reached it very early (xv.
2i3), planted apparently by Paul (ix. 30; Gal.
i. 21). Afterwards, passing through it, he con-
firmed the churches which had been founded
(Acts XV. 41). Subsequently on his voyage as
a prisoner to Rome he sailed over the sea of
Cilicia (sxvii. 5).

Cin'na-mon.

A fragrant wood (Song iv. 14 ; Rev. xviii. 13).
It was an ingredient in the sacred anointing
oil used in the consecration of Aaron and his
successors (Ex. xxx. 23). It was used in after
times to perfume beds (Prov. vii. 17). It is
the aromatic bark of a tree, Cinnamomum sey-
lanicum, belonging to the laurel order, and
cultivated in Ceylon, of which it is a native.
The bark of the tree yields an essential oil,
which is obtained from it by distillation. It
is of a golden-yellow color, has an agreeable
smell, and is used in perfumery. The tree
has been grown in Arabia.

Cin'ne-roth. See Chinnereth.

Cir-cum-cis'ion [a cutting around].

The initiatory rite into the covenant priv-
ileges of the family of God rci)resented by
Abraham and his descendants through Isaac,
and the token of the covenant (Gen. xvii. 1-
10, 21). As a rite of the religion of this
people, it was instituted by God and en-
joined upon Abraham, who was himself
to be circumcised, as were all his male
children and his male slaves, whether born
in his house or bought with money. The
act consists in removing the foreskin, and it
was performed on the child by the father of
the house or some other Israelite, and even
by the mother (Ex. iv. 25 ; 1 Mac. i. 60). The
proper time to carry out the rite was when
the child was eight days old, but those born
before the institution of the ordinance were
to be circumcised at any time of life. Abra-
ham was circumcised when be was 99. and
Ishmael when 13 (Gen. xvii. 11-27). The rite
was observed during the bondage in Egypt,
but was neglected in the wilderness. Before

Cis

136

City of Refuge

the entry into Canaan, however, Joshua made
knives of flint and circumcised the people
(Josh. V. 2-9). By this time metal was known,
but there is a strong conservatism in religion,
and antique arrangements tend to remain
after the necessity for them has passed away ;
so flint held its own against metal for cen-
turies after the time that the former might
have been superseded (cp. Ex. iv. 25). For-
eigners who wished to become members of
the commonwealth of Israel were required
to submit to the rite, whatever their age
might be (Gen. xxxiv. 14-17, 22 ; Ex. xii.
48). Shortly before the Christian era, the con-
quered Edomites and Iturseans were by force
added thus to the Jewish nation (Antiq. xiii.
9, 1 ; 11, 3). Though there were other circum-
cised nations as well as the Hebrews, espe-
cially the Egyptians (con. Apion. ii. 14 ; Herod,
ii. 104), and they as early as 3000 b. c, yet
the Philistines, the Phoenicians, the Moabites,
the Ammonites, the Syrians, the Assyrians,
the Babylonians, and various other national-
ities with whom the Jews were in contact
were uncircumcised ; so that the word " un-
circumcised," as a term of reproach, meant
almost practically (not etymologically) the
same as heathen (Gen. xxxiv. 14 ; Judg. xiv.
3 ; XV. 18 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 26, 36 ; xxxi. 4 ; 2
Sam. i. 20 ; 1 Chron. x. 4 ; Ezek. xxviii. 10 ;
xxxi. 18 ; xxxii. 19-32). "The circumcision,"
on the contrary, used in the N. T. meant the
Jewish church and nation (Gal. ii. 8; Col.
iv. 11). Circumcision was an act of religious
purification (Herod, ii. 37), and in its full sig-
nificance betokened the putting away of car-
nal lust (Col. ii. 11). To circumcise the heart
is so to regenerate it that its irreligious ob-
stinacy will disappear (Deut. x. 16), and it
will be able and willing to love God with all
its powers (xxx. 6). Circumcision is uni-
versal among the Mohammedans as well as
the Jews.

Cis. See Kish.

Cis 'tern.

A small artificial reservoir dug in the earth
and enclosed by stone or brick work, or
scooped in a rock to collect and retain rain
water (Deut. vi. 11 ; Jer. ii. 13). Cisterns
were very numerous in Palestine, as the
populace was largely dependent upon rain
water (cp. War iii. 7, 12, and 13 ; iv. 1, 8).
In the cities they were constructed on the
top of the towers of the city wall (War v. 4,
3). They were also excavated under the
houses and in the courtyards (cp. 2 Sam.
xvii. 18 ; Jer. xxxviii. 6), jirovided with
bucket and windlass (Ecc. xii. 6), and sup-
plied with water conducted to them from the
roof. In the open country the mouth is
closed with a large stone and frequently, es-
pecially in the wilderness, is covered with
earth to conceal it.

Cit'y.

In Hebrew usage, a collection of permanent
human habitations, whether few or numer-

ous, especially if surrounded by a wall (Gen.
iv. 17 ; xviii. 26 ; xix. 20 ; Num. xiii. 19 ;
Josh. iii. 16 ; x. 39 ; xiii. 17 ; Judg. xx. 15 ;
Luke ii. 4; xxiii. 51). Walled and unwalled
cities are distinguished (Deut. iii. 5 ; Esth.
ix. 19, Hebrew). Cities were built on hills
(Josh. xi. 3 ; 1 Kin. xvi. 24 ; Mat. v. 14 ;
War iii. 7, 7), where the situation rendered
defense easy ; and in fertile spots, where
water and soil invited man to dwell. They
were usually fenced with high walls, gates
and bars (Num. xiii. 28 ; Deut. iii. 5 ; Josh.
ii. 5, 15; vi. 5; Neh. iii. 3; Acts ix. 24, 25),
and further defended bv towers (Neh. iii. 1,
11, 25 ; War v. 4, 3). Walls of the thickness
of 20 to 30 feet were not unusual. The gate
was a massive structure, with a room over
the gateway (2 Sam. xviii. 33). In time
of need a guard was posted at the gate
(2. Kin. vii. 10 ; Neh. xiii. 19), and a watch-
man was stationed on the . roof of gate-
house or tower (2 Sam. xviii. 24 ; 2 Kin.
ix. 17 ; War v. 6, 3). In open places at the
gate public business was transacted, cases
at law adjudicated, and markets held (Gen.
xxiii. 10 ; Kuth iv. 1-11 ; 2 Sam. xv. 2 ; 1 Kin.
xxii. 10; 2 Kin. vii. 1; Neh. viii. 1). The
streets were as a rule narrow (Antiq. xx. 5,
3 ; War ii. 14, 9 ; 15, 5 ; v. 8, 1), but not
always (2 Sam. xv. 1 ; 1 Kin. i. 5 ; Jer. xvii.
25) ; and some streets were devoted to bazaars
(1 Kin. XX. 34 ; Neh. iii. 31 : Jer. xxxvii.
21).

Cit'y of Da'vid. See David, City of.

Cit'y of Refuge.

Six Levitical cities designed to shelter the
person who had accidentally committed man-
slaughter from the pursuit of the avenger
of blood (Num. xxxv. 9-14 ; Ex. xxi. 13) ;
see Avenger. Moses appointed the three
east of the Jordan : Bezer in the territory of
Eeuben. Ramoth-gilead in that of Gad, and
Golan in Bashan in the tribe of Manasseh
(Deut. iv. 41-43). After the conquest of
Canaan, Joshua and the heads of the tribes
designated the three west of the river, setting
apart Kedesh in the territory of Naphtali,
Shechem in Ephraim, and Kirjath-arba, which
is Hebron, in the mountain of Judah (Josh. xx.
7). No jiart of Palestine was far from a city
of refuge. To the nearest the manslayer fled.
He might be overtaken on the way and slam
by the avenger; but if he reached a city of
refuge he was received into it and obtained a
fair trial. If guilty of willful murder he was
delivered to death. If he had slain a fellow
creature by accident or in self-defense, actual
or constructive, he was granted asylum in
the city. If he left the city before the death
of the high priest he did so at his own risk.
On the death of the high priest he was at
liberty to return to his home and enjoy the
protection of the authorities (Num. xxxv. ;
Deut. xix. ; Josh. xx.). The matter was be-
tween man and God ; and the death of the
high priest, who represented the people be-

Clauda

137

Cloud

fore God, closed a period of theocratic life
(cp. the rokase at the year of jubilee).

Clau'da.

A small island off the southwest of Candia
or Crete. Paul's ship ran under its lee when
caufiht by the tempest off t'rote (Acts xxvii.
16). It was also called Cauda (K. V. text) and
Gaudos (Pliny, Hist. nat. iv. 42). The Greeks
still call it Claudancsa, or Gaudonesi, which
the Italians have corrupted into Gozzo.

Clau'di-a.

A Christian woman who joined Paul iu
sending a salutation to Timothy (2 Tim. iv.
21).

Clau'di-us. See Cjesar.

Clau'di-us Ly'si-as.

A (hiliarch or commander of 1000 men,
who seems to have been the military tribune
in charge of the whole garrison at Jerusalem.
Each legion had as its officers six such trib-
unes. He resided in the castle of Antonia.
and sent soldiers to deliver Paul from fanat-
ical Jewish rioters. Immediately afterwards
he was on the brink of committing the ille-
gality and injustice of having Paul scourged
without inquiring into his nationality. He
presently frustrated a conspiracy against the
apostle by sending him during the night un-
der a large escort to Caisarea with a letter to
Felix, the Eoman procurator (Acts sxii. 24-
xxiii. 35).

Clem'ent [kind, merciful].

A Christian who labored along with Paul,
apparently at Philippi (Phil. iv. 3). He may
have been the same individual as the apos-
tolic father, Clement of Kome.

Cle'o-pas.

One of the two disciples who journeyed to
and from Emmaus on the evening of the
Eesurrection day (Luke xxiv. 18). Appar-
ently not the same as Clopas or Cleophas,
though some Christian fathers, not of early
date, assumed the identity of the two.

Cle-o-pa'tra.

A name borne by many Egyptiau prin-
cesses. One was daughter of Ptolemy VI.
and wife of Alexander Balas (1 Mac. x. 57,
58). Her father afterwards took her from
Balas and married her to Demetrius Nicator
when he invaded Syria (xi. 12; Antiq. xiii.
4, 7). During the captivity of Demetrius in
Parthia, she married his brother Antiochus
VII. (Antiq. xiii. 7, 1 ; 9, 3 ; 10, 1). She had
two sons by Demetrius ; the elder she mur-
dered, and then raised to the throne the
younger, Antiochus VIII.. called Grypus.
As he was unwilling to gratify her ambitious
designs, she attempted to make away with
him by offering him a cup of poison, but was
compelled to drink it herself, 120 B. c.

Clo'pas, in A. V. Cle'o-plias. See Alph^us.

Cloth'ing.

Man at first went naked (Gen. ii. 25). The
first clothing consisted of the skins of beasts

(iii. 21). Subsequently the materials used for
clothing were wool (xxxi. 19; Lev. xiii. 47;
Job xxxi. 20), linen (Ex. ix. 31 ; Lev. xvi. 4),
byssus, a fabric made of cotton or flax (Gen.
xli. 42 ; Luke xvi. 19), silk (Ezek. xvi. 10,
13 ; Rev. xviii. 12), goats' hair (Kev. vi. 12),
and camels' hair (Mat. iii. 4). The essential
articles of the apparel of men and women
were two : 1 . An undergarment or tunic, com-
monly called coat, less frequently garment,
in the English versions. It usually had short
sleeves and reached nearly to the knees,
though a longer form with sleeves of full
length was in use (Gen. xxxvii. 3 ; 2 Sam.
xiii. 18, R. V. margin). This tunic was some-
times woven without seam (John xix. 23, 24).
It was confined at the waist by a girdle.
2. An upper garment or mantle (Ruth iii. 15,
R. v.; 1 Kin. xi. 30; Acts ix. 39), a large,
square piece of cloth, provided with tassels
(Num. XV. 38; Mat. xxiii. 5). It was thrown
over the left shoulder and brought over or
under the right arm. The pendant ends
were called skirts (Hag. ii. 12; Zech. viii.23).
The garment of hair worn by prophets (2
Kin. i. 8; Zech. xiii. 4) may have consisted
of a sheepskin or goatskin (cp. Heb. xi. 37),
but was more probably made of coarse cam-
el's hair (cp. Mat. iii. 4). An occasional gar-
ment was worn between the tunic and the
mantle by men and women of distinction
and officially by the high priest (Lev. viii. 7;
1 Sam. ii. 19 ; xviii. 4 ; xxiv. 4 ; 2 Sam. xiii.
18; 1 Chron. xv. 27 ; Job i. 20, margin). It
was a long vestment, with or without sleeves,
tied round with a girdle (Antiq. iii. 7, 4). The
girdles, which confined the undergarments at
the waist to prevent them as far as possible
from impeding the action of the limbs, were
made of leather, linen, or byssus (2 Kin. i. 8 ;
Jer. xiii. 1 ; Ezek. xvi. 10) ; often elaborately
wrought and richly decorated (Ex. xxviii.
39 ; XX xix. 29 ; Daii. x. 5 ; Rev. i. 13). The
sword was worn in the girdle and money was
carried there (Judg. iii. 16 ; 1 Sam. xxv.
13; Mat. x. 9, R. V. margin). When outside
of a room they wore sandals, an imperfect
shoe consisting of a sole of wood or leather
(Ezek. xvi. 10), fastened to the bare foot by
straps passing over the instep and around the
ankle (Gen. xiv. 23; Is. v. 27; Acts sii. 8).
Probably people commonly went bareheaded ;
still turbans were on occasion worn by both
sexes (Job. xxix. 14, R. V. margin ; Is. iii. 20;
Ezek. xxiii. 15). The veil was worn by women
in the presence of strangers (Gen. xxiv. 65 ;
Song V. 7) ; but it was not uncommon for them
to go with face unveiled (Gen. xxiv 15 ; xxvi.
8 ; Judith x. 7, 14). By the Mosaic law a
man was forbidden to wear a garment that
pertains to a woman, and a woman to wear
that belonging to a man (Dent. xxii. 5 ; cp. 1
Cor. xi. 6, 14).

Cloud.

As agents in connection with rain, clouds
are the bearers of moisture (2 Sam. xxii. 12 ;
Job xxvi. 8 ; xxxvii. 11 ; Ecc. xi. 3), and dis-

Cnidus

138

Colors

charge it upon the earth (Judg. v. 4 ; Ps.
Ixxvii. 17). A cloud iu the west was a har-
binger of rain (1 Kin. xviii. 44 ; Luke xii.
54).

The Pillar of Cloud was a miraculous cloud
taking the form of a pillar, which moved in
front of the Israelites in the wilderness to
indicate to them the way along which God
wished them to advance (Ex. xiii. 21, 22 ;
Neh. ix. 19). When the evening was too far
iidvaneed for it to be seen, it shone with light
as a pillar of fire. When God designed to
show his presence to the Israelites he did
it in the pillar of cloud (Num. xii. 5 ; Deut.
xxxi. 15), and when he designed to trouble
the Egyptians he looked at them with hos-
tile gaze through the pillar of cloud (Ex.
xiv. 24).

Cni'dus.

A city of Caria, on the southwest coast of
Asia Minor, over against the isle of Cos, which
is about 10 miles away. It was a Doi'ian col-
ony. Extenisive ruins exist at the spot, con-
taining fine remains of Grecian architecture.
A small island just off the coast, now joined
to the mainland, constitutes a peninsula called
■Cape Crio. Paul's vessel passed near it during
the voyage to Rome (Acts xxvii. 7).

Goal.

In Scripture this is not the mineral sub-
stance coal, but charcoal made by burning
wood. Hence we read of coals of juniper
(Ps. cxx. 4). It was used to furnish warmth
in winter (Is. xlvii. 14 ; John xviii. 18), for
culinary purposes (Is. xliv. 19 ; John xxi. 9),
and by the smith (Is. xliv. 12 ; liv. 16).

Coat. See Clothing and High Peiest.

Coat of Mail. See Armor.

Cock.

The male of the well-known domestic fowl
{jallus domesticufi. It is figured on the ancient
Egyptian monuments. The cock is mentioned
in the N. T. (Mat. xxvi. 34, 74. 75). Cock-
crowing, as a portion of time, is the third
watch of the night (Mark xiii. 35). See Night.

Cock'a-trice [Old French cocatriee, a cor-
ruption of Latin crocodilus, a crocodile].

A fabulous monster, created by the fancy
of Europeans, and reputed to be hatched from
a cock's egg brooded by a serpent. The A. V.
so renders the Hebrew word Siph'oni (Is.
xi. 8 ; lix. 5 ; Jer. viii. 17), and Sepha' (Is.
xiv. 29) ; but iu Prov. xxiii. 32 it translates
the word by adder. The E. Y. everywhere
alters it to basilisk, or in the margin to
adder.

Cock'le.

The rendering of the Hebrew Bo\ihah, mal-
odorous plant (Job xxxi. 40). But the cockle,
a plant which is found in grain fields and
grows one or two feet high, does not have a
bad smell. The margin has noLsome weeds,
which is a more exact rendering.

C(Bl'e-s3rr'i-a, in A. V. Celosyria [hollow
Syria].

The valley between the Lebanon and An-
ti-Lebanon mountains. It is watered by the
two streams Orontes and Litanj-, which rise
in the vicinity of Baalbek and flow in oppo-
site directions. The term had, however, a
wider application (1 Mac. x. 69). It included
the western side of tlie Jordan valley as far
as Bethshean (Antiq. xiii. 13, 2) and the re-
gion extending from Dama.scus southward
thnmgh Trachonitis, Persea, and Idnnijea to
the borders of Egypt (cp. Antiq. i. 11, 5). It
was distinct from Phoenicia (2 Mac. iii. 5).

Col-ho'zeh [all-seeing one].

Father of Shall un aud perhaps one with
the father of Baruch (Neh. iii. 15; xi. 5).

College.

A mistranslation of the Hebrew word Mish-
neh in A. V. of 2 Kin. xxii. 14, aud 2 Chron.
xxxiv. 22. The M'ord is correctly rendered
" the second [part] " in Zeph. i. 10. In these
passages R. V. has " the second quarter."

Col'o-ny.

A settlement of Roman citizens authorized
by the senate, in conquered territory. The
decree of the senate fixed the amount of land
to be set apart for the colony, the manner iu
which it was to be distributed, and the bur-
dens to be borne. Philippi was a colony
(Acts xvi. 12).

Col'ors.

Colors are presented to the eye by nature
(Esth. i. 6) and were early imitated. In
Babylonia different clays were employed to
produce orange, red, and yellow bricks.
Bricks of blue were obtained by vitrifaction.
The ancient Egyptians prepared colors from
various metallic and earthy substances. The
Hebrews dyed skins in various colors (Ex.
XXV. 5), and wove and embroidered cloth out
of threads of various hues (Ex. xxvii. 16;
Judith X. 21). A reddish purple dye (Ex.
xxvii. 16 ; 1 Mac. iv. 23 ; Acts xvi. 14) was ob-
tained from the secretion of a species of shell
fish, Mnrex trnnculus, found in the Mediter-
ranean. Blue (Num. iv. 7; Ezek. xxiii. 6)
was obtained from another shell fish. Helix
ianthina. Scarlet or crimson was made from
a worm (Ex. xxv. 4 ; Is. i. 18). They used
a vermilion pigment for decorating walls,
beams, idols, and the like (Jer. xxii. 14 ; Ezek.
xxiii. 14; Wisd. xiii. 14). In addition to
these artificial coloring matters, allusion is
made in the Bible to white (Gen. xlix. 12 ;
Is. i. 18), black, including brown (Gen. xxx.
32 ; Song i. 6 ; Mic. iii. 6, R. V.), red (Gen.
xxv. 25, 30 ; 2 Kin. iii. 22 ; Prov. xxiii. 31),
reddish (Lev. xiii. 19), sorrel (Zech. i. 8 ; in
A. V. speckled ; margin, bay), greenish (Ps.
Ixvii. 13 ; in Eng. vers, yellow ; Lev. xiii.
49).

Symbolism was connected with colors.
The temple of the seven lights at Borsippa,
in Babylonia, consisted of seven stages, each
colored in a hue appropriate to the planet it
represented. Beginning at the lowest stage,
the succession of colors was black, orange,

Colossae

139

Colossians

blood-red, gold, pale-yellow, blue, and prob-
ably silver, according with the planets Saturn,
Jupiter, Mars, the sun, ^'euus, Mercury, and
the moon. In the Scripture white is the con-
stant emblem of purity (Mark xvi. 5 ; Rev.
iii. 4 ; xix. 11, 14) and joy (Ecc. ix. 8). The
white horse signifies victory in Kev. vi. 2.
The black horse is typical of famine and
death (5, 6). Eed commonly tj-pifies blood,
in which is life, or war and carnage (4). Blue
is the familiar color of the sky, and purple
was worn by princes and the rich in their
magnificence (Judg. viii. 26 ; Esth. viii. 15 ;
Luke xvi. 19).

Co-los'sae, in A. V. Colosse.

A city of southwestern Phrygia, in Asia
Minor, lying on the river Lycos not far east
of its confluence with the Meander. It was
originally on the trade route from west to
east and was a place of much importance
(Herod, vii. 30; Xen. Anabasis I. ii. 6). But
the road system was changed, and the neigh-
boring cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col.

Co-los'si-ans, E-pis'tle to the.

An epistle written when the apostle Paul
was a prisoner (iv. 3, 10, 18) probably at
Rome during the two years of his first im-
prisonment there (Acts xxviii.30, 31), though
some believe that it was written from Ca*sarea
(Acts xxiii. 3.5 ; xxiv. 27). From Col. ii. 1 it
appears evident that he had never himself
preached at Colossa; ; and i. 7 seems to imply
that Epaphras had been the founder, or at
least had assisted in the establishment of the
Colossian church. The church may have
been founded while Paul was laboring in
Ephe.sus (Acts xix. 10). Epaphras had re-
cently joined the apostle (i. 8), and his report
of the condition of the church prompted the
writing of the letter. It was sent by the
hand of a certain Tychicus (iv. 7, 8), who was
also intrusted with the letter to the Ephe-
sians (Eph. vi. 21), written at the same time.
With him went Onesimus (Col. iv. 9), who also
bore the letter to Philemon, a resident of
Colossse, whose slave Onesimus had formerly

r

Modern Colossse.

ii. 1 ; iv. 13) surpassed it in position and
wealth, so that the importance of Colossse
declined. A Christian community grew up
at Colossje under the ministrations of Epa-
phras and later of Archippus (Col. i. 7; iv.
17; Phile. 2). Of this church Philemon was
an active member, and also Onesimus (Col.
iv. 9 ; Phile. 2). The town was picturesquely
situated in front of mount Cadmus, which
rises in vast precipices and is divided by a
great chasm through which the Lycos flows.
It was. however, like Laodicea. famous for
its fine wool, and it retained municipal inde-
pendence under the Romans. In later times
its location was almost forgotten, but modern
exploration has recovered the site, though
its memorials are few.

been. The Archippus mentioned in Phile.
2, probably Philemon's son, is also mentioned
in Col. iv. 17. The salutations which the
letter contains (iv. 10-17) indicate that while
Paul had not labored in Colossae Eis friends
had, and that he himself was well acquainted
with some of the Colossians. In fact, Phile-
mon was one of his converts (Phile. 19), made,
perhaps, in Ephesus. The reports of Epaphras
had shown that the Colossian Christians were
threatened by false teachers, who seemed to
have combined ritualistic, ascetic, and specu-
lative tendencies. That they were Jewish
appears from ii. 11, 16. But they were also
ascetic (ii. 16, 20-23), a feature which may
have come from the Jewish sect of Essenes.
With this they united a mystic philosophy

Couaniah

140

Convocation

(ii. 8), which seems to have claimed superior
knowledge of divine things (ii. 18) and to
have introduced the worship of angels (ii. 18),
thus infringing on the all-sufficiency and the
supremacy of Christ. These false teachers,
therefore, were different from the Judaizers
whom Paul opposed in the Epistle to the Ga-
latiaus. They represent a new form of error,
and in certain respects appear as the forerun-
ners of the Gnostics. They united with ritual-
ism that theosophical tendency which was
almost characteristic of oriental thought, and
therefore demanded an immediate refutation
l)y the apostle. The epistle naturally falls into
four parts : (1) the introduction and thanks-
giving (i. 1-8) ; (2) the doctrinal section (i. 9-
iii. 4) ; (3) practical exhortations (iii. 5-iv. 6) ;
(4) concluding salutations (iv. 7-18). The doc-
trinal section is of great importance. Begin-
ning with a prayer for their growth in knowl-
edge and holiness, he rises to a description of
the preeminence of Christ in his relation to
God, the universe, and the church. Then
in ch. ii. he sets forth Christ's preeminence
as against the errorists, assuring believers of
their completeness in him, since he has once
for all triumphed over their spiritual foes,
and nothing but union with him by faith is
requisite for the full experience of salvation.
As against asceticism he further urges, in his
practical exhortations, to a .spiritual morality
and to social order. The epistle is, therefore,
christ< (logical in character. It assumes the
doctrines of salvation taught in previous
epistles, but more explicitly states the pre-
eminence of Christ's person and the suffi-
ciency of his work. Tliis epistle, together
with Philemon and Ephesians, was probably
written comparatively early in Paul's Eoman
imprisonment, perhaps in the early spring of
A. D. 62. The Epistle to the Ephesians has
many remarkable coincidences of language
and thought with that to the Colossians,
though their differences are equally note-
worthy; see Ephesians. While evidently
written at the same time, Ephesians presents
a further unfolding of the truths which the
specific needs of his Colossian readers led
him to write to them. g. t. p.

Con-a-ni'ah, in A. V. twice Cononiali
[Jehovah hath established].

1. A Levite who had charge of the tithes
and offerings in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron.
xxxi. 12, 13).

2. A Levite of high station in the reign of
Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 9).

Con'cu-bine.

In the Bible a secondary wife under the
system of polygamy. Concubines were com-
monly taken from among the purchased slaves
or captives ; as Hagar (Gen. xvi. 2, 3 ; xxi.
10), Bilhah (xxix. 29; xxxv. 22), Gidecm's
concubine (Judg. viii. 31 ; ix. 18). They
could be more easily put away than a wife
(,Gen. xxi. 10-14), yet their rights were recog-

nized and guarded by the Mosaic law (Ex.
xxi. 7-11 ; Deut. xxi. 10-14).
Co'ney.

The coney of England is the rabbit ; that
of Scripture is probal)ly the rock-badger
(Lev. xi. 5). See Kock-badger.

Con-gre-ga'tion.

In Scripture the word is used mainly for :
1. The body politic of Israel, including men,
women, and children (Ex. xii. 3, 19, 47 ; xvi.
1, 22 ; Lev. iv. 13, 15 ; xxiv. 14 ; Num. i. 2 ;
xiv. 1 ; XV. 26; xvi. 9; xx. 11 ; Judg. xx. 1).

2. An assemblage of the peojjle, especially
for religious purposes (1 Kin. viii. 14, 65 ; 2
Chron. xxx. 2, 4 ; Ps. xxii. 22, 25), or the
community regarded as ever summoned and
assembled for worship. In R. V. the word
assembly is often preferred (Num. x. 7 ; xvi.
3 ; xix. 20 ; xx. 4 ; Josh. viii. 35 ; and so also
sometimes in A. V. Judg. xx. 2), and in Acts
xiii. 43 the word synagogue.

3. In A. V. the tabernacle of the congre-
gation designates the tent of meeting (R. V.),
the appointed place where Jehovah and his
people met (Ex. xxvii. 21 ; cp. xxv. 22 ; xxix.
42 ; xxx. 36).

Co-nl'ah. See Jeconiah.
Con-o-ni'ah. See Conaniah.
Con-se-cra'tion.

The act whereby a person or thing is dedi-
cated to the service and worship of God. It
includes ordination to a sacred office (Ex.
xxix. 9), ordination to sacred service (Lev.
viii. 33 ; 1 Chron. xxix. 5 ; 2 Chron. xxix.
31), and the setting apart of things from a
common to a sacred use (Josh. vi. 19 ; 2 Chron.
xxxi. 6).

Con-ver-sa'tion.

In the English versions the word conver-
sation is used in its obsolescent sense and de-
notes manner of life.

1. The rendering in the A. V. of the Greek
words Politeuo and Politeuma (Phil. i. 27 ; iii.
20). The words refer to civil life, as is recog-
nized by R. V. Christians are citizens of the
heavenly kingdom and their daily civil con-
duct should correspond with the teachings of
the gospel of the kingdom.

2. The rendering, in many passages of the
A. v., and even in R. V. of Ps. 1. 23, of vari-
ous words^ especially of the Greek Auas-
trophe. It means conduct, or mode of life,
especially with respect to morals (Ps. xxxvii.
14 ; Eph! iv. 22 ; Heb. xiii. 5 ; 1 Pet. i. 15).

Con-vo-ca'tion.

A festival on which the Israelites were
summoned to assemble together and when no
servile work was allowed to be done. The
holy convocations were every sabbath (Lev.
xxiii. 1-3), the first and seventh days of the
feast of unleavened bread (Ex. xii. 16 ; Lev.
xxiii. 6, 7; Num. xxviii. 18, 25), Pentecost
(Lev. xxiii. 15-21), the first and seventh days
of the tenth month, the latter being the
great day of atonement (Lev. xxiii. 24-28,

Coos

141

Corinth

35 ; Xum. xxix. 1), and the first ami eifjbth
days of the feast of taberuacles, which began
on the loth of the seventh mouth (Lev. xxiii.
34-3G; Neh. viii. 18).

Co'os. See Cos.

Cop'per. See Brass.

Cor. See Measures.

Cor'al.

The rendering of the Hebrew Ra'moth in
Job xxviii. 18 and Ezek. xxvii. Iti. It was
regarded as very valuable. Syria disposed
of coral with other articles of commerce in
the markets of Tyre. It was obtained in the
Mediterranean and Red seas, and was made
into beads and charms. Coral is properly the
calcareous skeleton of certain animals of low
orgauization, popularly but erroneously called
coral insects. They are radiated animals,
with a central mouth surrounded by fleshy
limbs; and are either attached singly to a
rock, or so bud from parents as to make a
compound being of many half distinct, half
united individuals. The carbonate of lime
of which the coral skeleton is made is ob-
tained from the sea water. The coral is often
beautifully branched like a tree or shrub,
whence these animals are often called Zoo-
phytes (Plant animals). Some species form
great reefs, and many of the islands with
which the hotter parts of the Pacific ocean
are studded have been wholly built by the
coral polyps. So also are the Bermuda
Islands in the Atlantic, the waters sur-
rounding them, brought by the Gulf stream,
being warm enough to allow the coral animals
to live and work.

Coral is also a marginal rendering of the
Hebrew Pniinivi, rendered rubies in the text
(Lam. iv. 7 ; Job xxviii. 18 ; Prov. iii. 15).

Cor-a'shan. See Ashan.

Cor'ban [Hebrew korban, offering].

An offering or oblation, either of a bloody
or an unbloody sacrifice, given to God (Lev.
i. 2, 3; ii. 1; iii. 1; Num. vii. 12-17; where
the word occurs in the Hebrew text). A
word korhnnas, from the same root, is ren-
dered in Mat. xxvii. 6 " treasury," and on the
margin of the R. V. "sacred treasury." Cor-
ban is used for money or service dedicated to
God (Mark vii. 11). The reprehensible prac-
tice arose of children giving no aid to parents
needing their support, on the pretense that
the money or service which would otherwise
have been available for the parents had been
dedicated to God, and that it would be sacri-
lege to divert it from this sacred purpose.
Josephus relates that a clamorous mob beset
the tribunal of Pontius Pilate when he took
the sacred money called Corban and ex-
pended it on aqueducts designed to improve
the water supply of Jerusalem. This doubt-
less was a public benefit, but the .Tews evi-
dently thought that money once dedicated to
< lod could never again be lawfully used for a

secular purpose, however conducive to the
public welfare (War ii. 9, 4).
Co're. See Korah.

Co-ri-an'der.

A plant, called in Hebrew Gad, which had
white seeds (Ex. xvi. 31 ; Num. xi. 7). Very
probably it was the Coriander {Coriandnim
sativum), called in Punic Gold; a branched
annual, with cut leaves, umbels of pink or
white flowers, and a small globular fruit used
to season dishes. It is wild in Arabia, north-
ern Africa, and, perhaps, in southern Europe.
In Palestine it is found in cultivated grounds
and in the Jordan valley.

Cor'intli.

One of the leading cities of Greece, about
48 miles west of Athens, well situated for the
growth of commerce and wealth. It stood on
the narrow isthmus connecting the Pelopon-
nesus, now the Morea, with the mainland of
Greece. Traffic conducted by land between
these places had to pass through Corinth. The
Salonic Gulf, now that of ^Egina, to the east
of the isthmus, and the Gulf of Corinth, now
that of Lepanto, on the west, afforded a high-
way for commerce by water between Asia and
the west. The short portage was made at
Corinth. The Phcenician mariners seem to
have been the first to appreciate the advan-
tages of the situation. They built a village
on the top of a mountain, subsequently called
Acrocorinthus, or the citadel. The ^-Eolian
Greeks possessed it next, calling it Ephyra.
About 1074 B. c. the power passed from the
iEolians to the Dorian Heracleidae. These
struggles were not merely between rival
Greek races ; the aristocracy and the democ-
racy each contended for the mastery. In 146
B. c. the Roman consul Mummius burned it
to ashes. The accidental fusing together of
different metals during the conflagration is
said to have led to the discovery of Corinthian
brass. The city was rebuilt by Julius Caesar
about 46 B. c. ; became the capital of the
Roman province of Achaia, and was ruled
by a proconsul. The moral reputation of
Corinth was not high. People of all nation-
alities congregated here ; and wealth pro-
duced idleness and idleness vice : so that to
"corinthiauize" had a bad meaning. Paul
reached Corinth probably in a. d. 52 and la-
bored there for a year and a half, lodging with
Aquila and Priscilla, and supporting himself
by tent-making. At first he spoke in the
synagogues and then in the house of Justus,
till at length he was dragged before the tri-
bunal of the proconsul Gallio (Acts xviii. 1-
18). After Paul's departure, Apollos contin-
ued the work (xviii. 24-28). On three several
occasions later the apostle sent a letter to the
Corinthian church (1 Cor. v. 9). The Chris-
tian community continued to increase ; and
by the second century its bishop possessed
great influence in the church at large. The
capture of Constantinople by the Venetians
and the crusaders in 1204 was immediately

Corintliians

142

Corinthians

followed by the surrender of Corinth. In
1446 the Turks took it, and in 1687 the Vene-
tians retook it; the Turks capturing it again
in 1715. In 1823 it joined in the successful
great rebellion. In February, 1858, it was
nearly destroyed by an earthquake, but has
since been restored. It is now called Gortho.

Co-rin'tM-ans, E-pis'tles to the.

The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians
was written during the apostle's long sojourn
in Ephesus (xvi. 8, 9, 19; Actsxix.), probably
early in A. D. 57. He had had much anxiety
over the state of the Corinthian church, which
he had founded a few years before. The Co-
rinthians had written him a letter asking in-
structious on the subject of marriage and
social purity, and he had replied (v. 9).
This letter has not been preserved. Ap-
parently also a deputation from Corinth
had been sent to him (xvi. 17), and from
other sources reports of divisions among
them had reached him {i. 11). He had
previously sent Timothy to Corinth by
way of Macedonia (iv. 17 ; xvi. 10), but the
later news moved him immediately to write
this epistle. It is even thought by many
that he had himself made a brief unrecorded
visit to Corinth from Ephesus for the pur-
pose of exercising discipline in the church.
This is inferred from 2 Cor. xii. 14 ; xiii. 1,
where he speaks of being about to visit them
a third time, though The Acts speaks of only
one previous visit. If so, the unrecorded visit
must be located before 1 Cor. was written,
since 2 Cor. i. 15-23 implies that he had not
visited them between the two epistles. But
in 1 Cor. he takes up in order the prac-
tical and doctrinal points on which they
needed instruction. The epistle is carefully
written. It combines cogent doctriual dis-
cussion, and skillful dealing with moral and
ecclesiastical problems. It clearly reflects
the actual conditions of the churches among
the gentiles. Hence its great importance.
The subjects discussed are, after the intro-
ductory salutation (i. 1-9) :

1. The divisions in the church (i. 10-iv.
21). Factions had arisen, claiming to follow
particular leaders, and doubtless character-
ized by special theological tendencies. He
mentions a Paul-party, an Apollos-party, a
Peter-party, and a Christ-party. Against
them all he sets forth the dependence of all
believers on Christ crucified, the inspired au-
thority with which the gospel had first been
preached to them, and the subordinate char-
acter of every one by whom it was adminis-
tered, even though he were an apostle ; so
that none should be made the head of a party,
but glory given to God in Christ alone.

2. The duty of exercising and honoring
church discipline (v., vi.), especially in the
case of offenders against purity, of which
there had been one conspicuous example.

3. Directions on the subject of marriage
and divorce (vii).

4. Directions concerning practical ques-
tions arising from contact with heathen
society (viii.-xi. 1). These pertained espe-
cially to the eating of food which had been
offered to idols ; in regard to which self-de-
nial should control their liberty (viii.), even
as he sought to have it do in his own life (ix.).
While not needlessly inquiring as to the ori-
gin of the food they bought or ate, they
should be careful not to seem to participate
in recognition of the idol (x.).

5. Warnings against certain abuses in pub-
lic worship (xi. 2-34) with respect to the
prophesying of women and the administra-
tion of the Lord's Supper.

6. Directions as to the estimate, exercise,
and regulation, of miraculous gifts (xii.-
xiv.).

7. Instruction concerning the doctrine of
the resurrection of the dead, which some
were disposed to doubt (xv.).

8. Directions about the collections being
made for the saints in Judaea, and concluding
remarks about his own movements and other
personal matters (xvi.).

The Second Epistle to the Corinthians was
written from Macedonia (ii. 13; vii. 5; ix. 2,
4) shortly after Paul left Ephesus (Acts xx.
1), and therefore in the summer or early au-
tumn of A. D. 57. Timothy was now with
him again (i. 1). Titus and another had re-
cently been sent from Ephesus to Corinth
(ii. 13; vii. 6, 7, 13, 14, 15; xii. 18) with di-
rections to have the church immediately dis-
cipline an offender, probably the incestuous
person of 1 Cor. v. 1, who had openly defied
the apostle's authority and whose continued
sin threatened the very stability of the
church. Titus was to rejoin Paul at Troas,
but the apostle, not finding him there, had
gone on to Macedonia in great distress of
mind. At last, however, Titus came with
the good news that the Corinthians had dis-
ciplined the offender, and that the latter had
humbly acknowledged his sin. Thereupon
this epistle was written, and Titus, with two
others (viii. 16-24), was sent back with it to
Corinth. The epistle bears witness to the
intense anxiety of the apostle lest the Co-
rinthians should be false to him, and to the
terrible strain he had been under because of
their spiritual perils. It is the least method-
ical and the most personal of his epistles. It
falls, however, into three main divisions:
(1) i.-vii., in which, after grateful recogni-
tion of God's goodness to him even amid
trial (i. 1-14), he vindicates himself from
the charge of vacillation (i. 15-ii. 4), bids
them not carry too far their zeal against the
offender (ii. 5-11), and describes the spir-
itual (iii.), honest (iv. 1-6), suffering (iv. 7-
18). hopeful (v. 1-9), solemn (v. 10, 11), Christ-
impelled (v. 12-17) ministry of reconciliation
(v. 18-21) with which, as a co-worker with
God, he had been intrusted (v. 18-vi. 2), in
which he had appeared himself (vi. 3-10), on
the ground of which he appealed to them

Cormorant

143

Cotton

(vi. ll-li?), and iu their acknowledgment of
which he found boldness and joy (vii.). (2)
viii., ix.. iu which he treats of the collections
for the Judfean sjiints and urges liberality.
{'3) x.-xii.. in which he again gives a pathetic
but confident testimony to his apostolic office
and authority. He closes with a renewed
warning against their besetting sins, and de-
clares that if, when he comes to them, he find
them uncorrected, he will exercise his author-
ity upon them unsparingly. G. T. P.

Cor'mo-rajit.

1. The rendering of Hebrew Shalnk. plun-
cer ; a bird ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi.
17; Deut. xiv. 17). It is probably the com-
mon cormorant (Phalacrocorax carho), a large
swimming bird of the Pelican family, but dis-
tinguished from the pelican by not having a
pouch below the lower mandible. Birds of
the Cormorant genus are widely diffused over
the world, the common cormorant found in
America being the same species as that which
builds on rocky islands off the coast of North-
umberland in England, and as that which
lives on the coast of Palestine, on the sea of
Galilee, and elsewhere. The appetite of a
cormorant is proverbial ; and Tristram de-
scribes its favorite occupation in Palestine to
be to sit on the snag of a tree where the Jor-
dan enters the Dead Sea. and catch the fishes
while they are stupefied by being carried into
the salt brine. He mentions that another
species, Fhalacrocomx pigmseus, the Pigmy
Cormorant, occurs, though sparingly, on the
streams which flow through Palestine to the
Mediterranean.

2. The rendering of Hebrew Ka'ath in text
of A. V. (Is. xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 14) ; see
Pelican.

Com.

The generic name for the several cereal
grasses cultivated in Palestine, and so staple
that com and wine stand figuratively for the
entire vegetable produce of the fields (Gen.
xxvii. 28; Deut. vii. 13, etc.). The chief
were wheat, barley, spelt, and millet (Deut.
viii. 8 ; and E. Y. of Is. xxviii. 25 and Ezek.
iv. 9).

Cor-ne'li-us.

One of the centurions of a Roman regi-
ment called the Italian band, once stationed
at Csesarea. A devout, generous, and God-
fearing man. his prayers and alms were ac-
cepted by God. An angel in a vision directed
him to send to Joppa for Peter, who would
indicate to him the path of duty. He did
so. His messengers found Peter prepared for
their coming by the vision of the sheet let
down from heaven with animals clean and
unclean, the latter as well as the former to
be slaughtered for food if he desired. The
apostle, accompanied by some Christian
fnends. went to Csesarea. preached the gos-
pel to Cornelius, and was the means of con-
verting him and his household. Divine con-
firmation of what had been done was at once

given by the descent upon them of the Holy
Ghost, with the impartation of the gift of
tongues. The event was one of prime im-
portance in the early church. It commenced
the long-promised calling of the gentiles and
revealed that the Spirit is given to believers
irrespective of nationality (Acts x. 1-48).

Cor'ner Stone.

A stone placed at the angle where two walls
of a building meet, and helping to bind them
together. Any stone in this position, from the
foundation (Job xxxviii. 6 ; Is. xxviii. 16)
to the roof (Ps. cxviii. 22; Zech. iv. 7), is a
corner stone. Figuratively, Christ is the
chief corner stone at the foundation (Rom.
ix. 33 ; Eph. ii. 20; 1 Pet. ii. 6) and also the
head of the corner (Mat. xxi. 42 ; 1 Pet. ii. 7).

Cor 'net.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Shophar
in 1 Chron. xv. 28; 2 Chron. xv. 14; Ps.
xcviii. 6 ; Hos. v. 8. Elsewhere, as in Lev.
XXV. 9, it is translated trumpet (q. v.).

2. The rendering of the Hebrew M'na'an''im
in 2 Sam. vi. 5, A. V. The R. V. renders the
word castanets (q. v.).

3. The rendering of the Aramaic Karna\
corresponding to the Hebrew Keren in Dan.
iii. 5, 7, 10, 15. It means a horn, and is so
rendered in viii. 20. This instrument orig-
inally consisted of the hollow horn of some
mammal : but later it was generally made of
metal, and was curved, like many animals*^
horns, instead of being straight.

Cor-rup'tion, Mount of.

A hill to the east of Jerusalem (2 Kin.
xxiii. 13 ; cp. 1 Kin. xi. 7). Solomon built
altars on its southern side to the gods wor-
shiped by his heathen wives. By common
consent it is the southern portion of the
mount of Olives. It is more familiarly known
in tradition as the mount of Offense.

Cos, in A. V. Coos.

An island, now called Stanko or Stanchio,
in the Archipelago off the coast of Caria in
Asia Minor, in a gulf between Cnidus and
Halicamassus. It lies between Miletus and
Rhodes, about a day's sail from the latter city
(Acts xxi. 1 ; mentioned 1 Mac. xv. 23). It
is about 21 miles long by 6 broad. Its prin-
cipal city has been more than once seriously
injured by earthquakes. Cos was celebrated
for its "wines, its ointments, and its purple
dyes.

Co'sam.

A descendant of David through Nathan
and an ancestor of Zerubbabel and Christ
(Luke iii. 28).

Cot'ton.

The rendering of the Hebrew Karpas in
the margin of the R. Y. in Esth. i. 6. In the
court of the royal palace at Shushan were
hangings of fine white cotton and blue. The
word which corresponds to karpas in San-
scrit, Persian, Armenian, and Arabic, denotes
cotton. Cotton is the bunch of threads sur-

Council

144

Counselor

rounding the ripe seeds of the cotton plants.
They belong to the genus Gossypium, which
is one of the mallow order. The leaves have
three or five lobes; the flowers, which are
large and showy, and often of a yellow color,
are surrounded by an outer involucre or calyx
of three great leaves. The Indian cotton
(Gussypium herbaceuin) was early cultivated
in Persia, and was probably that of Esther.

Coun'cil.

The Jewish governing body. The Persians
granted to the Jews jurisdiction over their
own affairs (Ezra vii. 25, 26 ; x. 14). After
the fall of the Persian empire similar privi-
leges were enjoyed by the Jews. A govern-
ing body arose and became known as gerousia
or senate (Antiq. xii. 3, 3), and more fully as
the senate of the nation (1 Mac. xii. G). It
was composed of elders (ci>. xiv. 20). It
represented the nation (xii. 3), and united
with Jonathan, their high priest and leader,
in making offensive and defensive alliance
with the Spartans. Jonathan also called the
elders of the people together and consulted
with them about building strongholds in
Judsea and increasing the height of the
walls of Jerusalem (3.5 ; cp. further xiii.
36; xiv. 20, 28, and 47). Under Gabinius,
proconsul of Syria, .57-55 B. c, Judaja was
divided into five districts, each under a
sunedrion or sunodos — i. e. assembly or sanhe-
drin (Antiq. xiv. 5, 4 ; War i. 8, 5). Hence-
forth the highest body at Jerusalem was
called sunedrion, though not to the exclusion
of gerousia or houle. The arrangement, how-
ever, did not last long. In 47 b. c, Caesar
extended the jurisdiction of the sanhedrin
of Jerusalem once more over all Judfea (cp.
Anti(i. xiv. 9, 3-5; War i. 10, 7). At the be-
ginning of his reign Herod the Great put
forty-five of its members to death (Antiq.
xiv. 9, 4; XV. 1, 2), but did not abolish the
council (xv. 6, 2). Under the Koman procu-
rators, A. D. 6-66, its powers were extensive.
According to Jewish authorities, it was com-
posed of 71 members (cp. the mock council.
War iv. 5, 4), and only Israelites whose de-
scent was above question were eligible to
membership. The .seventy ordinary members
corresponded, probably, to the seventy elders
appointed by Moses to assist him as judges.
The seventy-first member was the high priest,
the oflJcial president of the body. It was the
highest court, with power of life and death
(Antiq. xiv. 9, 3 and 4; Mat. xxvi. 3, 57;
Acts iv. 5. 6, 15 ; v. 21, 27, 34, 41 ; vi. 12, 15 ;
vii. 1 ; xxiii. 2), though apparently it had no
recognized authority to execute its sentence
of death, but must submit its action to the
review of the Roman authorities. It had
the general administration of the govern-
ment and of justice, so far as this was not
exercised by the procurator and subordinate
officials (cp. Acts xxii. 30). In the time of
Florus, at least, the revenue was collected by
the rulers and councilors, who dispersed

themselves among the villages for that pur-
pose (War ii. 17, 1). It had police at com-
mand and could make arrests on its own
authority (Mat. xxvi. 47; Mark xiv. 43).
Jesus was tried before the council (Mat.
xxvi. 59; Mark xiv. 55; xv. 1; Luke xxii.
66 ; John xi. 47). It was before the council
that Peter, John, and the other apostles were
brought (Acts iv. 5, 6, 15; v. 21. 27, 34, 41).
Stephen was taken before the council (Acts
vi. 12), so also was Paul (xxii. 30 ; xxiii. 15;
xxiv. 20). The sanhedrin was swept away
at the destruction of Jerusalem.

2. A body of advisers selected by the
highest Roman otficial of a province, in
Judsea the procurator, to assist him in the
administration of justice, before whom, with
the official as president, cases were tried
(Acts XXV. 12 ; Antiq. xvi. 11, 1 seq. ; War ii.
16, 1).

Coun'cil House.

A building in Jerusalem west of the temple,
near the gymnasium and adjoining the inner-
most city wall (War v. 4, 2). It was burned
by the Romans under Titus in the course of
their struggle for the possession of the city
(vi. 6, 3). The council house was probably
the place where the sanhedrin met: for 1.
Its name in Greek was bouleuterion, and a
member of the sanhedrin was called bouleutes
(Luke xxiii. 50, 51 ; cp. War ii. 17, 1). 2.
The council is called by Josephus sunedrion —
i. e. sanhedrin — and boule indifferently (Antiq.
xiv. 9, 3 and 4, with xx. 1, 2; War ii. 15, 6).
3. According to Jewish authorities, the san-
hedrin met in the lishkath haggazith or cham-
ber of the gazith, which probably denoted a
chamber by the gymnasium. According to
the Mishna, it is true, the lishkath haggazith
was situated at the east corner of the court
of the temple. But gazith means hewn, es-
pecially hewn stone (Ex. xx. 25 ; 1 Kin. vi.
36 et pas.) ; and as the chambers of the tem-
ple were largely constructed in this manner,
the name gazith could not distinguish one
from another. Now the council house stood
near or adjoined the xystos or gymnasium ;
but xystos is the Greek equivalent of gazith,
and is one of the words used in the Sep-
tuagint to translate gazith into Greek (1
Chron. xxii. 2 ; Amos v. 11). It can scarcely
be doubted, therefore, that the xystos was
called the gazith by one who chanced to
be speaking Hebrew, and that the name
lishkath haggazith meant the hall by the xys-
tos (cp. Schiirer, Stud. u. Krit., 1878). Sim-
ilar twin names are Christos, Messiah ; Peter,
Cephas ; The pavement, Gabbatha ; Place of
a skull, Golgotha ; Field of blood, Aceldama
(John i. 41, 42 ; xix. 13, 17; Acts i. 19). This
evidence is perhaps sufficient to override the
fact that the chamber of the gazith is stated
in the Mishna, as already mentioned, to have
been within the court of the temple.

Coun'sel-or.

The seven counselors of Artaxerxes (Ezra

Court

145

Crane

"vii. 14) were probably the seven princes of
Media and Persia who saw the king's face
and sat first in the kingdom, and from whom
the king sought advice (Esth. i. 14). These
princes were perhaps the heads of the seven
chief families of Persia (Herod, iii. 84).

Court.

An enclosed but uncovered area either con-
nected with a private house and often con-
taining a well (2 Sam. xvii. 18 ; Neh. viii. 16) ;
<ir in a palace (1 Kin. vii. 8, 9, 12 ; Jer. xxxii.
2), in front of the royal apartments (Esth. iv.
11; v. 1 ; vi. 4) and sometimes containing a
garden (i. 5); or around the tabernacle and
temple (Ex. xxvii. 9; xl. 8; 1 Kin. vi. 36).
As the area about the temple was divided
(2 Kin. xxi. 5), the word is generally used in
the plural (Ps. Ixv. 4 ; ixxxiv. 2).

Cov'e-nant.

An agreement between two or more per-
sons. Various covenants between man and
man are mentioned in Scripture, but they
are no longer important (Gen. xxi. 27, 32 ; 1
Sam. xviii. 3; xxiii. 18; 1 Kin. xx. 34). It
is otherwise with those in which God conde-
scended to be a covenanting party. His cov-
enant with man is a free promise on his part,
generally based upon the fulfillment of certain
conditions by man. He made a pi-oraise of
continued life and favor to man on condition
of obedience, coupled with a penalty for dis-
obedience (Gen. ii. 16, 17). He established a
covenant with Noah, that Noah should be
saved when the old world perished (vi. 18),
and that there should be no other great
deluge, the rainbow being the token of the
covenant (ix. 12, 15, 16) ; with Abraham and
his posterity, of which circumcision was to
be the sign, to be their God and to give
them the land of Canaan for an inheritance
(xiii. 17; xv. 18; xvii. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 14,
19; 2 Kin. xiii. 23; 1 Chron. xvi. 15-18 ; Ps.
cv. 9-11 ; Acts vii. 8; Rom. iv. 1.3, 17) ; with
the Israelites as a nation, to continue to be
their God and to grant national protection,
of which a sign was to be the Sabbath (Ex.
xxxi. 16), and the keeping of the ten com-
mandments its condition (Deut. iv. 13, 23).
This covenant was made at Horeb (Deut. v. 2 ;
xxix. 1) and was renewed with the next
generation on the plains of Moab (Deut.
xxix. 1). There was a covenant with the
Levites (Mai. ii. 4, 8), and one specially with
Phinehas to give him and his descendants
an everlasting priesthood (Num. xxv. 12, 13).
There was a covenant with David that his
posteritv should forever occupv his throne
(Ps. Ixxxix. 20-28, 34 ; cp. 2 Sam. vii. 1-29
and 1 Chron. xvii. 1-27; 2 Chron. vii. 18;
Jer. xxxiii. 21). In contrast with the cov-
enant at Sinai, there w-as to be a new cov-
enant, also with the Israelites, which was to
be of a more spiritual character than its
predecessors (Jer. xxxi. 31-34 ; Heb. viii. 8-
11), administered by the Spirit (John vii. 39 ;
Acts ii. 32, 33 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6-9). based on faith
10

(Gal. iv. 21-31), and designed for all nations
(Mat. xxviii. 19, 20, Acts x. 44-47). Of this
Christ is the Mediator (Heb. viii. 6-13 ; ix. 1 ;
X. 15-17; xii. 24). With reference to it the
Old and New Testaments would, perhaps,
better have been called the Old and New
Covenants.

The two tablets of stone on which were
engraved the ten commandments, which were
the fuudanieutal law of God's covenant with
Israel, were called the tables of the covenant
(Deut. ix. 11), and the ark, in which these
tables were deposited, was designated the ark
of the covenant (Num. x. 33). The book of
the covenant consisted of the ten command-
ments with the accompanying ordinances,
contained in Ex. xx. -xxiii., which were
written by Moses in a book, formally accepted
by the Israelites, and ratified as a covenant
between the Lord and his people (Ex. xxiv.
3-8) ; see Theocracy. Later the term is
used as synonymous with the book of the
law (2 Kin. xxiii. 2 with xxii. 8, 11) and in-
cluded Deuteronomy (Deut. xxxi. 9, 26 ; 2
Kin. xiv. 6 with Deut. xxiv. 16).

Cow.

Cows w'ere early domesticated. Egypt,
Philistia, and Palestine, aflbrded excellent
pasturage, and cows were kept in these lauds
(Gen. xli. 2; Deut. vii. 13; 1 Sam. vi. 7).
Cows were herded by Abraham and his de-
scendants (Gen. xii. 16; xxxii. 15). Their
milk served for food (2 Sam. xvii. 29). They
found use in concluding a covenant (Gen.
XV. 9), in the ceremony attending the pro-
fes.sion of innocence of a death caused by an
undiscoverable murderer (Deut. xxi. 3), for
a peace oflFering (Lev. iii. 1), for a sin ofi'ering
for uncleanness arising from contact with the
dead (Num. xix. 2; Heb. ix. 13), and in ex-
ceptional cases for a burnt oifering (1 Sam.
vi. 14).

Coz. See Hakkoz.

Coz'bi [mendacious].

A daughter of Zur, prince of Midian. In
the idolatrous rites to which the Midiauites
seduced Israel the woman was publicly taken
by a prince of the Simeonites. Both were
thrust through by Phinehas, son of the high
priest, and shortly afterwards her father also
was slain (Num. xxv. 6-S, 14, 15, 18 ; xxxi. S).

Co-ze'ba, in A. V. Chozeba [deceitful].

A village in Judah, X'eopled chiefly by de-
scendants of Shelah (1 I'hron. iv. 22). It is
generally believed to be the same as Achzib
and Chezib. Conder, however, locates it at
Kueiziba, 54 miles north-northeast of Hebron,
at the head of Pilate's aqueduct to Jerusalem.

Crane.

Hebrew 'Agiir, a migratory bird which has
a note like a chatter (Is. xxxviii. 14 ; Jer.
viii. 7). The crane is the type of a family
of long-legged wading birds. It is a large
and elegant bird, breeding in the north of
Europe and of Asia, and migrating southward

Creation

146

Creation

at the approach of winter. On these flights
cranes go in large flocks of wedge-shaped
form or in long lines. See Swallow 2.

Cre-a'tion.

The act or operation of God whereby he
calls into existence what did not before ex-
ist. The verb always has God for its subject,
and the result is an entirely new thing. God
created the heavens and the earth (Gen. i. 1),
aquatic and aerial life (21). man (27), the stars
(Is. xl. 26), the wind (Amos iv. 13). He creates
the clean heart (Ps. li. 10). Jehovah com-
manded and the heavens, with all their hosts,
angels, sun, moon, and stars, and the waters
that be above the heavens, were created ( Ps.
cxlviii. 5). He spake and it was done. Upon
him all living creatures depend ; his hand
provides for them, his look preserves them,
the hiding of his face destroys them, and his
creative breath renews animate life on earth
(Ps. civ. 27-30). God created the worlds by
the Word, who is the Son (John i. 3 ; Eph.
iii. 9; Col. i. 16; Heb. i. 2).

The designation creation is used specially
for the original formation of the universe by
God. In Genesis a general account of the
creation of the universe is first given (i. 1-
ii. 3), which is followed by a particular ac-
count of the formation of man and his sur-
roundings (ii. 4-25). The general account
describes six successive acts, or sometimes
groups of logically related acts and processes,
which were willed by God on as many days ;
see Days. All facts at present available
indicate that between the successive days
long periods of time intervened. The omis-
sion of the definite article in the enumeration,
one day and day second, instead of the first
day, the second day, etc., is favorable to this
view. And the parallel tradition, as pre-
served by the Babylonians, expressly refers
to intervals between the successive acts of
creation and assigns to them long duration.

The earliest extant form of the Babylonian
account is found as the introduction to the
myth of the sun-god Marduk's conflict with
Tiamat the watery deep, represented as a she-
dragon who has attempted to reduce the or-
dered universe to chaos. The tablet was in-
scribed about 650 b. c, but the tale itself
can be traced much farther back. It states
thatr-

At the time when on high the heaven announced

not,
Below earth named not a name,
[That is to say : When heaven and earth did

not exist]
Then primeval ocean, their generator, [and]
Mummu Tiamat [the watery deep], the bearer

of their totality,
United their waters as one :
When no field had been formed, no reed was to

be seen.
At a time when none of the gods had been

brought into existence,
When a name had not been named, destiny not

determined,
Then were made the gods

The gods Lahmu and Lahamu were brought

into existence

And grew up

Anshar [the host of heaven] and Kishar [the

host of earth] were made

Many days passed by

God Anu [heaven]

Here the tablet is broken ofi", but this part
of the tale has also been related by Damas-
cius. He says : "The Babylonians assumed
two principles of the universe, Tauthe and
Apason [i. e. Tiamat the watery deep, and
Apsu the primeval ocean] ; making Apason
the husband of Tauthe and naming her the
mother of the gods. Of these two there was
born an only-begotten son, Moymis. From
these same another generation proceeded,
Lache and Lachos. Then also from the same
[original pair] a third generation, Kissare
and Assoros ; from whom sprang Anos
[heaven], lUinos [earth's surface, with the
atmosphere], and Aos [the waters of earth] ;
and of Aos and Dauke Belos [the sun of
spring] was born, the fabricator of the
world." In these narratives of creation the
Babylonians fail to give God glory ; but apart
from this radical defect, these traditions of
theirs preserve fundamentally the same ac-
count of the development of the world as the
Hebrew prophet does. Stripped of poly-
theistic phraseology, the Babylonian tradi-
tion taught that the primeval universe was a
chaotic watery mass (cp. Gen. i. 2). Out of
this mass there proceeded not only Moymis
and Lache and Lachos or Lahmu and Laha-
mu, who are doubtless natural objects or
forces, but have not been identified as yet,
but also by a series of generations, to use
Damascius' figure (cp. Gen. ii. 4), the com-
prehensive heavens and earth (cp. Gen. i.
6-8), then sky and dry land and sea (cp. Gen. i.
9, 10), and then the sun (cp. Gen. i. 14). How
natural objects, like the heavens with all
their host, came to be spoken of as gods is
explained in the paragraph devoted to As-
syrian and Babylonian religion in the article
on Assyria.

As to the history of the interpretation of
the first chapter of Genesis it may be said that,
although the proper meaning of the word day
was early considered doubtful, the current
understanding of the account was that God
created the universe in one week of seven
consecutive days of twenty-four hours each.
When geologists began to study the orderly
succession of the rocks and to investigate their
origin and history, they became convinced
that thousands, not to say millions, of years
must have been required to produce all the
changes of which they had obtained evidence.
At first the tendency in Christian circles was
to regard the claim for so enormous an exten-
sion of the time as unfounded. At length it
became apparent that the geological claim for
extended time rested on substantial grounds.
Dr. Thomas Chalmers adopted the result and
publicly declared in 1804 that " the writings

Creation

147

Cricket

of Moses do not fix the antiquity of the
globe." Afterwards, in his Eridencesof Chris-
tianiii/, which was published in 1813. he more
fully explained his view that between the
first act of creation described in Gen. i. 1,
and the others commencing with verse 2,
there may have been an interval of many
ages. The same view was adopted, appar-
ently independently, by Canon Buckland,
afterwards Dean, himself a great geologist,
in his inaugural lecture published at Oxford
in 18"20. Geology made a fresh claim, namely,
that the transition from the one geological
period to the other was gradual, and without
any break in the succession of life. This
view was accepted and the six days were in-
terpreted by Cuvier of Paris in 1798 in the
preliminary discourse to his Ossements Fos-
silea. and by Hugh Miller in 1857 in his Tes-
timony of ihe Bocks, as six geological ages,
and a correspondence was traced between
the successive stages of creation as told in
Gen. i. and as written in the rocks. This
simple age theory was modified by the vision
theory, j)ublished by Kurtz on the Continent
and independently by Mr. James Sime in
England. The narrative in Gen. 1. was sup-
posed to be founded on a series of six visions,
in which the chief characteristics of succes-
sive geological ages were presented to the eye
of the inspired writer. So geology itself has
often spoken of the carboniferous age, the
age of fishes, the age of mammals. In con-
clusion, the general remark may be made
that the Hebrew narrative exhibits sym-
metry and grouping, which may be plausibly
explained as intentional arrangement. The
chronological order has been observed in the
main at least, but it remains to be discovered
whether it has been followed in every detail.
At any rate the works of the six days were more
than six acts ; God spake, to use a significant
biblical term, eight times (vers. 3, 6, 9, 11. 14,
20, 24, 26), and on the third day the com-
mand went forth for both dryland and vege-
tation, on the fifth day for fish and for fowl,
and on the sixth day for beast and for man.
Moreover, the six days form two interrelated
groups : the first day saw light, and the
fourth day, the first of the second group, saw
the luminaries ; on the second day the waters
were divided and the sky appeared, and on
the second day of the other group fish were
divinely willed in the waters and fowl to fly
in the expanse of the sky ; on the third day
dry land and vegetation were decreed, and
on the corresponding day of the second group
land animals, including man, were made, and
vegetation was granted them for food. The
several works of creation have been logically
distributed into six groups. Hence the fiat of
the Almighty which called the dry land into
being is not recorded alone, but with it is the
command for vegetation. God contemplated
the land as clothed with verdure. The two
acts of the divine will are in reality and in
purpose one, even though plant life possibly

did not respond to the divine decree until the
sun appeared.

Creeping Thing.

Any animal which creeps (Gen. 1. 24, 25),
whether a land or a water reptile (vi. 7 ; Ps.
civ. 25), and whether crawling on the belly
or creeping on four or more feet (Lev. xi. 41,
42).

Cres'cens [growing, increasing].

A Christian, who was for a time at Rome
while I*aul was a prisoner there, and then
departed to Galatia (2 Tim. iv. 10).

Crete.

A large island in the INIediterranean, lying
southeast of Greece, and now widely known
as Candia. The Turks retain the old name
in the modified form, Kiridi. It is about 160
niiles long by 6 to 35 broad. It is traversed
from east to west by a chain of mountains,
of which mount Ida, near the center, is
7674 feet high. Homer speaks of its fair land,
its countless men of different races and its
hundred cities (II. ii. 649 ; Odys. xix. 174).
The half-mythic legislator, Minos, lived in
Crete, and the fabulous Minotaur was feigned
to dwell there too. Crete was conquered by
the Romans, 6S-6G B. c. Many Jews settled
in the island (Acts ii. 11 ; cp. 1 Mac. xv. 19-
23, Gortyua being in Crete). Christianity-
was early introduced ; and Titus was left
there to arrange the aflairs of the churches
and to counteract Judaizing doctrine (Titus
i. 5, 10, 14). Paul sailed along its whole
southern coast on his vovage to Rome (Acts
xxvii. 7, 12, 13, 21). The rejiutatiou of the
Cretans was bad. They were admitted to be
excellent bowmen, but their uncliastity and
untruthfulness were proverbial. In a. d.
823 the island was conquered by the Saracens,
who built a fort called Khandax, the Great
Fortress, now corrupted into Candia, which,
properly speaking, is the name of the capital
onlv. The Greek emperor took tlie island
from the Saracens in 961. From 1204 to 1665
it was held by the Venetians, who obtained
it at first by purchase. In the last-named
year the Turks repossessed themselves of it.
It secured autonomy in 1897.

Creta, Latin for chalk or Cretan earth, was
named from the island.

Crib. See Manger.

Crick'et.

The rendering in the text of the R. V. of
the Hebrew Hargol, which belongs with grass-
hoppers and locusts, and which does not
creep but leaps, is winged, and can be eaten
(Lev. xi. 22). The chief leaping insects be-
long to three families of Orthoi){era, viz. the
grasshoppers, the locusts, and the crickets.
The hargol almost certainly belongs to one of
the three, though to which of them cannot
now be determined. The crickets have long
antennse like the grasshoppers, but the wing-
cases lie flat on the body instead of meeting
over it like a roof. Among the few known

Crispus

148

Crown

species are the house cricket (Gryllm domes-
ticus) and the field cricket {G. campestrin).
The A. V. renders hargol beetle, but the most
typical species of the Coleoptera, or beetle
order, are not leaping insects.

Crls'pus [curled].

The ruler of the Jewish synagogue at Cor-
inth. After listening to Paul's reasonings,
he with all his household believed in Jesus
(Acts xviii. 8), and was one of the few per-
sons whom Paul personally baptized (1 Cor.
i. 14).

Croc'o-dile. See Leviathan and Liz-
ard.
Cross,

This word does not occur in the O. T., but
crucifixion was common among various na-
tions of antiquity ; see Crucifixion. Cross
is used iu a figurative sense by Jesus (Mat.
X. 38; xvi. 24). From the narrative of the
crucifixion it is evident that the cross was of
wood (Col. ii. 14), and was heavy, but still
not too much so to be borne by a strong man
(Mat. xxvii. 3-2; Mark xv. 21; Luke xxiii,
26 ; John xix. 17), and can scarcely, there-
fore, have been one of the massive structures
Avhich some painters depict. It was raised
from the earth either before or after the vic-
tim had been affixed to it ; probably, in most
cases, before. Crosses are of three leading
types: one, generally called the St. Andrew's
cross, like the letter X ; another like the let-
ter T ; and the third of the dagger form, f,
with which we are so familiar. The
cross of Christ was, probably, as artists
believe, of the last-named type, which
more easily than the others allowed the
name, title, or crime of the victim to
be affixed to the upper part (Mat. xxvii.
37; Mark xv. 26 ; Luke xxiii. 38; John
xix. 19). Up to the death of Christ, and
even after, the cross was evidently as
much a name of horror and loathing as
is the gallows now (John xix. 31 : 1 Cor.
i. 23 ; Gal. iii. 13 ; Phil. ii. 8 ; Heb. xii.
2; xiii. 13), so that to bear the cross
meant to incur great reproach and ob-
loquy ; but after the crucifixion the more
zealous followei's of Jesus regarded the
cro.ss with wholly altered feelings. Paul
gloried in the cross of Christ (Gal. vi.
14), by which he meant the atonement
resulting from his crucifixion (Eph. ii.
16 ; Col. i. 20).

The pre-Christian cross of one form
or another was in use as a sacred sym-
bol among the Chaldeans, the Phoeni-
cians, the Egyptians, and many other
oriental nations. The Spaniards in the 16th
century found it also among the Indians of
Mexico and Peru. But its symbolic teaching
was quite ditferent from that which we now
associate with the cross.

In the fifth century Socrates, the church
historian, and Theodoret, bishop of Cyprus,
relate that Helena, the mother of Constan-

tine, was instructed in a dream to repair to
Jerusalem and seek for the sepulcher of
Christ. While there (a. d. 325) she found
three crosses, one of which cured a dying
woman, and was, therefore, known to be the
true cross of Christ. She gave part of it to
the city of Jerusalem, and sent the other
part to the emperor, who placed it within his
statue, regarding it as the palladium of the
empire. Eusebius, however, who fiourished
iu the fourth century, and was a contempo-
rary of Helena, and on terms of friendship
with the imperial family, knew nothing of
the story, which meets with no acceptance
from modern scholars. It is believed that the
practice was to burn, instead of to bury, the
crosses on which real or alleged criminals had
been crucified.

Crown.

1. An ornamental headdress worn as a
badge of authority or dignity. Especially
(1) The royal crown. It was generally a
circlet of gold (Ps. xxi. 3), and was often
studded with gems (2 Sam. xii. 30 ; Zech. ix.
16). Sometimes several crowns were com-
bined or intertwined (vi. 11 ; 1 Mac. xi. 13).
The crown which David took at Kabbah
from the Ammonites probably belonged to
the idol Malcam (2 Sam. xii. 30, R. V. mar-
gin). Its weight was a talent of gold, and
in it were precious stones. The ordinary
headdress of the Persian king (Esth. i. 11 ;
vi. 8) was a stiff cap, probably of felt or of
cloth, encircled by a blue and white band.

Crowns of Egypt and .Vssyria and the common
Radiated Diadem.

which was the diadem proper. The royal
crown of Assyria was a conical cap, sometimes
tapering in a compound curve, but more fre-
quently shaped like the modern Turkish fez,
only higher and ending in a round blunt
point, it was adorned with bands of wrought
gold and jewels. The king is also represented
wearing a simple fillet, and it is probable that

Crucifixion

149

Cubit

this was a common custom, the crowu royal
being reserved for state occasions. In Egypt
there were two royal crowns. The one for
Upper Egypt was a high round white cap
tapering to a knob ; the crowu for Lower
Egypt was a flat-topped red cap, rising in a
high point at the back and having a projec-
tion with a curled end springing diagonally
toward the front. When the two kingdoms
were united under one sovereign, he wore
the two crowns combined, the crowu of
Lower Egypt being superimposed upon that
of Upper Egypt. The Egyptian king is also
frequently depicted witli a band or diadem.
The royal headdress, of whatever shape, is
nearly always surrounded by the Uneus, the
sacred serpent of the Egyptians, symbolizing
power over life and death. See also illustra-
tions under Phakaoh. The radiated diadem
was a form of crown familiar to the Greeks
and Eomans and to the peoples under their
influence. A crown or garland of some
thorny plant was placed by the Eoman
soldiers around the temples of Jesus, with
the twofold intention of torturing him and
mocking his kingly claims (JIat. xxvii. 291.
(2) The high priest's crown. It consisted
of a golden plate (Lev. viii. 9), inscribed
with the legend " Holiness to the Lord,''
and fiistened on a lace of blue to the fore-
front of the miter (Ex. xxviii. 36, 'AT; xxix.
6). (3) The crown of victory (2 Tim. ii. 5 ;
iv. 8 : Heb. ii. 9). It might consist merely
of a wreath of leaves or be made of metal.

2. Anything resembling a crown, as the
border or moulding round about the ark. the
table, and the altar (Ex. xxv. 11, 24, 25 ;
XXX. 3. 4).

Cru-ci-fix'ion.

The act or operation of fixing a victim to
a cross for the purpose of capital punish-
ment. This was done either by tying his
hands and feet to it, or in the more cruel
way of fixing them to it by nails driven
through their fleshy portions. This method
of punishment existed in many ancient na-
tions. Alexander the Great crucified a thou-
sand Tyrians. According to Josephus, Cyrus
introduced into his edict for the return of the
Jews from Babylon a threat of crucifying
anyone who attempted to prevent the missive
from being carried into execution (Antiq. xi.
1, 3; 4, 6). Darius the Persian threatened
this death, apparently, to those who refused
obedience to his decrees (Ezra vi. 11). Anti-
ochus Epiphanes crucified faithful Jews who
would not abandon their religion at his bid-
ding (Ant. xii. 5. 4), and Alexander Jaunseus
(War i. 4, 6) and the Pharisees crucified their
enemies (War i. 5, 3). Among the Romans
crucifixion was a penalty inflicted only on
slaves, or on freemen who had committed the
most heinous crimes : the ordinary Eoman
citizen was exempted from it by express legal
enactment. The preliminary cruelties of
scourging the victim (Mat. xxvii. 26 ; Mark

XV. 15; John xix. 1), and then, when his
body was lacerated, compelling him to bear
his cross (xix. 17), were not rare (cp. the
proverb, Mat. x. 38). Thus the Roman pro-
curator Florus (War ii. 14, 9) and Titus, at
least on one occasion, had those scourged first
who were afterwards to be crucified. If the
victim was simply tied to the cross, this was
no injury sufficient to produce death, which
did not take place till thirst and hunger had
done their work ; and this was sometimes the
case even when the hands and feet were
pierced by nails. If it was expedient on any
ground to get rid of the victims before nat-
ural death had released them from their tor-
tures, the end was sometimes hastened by
breaking their legs, as was done in the case
of the robbers crucified with Jesus (John
xix. 31-33). Many Jews were crucified after
Titus took Jerusalem (Life 75). Constantine
abolished punishment by crucifixion in the
Eoman empire.

Cruse.

A small pot or jug used for carrying water
during a journey (1 Sam. xxvi. 11 ; 1 Kin.
xix. 6) and for holding oil (1 Kin. xvii. 12;
Judith X. 5). For cruse of honey (1 Kin. xiv.
3), a different word in Hebrew, the margin
substitutes bottle ; and the cruse of salt (2
Kin. ii. 20) was rather a dish.

Crys'tal.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew word
Z'kukith, in A. V. of Job xxviii. 17. The E.
V. makes it glass, since crystal occurs in the
next verse. The corresponding word in
Syriac is used for glass in Eev. iv. 6.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Gabish, ice
and crystal, another reputed product of cold
(Job xxviii. 18; in A. V. pearl).

3. The rendering of the Hebrew word
Kerah (Ezek. i. 22; cp. Ex. xxiv. 10). The
E. V. has ice on the margin, which is an es-
tablished meaning of the word (Job vi. 16 ;
xxxviii. 29 ; Ps. cxlvii. 17).

4. The rendering of the Greek Krustallos
(Eev. iv. 6 and xxii. 1). It is either ice or
rock-cry.stal, which is quartz, transparent, and
when pure colorless.

Cub, in A. V. Chub.

A people mentioned with Ethiopia, Put,
and Lud (Ezek. xxx. 5, E. V.). The Seventy
apparently read Lub, i. e. Libya.

Cu'bit [from Latin cubUum, an elbow, a
cubit].

A measure of length based on the length
of the forearm. The Babylonian cubit was
20.65 or 21.26 inches. The royal Babylonian
cubit was longer than the common one by
three finger-breadths (Herod, i. 178). The
Egyptian cubit contained .six hand-breadths
or palms (ii. 149). The royal cubit was a
palm longer and was equal to 20.64 inches,
as appears from measuring sticks found in
the tombs. The Hebrews also had two
cubits, the common and perhaps older cubit
(Dent. iii. 11 ; 2 Chron. iii. 3) and a cubit

Cuckoo

150

Cushan-risliathaini

which was a haud-breadth longer than the
common one (Ezek. si. 5; xliii. 13). The
table of Hebrew lineal measure is 4 fingers=
1 hand-breadth or palm ; 3 hand-breadths=
1 span ; 2 spans = 1 cubit (Ex. xxv. 10, with
Antiq. iii. 6, 5; Mishna, Chelim. xvii. 9). It is
not unlikely that the royal Egyptian cubit and
the cubit of Ezekiel were theoretically equal
to the Babylonian cubit ; so that the common
Hebrew cubit was 17.70 or 18.22 inches, or,
if only three fingers shorter than the long
cubit, 18.3(; or 18.9 inches.

Cuck'oo, the A. V. has Cuckow, using the
obsolete spelling [English, from the voice of
the bird].

The rendering of the Hebrew Shnhaph,
emaciated bird, in the A. V. A bird ceremoni-
ally unclean (Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15).
The cuckoo, Cacnlus canorus, is a well-known
climbing bird, which, coming in spring from
the south, on its annual migration, remains
till the fall of the year, being frequently
heard, but rarely seen. The R. V., following
the Septuagint translators, renders shahaph
not cuckoo but seamew.

Cu'cum-ber.

The correct rendering of the Hebrew
Kisshii', a vegetable which the Israelites ob-
tained while they were slaves in Egypt, and
longed for when they could not have it in
the wildBrness (Num. xi. 5). It is Cucumis
chdte, which is very common in Egypt and
somewliat sweeter than the common cucum-
ber, Ciicnmissatiras. Tlie cucumber was raised
in gardens in Palestine (Is. i. 8 ; Baruch vi.
70), and both the species mentioned are grown
there to-day.

Cum'min [from Hebrew Icamrnon, Arabic
kammun, Greek knminon].

A cultivated plant sown broadcast and,
when rijje, beaten with a rod to detach its
seeds (Is. xxviii. 25, 27). It was one of the
trifles of which the Pharisees were particular
in paying titlies (Mat. xxiii. 23). Cummin
is the Cuminttm cyminum of botanists, a fen-
nel-like plant bearing umbels of small white
flowers. It was cultivated in Palestine for
its seeds, which were eaten as a spice or rel-
ish with food. They are now in large meas-
ure superseded by caraway seeds, which are
more agreeable to the taste and more nutri-
tious.

Cun. See Berothai.

Cup.

1. A small drinking vessel (2 Sam. xii. 3),
of earthenware or metal (Jer. li. 7), held in
the hand (Gen. xl. 11), and used for water
(Mark ix. 41), or wine (Ps. Ixxv. 8 ; Jer. xxv.
1.5). See Basin.

2. Figuratively, the contents of the cup,
whether pleasant or bitter ; that which falls
to one's lot (Ps. xxiii. 5; Is. li. 17; Jer. xvi.
7 ; Mat. xxvi. 39).

Cup'bear-er.

The official who poured drink into the cup

and gave it to the king (Gen. xl. 9-14, where
the Hebrew word is rendered butler; Neh.
i. 11 ; ii. 1, 2). The oflice was one of the most
dignified in an oriental kingdom, and re-

Assyrian Cupbearer.

quired moral trustworthiness in its occupant,
lest he be bribed to present poisoned wine to
the king (Antiq. xvi. 8, 1). It said much for
the character of Nehemiah that he, a stranger
and a foreigner, should have been appointed
to such an office at the Persian court.

Cush [Hebrew Kiish, Old Egyptian Knsh,
Kesh, and Kish, Ethiopia].

1. A son of Ham and his descendants col-
lectively. They constituted five principal
peoples, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, Sab-
teca, and were located in central and south-
ern Arabia, except Seba, which is probably to
be sought on the neighboring African coast
(Gen. X. 6-8 ; 1 Chron. i. 8-10).

2. The land where the Cushites dwelt dur-
ing any period. In Gen. ii. 13, R. V., the term
denotes territory in the same great basin as
the countries drained by the Tigris and
Euphrates. In all subsequent passages it
designates Ethiopia in Africa (2 Kin. xix.
9 ; Esth. i. 1 ; Ezek. xxix. 10). Herodotus
describes Asiatic Ethiopians in the army of
Xerxes, who were diflerent from the African
Ethiopians (vii. 70).

3. A Benjamite, perhaps of Ethiopian de-
scent (the Seventy read Cushi), who was a
foe to David (Ps. vii. title).

Cu'shan [a name formed from Cush].

A country or its inhabitsiuts mentioned in
connection with Midian, and hence probably
Arabia as occupied by Cushites (Hab. iii. 7;
see Cush). A reference is not apparent to
Cushan-rishathaim (Judg. iii. 5), called
Cushan by Josephus (Antiq. v. 3, 2).

Cu'shan-rish-a-tlia'im, in A. V. Cbushan-

Cushi

151

Csrrene

risbatliaim [etymology and meauiug un-
kiuiwiij.

A king of Mesopotamia, who held the
Israelites iu siibjeetioii for eight years. De-
liverance was achieved under the leadership
of Othniel, Caleb's younger brother (Judg.
iii. 5-11).

Cu'sM [an Ethiopian].

1. All ancestor of that Jehudi who lived
in Jeremiahs time (Jer. xxxvi. 14).

2. Father of the prophet Zephaniah (Zeph.
i. 11.

3. According to the A. V. one of the two
men who carried David the news of the vic-
tory over his rebellious sou Absalom ; but the
Hebrew has " the Cushi," evidently meaning,
as the K. \'. jenders it, "the Cushite,"' i. e.
the Ethio]>iau. The actual name of the run-
ner is unknown (2 Sam. xviii. 21-23, 31, 32).

Cush'ite.

An Ethiopian (Num. xii. 1, E. Y. and mar-
gin of A. V. : 2. Sam. xviii. 21, E. V.).

Cuth and Cu'thah [of doubtful meaning].

A city of Babylonia, often mentioned in
connection with Babylon and Borsippa, and
whose tutelary deity was Xergal. Colonists
were brought from this place, among others,
to Samaria after the deportation of the ten
tribes (2 Kin. xvii. 24, 30). Its site is now^
fixed at the mounds of Tell Ibrahim, north-
west of Babylon.

Cym'bal [from Greek kumbalon (1 Cor.
xiii. 1 1].

A musical instrument (2 Sam. vi. 5 ; 1
Chroii. xvi. 5>, named in Hebrew from a root
signifying to tinkle or clang. One form of
the name is in the dual number, which im-
plies that the instrument is of two distinct

Eastern Cymbals.

parts. This undoubtedly suggests cymbals,
as the Septuagiiit renders the word, which
are concave plates of brass (1 Chron. xv. 19),
one form of them being nearly flat, another
consisting of hollow cones designed to be
clashed together for their sound. See Music.
Cy'press [from Latin cupressus, cyparissus,
Greek knpari^^sos].

1. The rendering in A. Y. of Is. xliv. 14
of the Hebrew word Tirsah, referring to the
hardness of the wood. The E. Y. translates it
the holm tree.

2. The marginal rendering of the Hebrew

T''ashshur in R. Y. of Is. sli. 19 ; Ix. 13. The
text of both versions has box.

3. Rendering of B'ro.NA, margin R.Y. SeeFiK.
The Cypress, Cupressus semperrirens, is the
typeof the sub-order CK/jces.'jea?, ranking under
the order Pinacex (Conifers). About ten spe-
cies of the genus Cupressus are known. The
common cypress is an evergreen running
into two well-marked varieties, one a tall
tree 60 feet high with erect closely appressed
branches, and the other smaller, with the
branches spreading. The cypress is a na-
tive of Persia and the Levant. It is exten-
sively planted in cemeteries of the East.

Cy'prus [so called from Kupris, a name of
Aphrodite, the Greek Yenus. who was greatly
worshiped in Cyprus].

An island in the northeastern part of the
Mediterranean Sea, about 60 miles from the
coast of Cilicia. 41 from Syria, and 2.38 from
Port Said in Egypt. The more compact part of
the island is 110 miles in length by 30 to 50 or
60 in breadth ; besides which there runs from
its northeastern extremity a narrow strip of
land, 40 miles long by 5 or 6 broad, project-
ing from the rest of the island like a bow-
sprit from a ship. The area of Cyprus is about
3584 square miles. The island is mountainous,
with intermediate valleys, which are at cer-
tain seasons unhealthy. The mountains yield
copper, and the mines were at one time farmed
to Herod the Great (Antiq. xvi. 4. 5). Its
ancient inhabitants were Kittim, a branch of
the Greek race (Gen. x. 4), but Phcenicians
from the coast of Syria colonized the island.
They built as their capital the town of Kition
or Citium. Later other bodies of Greeks rein-
forced the original stock (cp. Herod, vii. 90),
so that to this day about three-fourths of the
population belong to that race. Cyprus was
for a short time an imperial Roman province
or part of one : but iu the year 27 b. c. Au-
gustus handed it over to the senate, and
henceforth it was under a propraetor with
the title of proconsul. Many Jewish com-
munities existed in the island (1 Mac. xv. 23 ;
Acts iv. .36). There were Cliristians con-
nected with it before Stephen's martyrdom ;
and during the persecution which followed
some of them returned to it, preaching the
go.spel (Acts xi. 19, 20). It was visited for
missionary purposes, first by Barnabas and
Paul (Acts xiii. 4), and afterwards by Barna-
bas and Mark (xv. 39|. Paul sailed past it
at least twice without landing (xxi. 3, 16:
xxvii. 4). Since 1571 it has constituted a
portion of Turkey, though by a treaty, dated
June 4, 1878, Great Britain administers and
holds it as a place of arms, while Russia re-
tains Batoum and Kars. See Kittim.

Cy-re'ne.

An important Greek colonial city in North
Africa, beautifully situated on a tableland
many hundred feet above the sea level, and
a few miles distant from the Mediterranean.
It constituted one of five Greek cities called

Cyrenius

152

Daberath

Pentapolis, situated in Libya Cyrenaica, now
Tripoli. It is believed that it was founded
by Dorians about the year 632 b. c. During
the time of the Ptolemies, in the third cen-
tury B. c, many Jews became resident in
Cyrene (con. Apiou ii. 4 ; Antiq. xiv. 7, 2).
Simon, who was compelled to carry the cross
of Jesus, seems to have been a Cyrenian Jew
(Mat. xxvii. 32). Cyrenians joined with
Libertines and others in forming a synagogue
at Jerusalem (Acts vi. 9). Men of Cyrene early
became converts and preachers (xi. 20).
Among them was a certain Lucius, a promi-
nent man in the church at Antioch (xiii. 1).
Extensive ruins of Cyrene still exist, now
called el-Krenna.

Cy-re'ni-us. See Quirinius.

Cy'rus [Elamite and Persian, K'ur'ush].

A king twice named in Isaiah's prophecies
as anointed, and predestined to achieve great
conquests over kings and fortified places,
and. when his power was established, set the
Jews free from the captivity (Is. xliv. 28 ;
xlv. 1-14). Daniel, referring to the conquest
of Babylonia by the Medes and Persians, re-
cords that during the night which followed
a great feast Belshazzar, the king of the Chal-
deans, was slain and Darius the Mede re-
ceived the kingdom (Dan. v. 30, 31). Darius
was predecessor of Cyrus, or his regent, in
Babylonia (vi. 28). Ezra relates that Cyrus,
king of Persia, in the first year of his reign
issued a proclamation permitting the Jews to
return to their own land, and urging rather
than simply allowing them to rebuild the tem-
ple, for the use of which he returned the
sacred vessels taken by Nebuchadnezzar (Ezra
i. 1-11 ; V. 13, 14; vi'. 3). Many of the Jews
availed themselves of the permission, and
returned to Jerusalem. Enemies attempted,
with some success, to render the edict of
Cyrus abortive, but it was never formally
revoked (iv. 1-5). According to Babylonian
inscriptions, written at the time of the cap-
ture of the city, Cyrus was son of Cambyses,
grandson of Cyrus, great-grandson of Teispes,
all of whom reigned as kings of Ansan, a
designation which appears to denote eastern
Elam with Susa as its capital. About the
year 550 B. c, the sixth year of Nabuna'id
or Nabonidus, king of Babylon, Istuvegu or,
in Greek, Astyages, king of the people of
Manda, marched against Cyrus, but was be-
trayed by his own army and delivered into
the hands of Cyrus. Cyrus then took Ecba-
tana and carried its spoil to his own city.
For several years Nabonidus is reported as
residing in Teva, while his son is with the
army in northern Babylonia. In 547 B. c,
Nabonidus' mother died at the camp and
was publicly mourned by the king's son and
the army. In Nisan of this year Cyrus, now
called king of Persia, led the Persian army
across the Tigris near Arbela and carried his
conquest into the western country. Accord-
ing to Greek authorities, he conquered Lydia

about this time, taking Sardis and making a
prisoner of Croesus, its king. In 539 B. c,
the seventeenth year of Nabonidus, in the
month Tammuz, Cyrus met the Babylonians
in battle ; on the 14th day he took Sippara
and Nabonidus tied. Two days later, on the
16th, Ugbaru or Gobryas, governor of Gutium,
at the head of a detachment of Cyrus' army,
entered Babylon without fighting. Nabonidus
was afterwards captured at Babylon. On the
3d of Marchesvan Cyrus himself entered
Babylon, his governor Ugbaru proclaimed
peace to the province, governors were ap-
pointed, and an order issued for the restora-
tion of many captive foreign idols to their
several native sanctuaries. About the 27th
of Adar the king's wife died. A public
mourning for her was observed for a week,
followed by religious services conducted by
Cambyses, son of Cyrus. Cyrus was suc-
ceeded by Cambyses in 529 b. c. So far the
inscriptions. According to Herodotus (i. 190,
191), Cyrus captured Babylon by turning the
waters of the Euphrates temporarily into a
lake excavated for the purpose, and then en-
tering from the nearly dry bed of the river
by the gates which had been left open on the
night of a festival while the inhabitants were
engaged in revelry. The account given by
the Babylonian priest, Berosus, who lived
about the time of Alexander the Great, is as
follows: "In the 17th year of Nabonidus,
Cyrus came out of Persia with a great army,
and, having conquered all the rest of Asia,
came hastily to Babylonia. When Nabonidus
perceived that he was advancing to attack
him, he assembled his forces and opposed
him ; but he was defeated and fled with a
few of his attendants and shut himself in
the city of Borsippa [the twin of Babylon].
Whereupon Cyrus took Babylon ; and he
gave orders that the outer walls should be
demolished, because the city had proved very
troublesome to him and ditficult to take. He
then marched to Borsippa to besiege Nabo-
nidus : but as Nabonidus delivered himself
into his hands without holding out the place,
he was at first kindly treated by Cyrus, who
sent him out of Babylonia but gave him a
habitation in Carmania, where he spent the
remainder of his life and died " (contra Apion.
i. 20).

D.

Dalj'a-reh. See Daberath.

Dab'be-sheth, in A. V. Dabbasheth [hump
of a camel].

A town on the boundary line of Zebulon
(Josh. xix. 11). Conder locates it at Dabsheh,
near Jokneam.

Dab'e-rath, in A. V. once Dabareh errone-
ously (Josh. xxi. 28) [probably pasture land].

A city within the territory of Issachar,
given with its suburbs to the Gershonites
(Josh. xix. 12 ; xxi. 28 ; 1 Chron. vi. 72 ; War ii.

Dagon

153

Damascus

21, 3; Life 62). It has been identified as the
village of Deburieh at the base of mount
Tabor, on the northwestern side of the hill.

Da'gon [the name probably has no refer-
ence to either tish or grain].

The national god of the Philistines. At
Gaza, at Beth-dagon. and especially at Ash-
dod, he had a temple (Judg. xvi. 21, 23 ; 1
Sam. V. 1-7 ; 1 Chron. x. 10). Jonathan
Maceaba?us, after defeating the Philistines,
drove them into the temple of Dagon in
Ashdod, and set tire both to the city and the
temple (1 Mac. x. 84 ; xi. 4). Dagon was
worshiped to some extent in Phoenicia and
also in Assyria. The idol is considered to
have had the head, arms, and upper parts of
human form (1 Sam. v. 4), while the lower
parts tapered away into the tail of a fish.
Diodorus Siculus (ii. 4) mentions an idol,
called Dercetus. of similar form, as having
existed at Ashkelon, another Philistine town.
It is questionable whether the image of a
man with the extremities of a fish, which
■was found at Khorsabad, represents Dagon.

Da-la'iah. See Delaiah.

Da'leth.

The fourth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
The English letter D has the same origin,
and represents it in anglicized Hebrew names.
It stands at the head of the fourth section
of Ps. cxix., in which section each verse of
the Hebrew begins with this letter.

The two Hebrew letters, daleth and resh
(r), are somew'hat similar now, and at certain
stages of their development were distinguish-
able only when carefully written and on
close scrutiny. In the Siloam inscription, for
example, they are written ^ and ^ and
on Hebrew coins C^ and <J. This similarity
caused constant difficulty to readers and copy-
ists, and frequently misled them as to the
true spelling of words, especially of obscure
names where no guide to the original form
existed.

Dal-ma-nu'tha.

A place on the western shore of the sea
of Galilee in the vicinity of Magdala (Mark
viii. 10; cp. Mat. xv. 39). The exact situation
is unknown.

Dal-ma'ti-a.

A region on the eastern shore of the Adri-
atic Sea, with the small but numerous adja-
cent islands. It is traversed by the Julian
continued as the Dinaric Alps, a part of the
giant rauge separating Italy from France,
Switzerland, and Germany. The mountain
tribes were subdued in A. V>. 9 by the Eomans
under Augustus Csesar and Tiberius, the
future emperor, and the province of Dalmatia
was erected. It was regarded as part of
lUyricum, which constituted the limit of
Paul's missionary journeys in that direction
(Rom. XV. 19). His associate Titus, after
being for a time with Paul in the Italian
capital, departed to Dalmatia, perhaps to

plant the gospel among its wild inhabitants
(2 Tim. iv. 10).

Dal'phon.

A sou of Haman (Esth. ix. 7).

Dam'a-ris.

A woman converted through Paul's preach-
ing at Athens (Acts xvii. 34).

Dam-a-scene'.

A native or inhabitant of Damascus (2 Cor.
xi. 32).

Da-mas'cus.

A city of Syria, on a plateau watered by
the rivers Abana and Pharpar (2 Kin. v. 12).
The tableland is about 2200 feet above the
level of the sea, at the eastern foot of the
Antilibanus chain of mountains, and contains
about 500 square miles. Where watered by
channels from the rivers, it is exceedingly
fertile, so that the city is embosomed in
gardens and orchards, in refreshing contrast
to the neighboring desert. Three great trade
routes center at Damascus; one leads south-
westward to the Mediterranean seacoast and
Egypt, another runs south to Arabia, and the
third crosses the desert to Bagdad. The city
is very ancient. It is mentioned as early as
the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15). In the
days of David, Damascus was one of several
petty states of southern Syria. It was cap-
tured aud garrisoned by David (2 Sam. viii.
5, 6 ; 1 Chron. xviii. 5, 6). After he smote
the Syrian kingdom of Zobah, a man called
Rezou, a former subject of the king of Zobah,
collected a band of men, seized Damascus,
and founded the Syrian kingdom, which
henceforth was so often in conflict with
Israel (1 Kin. xi. 23, 24). Damascus was the
capital of Hezion, Tabrimmon, and the Beu-
hadads (1 Kin. xv. 18, 20; xx. 34; 2 Kin.
viii. 7), of Hazael (1 Kin. xix. 17; 2 Kin.
viii. 8-15), aud of Rezin (xvi. 5). Tabrimmon
and the first Benhadad were in league with
the king of Israel (1 Kin. xv. 18 ; 2 Chron.
xvi. 2). Ahab renewed the covenant, obtain-
ing the right to establish streets of bazaars in
Damascus (1 Kin. xx. 34). At this period
Damascus took a leading i>art among the
western nations in resistance to Assyria. In
alliance with kings of the seacoast and Ahab
of Israel it met Shalmaneser at Karkar in
854 B. c, but was defeated. In 841 its king
Hazael was also defeated by Shalmaneser. It
was the residence of Naaman, captain of the
army under the second Benhadad (2 Kin. v.
1, 121. When Rezin of Damascus and Pekah
of Israel planned to as.sault Jerusalem, Ahaz
of Judah called in Tiglath-pileser, king of
Assyria, who captured Damascus, carried the
inhabitants captive to Kir, and killed Rezin
(2 Kin. xvi. 5-9; Is. vii. 1-viii. 6: x. 9). This
destruction is referred to by Amos (i. 3-5).
But Damascus soon regained its prosperity
(Ezek. xxvii. 18). From the Assyrians Da-
mascus passed to the Babylonians, from them
to the Persians, and then to the Macedonian
Greeks. It was one of the ten cities origin-

Dan

154

Dan

ally forming the Decapolis. It was taken by
the Roman general Metellus, and in the year
63 B. c. became a Roman province. Many
Jews dwelt in Damascus, and supported sev-
eral synagogues (Acts ix. 2; War ii. 20,2).
Near Damascus Saul of Tarsus, when on his
way to persecute the Christians of the city,
was smitten to the earth and heard the heav-
enly voice (Acts ix. 2, 3, 10; xxii. 6, 10, 11,
12;' xxvi. 12) ; and from the walls he was let
down, now himself a Christian, to escape the
fury of the Jews (Acts ix. 24, 25 ; cp. xxvi.
20 ;' Gal. i. 17). The traditional street called
Straight is about two miles long, and runs
from northeast to southwest, almost through
the center of the city. It is a poor street now,
but in the time of Paul it was a magnificent
thoroughfare, flanked with Corinthian col-
umns. At its eastern end is the east gate of
the city. The large gateway, 38 feet high

East Gate of Damascus.
The small gate on the nonli of the closed Roman arch-
way leads to the northern Roman .side gate, and is the
present entrance to the city. A mmaret rises above
the gate.

and 20 feet wide, and the two smaller side
gates were built by the Romans, probably as
early as the time of Paul. Of these the cen-
tral and southern archways have long been
built up with masonry, leaving only the
small northern side gate open. In Paul's
time the city was in the hands of Aretas,
king of Arabia Petrtea, but it soon reverted
to the Romans (2 Cor. xi. 32). In A. D. 634
Damascus was invested and in 635 captured
by the Arabs under Omar. In 1300 it was
plundered by the Tartars, and in 1400 by
Timur the Tartar. Since 1516 it has been
held by the Turks. In July, 1860, 6000
oriental Christians were massacred by a Mo-
hammedan mob composed of Druses and
Bedouin, assisted by Turkish soldiers.

Dan [a judge].

1. A sou of Jacob by Bilhah (Gen. xxx.
5, 6), He had one son, Hushim (Gen. xlvi.

23) or Shuham (Num. xxvi. 42). The future
destiny of his descendants was thus predicted
by Jacob: "Dan shall judge his people, as
one of the tribes of Israel. Dan shall be a
serpent in the way, an adder in the path,
that biteth the horse's heels, so that his rider
falleth backward " (Gen. xlix. 16, 17, R. V.) ;
meaning that his tribe would contend with
the foes of Israel as earnestly and craftily as
would any of the tribes. Speaking on the
same subject Moses compared Dan to a lion's
whelp that leapeth forth from Bashan (Deut.
xxxiii. 22).

2. The tribe to which Dan gave origin, and
the territory in Canaan which it obtained by
allotment (Num. i. 12, 38. 39). Its assigned
territory contained, among other towns,
Zorah, Ajalon, Ekron, Eltekeh, and ended
opposite Japho — i. e. Joppa (Josh. xix. 40-46 ;
xxi. 5, 23; cp. Judg. v. 17). The Danites,
however, did not possess themselves of all
this region, but were restricted by the Amor-
ites to the hill country (Judg. i. 34, 35).
Cramped for room, they sent spies to the ex-
treme north of Palestine to look for a new
location, who found what they desired in the
town of Laish, occupied by foreigners. The
Danites sent an expedition, seized the place,
slew its inhabitants, and rebuilt it under the
new name of Dan (Josh. xix. 47 ; Judg. xviii.
1-31). Aholiab and Samson wei"e Danites (Ex.
xxxi. 6 ; Judg. xiii. 2, 24).

3. A town in the extreme north of Pales-
tine, the phrase "from Dan to Beersheba "
or "from Beersheba to Dan" denoting the
land in its entire extent from north to south
(Judg. XX. 1 ; 1 Chron. xxi. 2). The town
was originally called Laish, lion, or Leshem,
perhaps place of lions (Leshani from lai/ish, as
Etam from 'ayit). The name Dan was given to
it after its capture by the Danites (Josh. xix.
47; Judg. xviii.). Abraham pursued Chedor-
laomer as far as Dan (Gen. xiv. 14) ; thought
by some to be Dan-jaan (q. v.). But Dan-
jaan may be Laish, that is Dan ; if so, the
familiar name Dan has supplanted the older
designation in Genesis (cp. Deut. xxxi v. 1)
At Dan Jeroboam fixed one of his golden
calves (1 Kin. xii. 29, 30; 2 Kin. x. 29 ; Amos
viii. 14). Bcnhadad destroyed the town with
other places in its vicinity (1 Kin. xv. 20 ; 2
Chron. xvi. 4) ; but it was rebuilt (Ezek.
xxvii. 19). Dan was in a fertile valley by
Beth-rehob (Judg. xviii. 9. 28), near Lebanon,
at the sources of the lesser Jordan (Antiq. v.
3, 1 ; viii. 8, 4), near the marshes of the
waters of Merom (War iv. 1, 1), and four
Roman miles west of Pancas (Onom). These
statements indicate Tell el-Kadi, which sig-
nifies mound of the judge, and thus pre-
serves, though perhaps accidentally, the sense
of the old name Dan. At the base of this
mound are two springs, whose waters pres-
ently unite and form the river Leddan, the
shortest but most abundant in water of the
three streams which flow together a few miles
below and form the Jordan.

Dance

155

Daniel

Dance.

On joyous occasions of a secular or seiui-
secuhir character danciug, accomiianitd by
music, was i)racticcil among the Hebrews by
women, either singly or in groups, especially
iu welcomiug a victor home (Judg. xi. 34 ; 1
Sam. xviii. (i, 7 ; xxix, 5 ; cp. Jer. xxxi. 4, 13).
Children, apparently of both sexes, took part
iu dances (Job xxi. 11 ; Mat. xi. 17 ; Luke vii.

manifest uncompromising principle, even
when it brought them face to face with
death. They were given service at court,
and Daniel continued in it with varying
prominence during the existence of the dy-
nasty (21). In Nebuchadnezzar's .second
year Daniel intei-preted the dream in which
the king saw the great image ( ii. 1-4G), which
I led to the prophet's being made ruler over

Two i^teps in an Ancient Egyptian Dance,
Followed by a revolution of the body in two movements without uuclaspiug the hands.

32). Jlen probably engaged in dances among
themselves, as they did iu Egypt (Ps. xxx.
11; Lam. v. 15: Ecc. iii. 4; Luke xv. 25).
Only on one occasion do we find a Jewish
princess dancing publicly in an assembly of
men after the Eoman manner ; acting a myth-
ological story with the face masked, but with
the body clothed so as to exhibit the beauty
of the figure (Mat. xiv. 6; Mark vi. 22).
Dancing as part of a religious ceremony or
as an act of worship seems to have been com-
mon among the Hebrews. It was practiced
chiefly by women (Ex. xv. 20 ; Judg. xxi. 21,
23), but occasionally by men, as in the well-
known instance of David's dancing before the
ark (2 Sam. vi, 14-23 ; 1 Chron. xv. 29 ; Ps.
cxlix. 3; cl. 4). Dancing before images was
common among idolaters (Ex. xxxii. 19; 1
Kin. xviii. 26).

Dan'iel [God is my judge].

1. Son of David and Abigail, bom at He-
bron (1 Chron. iii. 1). He is called Chileab
in 2 Sam. iii. 3.

2. The celebrated JeAvish prophet at the
Babylonian court. He sprang from good
family of the tribe of Judah (Dan. i. 1-7).
When a youth, he was carried ofl" with other
captives by Nebuchadnezzar after his first
siege of Jerusalem, iu the third year of king
Jehoiakim, about 605 b. c. (i. 1 ; cp. 2 Kiu.
xxiv. 1-5 : 2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8). With three
companions, the future prophet obtained
leave from the master of the eunuchs, under
whom he and they had been put for instruc-
tion, to substitute simple food for the viands
assigned them by the king and which were
liable to be contrary to the Mosaic law and
defiled by heathen rites (Dan. i. 8). The four
young exiles all became proficient in learn-
ing, while the grace of God enabled them to

the province of Babylon, and head over its
wise men (46-49). He afterwards interpreted
the vision which revealed the approaching
madness of Nebuchadnezzar (iv.). About
this time Ezekiel cited Daniel as a notable
example of righteou.sness and wisdom i Ezek.
xiv. 14 ; xxviii. 3). In the first year of Bel-
shazzar he himself had a vision aud saw,
under the figure of animals, four successive
Asiatic kingdoms to the time when the an-
cient of days should sit, and one like a son
of man come with the clouds of heaven to set
up a spiritual kingdom which should endure
eternally (vii.). The scene of the vision
of the third year of Belshazzar was at Shu-
shan (viii. 2), the Elamite capital, and resi-
dence of the already renowned Cj-rus, king
of Persia (viii. 20; and see Cyeus). The
prophet himself was probably at Babylon
(cp. Ezek. viii. 1-3). In this vision he saw
a ram trampled by a goat, and from the head
of the latter, when its power was in turn
broken, four horns appearing, from one of
which a little horn sprang and wrought
proudly, especially toward the glorious land
aud its sanctuary ; whereby were symbolized
the Medo-Persiau and Macedonian empires,
the division of the latter into four kingdoms,
the rise of a fierce king and his desecration
of the sanctuary (viii.). On the fall of the
Babylonian empire, Darius, in behalf of the
conqueror, appointed 120 satraps over the
new kingdom, with three presidents over
them, Daniel being one of the three (vi. 1. 2 ;
see Cyrus). In the first year of Darius,
Daniel concluded from the statements of
Jeremiah (xxv. 11, 12; xxix. 10) that the cap-
tivity was approaching its close (Dan. ix. 1, 2).
He humbled himself, confessed his sins, and
prayed, in consequence of which he had re-
vealed to him the prophecy of the seventy

Daniel

156

Daniel

weeks (ix. 2). It was during this reign that
he was thrown into tlie lion's den, and then
miraculously delivered. In the third year
of Cyrus, king of Persia, he had a vision of
the overthrow of the Persian empire (x.-
xii.). As Daniel had prophesied during the
dynasty of Nebuchadnezzar, so he did during
the reigns of Darius the Mede and Cyrus the
Persian (vi. 28). He must have lived to an
advanced age. The time and manner of his
death are unknown. Daniel is referred to
in Ezek. xiv. 14 ; xxviii. 3; 2 Esdras xii. 11 ;
1 Mac. ii. 60 ; Mat. xxiv. 15 ; Mark xiii. 14 ;
Heb. xi. 33.

The Book of Daniel is a book of the O. T.
which in the Septuagint and English versions
follows Ezekiel, but in the Hebrew canon is
placed in the third division. That it was not
put with the prophets indicates that its writer,
although called a prophet (Mat. xxiv. 15 ;
Antiq. x. 10, 4 and fi), and one of the greatest
of them (Antiq. x. 11, 7), and although he was
marvelously gifted by the Spirit of prophe-
cy, was not regarded as officially a prophet.
He had the donum pi-opheticnm, but not the
munus propheticiim ; the prophetic gift, not the
prophetic vocation. He was officially a states-
man. He does not use the common pi-ophetic
declaration, "Thussaith the Lord," and he
does not exhort his contemporaries, as it was
the function of the prophets to do. The
greater part of the book is in Hebrew ; but
the portion which is concerned with the life
of the Jews in a foreign land and with the
deeds of foreign kings and with prophecies
concerning foreign empires, beginning with
the middle of verse 4, chap, ii., and extend-
ing to chap, vii., verse 28, is in Aramaic, the
commercial and diplomatic language of the
time (cp. similar phenomenon in Ezra). The
kings mentioned in the book are Nebuchad-
nezzar (i. 1 ; ii. 1 ; iii. 1) ; Belshazzar, his son
or descendant (v. 1, 2, 18, 22) ; Darius the
Mede (v. 31 ; vi. 1 ; ix. 1) ; and Cyrus the
Persian (vi. 28). The book maj^ be divided
into three sections : 1. Introduction, the prep-
aration of Daniel and his three companions
for their work (i.). 2. Witness borne by God
through the four, at a foreign court and
largely to foreigners, of his omnipotent and
omniscient control of the powers of the
world in their development and in their re-
lation to the kingdom of God (ii.-vii.). This
section is written in Aramaic. It includes
Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the image made
of four metals and its destruction (ii.) ; the at-
tempt against Daniel's three companions and
their deliverance from the lierj' furnace (iii.) ;
Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the tree hewn
down (iv.) ; the writing on the wall at Bel-
shazzar'sfeast (v.) ; the plot to destroy Daniel,
and his deliverance from the lion's den (vi.) ;
Daniel's vision of the four beasts (vii.). This
last is placed out of chronological order that
it may form the transition to 3. Supi)lenien-
tary visions of Daniel, having the fortunes
of God's people specially in view (viii.-xii.).

comprising three visions: (1) Concerning the
cessation of sacrifice, desolation of the sanc-
tuary, opposition to the prince of princes
(viii. ; cp. 13, 25). (2) In view of the near
completion of the predicted seventy years
of exile, Daniel prepared for the great event
by confessing national sins and supplicating
forgiveness. From prophecies gone before,
it might be sujjposed that the kingdom of
Messiah would be established immediately at
the expiration of the captivity ; but in a
vision Daniel is informed that 70 weeks
must elapse after the decree to rebuild Jeru-
salem is issued (cp. Neh. ii. 3-6), before recon-
ciliation is made, and everlasting righteous-
ness brought in (Dan. ix.). (3) He is further
informed by a vision in the third year of the
founder of the Persian empire in regard to
the overthrow of that empire, the persecu-
tion of God's people that shall ensue, and the
final relief of the saints and the resurrection
to glory (x.-xii.).

The essential integrity of the book is not
questioned ; it was written by one man. In
the first seven chapters Daniel is spoken of
in the third person and sometimes in com-
mendatory terms (i. 19, 20 ; ii. 14 ; v. 11, 12 ;
vi. 3 ; cp. Paul of himvself, 2 Cor. ii. 15 ; x. 8 ;
xi. 5, 23 seq.) ; and in the subsequent chap-
ters he speaks in the first person. Many
critics deny that the book was composed bj^
Daniel ; and their denial extends to those
parts in which the first person is used as well
as to that part where the third jierson is em-
ployed. They date its publication about
168 or 167 B. c, and believe that it was
penned to support the faith of the Jews un-
der the dreadful persecution then raging
under Antiochus Epiphanes. The chief ar-
guments against the genuineness of the book
are : (1) Daniel is not mentioned among the
worthies by the son of Sirach in the book of
Ecclesiasticus, about 200 b. c. (xlix.), although
he mentions Ezekiel, Nehemiah, and the
minor prophets. (2) The writer's use of Greek
words, which indicate that he lived in the
Grecian period. (3) Historical inaccuracies,
which show that he was not an eyewitness
of the events which he describes, but lived
at a remote period from them. (4) The
prophecies give details of history until the
death of Antiochus Epiphanes only.

These arguments are answered as follows :

(1) The son of Sirach neglects to mention
Daniel, it is true ; but he also fails to mention
Ezra and other notable men, like Gideon^
Samson, and Jehoshaphat.

(2) The Greek words are confined to the
names of musical instruments and are all
found in one verse, iii. 5. The (ireek origin
of at least two of these names is freely
granted : p'sant'riu for the Greek psalterion,
and sumpon'ya for sumphonia. But does this
fact militate against the composition of the
book by Daniel in Babylon about 530 B. c. ?
By no means; for instruments such as those
described were in use in the Tigris and Eu-

Daniel

157

Dan-jaan

phrates valleys in Daniel's day. Moreover,
there is no question tliat at that time and in
that region music was a feature in triumphal
processions and court life. Captives from
distant lands were employed to play on their
own instruments of music. Ashurbanipal so
used Elamites. Sennacherib carried off from
Judah singing men and singing women. Of
the captive Jews the songs of Zion and the
music of the harp were demanded (Ps.
cxxxvii. 1-3). There was sufficient inter-
course also between the empires on the Tigris
and the western peoples to have led to the
introduction both of the Greek instruments
and their names. Assyrian kings from Sar-
gon, 7'2i2 B. c. onward, not to speak of earlier
monarchs, had led ofl' prisoners and received
tribute from Cyprus, Ionia, Lydia, and Cilicia,
which were Greek lands. Nebuchadnezzar
warred against the cities on the Mediter-
ranean. It would be in accordance with custom
for these conquerors to introduce Greek in-
struments and Greek-speaking musicians to
their courts. Finally, the language of the
passage in question is Aramaic, not Baby-
lonian. The Aramseaus had for centuries
been in contact with the west. Their language
was the international language of diplomacy
(cp. 2 Kin. xviii. 26), and they were the inter-
mediaries of trade, who handled the goods
of Orient and Occident. Their language ac-
quired an admixture of foreign words from
these sources. The writer of the Book of
Daniel is using Aramaic, and doubtless em-
ploys the names which were current among
the Aramaeans for instruments of this kind.
It is for those who base an argument on
these words against the genuineness of the
Book of Daniel, to show that they were not
current Aramaic before the sixth century

B. C.

(3) The asserted historical inaccuracies are
not statements which are disproved by his-
tory, but only statements which have seemed
difBcult to harmonize with the meager ac-
counts of secular historians. No contradic-
tion between Daniel's record and established
history has been proven. The asserted his-
torical inaccuracies have, moreover, been
steadily diminishing before the increasing
knowledge of the times of Cyrus. The ex-
istence of king Belshazzar was scouted : but
now the records contemporary with the cap-
ture of Babylon have made him a well-known
historical character ; explained why he raised
Daniel to the third place of power in the
kingdom instead of the second, for his father
and he already occupied the two higher
places of authority : and have made clear
why he and not Nabonidus is mentioned as
king at Babylon on the night of the capture
of the city, for Nabonidus was absent at the
time. They do not yet clear up the reference
to Darius the Mede receiving the kingdom,
but they show that the appointment of a re-
gent for Babj-lonia by Cyrus was in accord
with his policy. The queen's allusion to

Belshazzar as a descendant of Nebuchadnez-
zar is satisfactorily explained by the plausi-
ble assumption that Nabonidus had married
a priucess of the family of Nel)U(hadnezzar.
Moreover, Nabonidus claimed that descent
for himself. In his coronation inscription he
calls himself the mighty descendant of Nebu-
chadnezzar and Neriglissar (i?(f6. and Orievial
Record, Sept., 1896). In view of the revela-
tions of the cuneiform inscriptions, it is bold
to assert that there are historical inaccuracies
in the Book of Daniel.

(4) The prophecies do, indeed, give his-
torical details until the death of Antiochus
Epiphaues (viii.). But are the prophecies not
definite for the times after Antiochus? The
fourth kingdom described in chap. ii. and vii.
can be none other than the Roman empire :
for (1) A writer of the time of Antiochus,
who had the acquaintance with the history
of Babylon, Persia, and Greece, which is dis-
played in the book, could not have regarded
the kingdom of Antiochus as greater than
the empires which had preceded (ii. 40 ; vii.
19, 23). (2) The second empire, the Medo-
Persian, cannot be divided into two. since
the Median kingdom in its separate existence
was never an empire of world-wide sway.
Historically, Media and Persia were one em-
pire in the days of Median supremacy. There
was a change of dynasty, a Persian prince
obtained the throne of Media, and then the
Medo-Persian career of universal conquest
began. (3) Daniel speaks of the Medo-
Persian empire as one (v. 28 ; vi. 8 ; viii. 20).
(4) To divide the Medo-Persian empire into
two empires requires the iudentification of
the leopard with Persia instead of with
Greece. But the leopard has four heads
(vii. 6). Persia was not broken into four
parts, but the Macedonian empire was (viii.
21, 22; xi. 2-4). The fourth kingdom is
therefore the Roman empire, which suc-
ceeded to universal empire at a time subse-
quent to Antiochus, and in its later develop-
ment is accurately described in the Book of
Daniel (cp. Antiq. x. 11, 7).

The Book of Daniel is quoted by Christ as
the work of that jirophet and statesman
(Mat. xxiv. 15). Josephus believed that the
prophecies of Daniel were in existence be-
fore the time of Alexander the Great, 330
B. c. (Antiq. xi. 8, 5), yea, before the days of
Artaxerxes (contra Apion. i. 8). The deliv-
erance of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego,
from the burning fiery furnace and of Daniel
from the lions' den are cited in 1 Mac. ii. 59,
60 ; cp. also i. 54 with Dan. ix. 27 ; xi. 31.

3. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, signed the covenant in the
days of Nehemiah (Ezra viii. 2 ; Neh. x. 6).

Dan-Ja'an.

A place between Gilead (or even between
the land of the Hittites toward Kadesh) and
Zidon (2 Sam. xxiv. 6). The ruin Danian,
on the coast midway between Acre and Tyre,

Danuah

158

Darius

can scarcely be its site, for the takers of the
census who left Dan-jaan did not reach Tyre
until they' had passed Zidou. It may be
identical with Dan, the conventional ex-
treme north of the country (cp. the connec-
tion of each with Zidon, Judg. xviii. 28). The
ancient versions indicate that Dan-jaan is a
corruption for Dan-jaar, and that Dan is de-
scribed as being in the forest.

Dan'nah [a low place, low ground].

A village in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 49). The situation of the other
towns of this group suggests a place much
farther south than Idhna, 8 miles west by
north of Hebron.

Da'ra. See Darda.

Dar'da [perhaps, pearl of wisdom].

A son of Mahol, family of Zerah, tribe of
Judah, who was celebrated for wisdom (1
Kin. iv. 31). In 1 Chron. ii. 6 the name ap-
pears as Dara.

Dar'ic.

A gold coin current in Persia, worth about
five dollars, which had on one side a king
with a bow and a javelin, while on the other
was a somewhat square figure ; see Money.
The chronicler reckons the value of the gold
contributed by the princes in David's reign for
the temple in darics (1 Chron. xxix. 7), not
because darics circulated in Israel as early as
David's reign, but because at the time of
writing the daric was familiar to his readers
and a common standard. The daric was cur-
rent in the Persian period (Ezra ii. 69; viii.
27 ; Neh. vii. 70, 71, 72 ; in A. V. dram).
The first issue was wont to be attributed to
Darius Hystaspis (cp. Herod, iv. 166) ; but
Prof. Sayce argues that daric really comes
from the Babylonian dariku, a weight or
measure which, like the English pound,
commencing as a weight became afterwards
a coin. Dariku figures in a contract in the
12th year of Nabonidus, five years before
Cyrus' conquest of Babylon, and long before
Darius was elected to the throne (Sayce,
Ezra, etc., p. 33). Silver darics were also
coined, which were worth about a shekel.

Da-ri'us [from Zend dara, king].

1. A king described as Darius the Mede,
son of Ahasuerus (Dan. v. 31 ; ix. 1). When
about 62 years old he was made king over
the realm of the Chaldeans after the capture
of Babylon by the army of Cyrus, and he
reigned a part of one year at least (v. 31 ;
xi. 1) before Cyrus (vi. 28). He set 120 satraps
over the kingdom (vi. 1). The satraps were
subject to three presidents, of whom Daniel
was one (2). Presidents and satraps were at
the court of Darius (6), and he had authority
to write unto all peoples, nations, and lan-
guages that dwell in all the earth or land
(25). He was inveigled into issuing the fool-
ish decree, for violating which Daniel was
cast into the lion's den (vi. 1-27). In his
first year Daniel saw the vision of the seventy
weeks (ix. 1-27). He has not been identified

with certainty, but was probably sovereign
of the Babylonian empire ad interim until
Cyrus, who was pressing his conquests, was
ready to assume the duties of king of Baby-
lon. Josephus says that he was son of
Astyages, but was known to the Greeks by
another name (Antiq. x. 11, 4). Perhaps, then,
he was Cj'axeres, son and successor of Astya-
ges and father-in-law and uncle of Cyrus
(Xenophon, Cyropaed. i. 5 ; viii. 7) ; or pos-
sibly Ugbaru, governor of Gutium, appar-
ently a province in western Media or on its
borders, who led the detachment of Cyrus'
army which captured Babylon, held the city
for at least four months nntil Cyrus arrived,
and is spoken of in this connection in a cunei-
form inscription as Cyrus' governor.

2. A king of Persia who in point of time
followed after Cyrus (Ezra iv. 5). When he
came to the throne, the building of the
temple had been suspended owing to com-
plaints from the jealous neighboring tribes ;
but Darius, on being applied to, caused a
search to be made at Achmetha, the Median
capital, where the edict of Cyrus permitting
the work to be undertaken was found (Ezra
vi. 1-12). The erection of the sacred edifice
accordingly recommenced in his second year,
sixth month, and twenty -fourth day (Ezra
iv. 24; Hag. i. 15; ii. 18), and on the third
day of the twelfth month of his sixth regnal
year was completed (Ezra vi. 15). The proph-
ets Haggai and Zechariah prophesied during
the reign of this monarch (Hag. i. 1 ; ii. 1,
10, 18 ; Zech. i. 1, 7; vii. 1), who was with-
out doubt the Darius Hystaspis of the classi-
cal writers, the Dara Gustasp of Zend writ-
ings. He was son of Hystaspes, which Latin
writers denoted by using the genitive case
Hystaspis. Through his father he belonged
to the family of the Achfemenides, which was
already represented on the throne by Cyrus
and Cambyses : but he was not in the line of
succession. The leading events of his life are
detailed in an inscription of Darius' own on
a rock at Behistun, about 60 miles southwest
of Hamadan. It is in three languages, Per-
sian, Babylonian, and Amardian or Elamite.
According to it, eight of his ancestors were
kings. Cambyses, Cyrus' son, put his brother
Bardes, called by Herodotus Smerdis, to
death, and some time afterwards committed
suicide. Then a Magian Gomates or Gaumata
started up, pretending to be Bardes, who he
alleged had not really been slain. According
to Herodotus (iii. ()7-79j, with whose narra-
tive the less detailed record on the stone
essentially agrees, evidence of the fraud was
discovered and a conspiracy formed against
Gomates by seven men of rank, one of whom
was Darius Hystaspis. In 521 b. c. they
slew the Magian and saluted Darius king.
Elam rose against the new monarch, but
was temporarily subdued. Babylon followed
under a leader called Nidintabel and stood
a siege of two years (520-519 b. c). When
it became known that Darius was detained

Darken

159

David

at Babylon, in conducting the siege, a general
revolt of the provinces constituting the em-
pire took place ; in fact, the empire fell to
pieces. Darius says: "While I was in Baby-
lon these provinces rebelled against me :
Persia, Susiana. Media. Assyria. Armenia,
Parthia, Margiana. Sattagydia, and the Saci-
ans." But he and his lieutenants subdued
them all. generally ending by impaling the
rebel leader. Biibylon. in 514 B. c revolted
anew under Arahu or Aracus, an Armenian ;
but the rebellion was put down, its leader and
his chief adherents being impaled. The walls
of the city were this time thrown down, and
a great step taken to that utter destruction
which the prophets .foresaw. Darius now
ruled over an empire extending eastward
into India and westward to the Grecian
Archipelago. He administered it, on the
whole, wisely and well. After an unsuccess-
ful campaign against the Scythians near the
river Don. in what is now Kussia, and a
quarrel with the Greeks, in which his gen-
erals Datis and Artaphernes were defeated in
490 B. c. at Marathon. Darius died at the age
of 73 (Ctesiasj in 466 B. c, after a reign of
36 years.

3. The last king of Persia, who reigned
from 336 to 330 B. c. His true name was
Codomannus. He was defeated by Alexander
the Great (1 Mac. i. 1 ; Antiq. x'i. 8, 3i, first
at Issus in 333, when he fled into Persia, and
again at Arbela in 331. He died about four
months later at the hands of his servants,
with Alexander in hot pursuit of him.

Dax'kon [scattering].

Founder of a family, part of the children
of Solomon's servants (Ezra ii. 56 ; Neh.
vii. 5S).

Date.

The fruit of the date palm or Phwnix dacfy-
lifera (2 Chron. xxxi. 5, A. V., margin), from
which honey was made (War iv. 8. 3). The
text and the E. V., like the Hebrew original,
use the general name honey, without specify-
ing the kind.

Da'than.

A son of EHab. a Eeubenite. who with
Abiram. his brother, and On, a man of the
same tribe, were prominent leaders in the
rebellion of Korah the Levite. Their griev-
ance was different from his. They thought
that the leadership of Israel should have
gone to the tribe to which they belonged, for
Reuben was Jacob's eldest son. Then, again,
they complained that Moses had taken them
from a country where there was plenty,
under the promise of leading them into a
land flowing with milk and honey, while in
fact all that he had done was to march them
up and down amid naked rocks and barren
sands (Num. xvi. 1-35. cp. 13, 14 ; xsvi. 7-11 ;
Deut. xi. 6 : Ps. cvi. 17).

Dath'e-ma.

A fortress into which the faithful Israelites
lied for safety in the time of Judas Maccabseus.

They were relieved by Judas and his brother
Jonathan. It cannot be certainly identified.

Daugh'ter.

Besides corresponding to the several senses
in which son is used, especially for child or
remoter female descendant or as an expres-
sion of tender sympathy for a woman (Gen.
XXX. 21 ; Ex. ii. 1 ; Luke xiii.l6; ilat.ix. 221,
daughter denotes a female inhabitant of a
country or town (Gen. xxiv. 3 ; Judg. xxi.
21). a female .worshiper of a god (Mai. ii. 11 ;
Is. xliii. 6), the suburb of a city (Num. xxi.
25, margin), the collective body of the citi-
zens of a town or country (Ps. ix. 14 ; cxxxvii.
8 ; Lam. iv. 21 ; Zech.' ii. 10). See Heie,
Marriage, Slave.

Da'vid [beloved].

Son of Jesse and second king of Israel. His
life falls into several distinct periods.

I. His youth, which was passed at Bethle-
hem of Judah. He was the youngest of eight
brothers (1 Sam. x^i. 10, 11 ; xvii. 12-14). In
the registry of the tribe of Judah f 1 Chron. ii.-
13-15) only seven of these sons of Jesse are
named, probably because one died without
issue. David's mother was tenderly remem-
bered for her godliness (Ps. Isxxvi. 16 ; cxvi.
16). His ancestral history was picturesque,
inspiring, and generally praiseworthy, but yet
at times tainted bv sin (Gen. xxxvii. 26, 27;
xxxviii. 13-29; xli'ii. 8, 9 : xliv. 18-34 ; Num.
i. 7; Josh. ii. 1-21; Ruth iv. 17-22). In
person he was ruddy and beautiful to look
upon (1 Sam. xvi. 12). As youngest son, he
was charged with the care of his father's
sheep, and he displayed his fidelity and
courage in this occupation by slaying both a
lion and a bear which attacked the flock
(11 ; xvii. 34-36). He possessed musical gifts
of high order, at this period playing skillfully
on the harp and later composing psalms.
When king Saul had been rejected by God,
the prophet Samuel was sent to Bethlehem
and directed to anoint David as Saul's suc-
cessor. There was no public proclamation of
David, lest the hostility of .Saul should be
aroused. At most, the act was performed in
the presence of the elders of the town, and,
so far as appears, no word concerning the
purpose of the anointing was spoken to the
audience (xvi. 4. 5, 13), though Jesse and
David were doubtless informed. It was a
crisis in David's history. The Spirit of the
Lord came mightily upon him. Still he did
not despise his humble, daily work.

II. His service under Saul. Saul, forsaken
by God, distressed by an evil spirit, and sub-
ject to melancholy and insanity, was advised
by his attendants to attach a harper to his
person to soothe him by music when dis-
turbed ; and one recommended David as a
cunning musician, a man of valor and ready
for war by reason of age, skill, and courage,
even though perhaps not as yet experienced
in battle, discreet, comely, pious (xvi. 14-18).
Saul summoned him, was benefited by his

David

160

David

music and pleased with his character, asked
Jesse that he juight remain, and appointed
him one of his armorbearers (19-23; cp. 2
Sam. xviii. lo). The service thus begun proved
a school for David. He learned war and gov-
ernment, liad intercourse with able men,
and saw the dark and bright side of court
life. David did not, however, as yet remain
continuously with Saul. The king's condi-
tion evidently improved, and David returned
frequently to Bethlehem to have an oversight
over his father's sheep (1 Sam. xvii. 15). While
he was on a visit home the Philistines in-
vaded Judah and encamped about 15 miles
west of Bethlehem. Saul led forth the army of
Israel to meet them. The three eldest broth-
ers of David were with the army, and after
they had been absent from home about six
weeks, their father sent David to inquire
about their welfare. Goliath's challenge
stirred his spirit. He felt certain that God
through him would remove the reproach from
Israel, and he asked who the Philistine was
that defied the armies of the living God. His
words were reported to Saul, who perceiving
the spirit by which the young man was ani-
mated intrusted the single combat to him.
David put off the armor with which Saul
had armed him, urging that he had not
proved it. He showed true genius. Goliath
was rendered slow of motion by weight of
armor ; the kind of weapon he carried obliged
him to fight at close quarters ; and he was
vulnerable only in the face, which under the
■circumstances was out of reach. David ap-
proached him, unhampered in movement by
any armor, with a sling, in the use of which
he was proficient, with five stones that could
he hurled from a distance, with the conscious-
ness of the righteousness of his cause and
with implicit confidence in God. The taunts
I)etween the two champions are characteristic
of ancient battle. Goliath fell, struck by a
stone from David's sling. After the combat
David, on his way to Gibeah of Benjamin
where Saul held court or to the tabernacle at
Nob, displayed the head of the giant at Jeru-
salem, apparently in defiance to the Jebusites,
who held the stronghold, and put the armor in
the tent which he thenceforth occupied (xvii.
54). The sword was deposited in the taber-
nacle (xxi. 9). When David had gone forth
to meet Goliath Saul, amazed at his spirit,
asked Abner whose son such a youth could
he ; and when David returned triumphant
the king put the same question to him, only
to receive the simple answer, "' I am the son
of thy servant Jesse the Bethlehemite." This
reply formed the sum and substance of the
interview (xvii. 55-xviii. 1) ; David's ances-
tors were not notable for heroic achievement.
The question of the king had also reference
to the rank and material condition of the
family, for Saul had promised to accept the
victor as son-in-law and to free his father's
family from taxation (xvii. 25 ; xviii. 18). He
found that he had no occasion to be ashamed

of the birth of his son-in-law. The victory
over Goliath was a second crisis in David's
life. The valor, modesty, and piety, which
he displayed won for him the disinterested
and enduring love of Jonathan (xviii. 1).
He was no longer permitted to repair period-
ically to his father's house, but he remained
continuously at court (2). The ovation which
he received aroused the jealousy of Saul,
who thenceforth was David's enemy (6-9).
Saul saw that Samuel's prediction of the
transfer of the kingdom from him to one
better than he (xv. 17-29) approached fulfill-
ment in David, and he attempted to prevent
it. He endeavored to slay David with his
spear (xviii. 10, 11). Failing in this, he re-
duced David in military rank and power
(13). He gave his daughter, whom he had
promised to David for a wife, to another
(17-19). He endeavored to entrap him to
death through his love for Michal (20-27).
As David grew in favor (29, 30) Saul's fear
increased, and he no longer concealed his
purpose to slay David (xix. 1). This purpose
was never after allowed by Saul's adherents
to be abandoned, but was fostered by a party
at court (xxiv. 9 ; Ps. vii. title). Appeased
for a time, his jealousy soon revived, and he
again attempted to smite David with his spear
(i Sam. xix. 4-9). Then he would have ar-
rested David, who, however, escaped through
Michal's deceit (10-17). David wrote Ps. lix.
at this time. He fled to Samuel at Eamah,
whither Saul sent to seize him (18-24) ; fled
next to Jonathan, who inquired and informed
him that there was no longer safety for him
at court (xx.).

III. The fugitive hero. Without confidence
in God and sunk in despair David fled from
Saul. Stopping at Nob, witliout faith, he
told a lie (xxi. 1-9) ; then hurried to Gath
and sought protection of Saul's enemy Achish.
The lords of the Philistines, however, refused
to harbor him who had formerly humiliated
them, and they seized David (14 ; Ps. Ivi.
title). He feigned madness and made him-
self despicable, and Achish drove him away
(Ps. xxxiv. title). He regained his faith in
Jehovah (Ps. xxxiv.), returned to Judah, and
abode in the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. xxii. 1),
but placed his parents in Moab (3, 4). A
motley company, mostly of unemi)loyed and
desperate men, numbering 400 at first, in-
creasing eventually to (500, began to join him.
Among these were Abiathar, the surviving
priest of Nob, who brought an ephod with
him, and the projihet Gad, whom David bad
probably met at Ramah (5, 20 ; xxiii. (j).
David thus had religious aid and companion-
ship. From Adullam he went to the relief
of Keilah and delivered the town out of the
hands of the Philistines (xxiii. 1-5). On
Saul's xireparing to attack him there, he lied
to the wilderness of Judah (14; Ps. Ixiii.),
whither Saul, at the instigation of the
Ziphites, pursued him until compelled to de-
sist by an incursion of the Philistines (1 Sam.

David

161

David

xxiii. 14-29). That trouble being settled, Saul
sought David in the wilderuess near En-
gedi. but was for the time conquered by the
kindness of Diivid, who had the king in his
power in the cave, but spared his life (xxiv. ;
Ps. Ivii. : cxlii.). David and his band of
armed followers protected the exposed prop-
erty of the Israelites from thieving maraud-
ers (1 Sam. xxiii. 1: xxv. 16, 21; xxvii. 8),
and naturally enough expected some return
in gifts of food. He did not levy tax or
demand regular contributions of provisions.
Nabal's scornful rejection of his request in-
censed him, and he was only saved from
shedding blood in his fury by the wisdom
and address of Nabal's wife ^xxv.), whom
David married after the death of her hus-
band. David again came into the neigh-
borhood of Ziph, and the Ziphites again in-
formed Saul, who marched against David.
David showed his magnanimity by not slay-
ing the sleeping king, but merely carrying
away from his side his spear and cruse of
water ixxvi.). Despairing of always escaping
Saul. David left Judah and obtained permis-
sion from Achish to occupy Ziklag, a frontier
town toward the southern desert. Here he
remained a year and four months, protecting
the Philistines by warring with the desert
tribes, yet sometimes wasting a remote vil-
lage even of Philistia (xxvii.). When the
Philistines went to Gilboa to war with Saul,
David was prevented from accompanying
them by the lords of the Philistines (xxviii.
1, 2 : xxix.). Returning, he found Ziklag in
ruins. He pursued the retreating invaders
and recovered the spoil (xxx.). When he
heard the result of the battle of Gilboa, he
mourned the fate of Saul and Jonathan in an
elegy (2 Sam. i.).

IV. King of Judah. On the death of Saul
the tribe of Judah, to which David belonged,
elected him king, and he began to reign in
Hebron (ii. 1-10), being then about thirty
years old (v. 4). The rest of the tribes, under
the leadership of Abner. one of the ablest
men of the time, set up Ish-bosheth, SauFs
son, at Mahanaim, and for the next two years
civil war raged between his partisans and
those of David. It ended by the assassina-
tion, sorely against David's will, both of
Abner and of Ish-bosheth (ii. 12-iv. 12).
David's reign at Hebron continued for seven
years and six months. He had already sev-
eral wives, and among the sons born to him
at Hebron were Amnon, Absalom, and Adoni-
jah ii. 11 ; iii. 1-5 ; \. 5).

V. King of all Israel. On the death of
Ish-bosheth, David was elected king over all
the tribes, and he at once set to work to es-
tablish the kingdom (v. 1-5). Various towns
in the territory of Israel were garrisoned by
the Philistines, and others were held by the
Canaanites. David began a siege of the
Jebusite stronghold at Jerusalem. It was
deemed impregnable by its inhabitants, but
David took it by storm. He wiselv made it

11

his capital, and erected a palace there by the
skill of Tyrian artificers. The new capital
stood on the border of Judah and Israel. Its
situation tended to allay the jealousy between
north and south. Its deliverance from the
hands of the Canaanites opened the highway
between Judah and the north, facilitated in-
tercourse, and tended to further cement the
kingdom. The Philistines twice invaded the
land, and twice suffered defeat near Jerusalem
(v. 17-25; 1 Chron. xiv. 8-17). The king
followed up the second victory by invading
the country of the Philistines, took Gath, and
by this conquest and by brief campaigns later
(2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) so completely subjugated
the Philistines that these hereditary enemies
ceased to trouble Israel for centuries. The
kingdom being established. David turned his
attention to religious affaii^s. He brought
the ark, with ceremony, sacrifices, and re-
joicing, from Kirjath-jearim (Josh. xv. 9; 2
Chron. i. 4), and placed it within a tabernacle
which he had pitched for it in the city of
David (2 Sam. vi. 1-23; 1 Chron. xiii. 1-14;
XV, 1-3). Next he organized the worship on
a magnificent scale (1 Chron. xv. ; xvi.), and
planned a splendid temple [2 Sam. vii. 1-29 ;
1 Chron. xvii. 1-27; xxii. 7-10). Through
the divine favor he now became very pros-
perous. To insure the safety of the nation,
to keep it from idolatrous contamination, and
to avenge insult offered to it, he waged war
with surrounding nations, and subdued the
Moabites, the Aramaeans of Zobah and Da-
mascus, the Ammonites, the Edomites, and
the Amalekites (2 Sam. viii. 1-lS : x. 1-19 ;
xii. 26-31), thus extending his kingdom to
the limits long before promised to Abraham
(Gen. XV. 18). It was during the Ammonite
war that David committed his great sin in
the matter of Uriah the Hittite, for which God
rebuked him through Xathan the prophet,
and imposed the penalty that the sword
should never depart from his house (2 Sam.
xi. 1-xii. 23). David sincerely repented (Ps.
Ii.). The chastisement was partly direct and
partly the natural fruit of his example and
transmitted character. The child died [2 Sam.
xii. 19). Lawless lust and lawless vengeance
were manifested in his own family (xiii.).
Lawless and unfilial ambition triumphed for
a time in his family and led to civil war
(xiv.-xix.). The 5|iirit of dissatisfaction and
tribal jealousy fomented by Absalom showed
itself after the suppression of Absalom's re-
bellion once more in the revolt of Sheba
(XX.). David solemnly satisfied justice, ac-
cording to the ideas of that age, in avenging
Saul's bloody violation of the treaty rights
of the Gibeonites (xxi.). He committed a
sin of pride in numbering the people, and
was punished by a pestilence (xxiv. ; 1 Chron.
xxi.). David was much occupied during his
reign with the organization of internal affairs
and with the preparation of material for the
erection of the temple. He closed his reign
by securing the succession to Solomon (1 Kin.

David, City of

162

Day

i.), and by providing that the guilt of some
who had escaped justice in his day should
not go unpunished (ii. 1-11). He died in his
seventy-first year, after having reigned forty
(or, more precisely, forty and a half) years,
seven and a half at Hebron and thirty-three
at Jerusalem (2 Sam. ii. 11 ; v. 4, 5 ; 1 Chron.
xxix. 27).

David early received the distinguished des-
ignation of the sweet singer of Israel (2 Sam.
xxiii. 1). Ancient Hebrew tradition, much
of which was unquestionably current about
David's own time and shortly after, ascribed
the composition of psalms to him both di-
rectly and indirectly. His fondness for music
is recorded in the historical books ; he played
skillfully on the harp (1 Sam. xvi. 18-23 ; 2
Sam. vi. 5), and he arranged the service of
praise for the sanctuary (1 Chron. vi. 31 ; xvi.
7,41,42; XXV. 1). He composed a lament
over Saul and Jonathan, and over Abner, and
a song of deliverance and last words (2 Sam.
i. 17-27 ; iii. 33, 34 ; xxii. 1-51 ; xxiii. 1-7).
His musical activity is referred to by Amos
(vi. 5), Ezra (iii. lO)", Nehemiah (xii. "24, 36,
45, 46), and the son of Sirach {Ecclus. xlvii.
8, 9). Such work on the part of David ac-
corded with the times, for poetry and music
had long been cultivated by the Hebrews as
well as by the Egyptians and Babylonians
(Num. xxi. 14; Judg. v.). Seventy-three
psalms are designated David's in their He-
brew titles ; and as in many cases the inten-
tion is to indicate that he is the author (cp. iii.,
vii., xxxiv., Ii., etc.), it is probably always the
intention. Lix. and perhaps vii. are assigned
to the time of his sojourn at Saul's coui-t;
xxxiv., Iii., liv., Ivi., Ivii., Ixiii., and cxlii., to
the period of distress when he was a fugitive ;
and iii., xviii., xxx., Ii., and Ix., to the years
of varied experiences when he was king.

Though at times David committed deep-
dyed sins, for which the early and compara-
tively dark period of the church's history in
which he lived and his own deep penitence
are his only defense, yet his general fidelity
to Jehovah was such that he was called the
man after Ciod's own heart (1 Sam. xiii. 14).
Speaking generally, he did that which was
right in the eyes of the Lord, save in the
matter of Uriah the Hittite (1 Kin. xv. 5).
He served his generation by the Mill of God,
and then fell on sleep (Acts xiii. 36). His
influence on mankind can scarcely be over-
estimated. He, rather than his predecessor
Saul, was the founder of the Jewish mon-
archy. His psalms, sung throughout Chris-
tendom century after century, revive his
spiritual influence. He was an important
link in the chain of ancestry of Him who
was at once David's son and David's Lord
(Mat. xxii. 41-45).
Da'vid, Cit'y of.

1. The Jebusite stronghold of Zion cap-
tured by David's men, and called by him
the city of David, because he made it his
royal residence (2 Sam. v. 6-9; 1 Chron. xi.

5, 7). Not the whole hill of Zion, but the
stronghold or castle upon some part of it,
probably its summit, was called the city of
David. The ark was brought thither by
David, and continued there till Solomon's
temple was built (2 Sam. vi. 10, 12, 16 ; 1 Kin.
viii. 1 ; 1 Chron. xv. 1-29 ; cp. xiii. 13 and 2
Chron. v. 2). David was buried there (1 Kin.
ii. 10). Solomon brought thither for a time
his first queen, Pharaoh's daughter (1 Kin.
iii. 1), though he afterwards erected a palace
for himself and her (vii. 1 ; ix. 24 ; 2 Chron.
viii. 11). He was buried in the city of
David (1 Kin. xi. 43; 2 Chron. ix. 31), as
were Rehoboam (1 Kin. xiv. 31; 2 Chron.
xii. 16) and many other kings (1 Kin. xv. 8,
24 ; xxii. 50 ; 2 Kin. viii. 24 ; ix. 28 ; xii. 21 ;
xiv. 20; XV. 7, 38 ; xvi. 20; 2 Chron. xiv. 1 ;
xvi. 14; xxi. 1, 20; xxiv. 16, 25; xxvii. 9).
Jehoiada, the high priest, was also interred
there (2 Chron. xxiv. 16). Hezekiah brought
the upper watercourse of Gihon to the west
side of the city of David (2 Clliron. xxxii. 30 ;
cp. xxxiii. 14). Millo was apparently within
its limits (2 Chron. xxxii. 5). In Nehemiah's
time there was a descent from the city of
David by means of stairs (Neh. iii. 15, 16 ;
xii. 37). It was fortified and garrisoned by
the Syrians and Greeks during the Maccabee
wars "(1 Mac. i. 33 ; ii. 31 ; vii. 32 ; xiv. 36, 37).
See Jkrusalem.

2. Bethlehem, the birthplace or at least the
home of David (Luke ii. 4).

Day.

1. An interval of time comprising the
period between two successive risings of the
sun (Gen. vii. 24 ; Job iii. 6). The Hebrews
reckoned it from evening to evening (Lev.
xxiii. 32; Ex. xii. 18; War iv. 9, 12). This
custom was probably due to the use of lunar
months, which began with the appearance of
the new moon. The exact designation of the
civil day accordingly was evening-morning or
night-day (Dan. viii. 14, margin ; 2 Cor. xi. 25).
But although the evening properly introduced
a new day, it was often reckoned in connec-
tion with the natural day which, strictly
speaking, it followed — e. g. the evening which
began the fifteenth of Nisan is designated by
the expression " the fourteenth day at even "
(Ex. xii. 18 ; cp. 2 Chron. xxxv. 1 ; see also
Lev. xxiii. 32). The days of the week were
numbered, not named. The only exception
was the seventh day, which was also called
Sabbath.

2. The interval between dawn and dark-
ness (Gen. i. 5 ; viii. 22). It was divided into
morning, noon, and evening (Ps. Iv. 17 ; cp.
Dan. vi. 10) ; or its time was indicated by
reference to sunrise, heat of the day, cool of
the day, sunset, and the like. After the ex-
ile the use of hours became common, and the
day from sunrise to sunset was divided into
twelve hours (Mat. xx. 1-12 ; John xi. 9) ;
the sixth hour being noon (John iv. 6 ; Acts
X. 9).

3. Any period of action or stat« of being

Daysman

163

Dead Sea

(Zech. xii. 3 scq.) ; as day of trouble (Ps. xx.
1), day of his wrath (Job xx. 28), day of the
Lord (Is. ii. 1'2 : xiii. (i, S) ; in the N. T. spe-
cially of the second advent of Christ, 1 Cor.
V. 5 • 1 Thes. V. 2 : 2 Pet. iii. 10). So also in
the phrase "iu the day that.'' which is
equivalent to •"when" (Gen. ii. 4, 17; Lev.
xiv. 2-20), and is often rendered so in the
English versions (Lev. xiv. 57 ; Num. vi. 13 ;
1 Sam. XX. lit; Ps. xx. 9).

Days 'man.

One who has appointed a day for hearing
a cause ; a mediator or an arbitrator (Job ix.
33).

Dea'con [Greek diakonos : in classical
writers a servant, a waiting man, a messen-
ger. It is used in this sense in Mat. xx.
26. wliere it is transhited minister, and is
distinguished from doulos, bond-servant or
slave, occurring in the next verse ; cp. also
Mat. xsiii. 11 ; Mark ix. 35 ; x. 43 ; John ii.
5, 9].

A Christian officer, whose spiritual and
moral qualifications are laid down in 1 Tim.
iii. 8. It is justly assumed that the seven
men chosen to relieve the apostles of the
secular care of the widows and other poor
people in the early church were deacons
(Acts vi. 1-6 ; cp. the words ministration,
diakoiiia, and serve, diakoneo, in vs. 1 and 2).
Their charge of the needy did not debar
them from the privilege of speaking publicly
for Christ, for Stephen and Philip labored also
as preachers and evangelists. They did so,
however, in the exercise of a personal gift
rather than of an official duty. A plurality
of deacons existed in the church at Philippi,
and shared with the bishops the duties of the
church (Phil. i. 1).

Dea'con-ess.

A female deacon ; like Phoebe, servant or
diakonos of the church at Cenchreae (Eom.
xvi. 1 ; see margin of R. V.). Deaconesses are
probably referred to in 1 Tim. iii. 11. The.v
existed in the churches of Bithynia as early
as A. D. 1(X), for Pliny, in his celebrated letter
to the emperor Trajan regarding the Chris-
tians, reports having examined " two old
women" of the Christian community "who
were called ministers" (ministrse).

Dead Sea.

The name now given to the sheet of water
called in the Bible the salt sea (Gen. xiv. 3;
Num. xxxiv. 12; Dent. iii. 17; Josh. iii. 16),
the sea of the Arabah or Plain (Deut. iii. 17;
Josh. iii. 16), and the east or eastern sea
(Ezek. xlvii. 18: Joel ii. 20; and R. V. of
Zech. xiv. 8). Josephus calls it Asphaltitis
(Antiq. i. 9, 1). It was named the Dead Sea
by the Greeks as early as the latter half
of the second century of the Christian era
(Pausanias). It is situated in the deep vol-
canic rent or fissure which runs through
Palestine from north to south ; and is fed
chiefly by the river Jordan, which empties
into it on an average six million tons of

water every twenty-four hours. Its surface
was ascertained by the officers of the ord-
nance survey to be 1292 feet lower than the
ocean level. The sea is like a long rectangle
with the angles beveled off: but its regular-
ity of form is interrupted by a projection
into its southeastern side of a great promon-
tory or peninsula called Lisan. or the Tongue.
The length of the sea from north to south is
on an average about 47 English miles, but it
varies, a large portion of the southern shore
being sometimes dry and sometimes covered
with water. The breadth a little north of
En-gedi is 9i miles, and it is nearly as much
everywhere north of the Lisan. Ancient
watermarks indicate that the area, especially
the length, was formerly much larger (War
iv. 8, 4). The Lisan is about 9 miles long
from north to south. Its banks are from
40 to 60 feet high ; while, according to Tris-
tram, its highest point is about 300 feet above
the water. Lieut. Lynch, who in 1848 led
an expedition for the exploration of the Jor-
dan and the Dead Sea, found the maximum
depth of the latter, as ascertained by sound-
ing, to be 1278 feet ; this was at a point
near the mouth of the Arnon. Soundings
farther north yield 13(K) feet. South of
the Lisan, on the contrary, the sea is quite
shallow. Except on the north side, where
the Jordan enters, the Dead Sea is nearly
surrounded by a rampart of clifTs, which in
some places leave a narrow beach between
them and the water, while in others they
themselves constitute the coast line. These
rise in successive terraces, which also exist
along the lower part of the Jordan valley.
On the western side, at En-gedi, the height
from the seashore to the top of the cliffs is
1950 feet; a little farther north, at Eas esh
Shufk, the top is 2519 feet above the Dead
Sea, i. e. 1227 above the Mediterranean. Far-
ther northward the elevation gradually de-
creases till it reaches 1400 feet above the Dead
Sea. These western cliffs contain deposits of
bitumen in both liquid and solid state. On
the eastern side the precipitous mountains of
Moab rise from 2500 to 3(X)0 feet above the
shore.

The Dead Sea is one of the most remark-
able sheets of water on the face of the earth.
No other one is known to occupy so deep a
hollow on the surface of the globe. Its
waters are much Salter than those of the
ocean, for while in the latter 100 lbs. of
water contain 6 lbs. of salt, in the former
100 lbs. of water contain from 20 to 27.8
lbs. of salt. In consequence of this, one
bathing in them finds himself almost ludi-
crously buoyant. But when he comes ashore
there is a greasy deposit of salt upon his
skin, which tortures him if there happens to
be a scratch or a brui.se on its surface. In
seeking an explanation of this saltness, un-
geological travelers point to a ridge of hills,
Jebel Usdum (Hill of Sodom), containing
rock salt, from which saline rills flow into

Dearth

164

Decapolis

the southwestern portion of the sea. Geolo-
gists, however, point out that the range of
hills is part of the old bed of the Dead Sea,
when the waters stood much higher than
now. The sea created the rock salt, instead
of the rock salt rendering an otherwise fresh-
water lake saline. The process was this :
the water of the Jordan contains a minute
portion of salt ; and there being no outlet from
the Dead Sea, the salt given it by the river
remains and accumulates year by year, while
the water with which it comes goes off to a
large extent in vapor, evaporation being im-
mense, since the air from the desert comes dry
and thirsty to an extraordinary degree. The
Scripture name, "Salt Sea," has been super-
seded by the name Dead Sea. Organic life
scarcely exists in its waters ; neither shell-
fish nor corals are found. The old belief,
however, that there is a total absence of life
in and around the sea is erroneous. Birds
frequent its shores or fly over its surface, as
they do that of other lakes and inland
seas ; vegetation flourishes on its shores at the
mouth of wadies and by springs of fresh
water ; and tishes, though woefully deficient,
are found, according to Lartet, in small num-
bers south of the Lisan. Ezekiel prophesied
the ultimate healing of the waters of the
Dead Sea, and the multiplication of fish till
the species for number should rival those
of the open Mediterranean (Ezek. xlvii.
6-12).

Dearth. See Famine.

De'bir.

1. A king of Eglon, ally of Adoni-zedek ;
defeated, captured, and executed by Joshua
(Josh. X. 3, 27).

2. A city in the hill country of Judah, yet
in the Negeb or south land. It was also
called Kirjath-sepher, which may mean city
of books and indicate a literary people ; and
Kirjath-sanuah, city of a palm tree or per-
haps peak (Josh. xv. 15, 19, 48, 49). In the
time of Joshua it was inhabited by Anakim,
had a king, and was head of other towns.
Joshua captured it and slew its inhabitants
(Josh. X. 38, 39 ; xi. 21 ; xii. 13) ; but it was
reoccupied by returned fugitives, and had to
be recaptured by Othniel (Josh. xv. 15-17 ;
Judg. i. 11, 12). It was assigned to the
priests (Josh. xxi. 13, 15; 1 Chron. vi. 57,
58). The most probable site proposed (better
perhaps than Dilbeh, 4^ miles southwest of
Hebron) is Dhaberiyeh, nearly 12 miles
southwest of Hebron, on a flat ridge, with
open, rocky ground all around. It is west
of the sites of Socoh, Anab, and Eshtemoh
(Josh. XV. 48-50). It is supplied from cis-
terns. The springs mentioned in Judg. i. 15
are not distinctly connected with Debir and
may be nearer Hebron.

3. A town on the boundary of the tribe of
Judah, near the valley of Achor (Josh. xv.
7). The name is perhaps preserved in ed-
Debr, a grotto near ed-Dumm, i. e. Adum-

mim, on the road between Jerusalem and
Jericho.

4. A place east of the Jordan, near Maha-
naim (Josh. xiii. 2(i). The margin of R. V.
has Lidebir. Perhaps Lodebar (q. v.).

Deb'o-rah [a bee].

1. Eebekah's nurse, who accompanied her
from Mesopotamia and lived until Jacob's re-
turn from Paddau-aram. She had perhaps
returned to her kindred in Haran after the
death of Eebekah and accompanied Jacob
back to Canaan, or she had gone to him when
he was sojourning at Shechem. At any rate
she was with him at Bethel. There she died
at the age of about 155 years, for she could
not have been much younger than Isaac. She
was buried at the foot of the hill on which
the town stood and under an oak, called in
consequence Allon-bacuth, oak of weeping
(Gen. xxiv. 59 ; xxxv. 8).

2. A prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth.
She dwelt under a palm tree, called after her
name, between Ramah and Bethel, in mount
Ephraim, and there judged the Israelites.
She summoned Barak to undertake the con-
test with Sisera, and accompanied him to the
rendezvous of his army (Judg. iv. 4-14).
Afterwards she composed a song of triumph
for the victory (v. 1-31 ; cp. 7).

Debt'or.

One who owes another money. To foster
the spirit of brotherhood and mutual help-
fulness, the Mosaic law ordained that the
creditor release his brother Israelite from all
obligations at the year of release, which re-
curred every seven years (Deut. xv. 1-4). In
the intervening years custom permitted the
seizure and enslavement of a debtor, his
wife, and his children (2 Kin. iv. 1 ; Neh. v.
5, 8 ; Is. 1. 1 ; Mat. xviii. 25). In the time
of Jesus, in accordance with Roman law, im-
prisonment was sometimes inflicted on a
debtor (Mat. v. 25; xviii. 30 ; Luke xii. 58).

De-cap'o-lis [an association of ten cities].

A district, beginning where the plain of
Esdraelon opens into the Jordan valley and
expanding eastward, which was dominated
by ten associated Greek cities. The Greek
population had come in the wake of Alex-
ander's conque-st. The ten cities originally
included in the association were Scythopolis,
i. e. Bethshean, Hippos, Damascus ; Gadara,
Raphana, Kanatha ; Pella, Dion, Gerasa, and
Philadelphia, i. e. Rabbath Amnion (Pliny,
His. nat. v. 16). Other towns were afterwards
added. Ptolemy enumerates eighteen. Three
roads connect Esdraelon with the commercial
highway which runs between Damascus and
Arabia along the margin of the desert. The
ten towns stood on these three roads and
on the highway. The district is called De-
capolita regio by Pliny (v. 15). Multitudes
from Decapolis followed .Tesus at an early
period of his ministry (Mat. iv. 25). The
Gadarene demoniac, when the evil spirit was
expelled, published his deliverance in Decap-

I

Dedan

165

Delaiah

Maf) of Ihe Region

o/lke

Decapo/is

/Uusfmling/iebr^w//is/ory

olis (Mark v. 20). Jesus traveled through
its midst on his way from Tyre and Sidon to
the sea of Galilee, approaching the lake from
the eastern side (vii. 31).

De'dan.

A Cushite people (Gen. x. 7), but also re-
lated to Abraham through Keturah (xxv. 3).
They were an important commercial people
(Ezek. xxvii. 15, 20; xxxviii. 13) of Arabia
(Is. xxi. 13), in the neighborhood of Edom
(Jer. xxv. 23 ; xlix. S ; Ezek. xxv. 13), where
caravan routes from southern, eastern, and
central Arabia converged. The name prob-
ably lingers in Daidan, to the west of Taima
and southeast of Aila. Formerly two distinct
tribes of Dedauites were assumed : one Sem-
itic, living near Edom ; the other Cushitic,
dwelling near Raamah (Gen. x. 7), which was
thought to have been situated on the coast of
the Persian Gulf. Raamah, however, is better
located in southwestern Arabia ; and then
Dedan was one jieople, centered near Taima,
and neighbor alike to the Edomites and the
inhabitants of Raamah.

Ded-i-ca'tion, Feast of.

An annual festival instituted by Judas
Maccabfeus in 165 b. c. to celebrate the re-
consecration of the temple to Jehovah after
it had been desecrated for three years by the
Greek idolatries carried on within its pre-
cincts by order of Antiochus Epiphanes (1

Mac. iv. 52-59). The feast lasted eight days,
beginning on the 25th of C'liisU'V (approxim-
ately November), and falling coiisecjuentlyin
winter. Jesus was at least once present at
Jerusalem during the festival, and delivered
one of his discourses to those assembled at
the temple for the celebration (John x. 22).
The Jews still observe the festival.

Deer.

The English name of the genus Cervua, or
of the family Cermdie. The word occurs only
in A. V. in the name fallow deer, but the
hart is frequently mentioned. Tristram
enumerates two species of the genus Cervua
as still occurring in Palestine, the roebuck
{Cerxms capreohis) and the fallow deer (Cer-
vus damn) ; whilst the teeth and bones of
three others, the red deer {Cerviis elaphus),
the reindeer (Cervus tarandus), and the elk
(Cervus alces), are found in bone breccia in
caves in the Lebanon mountains.

De-grees'.

A word occurring in the titles of fifteen
Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv. inclusive, which are
called Songs of Degrees. It is the rendering
of the Hebrew 3Ia'''loth, ascents or goings up
(Ezra vii. 9), steps (Ex. xx. 26; 1 Kin. x.
19). A Jewish tradition tells that the fifteen
Songs of Degrees were sung as an ascent was
made by fifteen steps from the court of the
women to that of the men, a view not now
generally entertained. Gesenius and De-
litzsch held that they were so called because
there is in their composition a certain pro-
gression, the concluding words of one sen-
tence being often the commencement of the
next, as — •

I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills
From whence cometh my help ;

My help cometh from the Lord,
Who made heaven and earth.

But the repetition is the exception rather than
the rule in these psalms. The common opin-
ion is that they were sung by the pilgrims
during the ascent to Jerusalem. Such a cus-
tom is, however, nowhere mentioned.

De-ha'ites, in A. V. De-ha'vites.

One of the tribes brought over to Samaria
from the Assyrian empire to replace the ten
tribes carried captive (Ezra iv. 9). Eawlin-
son believes that they were Dai or Dahi, a
nomad tribe of Aryan descent mentioned by
Herodotus (i. 125).

De'ker, in A. V. Dekar [perforation].

The father of Solomon's purveyor, Ben-
deker (1 Kin. iv. 9, R. V.).

De-la'iah, in A. V. once Dalaiah (1 Chron.
iii. 24) [Jehovah hath drawn out, i. e. deliv-
ered].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family,
grown to a father's house by the time of
David, was made the twenty-third course of
the priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 18).

2. A prince, son of Shemaiah, and one of

Delilah

166

Demoniac

those who urged kiug Jehoiakim not to burn
the roll containing the prophecies of Jere-
miah (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 25). Perhaps it is he
or his grandson who is incidentally men-
tioned later (Neh. vi. 10).

3. One of the Nethinim, and founder of a
family (Ezra ii. 60 ; Neh. vii. 62).

4. A son of Elioenai (1 Chron. iii. 24).

De-li'lah [delicate, wasted with longing or
desire].

The Philistine woman from the valley of
Sorek who lured Samson to his ruin (Judg.
xvi. 4-18).

De'los, in A. V. Delus.

A small island in the iEgean, celebrated as
the birthplace of Apollo and Diana. The
Eoman consul Lucius wrote to Delos con-
cerning a pact of friendship established be-
tween the Romans and the Jews (1 Mac. xv.
23). It was at that time the center of an
extensive commerce.

Del'uge. See Flood.
De'mas.

A fellow laborer of Paul, who sent saluta-
tions from Rome to the Colossians and to
Philemon (Col. iv. 14 ; Philemon 24). After-
wards he deserted the apostle from unwilling-
ness to suffer, and went to Thessalonica (2
Tim. iv. 10).

De-me'tri-us [belonging to Demeter, or
Ceres, the goddess of agriculture and rural
life].

1. Demetrius I., surnamed Soter, king of
Syria 162-150 b. c, nephew of Antiochus
Epiphaues. He had been kept as a hostage
at Rome ; but on hearing of his uncle's death
he made his escape, and arriving safely in
Antioch made himself master of the king-
dom, and put to death Lysias and the young
Eupator (1 Mac. vii. 1-4). In war with him
Judas Maccabaeus lost his life (ix. 1-19). In
152 B. c. Alexander Balas, witla the consent
of the Roman senate, claimed the throne.
The rivals met in a decisive battle in 150
B. c, and Demetrius was defeated and slain
(x. 48-50; Antiq. xiii. 2, 4).

2. Demetrius II., surnamed Nicator, son
of Demetrius I. In 148-7 B. c. he raised the
standard of revolt against Alexander Balas,
and with the aid of Ptolemy VI. defeated
him. Alexander fled into Arabia, where he
was murdered, and Demetrius became king
of Syria (1 Mac. xi. 15-19). But Alexander's '
general Tryphon almost immediately pro-
claimed Alexander's voung son Antiochus
king (39, 40). The struggle lasted until 138
B. c, when Demetrius, during a plundering
expedition in Persia, was taken prisoner by
king Arsaces and kept in bonds for ten j^ears.
Before his departure on this expedition he
gave the Jews their independence. Although
they fell under the power of the Syrians
again, this event was of national importance,
and they dated their independence from it
(1 Mac. xiii. 36-42 ; Antiq. xiii. 4, 9). Deme-

trius regained liberty and the throne in 128
B. c. An Egyptian pretender, supported by
Ptolemy VII., took the field against him.
Demetrius was defeated near Damascus, fled
to Ptolemais, and took ship to Tyre, where
he was murdered when about to land (Antiq.
xiii. 9, 3).

3. A silversmith at Ephesus, who made for
sale silver models of the celebrated temple
of Diana. Believing his craft to be in danger
from Christianity, he excited his fellow work-
men against Paul, and stirred up the riot in
which the mob cried for two hours, " Great
is Diana of the Ephesians" (Acts xix. 24-41).

4. An approved Christian, commended by
John also (3 John 12).

De'mon [among the Greeks, (1) a god or
deity in general ; (2) one's genius ; (3) one's
fortune ; (4) the soul of some man belonging
to the golden age, now acting as a tutelary
divinity; a god of inferior rank].

An evil spirit (Luke viii. 29; x. 17-20).
The designation is applied especially to the
gods of the heathen (Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps.
cvi. 37 ; and margin of 1 Cor. x. 20, and cp.
Rev. ix. 20; all R. V.), and to inferior evil
spirits, subject to the devil (Mat. xii. 24-27 ;
Luke iv. 33 ; Jas. ii. 19 ; Rev. xvi. 14 ; all
margin of R. V.) ; see Demoniac.

De-mo'ni-ac [possessed by a demon].

A person possessed and ruled by a demon
(Mat. iv. 24, R. V. margin). The inhabitation
of such a being in some cases affected the
person physically, and produced certain ordi-
nary diseases. Thus one possessed boy is de-
scribed as having a deaf and dumb spirit and
as being affected at intervals with morbid
symptoms resembling those of epilepsy (Mark
ix. 14-29; cp. Mat. xvii. 15, 18; Luke ix.
37-42). Hence the opinion of many is that
possession was simply a Jewish hypothesis to
account for bodily and mental diseases and
for the visible effects on body and will of en-
slavement to sin. But this view takes no
note of the fact that the demons speak (Mark
i. 23, 24; iii. 11, 12; v. 7); that they pos-
sessed at times knowledge beyond that of
men ; as, for example, of the divinity of
Christ (Mark i. 24) ; that they recognized
their own distinct individuality independent
of Jesus and independent of the person pos-
sessed (Mat. viii. 31) ; that the distant herd
of swine became frenzied when the demons
were cast out of the demoniac of Gadara and
allowed to enter into them (Mat. viii. 30) ;
that Jesus apparently recognized them as
actually existing beings, and instructed his
disciples, saying : " This kind can come out
by nothing, save by prayer" (Mark ix. 29,
R. V.) ; and that later, when the disciples re-
ported that even the demons were subject unto
them in his name, Jesus replied : " I beheld
Satan as lightning fall from heaven. . . .
Notwithstanding in this rejoice not, that the
spirits are subject unto j^ou ; but rather re-
joice, that your names are written in heaven "

Deputy

167

Deuteronomy

(Luke X. 17-20). Man was himself respon-
sible for his hideous visitor. Probably not
until a person was degraded and weakened by
sin, personal or inherited, might he be taken
captive by a demon (1 Sam. xvi. 14; with
xiii. 8-14;" xv. 10-31).

Dep'u-ty.

One empowered to act for another, gener-
ally of higher rank than himself; as a re-
gent ruling in place of a king (1 Kin. xxii.
47) : an official invested with the powers and
rank of a Roman consul (Acts xiii. 7 ; xviii.
12 : xix. 38, A. V.) ; see Pkoconsul.

Der'be.

A city in the southeastern part of Lycaonia,
in Asia Minor. Paul was stoned and left for
dead at Lystra, on his first missionary jour-
ney. On reviving, he went to Derbe (Acts
xiv. 6. 20). On his second journey he again
passed through it, and either there or at
Lystra made the acquaintance of Timothy
(xvi. 1). Gaius was a native of Derbe (xx. 4).
The ruins of a town on lake Ak Gul near
Divle have been supposed to mark the site
•of Derbe ; but Prof. Ramsey believes with
Prof. Sterrett that the site is Zosta on the
road which ran from Cilicia Tracheia through
Laranda to Iconium.

Des'ert.

1. A rendering of the Hebrew Midhar and
the Greek Eremos, an unenclosed, unculti-
vated plain, where wild beasts roam at will
(Job xxiv. 5) ; often terrible in its solitude
and desolateness (Dent, xxxii. 10 ; and A. V.
of Ls. xxi. 1), yet also capable of aflbrding
pasturage (Ex. iii. 1, A. V.). The words are
usually rendered wilderness (Gen. xvi. 7;
xxi. 20; 1 Sam. xvii. 28; xxv. 21 ; Mat. iii.
1 ; Mark i. 13; Luke xv. 4).

2. A rendering of the Hebrew '"rabah, arid
region (Is. xxxv. 1, 6; li. 3). With the defi-
nite article the word specially denotes the
plain of the Jordan and Dead Sea (Ezek.
xlvii. 8; 2 Sam. ii. 29), and is rendered in
the R. V. as a proper name, Arabah.

3. A rendering of the Hebrew Y'shimon, a
waste, a desolation (Ps. Ixxviii. 40; cvi. 14;
Is. xliii. 19, 20). When the definite article
is prefixed it is rendered as a proper name,
Jeshimon (Num. xxi. 20, A. V. and margin
of E. v.).

4. A rendering of the Hebrew H'raboth,
waste, desolate jilaces (Is. xlviii. 21). In Ps.
cii. 6 ; Ezek. xiii. 4 the R. V. translates
it waste places.

De-u'el [invocation of God].

A Gadite, the father of Eliasaph (Num. i.
14 : vii. 42 ; x. 20). Called in ii. 14 Reuel,
which means "friend of God." It is uncer-
tain which of these two forms is correct.
The Samaritan text has Deuel everywhere,
whereas the Septuagint and the Syriac trans-
lators read Reuel ; see Daleth.

Deu-ter-on'o-my [repetition of the law].

The name, derived from the Septuagint, of
the fifth book of the Pentateuch. The Greek

word, of which Deuteronomy is the English
form, is used in the Septuagint to translate
the expression "copy of this law" in chapter
xvii. 18. But this book is not merely the
repetition or copy of laws already given. It
is a rehearsal under i)eculiar circumstances
aud for a special puri)ose. In Exodus, Le-
viticus, and Numbers, the legislation is repre-
sented as in process of enactment, the occasion
or the time when the successive installments
were received is commonly stated, and each
body of statutes is severally declared to pro-
ceed from God. In Deuteronomy, on the
other hand, the law is represented, not as
being enacted, but as being rehearsed and
expounded. Thirty and eight years have
ehijised since the greater ])art of the old leg-
islation was given. The new generation, on
the eve of taking possession of Canaan, is
summoned to hear the law of the nation, to
be instructed in the application of its prin-
ciples to the new circumstances which
await them, to have their apprehension of
its spirituality quickened, and then to intel-
ligently renew the covenant made with their
fathers. Instead of the Lord speaking unto
Moses, it is now Moses at the command of
God speaking to the people (i. 1-4 ; v. 1 ;
xxix. 1). The book consists first and mainly
of an address delivered in three installments,
committed to writing, aud solemnly ratified
as a covenant (i.-xxx.). Firxt Address, i. fi-
iv. 40 ; with supplementary statement, 41-49 :
Rehearsal of the history of the people since
the covenant was made with the preceding
generation at Sinai as a motive for obedience
to Jehovah's laws. The speaker is declared
to be Moses (i. 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, IG, 19, etc.) : the
date is the 40th year, 11th month, 1st day ;
after the smiting of Sihon and Og, and after
the sin in the matter of Peor (i. 3, 4 ; iv. 3) :
the place is beyond Jordan in the land of
Moab (i. 5, cp. Num. xxxiii. 48; xxxv. 1), in
the wilderness, in the Arabah (i. 1, cp. Num.
xxiii. 28; xxiv. 1). The phrase "beyond
Jordan" or "other side of Jordan" was
ambiguous and required precise definition.
To Abraham and the Canaanites it meant the
country east of the river ; and as an estab-
lished geographical term it meant the same
to Abraham's descendants. They had arrived
there ; but they still called the place where
they were by the old inherited designation
"the other side of Jordan," just as they
called the neighboring blufls Abarim or
"mountains of the other side." And the
people felt, too, that they were on the other
side of Jordan, outside of the promised land.
But with the river in front of them the
phrase was ambiguous, hence its repeated
elucidation by some expression like " in the
land of Moab." Second Address, v.-xxvi. :
Rehearsal of statutes which concerned the
people, with emphasis on the sjiirituality of
the laws and urgent insistence ujion their
observance. The speaker is Moses (v. 1, 5, 22) ■,
the date is at the end of the forty years, on

Deuteronomy

168

Deuteronomy

the eve of crossing the Jordan, after Balaam's
prophecy (viii. 2; ix. 1; xi. 31; xxiii. 4).
Third Address, xxvii., xxviii. : Conclusion of
the preceding, (1) Provision for writing the
law on plastered stones on mount Ebal, (2)
Blessings and curses annexed to obedience
and disobedience respectively. This great
address is closely followed by a brief address
(xxix., XXX.) at the ratification of the coven-
ant as thus proclaimed (xxix. 1 ; xxx. 1).
This covenant, like the words of the former
one made at Horeb, was recorded in a book
(xxix. 20, 21, 27 ; xxx. 10; cp. Ex, xxiv. 4-8).
The place and date are alluded to in Deut.
xxix. 1, 5, 7, 8.

After delivering the address which forms
the body of the book of Deuteronomy, Moses
publicly appointed Joshua to be his successor
and gave a formal charge to him (xxxi. 1-8).
Moses delivered the written law to the priests
with a charge regarding its public reading
(9-13). He repaired with Joshua to the tab-
ernacle that Joshua might be charged by Je-
hovah, and was there instructed to prepare a
song for the people (14-23). He prepared
and wrote the song (22), charged the Levites
who bore the ark to put the completed book,
which contained law and song, beside the
ark for a witness (24-29), ordered an assembly
called to hear and learn the song (28), and
repeated it publicly (30-xxxii. 47). Moses'
farewell (48-xxxiii. 29) and death (xxxiv.).

The distinctive feature of Deuteronomy is
the evident preparation for the settlement in
Canaan. 1. It affects the language. For ex-
ample, the people are about to live a settled
life ; hence the camp which figures so largely,
though of course not exclusively, in the
former legislation disappears from Deuter-
onomy, except where reference is made to
future war or to the encampment at Shittim
where they then are. The speaker mentions
houses, towns, city gates. 2. It leads to
minor modifications of existing laws to adapt
them to the new mode of life. For example,
the law which required animals that were
slain for food to be brought to the door of the
tabernacle is changed to permit the people to
slay for food in the town where they reside
(xii. 15, 21 ; Lev. xvii. 3, 4). 3. It leads to
insistence upon one altar for the nation in
the place where Jehovah shall record his
name. The unity of the altar was intended
to counteract the tendency to lapse into idol-
atry, by preventing the people from worship-
ing at the numerous local sanctuaries of the
Canaanites ; to render the worship of Jehovah
a grander spectacle and of greater pomp than
the rites of the idols of the Canaanites by
uniting the numbers and the wealth of the
Hebrews ; and to give strength to the com-
munal feeling and aid in binding the nation
together. The spirit of jealousy between
individuals and between tribes, the popular
proneness to idolatry, and the willingness of
large sections of the people to separate from
their brethren and settle in attractive pas-

toral regions had already become manifest.
The old law of the one altar is emphatically
insisted upon at this crisis. It was essential
to the unity of the nation and continuance
of the theocracy. See Altae.

It has been urged that no distinction is
made in Deuteronomy between priests and
Levites such as appea,rs in the legislation of
Leviticus and Numbers. The priests are fre-
quently called "the priests the Levites," and
the passage xviii. 1-8, if it be isolated, may
be interpreted to mean that any Levite might
become a priest. But — 1. The tribe of Levi
is indeed assigned priestly functions (x. 6 ;
xviii. 1-8; xxxiii. 8, 9). But it is correct to
do so, for the tribe as a whole was called to
holy service, especially to priestly service.
Even when the distinction between the
priests and the lower order of the Levites
was established, the tribe as a whole is spoken
of as priestly (1 Kin. xii. 31 ; Mai. ii. 1-4 ;
iii. 3; cp. Heb. vii. 13). 2. The title "the
priests the Levites " occurs in writings which
were composed after the legislation of Le-
viticus was, as everybody admits, in full
force. It is used by Ezekiel (xliii. 19 ; xliv.
15) and by the Chronicler (2 Chron. xxiii. 18;
xxx. 27). It should also be remembered that
Jeremiah uses the expression (xxxiii. 18, 21).
3. Deuteronomy is based on previous priestly
legislation, for it presupposes the technical
laws of the ritual. The speaker explicitly
refers to former laws on the subject of which
he is speaking, and these laws are known
only from the books of Leviticus and Num-
bers (Deut. xviii. 1, 2 with Num. xviii. 20 ;
Deut. xxiv. 8, 9 with Lev. xiii., xiv. ; Num.
xii.), or he makes allusions which imply
these laws (Deut. xii. 15 with Lev. xvii. 3
seq.). 4. The passage Deut. xviii. 1-8 may
be readily interpreted on the assumption that
the laws of Leviticus were in force. Levi
was to have no inheritance with Israel, but
was to enjoy certain perquisites (Lev. vi. 17,
18 ; Num. xviii. 20, 21, 24, 26). The speaker
presses this law with earnestness. The priests
the Levites, the whole tribe of Levi have no in-
heritance ; they shall eat the ofi"erings (ver. 1).
The dues of the priests, without the epithet
" the Levites," are next spoken of. It is an
urgent matter. The people must not defraud
the priests of their income (3, 4 with Ex.
xxix. 27, 28 ; Lev. vii. 34; Num. xviii. 11, 12,
where slight changes are introduced). Fi-
nally, the rights of the Levites at the sanctu-
ary are dwelt upon. If a Levite — not neces-
sarily a Levite of lower rank — come from
any part of the country to the sanctuary,
he shall minister in the name of the Lord
as all his brethren the Levites do, which
stand before the Lord, and he shall fare as
they do (6-8). The kind of service which
he shall perform is not the matter at issue.
The language covers both priestly service
and the labors rendered by the lower order
of the Levites (5, xvii. 12 ; and 1 Sam. ii. 11,
18; iii. 1; 2 Chron. xxiii. 6: xxix. 4, 5, 11).

Devil

169

Diamond

The point insisted upon is that all Levites
shall receive full recognition at the sanctuary
and be accorded their jjrerogatives. It goes
without siiyiug that if the Levite be a priest,
he shall serve and fare like his brethren the
priests; if he be not a priest, he shall enjoy
the privileges that belong to his brethren
who are Levites but not priests. Those in
power shall not deprive him of his preroga-
tives because he is obscure and from a distant
part of the country.

Dev'il [Greek diabolos, a slanderer].

1. An evil spirit (Mark i. 34 ; Luke iv. 33 ;
viii. 29). A. V. and, in its text, E. V. do not
observe the distinction made in the Greek
original between a demon and the devil.
Demons take possession of wicked men and
are subject to the devil (Mat. iv. 24 ; xii. 24) ;
see Demoniac.

2. The evil one, Satan, the greatest of all the
fallen spirits (Eev. xii. 9 ; Mat. iv. 8-11 ; xiii.
38. 39 ; XXV. 41 ; cp. Jude 6). The general
opinion is that the sin into which he fell was
pride (1 Tim. iii. 6). He is the great enemy
of God and man (1 Pet. v. 8 ; 1 John iii. 8),
who tempted Christ and incites men to sin
(Mat. iv. 1 : John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27). He
is "that old serpent" who tempted Eve
(Wisdom ii. 23, 24 ; 2 Cor. xi. 3 ; Eev. xii. 9 ;
XX. 2). Perhaps with reference to this trans-
action he is called a murderer from the be-
ginning, and a liar, and the father of lies
(John viii. 44 ; cp. 1 John iii. 8). When the
good seed of truth is sown the devil either
steals it away (Luke viii. 12) or sows tares
(Mat. xiii. 38). He is continually going about
like a roaring lion seeking whom he may de-
vour (1 Pet. V. 8). He lays .snares or prac-
tices wiles to injure the children of God
(Eph. vi. 11 ; 2 Tim. ii. 26), and seduces them
by his subtilty (2 Cor. si. 3) ; but the tempted
one is not to yield to him, but to resist him,
and he will flee (Eph. iv. 27; James iv. 7).
He had power to produce demoniacal posses-
sion (Acts X. 38), and he instigated the im-
prisonment of martyrs (Eev. ii. 10). He is fi-
nally to be cast into a lake of everlasting
fire prepared for the devil and his angels
(Mat. XXV. 41 ; cp. Jude 6). Preeminently
sinful, unrighteous men, also those imbued
with the spirit of lying and murder, are fig-
uratively called children of the devil (John
viii. 44 ; 1 John iii. 8, 10). Judas was even
called by Je-sus a devil (John vi. 70). His
works Christ came to destroy (1 John iii. 8).
Jude alludes to a dispute of the devil with
Michael for the body of Moses (9 ; cp. Eev.
xii. 7). W'hence the apostle drew this illus-
tration is unknown. He has been thought to
quote an authoritative teaching of the Jewish
church, or a familiar interpretation of Zech.
iii., according to which the high priest repre-
sents Mosaism, or else to cite a moral tale cur-
rent among the Jews.

Dew.

Moisture condensed from the atmosphere

ujjon cold bodies. Used in Scripture figura-
tively for whatever comes noiselessly and
even invisibly, but proves a refreshment and
a blessing, as dew does to vegetation (Deut.
xxxii. 2 ; Ps. ex. 3 ; Prov. xix. 12 ; Mic. v.
7).

Di'a-dem [a band or fillet, as being bound
round].

1. The rendering of the Hebrew words
f<aniph,Sanoph,a.ud fjldnuph, something bound
round. It was a head dress for man and woman
(Job xxix. 14, margin of E. V. turban ; Is.
iii. 23, in A. V. hoods, E. V. turbans). A royal
diadem of this type was worn by kings (Is.
Ixii. 3), and is once mentioned as worn by
the high priest (Zech. iii. 5), where it is trans-
lated miter, but on the margin of E. Y. tur-
ban or diadem.

2. A rendering of the Hebrew word Mis-
nepheth, a name applied specially to the miter
of the Jewish high ijriest (Ezek. xxi. 26 in
A. v.), and regularly translated so.

3. The rendering of the Hebrew word
S^phirah, circlet, crown (Is. xxviii. 5).

Di'al.

Aninstrumentconsistingof a surface which
is graduated into hour lines, and furnished
with a projecting gnomon to cast a shadow
as the sun advances in his daily course, and
thus point out the hours. The dial of Ahaz
(2 Kin. XX. 11 ; Is. xxxviii. 8) may have been
such an instrument, with either flat or con-
cave dial and with graduated lines called
steps or degrees, which Ahaz had introduced

Ancient Dial.

from Babylonia, where the sun dial was in
use before the time of Herodotus (Herod, ii.
109), and at least as early as the eighth cen-
tury B. c. Less likely it was a flight of steps
at the palace of Ahaz, so designed and ar-
ranged that the shadow of an obelisk near
by passed over the steps and thus indicated
the time of day. The recession of the shadow
on the dial of Ahaz has been variously ex-
plained as caused by a miraculous reversion
of the earth's motion, or by a backward
movement of the sun, or by refraction of the
sun's rays, or by a .solar eclipse. Unquestion-
ably the recorded eflfect could have been pro-
duced by either of the two latter as well as
by the former causes.

Di'a-mond.

A mineral of unequaled hardness and lus-

Diana

170

Dinah

ter, transparent or translucent, and capable
of taking a splendid polish. It is simplj'
carbon, crystallized by the chemistry of na-
ture, which that of art has not yet been able
to imitate. Diamonds have long been known
to exist in India and the island of Borneo.
Diamond is the rendering of —

1. The Hebrew YahHom, a precious stone
(Ezek. xxviii. 13), one of those in the breast-
plate of the high priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, in
E. V. margin sardonyx; xxxix. 11).

2. The Hebrew Shamir, a hard stone used
to point graving instruments (Jer. xvii. 1) ;
elsewhere rendered adamant (Ezek. iii. 9;
Zech. vii. 12).

Di-a'na.

The Koman goddess of the moon, and of
field and woods, and of all forms of life and
activity which were supposed to he influ-
enced by the moon. She corresponded to the
Greek Artemis, who was twin sister of
Apollo, favorite child of Zeus, and huntress
of the sky. She was the ideal of cha.stity
and virginity, and is generally represented
as a tall and beautiful maiden, with a quiver
on her shoulder and a bow or a javelin in her
right hand, and as engaged in hunting deer.
The Asiatic Artemis, Diana of Ephesus, was
a union of the Greek Artemis with the lusty
Semitic moon-goddess, Ashtoreth. Her image

Coin showing Temple of Diana.

was supposed to have fallen from heaven
(Acts xix. 35), and it may have been origi-
nally a meteoric stone. Ancient authorities,
however, state that it was of wood, though
they differ as to the kind. Its form is known
from ancient coins as the rude figure of a
woman with crowned head, many breasts, and
extended arms supported by props. The
shrine became a temple, which largely de-
veloped, if it did not even at first create, the
city of Ephesus. The first temple being burnt
(350 B. c), a second and more splendid one
arose, which, according to Plinj', was 425
feet long, 220 broad, and had around it sup-
porting its roof 1.37 columns 60 feet high.
Demetrius the silversmith and his fellow-
craftsmen manufactured silver models of the
temple of Diana (Acts xix. 24). Diana of the
J]phesians has not now a worshiper anywhere
in the whole world.

Dlb'lah, in A. V. Diblath [a rounded mass,
cake].

A place in Palestine in the vicinity of a

wilderness (Ezek. vi. 14 ; cp. Num. xxxiii.
46 ; Jer. xlviii. 22). Grave objections lie
against the proposed emendation of the text
to Riblali.

Dib'la-im [twin balls or cakes].

The mother-in-law of Hosea, if the trans-
action was real and not typical (Hos. i. 3).

Dito'lath. See Diblah.

Di'bon [a wasting away, a consumption].

1. A town north of the Aruou, wrested
from Moab by the Amorites, taken by the
Israelites (Num. xxi. 30; xxxii. 3), rebuilt
by the Gadites (xxxii. 34), and hence called
Dibon-gad (xxxiii. 45, 46), afterwards given
over to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 9, 17).
It reverted to the Moabites (Moabite Stone
21, 28 ; Is. XV. 2 ; Jer. xlviii. 18, 22). It still
exists, as a heap of ruins, retaining its old
name Dhiban, 3 miles north of the Arnon,
slightly eastward from the Roman road.
Tristram describes it as a twin city covering
the tops and slopes of two adjacent knolls,
and surrounded by a wall. There are cav-
erns, cisterns, vaulted underground store-
houses, rude semi-circular arches, and Cy-
clopean buildings of basalt like those of
Bashan. It was among the ruins of Dibou
that Mr. Klein, in 1868, found the Moabite
Stone (q. v.).

2. A village in the territory of Judah
(Neh. xi. 25). Probably the same as Di-
monah (q. v.).

Di'bon-gad. See Dibon.

Dib'ri.

A Danite, ancestor of him who was stoned
to death in the days of Moses for blasphem-
ing the Name (Lev. xxiv. 11-14).

Did'y-mus [a twin] ; see Thomas.

Dik'lah [a palm tree].

A people descended from Joktan (Gen. x.
27 : 1 Chron. i. 21), and who doubtless dwelt
in Arabia and, as the" name suggests, in a
region abounding in palm trees.

Dil'an, in A. Y. Dilean [field of cucumbers].

A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh. xv.
38). Exact site unknown.

Dill. See Anise.

Dim'nab. See Rimmon.

Di'mon [probably a variant of Dibon].

A place in Moab (Is. xv. 9) ; apparently
Dibon, by a common permutation of the
labials. Jerome states tliat in his day both
names were common for the town. The form
witli m is chosen by the prophet for its as-
sonance with dam, blood, used in the same
verse. The waters of Dibon are best re-
garded as the Arnon, as the waters of Me-
giddoare the Kishon (Judg. v. 19). *

Di-mo'nah.

A town in the southern part of Judah,
near Edom (Josh. xv. 22), probably the same
as Dibon (Neh. xi. 25).

Di'nab [judgment or, perhaps, judged].

A daughter of Jacob by his wife Leah

Dinaites

171

Dispersion

(Gen. XXX. '21). Going out apparently un-
protected to see the Canaanite daughters of
the laud, she was either led astray or out-
raged by Shechem, the son of Hamor the
Hivite. The young prince afterwards wished
to take her in honorable marriage, and her
brothers apparently consented, on condition
that the Hi%ites should be circumcised. These
acquiesced in the .stipulation, and carried it
out : but an attack on their town was sud-
denly made by Simeon and Levi, two of
Dinah's full bruthers, who slew all the males
in the place, Hamor and .Shechem among the
rest (xxxiv. 1-29). Jacob took no part in the
treacherous and cruel deed, regarded it as
inexpedient (.30). and denounced it with hor-
ror on his deathbed (xlix. .5-7). By this act
of his sons, however, the conquered district
fell to him as head of the tribe, and he be-
queathed it, not to those who were answer-
able for the abhorred deed, but to Joseph
(xlviii. 22).

Di'na-ites.

One of the foreign tribes brought over to
Samaria to replace the ten tribes carried into
captivity (Ezra iv. 9). Probably the Arme-
nian people who were known to the Assyr-
ians as Dayani.

Din'ha-bali.

The city of Bela, king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 32 ; 1 Chron. i. 43). Several towns of
this name are known, but none in Edom.
Jerome identified it with Dannaia, a town ex-
isting in his day in Moab, a little south of
the Arnon.

Dinner. See Meals.

Di-o-ny'si-us [belonging to Dionusos or
Bacchus, the god of wine].

A member of the Athenian supreme court
of Areopagus, who was converted through
the preaching of Paul on Mars Hill, where
the court held its sittings (Acts xvii. 34).

Di-ot're-phes [nurtured by Zeus].

A member of the church of which Gaius,
to whom John sent his third epistle, was a
member. He loved to have the preeminence
in the church to which he belonged, refused
to receive the apostle John or the brethren
who went forth for the sake of the Name,
and, on his own responsibility, excommuni-
cated those who entertained them (3 John 9,
10).

Dis-ci'ple.

A pupil or scholar (Mat. x. 24) ; especially
the follower of a public teacher, like John
the Riptist (ix. 14). A person taught of God
(Is. viii. 16). It is used of all of whatever
age who in faith received the divine Master's
instructions (Mat. x. 42; Luke xiv. 26. 27.
3.3 : John iv. 1 ; vi. 66), and especially of the
twelve apostles (Mat. v. 1; viii. 25; x. 1;
xii. 1. etc.).

Dis-eas'es.

Disease arises from the violation of physi-
cal or mental laws. The observance of these

laws is often a moral act, and their trans-
gression is sin (Prov. ii. 17-22; xxiii. 29-
32) ; so that disease is in certain cases the
punishment imposed by the Creator for sin.
God, moreover, sometimes smites a sinner
with disease where no natural cause can be
traced (Ex. ix. 8 seq. ; Num. xi. .33 : xii. 9-11 ;
Dent, xxviii. 21, 22, 35, 60 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 1 ;
xxiv. 15 : 2 Kin. v. 27). From the connection
between sin and various diseases, the latter
are sometimes attributed to Satan, who se-
duced the race to its fall into sin and who is
still the great tempter to sin (Luke xiii. 16) :
but the inference is not legitimate that everj-
sick person is a sinner or that Satan is the
immediate cause of our maladies (Job iii.-
xlii. ; John ix. 1-3). The chief forms of
human disease are mentioned, such as fever
(Deut. xxviii. 22 ; Mat. viii. 14 ; John iv.
52 : Antiq. xiii. 15, 5), cutaneous disease
(Lev. xiii. 6-8, 30. 39). dysentery (2 Chron.
xxi. 15. IS ; Acts xxviii. 8. E. V.), ophthalmia
(Rev. iii. IS ; Tobit ii. 10 ; vi. S ; xi. 13),
boils (Ex. ix. 9 ; 1 Sam. v. 6), paralysis (1
Mac. ix. 55; Mat. viii. 6 ; ix. 2 ; Acts ix. 33).

Di'shan [probably pygarg] .

A Horite tribe (Gen. xxxvi. 21. 28) under
a chief ^30).

Di'shon [pygarg, antelope].

A Horite tribe (Gen. xxxvi. 21. 26 ; 1
Chron. i. 38), organized under a chief (^Gen.
xxxvi. 30), and descended through Anah
from Zibeon (24, 25). Many interpreters,
however, discover two persons of this name :
one in vs. 20. 26, 30, the other in 25.

Dis-per'sion.

The body of Israelites scattered abroad
in other lands than their own. the diaspora
(Jer. XXV. 34, A. V. and margin of K. V. ;
John vii. 35; Jas. i. 1). Dispersion was
threatened as a penalty if the people de-
parted from the Mosaic law (Lev. xxvi. 3.3-
37: Deut. iv. 27, 28; xxviii. 64-68). The
captivity of the ten tribes and that of the
two largely helped to fulfill these prophecies ;
for the mass of the ten tribes were never re-
stored to their own land, and of the two a
verj- large number chose to remain in the
region to which they had been taken rather
than return to their own country. A very
considerable immigration of Jews took place
into the cities and towns of Alexander the
Great's empire, and into the kingdoms of
Egypt, Syria, etc.. into which it was after-
wards divided : and later when the Eoman
empire established its sway over these and
other regions, colonies of Jews sought a
settlement in all the important places.
Agrippa. in a letter to Caligula preserved by
Philo, says: "Jerusalem is the capital not
alone of Judfea but. by means of colonies,
of most other lands also. These colonies
have been sent out at fitting opportunities
into the neighboring countries of Egypt.
Phoenicia. Syria, Coele-syria, and the farther
removed Pamphylia, Cilicia, the greater part

Divination

172

Dodavahu

of Asia as far as Bithynia and the most re-
mote coruers of Poutus. In the same man-
ner also into Europe : Thessaly, Bceotia,
Macedou, ^Etolia, Attica, Argos, Corinth, and
the most and finest parts of the Pelopon-
nesus. And not only is the mainland full of
Israelitish communities, but also the most
important islands : Eubcea, Cyprus, Crete.
And I say nothing of the countries beyond
the Euphrates, for all of them, with unim-
portant exceptions, Babylon and the satrap-
ies that include the fertile districts lying
around it have Jewish inhabitants." Thus
the Dispersion, with synagogue and doctrine,
was found in all parts of the known world
(Acts ii. 5-11 ; 1 Pet. i. 1).

Div-i-na'tion.

The attempt to read the future and utter
soothsaying either by a kind of inspiration
or divine afflatus (Acts xvi. 16), or else by
means of signs. In the latter sense, it in-
cludes augury or foretelling the future by
means of natural signs, such as the iiight of
birds, the disposition of the entrails (Ezek.
xxi. 21) ; hydromancy or foretelling from the

Roman Divination.

appearance of water poured into a vessel or
of objects dropped into the water (Gen. xliv.
5) ; sorcery, in its original sense of foretelling
by casting lots (Ezek. xxi. 21) ; and also as-
trology or the determination of the supposed
influence of the stars on the destiny of a
person (cp. Is. xlvii. 13). The Hebrews also
included in divination necromancy or fore-
telling the future by calling up the spirits of
the dead and conversing with them (1 Sam.
xxviii. 8). The diviner sometimes pro-
nounced blessing or cursing (Num. xxii. 6) ;
not, however, as the magical spells of a sor-
cerer, but as prophecy revealed by the divine
afflatus or familiar spirit or the sign (12, 13).

Di-vin'er.

A soothsayer ; a practicer of divination.
They were numerous among heathen nations
(Deut. xviii. 9-12 ; 1 Sam. vi. 2 ; Is. xix. 3 ;
Ezek. xxi. 21 ; Dan. ii. 2 ; Acts xvi. 16), and
also at various times among the Israelites,
who were informed of the diviner's impos-

ture, warned against placing reliance in him,
and threatened with punishment for the sin
of consulting him (Lev. xix. 31 ; xx. 6, 27 ;
Deut, xviii. 10; 1 Sam. xxviii. 8; Is. ii. 6;
iii. 2, E. V. ; Jer. xxvii. 9 ; xxix. 8 ; Ezek.
xiii. 23 ; xxii. 28 ; Mic. iii. 6, 7, 11 ; Zech. x. 2).
He practiced his art for hire (Num. xxii. 7,
17, 18 ; Acts xvi. 16).

Di-vorce', Di-vorce'ment.

Annulment of the bonds of matrimony.
Under the law of Moses a man could divorce
his wife if he found some unseemly thing
in her. She might then be married to an-
other man. If her second husband also di-
vorced her, the first one was not allowed to
take her again. The process of divorce, when
once resolved upon, was easy. All the hus-
band had to do was to give his partner a bill
of divorcement, and send her away (Deut.
xxiv. 1-4 ; cp. Is. 1. 1 ; Jer. iii. 8). Our Lord
explained that this enactment was framed
only on account of the Israelites' hardness
of heart. He added that the original and
just law, that of nature, is that a man cleave
to his wife and they twain become one flesh,
marriage being a permanent compact ; and
that a wife should not be divorced except
for fornication, including what is now tech-
nically called adultery. If a man puts away
his wife on other grounds and marries an-
other, he commits adultery. If anyone mar-
ries a divorced woman, he also has com-
mitted the same sin (Mat. v. 31, 32 ; xix.
3-9 ; Mark x. 2-12 ; Luke xvi. 18 ; cp. 1 Cor.
vii. 10-17). Protestants almost universally
teach that willful, final desertion annuls the
marriage bond (cp. 1 Cor. vii. 15) and a second
marriage may be contracted by the deserted
one.

Di'-za-hab, in A. V. Diz'a-hab [abounding
in gold].

A place cited to indicate the locality and
circumstances connected with the delivery
of the farewell addresses of Moses (Deut. i.
1). Dhahab on the western shore of the gulf
of Akaba, 75 miles south of Ezion-geber, has
similarity of name in its favor, but that is
all. It lies remote from the route of the
Israelites. Perhaps Di-zahab was a district
in Edom identical with Me-zahab (Gen. xxxvi.
.39 ; cp. Septuagint of Num. xxi. 14, which
has Zahab instead of Yaheb of E. V.).

Do'dai. See Dodo 2.

Dod'a-nim [a plural word, Dodanites].

A tribe related to Javan (Gen. x. 4).
Against identifying them with the Dardan-
ians or Trojans is the difference in the name ;
while the situation of Dodona, a place in
Epirus, in Greece, the seat of a celebrated
oracle, is against locating them there. The
Septuagint and the Samaritan version in
Gen. X. 4, and the common Hebrew text it-
self in 1 Chron. i. 7, have Eodanim (q. v.).

Dod-a-va'hu, in A. V. Dod'a-vah [perhaps
love of Jehovah].

Dodo

173

Dor

A man from Marcshah, father of that
Eliezer who ])rophesied the destruction of
Jehoshaphat's ships (2 Chron. xx. 37).

Do'do [loving].

1. A man of Issachar, ancestor of the
judge Tohi (Judg. x. 1).

2. An Ahohite, and the father of Eleazar,
one of David's three mighty men of the first
rank (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, in E. V., following the
present Hebrew text, Dodai ; 1 Chron. xi.
12). David appointed Dodai [or probably
his son] as military commander over the course
of the second month (1 Chron. xxvii. 4).

3. A man of Bethlehem, father of Elhauan,
one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 24 ;
1 Chron. xi. 26).

Doe.

A female deer or antelope. In Prov. v. 19,
E. v.. it is the female ibex or wild goat of
Sinai {Cctpra beden), in Hebrew Ya'Hah; see
Wild Goat.

Do'eg [timid].

An Edomite, the chief of Saul's herdmen.
He was at Nob at the tabernacle, detained
before the Lord on account of a vow or un-
eleauness or signs of leprosy (Lev. xiv. 4,
11, 21), or was perhaps in sanctuary for some
crime (cp. 1 Kin. i. 50), when David, a fugi-
tive from Saul's court, arrived at Nob and
obtained food and a sword from Ahimelech,
who did not know that he was fleeing from
the king (1 Sam. xxi. 7 ; Ps. lii. title). Doeg
subsequently told Saul what had occurred,
which so excited the king that he summoned
Ahimelech and fellow priests and demanded
an explanation. Not considering it satisfac-
tory, he ordered the guard to kill the priests.
They would not. The king then bade Doeg
do the deed. He did so, slaying eighty-five
men. He subsequently fell upon the village,
massacred the women and children, and de-
stroyed even the cattle (1 Sam. xxii. 7-23).

Dog.

The dog of Palestine is the same variety
as the pariah or ownerless dog of India.
During the earlier period of Bible history it
is described as prowling about the streets and
suburbs of cities (Ps. lix. 6, 14), feeding on
what was thrown out to it (Ex. xxii. 31),
licking up blood when it was shed (1 Kin.
xxii. 38; Ps. Ixviii. 23), or devouring dead
bodies (1 Kin. xiv. 11 ; xvi. 4; 2 Kin. ix. 35,
36) ; nay, even sometimes congregating in
packs, to surround and attack human beings
(Ps. xxii. 16, 20). It was early trained suffi-
ciently to aid the shepherd in protecting the
flock agaiust beasts of prey and thieves (Job
XXX. 1). It was at length sometimes domes-
ticated, accompanied its master from place to
place (Tobit v. 16 ; xi. 4), and was in the
house with him and picked up the crumbs
from under his table (Mark vii. 28). More-
over, they licked the sores of beggars at the
rich man's gate (Luke xvi. 21). The dog
was also widely used by the ancients for
hunting. But the great mass of dogs ran

wild. On account of their food and habits,
they were deemed unclean ; and to call one
a dog was a gross insult (1 Sam. xvii. 43; 2
Kin. viii. 13). The term dog is api)licd in a
figurative sense to those who are incapable
of appreciating what is high or holy (Mat.
vii. 6), who introduce false doctrines with
cynical etfrontery (Phil. iii. 2), who, like a
dog returning to its vomit, go back to sins
which nominally they had renounced forever
(2 Pet. ii. 22 ; cp. Prov. xxvi. 11), or who are
so vile as to submit to lust like dogs (Deut.
xxiii. 18). The later Jews were accustomed
to call the heathen dogs because ceremonially
uncleau ; and even Jesus once employed the
term in order to express his doctrine of
grace the more vividly (Mat. xv. 26 ; Mark
vii. 27).

Dok, in A. V. Do'cus [watchtower].

A little stronghold near Jericho, built by
Ptolemy (1 Mac. xvi. 15), son-in-law of Simon
Maccabseus (11, 12). Into this castle he re-
ceived Simon and two of his sons, and then
treacherously slew them (16). The murder
was avenged by John Hyrcauus, a third son
of Simon. He besieged Dok, and after a
time Ptolemy fled beyond Jordan (Antiq.
xiii. 7, 4 ; 8, 1). The name seems to remain
in 'Ain Duk, a copious spring about four
miles northwest of Jericho. A road leads by
it from the Jordan valley into the hill coun-
try. Above the spring are traces of ancient
fortifications.

Doph'kah.

A station of the Israelites on the routo to
Sinai between the Eed Sea and Eephidim
(Num. xxxiii. 12, 13). Seetzen locates it at a
place called Tobbacha, but the identification
has not been generally accepted.

Dor [habitation].

A town in the west of Palestine (Josh. xi.
2). on the seacoast (1 Mac. xv. 11), 9 Eoman
miles north of ("jesarea (Onomast). It was
in Asher ; but it belonged to the tribe of Man-
asseh (Josh. xvii. 11; cp. xix. 26: 1 Chron.
vii. 29), which, however, failed to expel the
Canaanite inhabitants (Judg. i. 27). It was
the chief town of one of Salomon's tax dis-
tricts (1 Kin. iv. 11). In Maccabee times it
was called Dora. In 217 b. c. it was unsuccess-
fully besieged by Antiochus III. (the Great),
and about 138 by Antiochus VII. (1 Mac. xv.
11-14). Subsequently it was taken by a cer-
tain Zoilus, on whose death it fell into the
hands of Alexander Jannseus. In 64 b. c.
Pompey granted it autouomy. In 56 B. c. it
was rebuilt by Gabinius (Antiq. xvi. 5, 3).
Early in the Christian era it fell into decay.
Remains of it exist near Khurbet Tantiira,
on the coast, between 7 and 8 miles north
of Csesarea. The old town stood on a low
ridge. The ruins consist of a mound with a
tower, the foundations of which antedate cru-
sading times, a liarbor with the entrance cut
through the rock, various buildings, rock-
hewn tombs, a tank, and a causeway.

Dorcas

174

Dragon

Dor'cas [gazelle, the Greek rendering of
the Aramaic t'bithn, gazelle].

A wojiiau whose Aramaic name wasTabitha,
resident at Joppa. She made garments, which
she gave to the poor. When she died Peter
was sent for. After prayer, he bade her
arise, and her life returned. The fame
thereof spread, and many believed on the
Lord (Acts ix. 36-43). Dorcas societies are
named from her.

Do'than [possibly wells].

A town not far from Shechem and Samaria,
hard by a caravan route (Gen. xxxvii. 14, 17,
25 ; 2 Kin. vi. 13), near the plain of Esdraelon
and a pass into the hill country of Judah
(Judith iii. 10 ; iv. 6, 7). Joseph was cast
into a pit in the vicinity, whence he was
taken out and sold to the Midianites (Gen.
xxxvii. 17-28). It afterwai-ds belonged to the
kingdom of the ten tribes. Elisha was once
besieged in it by the Syrians ; but the soldiers
of the beleaguering army were miraculously
struck with blindness, led to Samaria, had
their vision restored, and were finally sent
home without molestation (2 Kin. vi. 8-23).
Its site is the ruin Tell Dothan, near a well
9i miles north, slightly east, of Samaria.

Dove.

A bird (Ps. Iv. 6) having fine eyes (Song i.
15; V. 12), a plaintive voice (Is. xxxviii. 14),
a gentle, afiectionate disposition (Song ii. 14 ;
V. 2 ; vi. 9), but not much sagacity (Hos. vii.
11). It is timid, and when frightened trem-
bles (Hos. vii. 11). When wild it sometimes
frequents valleys (Ezek. vii. 16), making its
nest in the side of holes or fissures (Jer.
xlviii.28). When domesticated it flies when
alarmed to windows or cotes (Is. Ix. 8 ; cp.
Gen. viii. 8-12). Jesus refers to it as pro-
verbially harmless (Mat. x. 16). It was bought
and sold within the temple courts (Mat. xxi.
12 ; Mark xi. 15 ; John ii. 14), for it was used
in sacrifice (Luke ii. 24). The dove is a
symbol of the Holy Spirit (Luke iii. 22).

Dove is but another name for pigeon, though
in popular usage it is usually restricted to
the smaller species. It is frequently trans-
lated pigeon in the English versions (Gen.
XV. 9; Lev. i. 14; v. 7, 11 ; xii. 6, 8; xiv. 22,
30; XV. 14, 29; Num. vi. 10).

The doves constitute a family of birds
(Coliimbidie), of which Tristram enumerates
four species as occurring in Palestine : the
ringdove or wood pigeon {Cobimba jmhimbus),
the stockdove {Columba wnns), the rock dove
{Columba livia), and the ash-rumped rock dove
(Columba schimperi). The ringdove visits
Palestine in immense flocks in spring and
autumn during its annual migrations; indi-
viduals also remain all the winter. The
stockdove is found chiefly east of the Jordan,
or in the valley of that river. The rock dove
is abundant on the coast and in the highlands
west of the Jordan. The ash-rumped rock
dove is exceedingly abundant in the interior
of the country and in the Jordan valley,

taking refuge in caves and fissures. It is the
species described in Jer. xlviii. 28.

Dove's Dung.

A substance which rose to famine prices
during the siege of Samaria by Benhadad
(2 Kin. vi. 25). Dung was also eaten during
the siege of Jerusalem (War v. 13, 7). Pos-
sibly, however, dove's dung was the name of
some herb, as the Arabs call a species of soap
plant sparrow's dung.

Dow'ry.

Among the Israelites and neighboring na-
tions a bridegroom or his father paid a dowry
to the bride's father to induce him to give
her in marriage (Gen. xxix. 15-20; xxxiv.
12 ; Ex. xxii. 17 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 25). The
lowest legal amount seems to have been fifty
shekels (Deut. xxii. 29; Ex. xxii. 15, 16).
Occasionally the father of the bride bestowed
a material blessing on her (Josh. xv. 19 ;
1 Kin. ix. 16).

Drag'on [from Greek drakon, a serpent, a
dragon].

In the Old Testament the word dragon is
often used to translate Tannin, ?i long animal.
The word tannin denotes a land serpent (Ex.
vii. 9 ; cp. iv. 3, 4 ; Ps. xci. 13 ; and doubtless
Deut. xxxii. 33), great sea animals (plural,
Gen. i. 21, in A. V. whales, in E. V. sea mon-
sters; Ps. Ixxiv. 13; cxlviii. 7), and the
crocodile of the rivers of Egypt (Ezek. xxix.
3). The last is described as having jaws,
and scales to which fish could stick (4), and
feet with which it disturbed the waters
(xxxii. 2), as lying in the sea and in the
branches of the Nile (xxix. 3; xxxii. 2), as
swimming (6), and as taken with great hooks
(xxix. 4 ; Herod, ii. 70) and with nets
(xxxii. 3). It is used as a symbol for Egypt
(Is. Ii. 9; and probably xxvii. 1).

The E. V. recognizes that the word Tan,
rendered dragon in A. V. of Job xxx. 29 ; Ps.
xliv. 19 ; Is. xiii. 22 ; xxxiv. 13 ; xxxv. 7 ; xliii.
20; Jer. ix. 11 ; x. 22 ; xiv. 6 ; xlix. 33 ; Ii. 37 ;
Mic. i. 3, 8, and sea monster in Lam. iv. 3,
should be translated jackal ; and, on the
other hand, that the Hebrew text of Ezek.
xxix. 3 ; xxxii. 2 should be emended to read
dragon, where A. V. has once properly dragon
and once whale.

The dragon of New Testament imagery is
the old serpent, the devil (Eev. xii. 9; xx.2),
who is symbolically portrayed as in color red
and having seven heads, ten horns, an enor-
mous tail, and a huge mouth, from which he
was able to cast forth water like a river after
those whom he would destroy (xii. 3, 4, 15;
xvi. 13). He was hurled from the heavens
to the earth, where he persecuted the church,
but was finally chained and imprisoned in
the abyss (xii. 7-17 ; xx. 2, 3). In certain
features the dragon bears resemblance to the
beast of chap. xiii. This beast is a combina-
tion of Daniel's four beasts, and represents
the combined powers of earth in opposition
to the kingdom of God (Dan. vii.). The pic-

Dragon's Well

175

Dulcimer

ture of the dragon was conformed to that of
the beast, heeaiise tlie dragon, tliat old ser-
pent, is the animating and moulding spirit
in the kingdom of this world, and when he
was portrayed in ehap. xii., features of the
world-power familiarized by Daniel were
combined with the distinguishing feature
furnished by the serpent of (Tcnesis iii.

Drag'on's Well, in A. V. Dragon Well.

A well at Jerusalem, apparently between
the Valley Gate and Dung Gate (Neh. ii. 13 ;
.-p. iii. 13, 14).

Dream.

Ideas jiresent to the mind during sleep.
They may be classified as — 1. Vain dreams
(Job XX. 8; Ps. Ixxiii. 20; Is. xxix. 8). 2.
Dreams employed by God for the purposes
of his kingdom. In producing them God
works according to the laws of mind, and
perhaps always employs secondary causes.
They are (a) Intended to ati'ect tlie spiritual
life of individuals. That to the jNIidiauite dis-
couraged the enemy, and encouraged Gideon,
who providentially heard it (Judg. vii. 13).
Perhaj)S such was the dream of Pilate's wife
(Mat. xxvii. 19). Many such providential
dreams have been sent in modern times.
John Newton, concerned about his soul's sal-
vation, had a dream which made the way of
salvation clear to him. {b) Directive and
projihetic dreams, used when i-evelation was
incomplete. They seem to have carried with
them credentials of their divine origin. Di-
vine communications were made in dreams
to Abimelech (Gen. xx. 3), to Jacob (xxviii.
12; xxxi. 10), to Laban (xxxi. 24), to Joseph
(xxxvii. 5, 9, 10. 20), to Pharaoh's butler and
baker (xl. 5), to Pharaoh (xli. 7, 15, 25, 26),
to Solomon (1 Kin. iii. 5), to Nebuchadnezzar
(Dan. ii. 1, 4, 36; iv. 1 seq.), to Daniel
(vii. 1 seq.), to Joseph the betrothed husband
of Mary (Mat. i. 20), to the Magi (ii. 12).
The power of accurately interpreting pro-
phetic dreams was granted to certain favored
people, as to Joseph (Gen. xli. 16) and to
Daniel (Dan. ii. 25-28, 47). Dreams offered
as revelations to the church were subjected
to tests to determine their character. If they
inculcated immoral conduct, they were by
that very fact proclaimed false ; and any man
who sought by their means to lead Israel from
the worship of Jehovah was to be put to death
(Deut. xiii. 1-5 ; cp. Jer. xxiii. 25-32 ; xxix.
8; Zech. x. 2). See Visions.

Dress. See Clothing.

Drink.

The usual beverage of the Hebrews was
water (Gen. xxi. 14; Ex. xxiii. 25; 1 Sam.
XXV. 11; 1 Kin. xiii. 8; 2 Kin. vi. 22),
though they also frequently used milk (Judg.
V. 25), sour wine (Num. vi. 3; Euth ii. 14),
ordinary wine (Gen. xiv. 18 ; xxvii. 25 ;
Josh. ix. 4 ; Judg. xix. 19 ; Neh. v. 15), and
more rarely strong drink (Lev. x. 9).

Drink Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Drom'e-da-ry [fiom Latin dromedariua,
running camel].

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Rekesh,
quickly running thing, in the A. V. of 1 Kin.
iv. 28 ; but in Mic. i. 13, swift beast, and in
Esth. viii. 10, a mule. The R. V. every-
where translates it swift steed.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Rammak
(Esth. viii. 10) in the text of the A. V., and
on the margin of the R. V. The text of the
R. V. translates it steed. Gesenius under-
stands it to mean a mare.

3. The rendering of the Hebrew Beker, a
sort of camel, swift and capable of carrying
merchandise (Is. Ix. 6 ; Jer. ii. 23). In Ara-
bic the word denotes a young camel of an
age suitable for riding and bearing burdens.
The R. V. accordingly renders it in the mar-
gin young camels.

The dromedary is a variety of the Arabian
or one-humped camel {Cameius dromedarius),
bred for speed and endurance. It can travel
about 125 miles a day. The two-humped
Bactrian camel (C. bactriamis) can also be im-
proved into a dromedary.

Drop'sy.

A disease marked by an unnatural accumu-
lation of watery liquid in any cavity of the
body or in the tissues (Luke xiv. 2).

Dru-sil'la.

The youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa
I., by his wife Cypros. Before the death of
her father in A. d. 44, and when not yet six
years old, she was promised in marriage to a
certain Epiphanes, son of Antiochus (not, of
course, the persecuting king of that name).
The bridegroom promised to accept Judaism ;
but, on further reflection, he refused to adopt
a religion in which he did not believe, and
the proposed alliance fell through. Azizus,
king of Emesa, was next applied to, the con-
dition offered being the same as in the
former case. He had no scruple about sacri-
ficing his faith to his self-interest, and Dru-
silla became his wife. She was possessed of
great beauty, and was in consequence some-
what persecuted by her eldest sister Bernice,
who was plain in appearance. Felix, pro-
curator of Judsea, conceived a sinful passion
for Drusilla, to which she responded all the
more readily that Bernice's petty tyranny
over her made her unhappy. In defiance of
Jewish law, she left her legitimate husband,
and married Felix, a foreigner and an idola-
ter. They had a son called Agrippa, who
grew up to manhood and married, but who
perished, however, in an eruption of mount
Vesuvius (Antiq. xviii. 5, 4 ; xx. 7, 1 and 2).
One can well understand that when Paul,
then a prisoner, reasoned before Felix and
Drusilla of righteousness, temperance, and
judgment to come, Felix trembled (Acts
xxiv. 24. 25).

Dul'ci-mer.

The rendering of Aramaic Snmphoneyah,
Sumphoneya' , or to follow the best attested

Dumah

176

Earring

traditional pronunciation, Bumpon'yah or Sum-
pou'ya' (Dan. iii. 5, 10, 15), probably meaning
bagpipe, as the margin of the R. V. makes it.
The real dulcimer is quite a different instru-
ment. In its earliest and simplest form it con-
sisted of a flat piece of wood, on which were
fostened two converging strips of the same
material, which were crossed by strings played
by small hammers. Afterwards pegs for reg-
ulating the tension of the strings were super-
added, and the flat piece of wood gave place
to a resonance box.
Du'mah [silence].

1. A tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen.
XXV. 14; 1 Chron. i. 30). Its territory was
probably the region called Doumaitha by
Ptolemy, and Domata by Pliny, on the con-
fines of the Syrian and Arabian deserts. The
town is now called Dooraat el-jendel, meaning
Dumah of the stones, and is situated in the
district el-Jauf, in the northwestern part of
the Arabian peninsula.

2. A symbolic designation of Edom, chosen
on account of its assonance with Edom and in
allusion to the desolation in store (Is. xxi. 11).

3. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 52). Its site is the ruin Domeh, 10
miles southwest of Hebron.

Dung.

Dung was used for manuring plants (Luke
xiii. 8 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 10). A dunghill, with
straw trodden in it by the cattle, is referred
to (Is. XXV. 10). In the East dried cowduug
is constantly used for fuel (Ezek. iv. 12, 15).
Beggars often lay on dunghills and ash heaps
(1 Sam. ii. 8 ; Lam. iv. 5). As a punishment,
the house of a man was sometimes made a
dunghill (Dan. ii. 5), that is, probably, was
converted into a privy (2 Kin. x. 27). Dung,
as refuse, was swept away (1 Kin. xiv. 10 ;
Phil. iii. 8).

Dung Gate. See Jerusalem II. 3.

Du'ra.

A i)lain in the province of Babylon where
Nebuchadnezzar's golden image was set up
(Dan. iii. 1). Several localities in Babylon
were called Duru, which means a wall or
fortification.

Dys'en-ter-y.

A disease characterized by inflammation
and ulceration of the lower part of the in-
testines, with hemorrhage from the bowels.
It is so constantly attended by fever that it
is often called fever and dysentery. Publius,
chief man of the island of Melita while Paul
was there, sufiered from this complaint, but
was miraculously cured by the apostle (Acts
xxviii. 7, 8, E. V.; in A. V. bloody flux).

E.

Ea'gle.

A bird of prey (Job ix. 26 ; xxxix. 30 ; Hab.
i. 8), large (Ezek. xvii. 3, 7), swift of flight
(2 Sam. i. 23), seeing at a great distance, and
which builds its nest on lofty rocks (Job

xxxix. 27-29; Jer. xlix. 16). It was cur-
rently believed to bestow great care upon its
young while training them to act for them-
selves, stirring up the nest and forcing them
out, hovering over them and under them
when they made their first weak attempts to
fly (Deut. xxxii. 11 ; Ex. xix. 4, 5). Sir
Humphrey Davy relates witnessing a pair
of golden eagles similarly engaged above the
crags of Ben Nevis. There is also probably
an allusion to an ancient popular belief that
the eagle, at the end of a certain period,
moults aiul renews its youth (Ps. ciii. 5). The
story was that the eagle, on i-eaching old age,
flew upward toward the sun until its feathers
were singed and it fell into the sea. Thence
it emerged in the strength of youth. The
allusion may, however, be to the great age to
which the eagle lives and retains the vigor
of youth. As a carnivorous bird, feeding on
reptiles and occasionally on carrion, it was
unclean (Lev. xi. 13). The Hebrews, like
the Arabs, applied the name which they used
for eagle to birds that eat carrion, probably,
like the Greek and Eoman naturalists Aris-
totle and Pliny, including certain larger va-
rieties of the vulture among the eagles (Mat.
xxiv. 28 ; cp. Prov. xxx. 17). In alluding to
the baldness of the eagle (Mic. i. 16), the
prophet, if he does not refer to moulting,
which is an inconspicuous process in the
eagle, has some vulture in mind, whose head
is bald and neck but scantily feathered.

Tristram enumerates eight species of the
eagle subfamily as occurring in Palestine.
Seven are of the typical genus Aquila, viz. :
Aquila chrysaetus, the golden eagle ; A.heliaca,
the imperial eagle ; A. clanga, the greater
spotted eagle ; A. rapax, the tawny eagle ;
A. pennata, the booted eagle ; A. nipalensis,
the steppe eagle ; A. BonelH, Bonelli's eagle,
and Chxaetus gaUicus, the short-toed eagle.
With the exception of the booted eagle, the
others are not uncommon. By far the most
abundant of all is the short-toed eagle. It
feeds on reptiles. It is numerous in summer
and autumn. In winter it occurs more spar-
ingly, many apparently migrating southward.

Ear'nest.

Part xiayment in advance of a wage, a sum
of money, or anything else promised, this
being intended as a pledge or guarantee to
the recipient that the bargain, contract, or
promise will in due time be carried out.
Blackstone says that the prepayment of a
penny in England will legally bind a con-
tract, and the handing over the smallest
quantity of goods ordered will bind the en-
gagement for the remainder. The earnest,
as a rule, is the same in kind as the ultimate
payment, of which it is the pledge. The Spirit
in the hearts of Christians is the earnest of
their inheritance (2 Cor. i. 22: v. 5; Eph.,i.
13, 14).

Ear'ring.

Earrings were worn by the Israelites, men,

Earth

Ebal

■women, and children (Ex. xxxii. 2), cspe-
i-ially by the women (Ezek. xvi. 12 ; Judith
X. 4). They were also worn by the Midian-
ites (Num. xxxi. 50), Assyrians, Egyptians,
and other peoples. The custom was innocent
in itself. But the earring sometimes served
as an amulet (cp. Is. iii. 20 ; in R. V. amulet).
As used in idolatrous worship, they were
worn by the men and women of Jacob's
household, until he ordered the strange gods
to be put away (Gen. xxxv. 4). They were
made of gold (Ex. xxxii. 2; cp. Prov. xxv.
12) or other precious metal. It is often not
clear from the narrative whether earrings
or nose-rings are intended (Gen. xxiv. 22, 30;
Ex. xxxv. 22).

Earth.

1. The world in which we dwell as distin-
guished from the heavens overhead (Gen. i. 1).

2. The dry land, as distinguished from the
sea (Gen. i. 10) ; the habitable world (Gen. i.
28; X. 25; xviii. IS). It is frequently de-
scribed in poetry. Haunah spoke of the
earth standing on pillars, on which it had
been placed by God (1 Sam. ii. 8 ; Job. ix. 6 ;
Ps. Ixxv. 3). The psalmist speaks of the in-
habited earth as founded upon the seas and
established ou the floods (xxiv. 2 ; cxxxvi. 6 ;
cp. Ex. XX. 4). Others speak literally or fig-
uratively of the foundations of the earth (Ps.
cii. 25; civ. 5-9; Prov. iii. 19; viii. 29; Is.
xlviii. 13).

3. Vegetable soil (Gen. xxvii. 28 ; Ex. xx.
24 : Ps. civ. 14).

4. The inhabitants of the world or of any
region in it (Gen. xi. 1 ; Ps. xcviii. 9).

Earth'quake.

The quaking of the earth ; a vibratory or
undulatory movement extendiugsuperficially
over a wide area, and downward, it is be-
lieved, from a mile or two to more than thirty
miles. The vibrations are, perhaps, produced
bycoutractionsof portions of the earth's crust.
Earthquakes and volcanoes are connected, and
are confined to particular regions constituting
continuous lines. One of these lines passes
from the Taurus mountains to the gulf of
Akaba. along the valleys of the Orontes and
the Jordan. In severe earthquakes, at the
point where the force is greatest, the hills
move to and fro (Jer. iv. 24) and the founda-
tions of the mountains, as it were, tremble
(Ps. xviii. 7) ; clefts appear in the earth's
crust (Zech. xiv. 4, 5) and chasms, into which
men may fall, open and close (Num. xvi. 31-
33) ; buildings are shaken down and their
inhabitants often buried in the ruins; and
if the sea is near, it may leave its bed for a
few minutes nearly dry, and then bring in a
wave upon the land which will sweep over it
with destructive etfect. Judfea was visited
by a severe earthquake in the days of Uzziah
and Jeroboam II. (Amos i. 1 ; Zech. xiv. 5;
Antiq. ix. 10, 4). Another notable earth-
quake occurred in the seventh year of Herod
tUe Great, which destroved much cattle and
12

upwards of 10,000 lives (Antiq. xv. 5, 2). An
earthquake, accompanied with darkness, sig-
nalized the death of Christ (Mat. xxvii. 45,
51-54), and another heralded his resurrection
(xxviii. 2). One occurred in Macedonia when
Paul and Silas were in the jail at Philippi
(Acts xvi. 26).

East.

The direction toward the sunrise (as is de-
noted by the Hebrew and Greek words em-
jiloyed in Josh. xi. 3; xii. 3, etc. ; ^Mat. ii. 1).
The Hebrews facoil the point of the ri.sing
sun when they determined direction ; hence
the east was the front (as is denoted by the
Hebrew word in Gen. ii. 8).

East, Children of the, or Men of, or Peo-
ple of.

A general designation of the tribes occupy-
ing the east country, who inhabited the re-
gion bordering on Amnion and Moab (Ezek.
xxv. 4, 10), dwelt as far north as a di.strict
where people of Haran pastured their flocks
(Gen. xxix. 1, 4). and extended far southward
into Arabia.

East Country.

The region lying east of Palestine (Zech.
viii. 7), especially the Arabian and Syrian
deserts (Gen. xxv. 1-7* .

East Sea or Eastern Sea. See Dead Sea.

East Wind.

A wind Ijlowing, broadly speaking, from
the east. In Egypt it blasts the ears of corn
(Gen. xli. 23, 27), and in Palestine the vines
and vegetation generally (Ezek. xvii. 7-10;
xix. 10-12). The east wind in these lands is
hot and sultry, and deleterious to vegetation,
because it has been blowing over the Arabian
or Syro- Arabian desert (Hos. xiii. 15). Doubt-
less this same wind is meant in Jon. iv. 8,
although the Ninevites themselves would not
have called it an east wind.

East'er.

Originally the spring festival in honor of
Eastra or Ostara, the Teutonic goddess of
light and spring. As early as the eighth cen-
tury the name was transferred by the Anglo-
Saxons to the Christian festival designed to
celebrate the resurrection of Christ. In the
A. V. it occurs once, viz., in Acts xii. 4, but
is a mistranslation. The original is pascha,
the ordinary- Greek word for pas,sover. The
E. Y. properly employs the word passover.

E'bal.

1. A son of Shobal, and a descendant of
Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 23; 1 Chron.
i. 40).

2. The same as Obal (1 Chron. i. 22 with
Gen. X. 28).

3. A mountain separated only by a narrow
valley from mount Gerizim (Dent, xxvii. 12-
14), west of the western highway and near the
oaks of Moreh (xi. 30, R. V.), which were near
Shechem (Gen. xii. 6, R. V. ; xxxv. 4). When
the Israelites passed the Jordan they were to
set up great stones plastered, on which the

Ebed

178

Ecclesiastes

words of the law were to be written. An altar
also was to be built (Deut. xxvii. 1-8). Rep-
resentatives of six tribes, those of Reuben,
Gad, Asher, Zebuliin, Dan, and Naphtali,
were to stand on mount Ebal, and pronounce
curses on those who were guilty of certain
heinous sins. The representatives of the re-
maining six tribes standing on mount Geri-
zim were to pronounce blessings (Deut. xi.
29; xxvii. 9-26). These directions were car-
ried out by Joshua (Josh. viii. 30-35). Mount
Ebal lies on the northern side of Nablus,
the ancient Shechem, whilst mount Gerizim
lies on its southern side (Antiq. iv. 8, 44).
Both are west of the road from the south to
the north, and the branch road to Samaria
and En-gannim passes between them. Ebal
rises 3077 feet above the sea, and is steep,
rocky, and barren. In some places a few
stunted olive trees may be discovered on its
lower part, and prickly pear above ; in others
it is destitute of vegetation. It is now called
Jebel Eslamiyeh.
E'bed [servant].

1. Father of Gaal (Judg. ix. 28, 30).

2. A chief of the father's house of Adin,
who returned fi-om Babylon with fifty males
under the leadership of Ezra (Ezra viii. 6).

E'bed-me'lech [slave of the king].

An Ethiopian, a eunuch of the palace, who
heard that Jeremiah had been cast into a
dungeon where he would probably have soon
died of hunger, and, having obtained the
king's permission, drew him out by cords let
down, and rags to protect the prophet's arm-
pits against their sharpness (Jer. xxxviii. 7-
13). Jeremiah was subsequently commissioned
to inform him that, on account of the service
he had rendei'ed, he should be preserved
when Jerusalem was taken (xxxix. 15-18).

Eb-en-e'zer [stone of help].

A connnemorative stone set up by Samuel,
evidently in Benjamin, between Mizpah and
Shen, where the Lord disionitited the Philis-
tines (1 Sam. vii. 10, 12). Twenty years pre-
viously the Israelites themselves had been
defeated at this place by the Philistines and
had lost the ark (iv. 1 ; where the place is
mentioned by its later name).

E'ber, in A. V. thrice Heber (1 Chron. v.
13; viii. 22; Luke iii. 35) [other side, region
beyond].

1. A descendant of Shem through Arpach-
shad (Gen. x. 22, 24). He became the pro-
genitor of a group of peoples (x. 21), em-
bracing the Hebrews (xi. 16-26), the Jok-
tanide Arabs (x. 25-30), and certain Aramaean
tribes descended from Nahor (xi. 29; xxii.
20-24). He is put for these peoples collec-
tively (Num. xxiv. 24). He belonged to the
region beyond or east of the Euphrates, per-
haps also of the Tigris, with respect to the
lat«r Hebrews (cp. Josh. xxiv. 2. 3, 14, 15),
and to the Joktanide Arabs, and not unlikely
with respect to his descendants, the ancestors
of Abraham and Nahor, in Ur (Gen. xi. 28).

2. A priest, head of the father's house of
Amok in the days of the high priest Joiakim
(Neh. xii. 20).

3. A Gadite. head of a father's house in
Gilead in Bashan (1 Chron. v. 13).

4. A Benjamite, son of Elpaal (1 Chron.
viii. 12).

5. A Benjamite, son of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 22, 25).

E-bi'a-saph. See Abiasaph.

Eb'on-y.

Wood of various species of the genus Dios-
pyro.s, which constitutes the type of the
Ehenaceie (Ebenads). The inner wood is
black, very hard, and heavy. Ebony is used
for inlaying and ornamental turnery. The
men of Dedan traded with it in the markets
of Tyre, having obtained it apparently from
India or Ceylon (Ezek. xxvii. 15). The Greeks,
recognized two kinds of ebony, one varie-
gated, from India, and the other black, from
Ethiopia.

E'bron, in A. V. Hebron.

A town on the boundary line of Asher
(Josh. xix. 28). Perhaps identical with Ab-
don.

E-bro'nab. See Abronah.

Ec-bat'a-na. See Achmetha.

Ec-cle-si-as'tes [Greek el'Mesmstes, one
who sits and .speaks in an assembly or church,
a preacher].

The name borrowed from the Septuagint
and applied to the O. T. book called in He-
brew Koheleih. The meaning of Kohelefh is
disputed. It is etymologically related to the
word which means congregation. The Eng-
lish versions follow the Greek and Latin ver-
sions in rendering it "the preacher" (i. 1).
The preacher is distinctly represented as Sol-
omon, "son of David, king at Jerusalem"
(i. 1), excelling all his predecessors in Jeru-
salem in wisdom and wealth (i. 16 ; ii. 7. 9).
The book may be regarded either as a writing
of Solomcm himself in his old age or as words
which, though not actually uttered by Sol-
omon, accurately sum up his completed expe-
rience, are spoken from the standpoint of his
finished course, teach the great lesson of his
life as he himself learned it, and express the
sentiments which he might rightly be sup-
posed to entertain as he looked at life in the
retrospect. The meaning of i. 12, 13 is,
according to Hebrew grammar, either: "As
for me, during my reign [which still contin-
ues] I have applied my heart to seek wisdom
and have discovered that all is vanity." or
" When I was king [as I am not now] I ap-
plied my heart to seek wisdom and discovered
that all is vanity." The latter ex]ilanation
is doubtless the correct one ; for the language
smacks everywhere of the vocabulary and
grammar of the later postexilic Hebrew
scriptures and of the Aramaic portions of
Daniel and Ezra. The book recounts the
feelings, experiences, and observations which.

Ed

179

Eden

would be unavoidable to the wise man situated
as was Solomon. Its theme is the vanity of
all earthly things (i. '2). The iireaeher j)roves
this by reason and the experienee of iiimself
and others. He shows the vanity of toil, for
no tinal sjitisfaction is attainable, history is
but the unceasing, monotonous coming and
going of the s;ime events (3-11); the vanity
of earthly wisdom (12-lb) and pleasure (ii.
1-11). Still wisdom and pleasure have a cer-
tain value : hence the preacher compares
wisdom and folly (ii. 12-23). and concludes
that contentment is true wisdom and pleas-
ure, and is found in enjoying the things one
has. which God gives to those who plea.se
him (ii. 24-26). The preacher continues to
advance proof of his main contention by
showing the vanity of human efforts, because
the laws of God are fixed (iii. 1-15) : the van-
ity of human justice (16-iv. 3), of labor and
efforts to obtain the perishable (4-12), the
vanity of even royal power (13-16). The
search is further pui-sued in the realm of
religion, and the preacher shows the vanity
of formalism (v. 1-7) and of wealth (S-vi. 9).
Then taking up practical wisdom as a subor-
dinate theme (vii.-xi. 6), he teaches the value
of a good name and the means of obtaining
it (vii. 1-10 1, and the value of wi.sdom as a
safeguard (11-22) and in dealing with kings
(viii. 1-9) ; and he insists on the ultimate
welfare of those that fear God (1(V1,5). Still
he is careful to again remind his readers of
the vanity of wisdom (l(>-x. 1) ; but wisdom
is better than folly (x. 2-20), and there is
wisdom in beneficence (xi. 1-6). He returns
to his main theme (xi. 7-10), makes his great
appeal to youth to remember God. and states
his conclusion that the whole duty of man is
to fear God and keep his commandments
(xii.). Ecclesiastes ostensibly depicts the ab-
errations of a great mind, which could find
no rest till it returned to God. These aber-
rations are not proposed for imitation ; they
are designed as beacons to warn men against
traversing the same dangerous paths. Amid
all these wanderings the belated pilgrim was
under divine guidance, which ever and anon
brought him back to the right way. and en-
abled him to give forth spiritual truth in
beautiful and powerful language. Finally,
his aberrations over, he thus satisfactorily
ended his book : '' Let us hear the conclusion
of the whole matter: Fear God. and keep
his commandments : for this is the whole
duty of man. For God shall bring every
work into judgment, with every secret thing,
whether it be good, or whether it be evil."

Tlie startling character of some statements
in Ecclesia.stes led certain Jews to question
its right to its place among inspired books.
At last, however, its right to remain in the
canon was universally accorded. There Is no
direct quotation from it or unequivocal allu-
sion to it in the N. T.

Ed [a witness].

A word inserted in the A. V. and the E. V.

of Josh. xxii. 34. It or a similar word was
doubtless originally in the Hebrew. It is
found in some manuscripts and versions,
though it may be an insertion in them as it
is in the English version. It is needful to the
full meaning of the pas.sage, which tells how
the two and a half tribes east of the Jordan
reared an altar as a witness that they were
of common de.scent and religion with those
west of the river. These latter, taking the
altar to be the commencement of apostasy
from Jehovah, were preparing to make war
upon those who had erected it, when expla-
nations were given and accepted as satisfac-
tory (Josh. xxii. 1-34).

E'dax. See Eder.

E'den [pleasantness or. perhaps. ])lain].

1. A country in which God caused trees to
grow from the ground and in this manner
planted for Adam a garden, called from its
situation the garden of Eden. A river went
out of the country of P]den to water the gar-
den, and being thence parted, became four
heads, called Pishou, Gihon, Hiddekel. and
Euphrates. Of these four rivers, the Eu-
phrates is well known. Hiddekel is unques-
tionably the Tigris: the other two are doubt-
ful. The Pishon surrounded or meandered
through the laud of Havilah. where there is
gold ; and the Gihon surrounded the land of
Cush.

The main theories as to the site of the
garden may be classed in two groups : I.
Those which, while proposing to identify the
four streams with still existing rivers, fail to
find a geographical counterjiart of the one
stream divided into four. The site is by
many sought in Armenia. The sources of
the Tigris and Euphrates are in this region.
The Pishon is supposed to be either the Pha-
sis. in modern Persian Fas. or the Kur, the
large tributary of the Araxes. The Gihon is
identified with the Araxes. in Arabic known
as Gnihuii er-Rns. Objections to this theory
are, (a) the difficulty in explaining the one
river; (h) the absence of proof that the land
of Cush ever extended to this region ; (c)
Havilah, as located by the biblical writers,
did not lie in Armenia. By othei-s the gar-
den is thought of as situated between the
Nile and India or between India and the
Oxus. Havilah is identified with a portion
of India, where gold was obtained ; and Cush
with either Ethiopia, which is called Cush in
the Scriptures, or the plateau of central Asia
which was inhabited by Cossseans. The Gi-
hon, the river of Cush. is hence either the
Nile, called by the Ethiopians Geirou or Geyon,
or the Oxus. The same objections, mulaiis
mulandis. lie against the second theory as
against the first. It may be added that the
identification of the Gihon with the Nile is
traceable as far back a« Josephus. In his
case it probably rests on a misconception.
The only land of Cush in the gef graphical
knowledge of the later Israelites was Ethio-

Eden

180

Edom

pia ; and accordingly Josephus understood
the Nile by the Gihou, because it is the
great river of the laud of Cush. II. The-
ories which seek an exact geographical coun-
terpart to the biblical description and identify
not only the four rivers, but also the one.
Calvin observed that the Tigris and Euphrates
are actually united for a short distance as one
stream, wiiich then divides and enters into
the Persian gulf by two mouths ; and he con-
cluded that the district watered by the united
streams was the site of the garden. There is
reason to believe that this particular spot M'as
formerly the bed of the Persian Gulf. But
the general locality indicated has much iu
favor of its being the site of the garden.
Friedrich Delitzsch thinks that the river of
Eden is the Euphrates. Its channel being
higher than the Tigris, its superabundant
waters on entering the alluvial plain north
of Babylon flowed from its banks and found
their way across the plain to the Tigris. The
district thus watered was extremely fertile.
It was even known to the ancient Babylouiaus
as the garden of the god Duniash. Here the
garden of Eden is to be sought. The word
edinu in Assyrian means plain ; and the two
river bottoms of southern Mesopotamia and
the alluvial lowland form a plain, and were
spoken of as an edinu. A descendant of Cush
reigned in the Babylonian plain (Gen. x. 8-
10) ; and Kashites, that is Cushites, who were
related to the Elamites, early descended upon
Babylonia and for a time held the political
power. Hence the land of Cush may be sat-
isfactorily regarded as having designated at
one period Babylonia or its southern portion.
Havilah was situated northwest of the Per-
sian Gulf, according to Scripture notices, and
may be assumed to liave extended to the Eu-
phrates and bordered on Babylonia. Under
these circumstances, the Pishon may reason-
ably be identified with the Pallakopas caual,
which was probably a natural channel orig-
inally ; and the Gihon with a great Babylo-
nian canal which branched from the Eu-
phrates eastward at Babylon, and ou which
two of Nimrod the Cushite's cities, Babylon
and Erech. stood. It may be the caual near
Babylon whose name was Kahana or Guhana,
corresponding to Gihon. This scholarly the-
ory still lacks proof. Its weakness at present
lies in its numerous assumptions, in the dif-
ficulty of showing that the bounds of Havi-
lah ever extended to the banks of the Eu-
plirates, and were not separated from tlie
river by the land of Mesha, and of establish-
ing the conjecture that the country near
Babylon to the east was designated the laud
of Cush. Glaser oflers a natural explanation
of the language employed in the description.
He regards the four heads, which are imme-
diately afterwards called rivers, as the heads
or tributaries of the river of Eden. These
four affluents united somewhere below the
garden or, to modify his theory, at the gar-
den itself. The name Pishon he finds still

lingering in the Middle Ages iu the wady
Faishan in northern central Arabia, which
drains the rainfall toward the Persian Gulf.
This region produced gold and corresponds
to the location of Havilah as indicated by
the biblical writers. He also ))elieved that
he found the name Gihon apjdied to the
wady er-Eumma, which drains the country
about Jebel Shamar toward the Euphrates,
and he concluded that the Cushites occupied
this region during their migration from the
east to Africa, and caused it to be known for
a long time as the laud of Cush. He erred,
however, iu his belief that he had found the
wady er-Eumma called Gihon. The Arabian
poet whom he quotes is speaking of a river
of Cilicia.

The site of the garden of Eden is most prob-
ably to be sought about the head of the Per-
sian Gulf. The locality is east of Palestine, as
Gen. ii. 8 may mean. The Tigris and Euphrates
rivers are there. Havilah was a district of
northern central Arabia. A land of Cush
corresponded approximately to Elam, where
the names Kashshu and Cossseau long lin-
gered. The plain of Babylonia could be and,
evidently was called an edinu, as Delitzsch
has shown. Possibly the fact that the Per-
sian Gulf was called a river may also have
some bearing ou the solution of the problem.
The garden of Eden is referred to iu Isa. li.
3; Ezek. xxviii. 13; xxxi. 9, 16-18; xxxvi.
35 ; Joel ii. 3 ; cp. Gen. xiii. 10.

2. A region iu Mesopotamia ; mentioned iu
connection with Gozan, Haran, Ecseph, Te-
lassar (2 Kin. xix. 12 ; Is. xxxvii. 12), and
with Haran and Canueh (Ezek. xxvii. 23,
24). Apparently the locality in Amos i. 5,
on the margin called Beth-eden. The region
is mentioned in Assyrian documents by the
name Bit-Adini, situated on both sides of the
Euphrates north of the Belik river.

3. A Gershonite Levite, a son of Joah (2
Chron. xxix. 12; xxxi. 15).

E'der, iu A. V. once Edar (Gen. xxxv. 21)
and ouce Ader (1 Chron. viii. 15) [a flock].

1. A tower, beyond which Jacob on one
occasion spread his tent (Gen. xxxv. 21).
Exact situation unknown.

2. A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 21). Exact situation unknown.

3. A Benjamite, son of Elpaal (1 Chron.
viii. 15).

4. A Levite, son of Mushi, of the family of
Merari (1 Chron. xxiii. 23; xxiv. 30).

E'dom ; in A. V. of O. T. four times Idumea
[red].

1. A name of Esau, given in memory of his
having sold his birthright for red pottage
(Gen. XXV. 30; xxxvi. 1, 8, 19).

2. The Edomites collectively (Num. xx. 18,
20, 21 ; Amos i. 6, 11 ; ix. 12 ;" Mai. i. 4).

3. The region occupied by the descendants
of Edom, i. e. Esau. It was originally called
mount Seir, from Seir, the Horite {Gen. xxxii.
3 ; xxxiii. 14 ; xxxvi. 20-30 ; Num. xxiv. 18,

Edomites

181

Edrei

etc.), but took the uanie of Edom after the
Edomites had displaced the aboriginal Hor-
ites (Deut. ii. 1"2). The regiou is the moun-
taiuoiis aud extremely rugged country, about
100 miles loug, extending southward from
Moab on both sides of the Arabah, or great
depression connecting the southern jmrt of
the Dead 8ea with the gulf of Akaba (Gen.
xiv. 6; Deut. ii. 1. 12 ; Josh. xv. 1 ; Judg. xl.
17, lt<; 1 Kin. ix. 2(i). The summit of mount
Seir is believed to rise about 3500 feet above
the adjacent Aral«ih. The lower part of the
chain is of red Nubian sandstone, with dykes
of red granite and porphyry ; the summit is
of a chalky limestone, probably of cretaceous
age. Edom is not nearly so fertile as Pales-
tine (cp. Mai. i. 2-4) ; but in the time of
Moses it had fields, vineyards, wells, and a
highway (Num. xx. 17, 19). The Edomite
capital in the times of the Hebrew monarchy
was Sela, believed to be the place afterwards
called Petra. Other important towns were
Bozrah aud Teman. In the Greek period
the name was modified to Idumjea (q. v.).

The wilderness of Edom was the Arabah
at the southern extremity of the Dead Sea
(2 Kin. iii. y, 20).

E'dom-ites.

The descendants of Edom, i. e. Esau (Gen.
xxxvi. 1-19), and others incorporated with
them. As early as the return of Jacob from
Mesopotamia Esau had occupied the land of
Edom (Gen. xxxii. 3 ; xxxvi. 6-8 ; Deut. ii.
4, 5; Josh. xxiv. 4), having driven out the
aboriginal Horites (cp. Gen. xiv. 6 ; xxxvi.
20-30; Deut. ii. 12. 22). The Edomites ap-
pear to have been first ruled by tribal chiefs
called dukes, who were probably like Arab
sheiks (Gen. xxxvi. 15-19, 40-43; 1 Chron.
i. 51-54) ; but before the rise of the Hebrew
monarchv they were governed by kings (Gen.
xxxvi. 31-39 ;"l Chron. i. 43-51)'. When the
Israelites were approaching Canaan, they
sought permission from the king of Edom to
pass through his territory, giving assurance
that the privilege would not be abused. He re-
fused the request, and was ]n-epared to fight
if the Israelites had persisted in moving for-
ward. But because the Edomites were de-
scended from Abraham, the Israelites were
forbidden to make war upon them and com-
manded to pass around their land (Num. xx.
14-21). Notwithstanding this hostility, an
Edomite was regarded in the Mosaic law as
a brother of the Israelites, and the posterity
of the former were allowed in the third gen-
eration to become incorporated with the He-
brew people (Deut. xxiii. 7, 8). while it was not
till the tenth generation that the descend-
ants of a Moabite or an Ammonite could ob-
tain the same privilege (3-6). .Saul fought
against the Edomites (1 Sam. xiv. 47) ; and
David put garrisons in Edom after conquer-
ing the country (1 Chron. xviii. 13; Ps. Ix.,
title; and 2 Sam. viii. 13, 14, where the word
SjTians is doubtless the error of a copyist
who misread daleth as resh). This conquest

had been predicted by Balaam (Num. xxiv,
18). Joab, David's commander-in-chief, re-
mained in Edom for six months, cutting off
every male (1 Kin. xi. 15, 16) ; but Hadad,
one of the royal family, escaped with some
others of his countrymen to Egypt, and be-
came an active enemy of S(jlomon (14-22).
After the death of Ahab of Israel, and during
the reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah, Edom-
ites joined with the Ammonites and Moabites
in invading Judah ; but a misunderstanding
arising, they were attacked and destroyed by
their allies (2 Chron. xx. 22-30). Jehoshajjhat
reduced the country to its former subjection,
and put it under a deputy (1 Kin. xxii. 47) ;
and the Edomites aided Israel and Judah in
the contest with Mesha, king of Moab (2 Kin.
iii. 4-27). In the reign of Joram, king of
Judah, Jehoshaphat's son and successor, the
Edomites revolted. Joram vanquished them
in the field, but could not reduce them to
subjection (2 Kin. viii. 20-22; 2 Chron. xxi.
8-10). Amaziah was more successful. He
slew 10,000 Edomites in the valley of Salt,
took Sela, the capital, and put 10,000 Edom-
ites to death by flinging them from the top
of the rock (2 Kin. xiv. 7; 2 Chron. xxv. 11,
12). In the reign of Ahaz, when Judah was
attacked by Pekah and Eezin, the Edomites
invaded Judah, and carried off' captives (2
Chron. xxviii. 17), and when Jeru.salem was
taken by Nebuchadnezzar the Edomites cut
off Jewish fugitives, and rejoiced over the
catastrophe which had befallen the kindred
people (Obad. 10-14). Strong feeling in con-
sequence arose against them, and vengeance
was breathed (Ps. cxxxvii. ,7; Jer. xlix. 7-
22 ; Lam. iv. 21, 22 ; Ezek. xxv. 12-14 ; xxxv.
15 ; Joel iii. 19 ; Amos ix. 12 ; Obad. 1-21).
When the captivity of the two tribes ren-
dered the territory of Judah somewhat desti-
tute of inhabitants, the P'domites seized on
it as far as Hebron, aud were themselves sup-
planted in mount Seir by the Nabathsean
Arabs. See Nabaioth. Judas Maccabfeus
retook Hebron and the other towns which
the Edomites had occupied (1 Mac. v. 65 ;
Antiq. xii. 8, 6). Jolm Hyrcanus compelled
the Edomites to submit to the rite of circum-
cision, and incorporated them with the Jew-
ish people (Antiq. xiii. 9, 1). The Herods
were Idumaeans, i. e. Edomites. Many of
the Zealots who took part in the defense of
Jerusalem against the Romans, and were
almost as dangerous to their fellow citizens
as to the enemy, were also Idumaeans. After
this the tribe is little heard of again in his-
tory.

Ed're-i [strong].

1. The capital city of Bashan (Deut. iii. 10 ;
.Tosh. xii. 4 ; xiii. 12*31). There the Israelites
fought the great battle with Og, which de-
prived him of his dominions and his life
(Num. xxi. 33-35; Deut, i. 4; iii. 1, 10).
Edrei has been identified with the modem
village of Der'at, about 27 miles east of Gad-
ara.

Eglah

182

Egypt

2. A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
37). Not ideutified.

Eg'lali [a calf].

One of David's wives, and mother of
Ithream (2 Sam. iii. 5; 1 Chron. iii. 3).

Eg'la-im [two ponds].

A Moabito town (Is. xv. 8). Eusebius men-
tions a village Aigaleira, 8 Roman miles to
the south of Areopolis ; cp. also the town
Agalla (Antiq. xiv. 1, 4). It is not the same
as En-eglaim.

Eg'lon [perhaps vituline].

1. A king of Moab, who, at the head of an
army of Moabites, Ammonites, and Amale-
kites, captured Jericho, and retained it for
eighteen years, oppressing the Israelites. He
was assassinated by Ehud, who had gained
access to his presence on the pretext of bring-
ing him a present, which is a common term
for tribute ( Judg. iii. 12-30).

2. A town in the lowland and assigned to
Judah (Josh. sv. 39). Its king was one of
the five allies who made war on Gibeon, but
were defeated, captured, and executed, by
Joshua (Josh. x. 3-23, 34-37; xii. 12). Its
site is 'Ajlan, 16 miles northeast of Gaza.

E'gypt.

For the sake of convenience, the facts re-
garding Egypt are grouped under three heads:
the country, the people, and the sojourn of
the Israelites.

I. The Country. — 1. Its names. The coun-
try was designated Aiguptos by the Greeks
as early as the time of Homer. The ancient
Egyptians themselves, however, commonly
called their native land Kam-t, black, naming
it from the color of the soil. To the Canaan-
ites it was known as Misru, which probably
means the fortified land, or closed land, so
called on account of the fortifications along
its Asiatic frontier at the isthmus of Suez, or
it may denote simply the territory. This
latter name the Hebrews employed almost
exclusively, though they used it in the dual
form Misraim, the two Egypts, viz., upper or
southern and lower or northern ; like the
Egyptians themselves, considering the coun-
try double.

I. 2. The territory and its divisions. In an-
cient times Egypt was the country watered
by the Nile from the Mediterranean Sea as
far as the first cataract. In addition it in-
cluded a series of oases in the western desert,
and also the country between the eastern
mouth of the Nile and the wady el-'Arish,
the river of Egypt. The country is divided
by nature into two tracts — a narrow valley,
running from south to north, sunken in the
midst of a desert ; and the prolongation of
the valley into a delta. These geographical
divisions formed ]>olitical boundaries also;
Upper Egypt was coincident with the valley,
and Lower Egypt with the delta. The length
of the Nile country from the sea to the first
cataract is 5.50 miles, and its breadth from
the head of the delta to the cataract varies

from 14 to 32 miles. The area of this tract
is about 11,342 square miles, of which at the
time of the French occupation 6921 square
miles were cultivable. Ancient Egypt was a
small country, scarcely one-half again as
large as New Jersey ; but, at the same time,
in proportion to its width, it is the longest
country in the world. It may be compared
to New Jersey with its area increased by one
half, elongated so as to extend from New
York to Cincinnati, or from New York to
Wilmington, N. C. It is nearly twice as far
from Memphis to the cataract (about 460 miles)
as from Memphis to Jerusalem (about 260), and
the distance is greater from Memphis to the
cataract than from Memjjhis to Damascus
(about 410 miles). This long, narrow valley
of the Nile, as far as the first cataract, was
originally an estuary of the sea. Herodotus
came to this conclusion (ii. 10), and his theory
has been confirmed by geology. "The Nile
mud," says Fraas, " re.sts on a bed of sea sand.
The whole country between the first cataract
and the Mediterranean was formerly a nar-
row estuary." In the strictest sense, Egypt,
as the ancient Greeks said, is " the gift of the
Nile." See Nile.

I. 3. The adjacent region. Ancient Egypt
was bounded on either side by desert land.
The waste country gradually rises from the
Sahara in the west toward the east, and
terminates in a chain of mountains which
skirt the Eed Sea. The desert region on the
east of the river, extending to the Red Sea,
and containing nearly 50,000 square miles,
about equal in extent to Pennsylvania, was
considered as forming geographically part of
Arabia (Herod, ii. 8, 19), perhaps because like
the Arabian peninsula in character, although
it was separated from Arabia by the Red Sea
and was politically no man's land, virtually
uninhabited, whose scanty resources were
worked by the Egyptians. The mountains
rise to a height of 6600 feet. They form a
broad and massive range of crystalline rock,
running parallel with the coast of the Red
Sea and sending forth numerous ramifications
into the interior of the country. It was in
these mountains, at Hammamat on the cara-
van route between Koser and Thebes, that
the ancient Egyptians quarried the hard,
dark-colored stone which they used for sar-
cophagi and sphinxes; and at Jcbel Dukha,
nearly opposite the extremity of the Sinaitic
peninsula, they mined copper and emerald.
E.xtensive masses of limestone stretch from
the mountains to the Nile, yielding the ala-
baster with which the ancient Ivuyptians em-
bellished their buildings. The desert on the
west of the Nile was assigned to Libya. It
presents an entirely different aspect from
the region east of the river. It consists of
an immense, monotonous and stonv table-
land, 650 to 1000 feet above the level of the
Nile, without mountains or valleys or even
isolated hills of any considerable height, and
without trace of crystalline or volcanic for-

Egypt

183

Egypt

mat ions. The whole of this stouy and abso-
lutely unwatered i)lain consists of limestone
with a few sand hills scattered here and
there over it, and a barrier of sandstone pene-
trating into it not far from the Ethiopian
border. The utter desolation of this region

Ancient Egypt was thus an isolated coun-
try— sea on the north, desert and sea on the
east, desert cleft only for nearly a 1000 miles
by the narrowest and least productive part of
the Nile valley on the south, and the silent,
illimitable desert on the west.

is relieved at five points only within the
Egyptian territory by oases, mere specks in
the desert, distant by a journey of from three
to five days from each other, and by a jour-
ney of from three to sixteen days from the
Nile. They owe their fertility to subter-
ranean supplies of water, which are believed
to be connected with the Nubian Nile or pos-
sibly with the Soudan. The combined popu-
lation is about 35,000.

II. The People. — 1. Their origin. Accord-
ing to the Bible, Misraim was the son of Ham
and the brother of Canaan, Put, and the Eth-
iopian Cush (Gen. x. 6). This description in-

Egypt

184

Egypt

dicates an Asiatic origin for the Egyptians,
but whether they were descended from Ham
or incorporated with him is not determined.
Their own traditions point to their immigra-
tion from southern Arabia. The type of the
ancient Egyptian is Caucasian ; but at the
same time anatomj', character, and language
differentiate him from the Indo-European
and Semitic peoples. On the other hand,
many of the domestic utensils employed by
the ancient Egyptians, as well as many of
their customs, are said to be similar to those
of the dwellers on the banks of the Zambesi
and Niger, but totally different from those
seen on the banks of the Indus and Eu-
phrates. Not improbably Hamitic immigrants
from Asia conquered an aboriginal race al-
ready settled on the banks of the Nile.

II. 2. Their appearance. The Egyptian was
short of stature and slender of build. The
head was large in proportion, and covered with
black or brown hair — smooth, not woolly.
The forehead was square, but receding, the
eyes large, the cheeks full, the mouth wide,
the lips tolerably thick. In color the Egyp-
tian was dark, but not black. The women,
not being exposed to the sun, had a lighter
complexion.

II. 3. Their language. The Egyptian lan-
guage is difficult to classify. Its vocabulary
connects it with the Turanian tongues, and
its grammar with the Semitic languages. Its
modern descendant is the Coptic, which con-
tinued to be spoken in Lower Egypt until the
seventeenth century. Though now dead, it
is known by translations into it of the O. T.
and N. T. Originally a kind of picture
writing, which has been named hieroglyphic
or sacred writing, was used. It consisted
chiefly of representations of objects which
occur in nature and art, such as birds, beasts,
plants, and implements, together with math-
ematical symbols. These delineations are
partly ideographs — that is, the picture is the
word or idea, and they partly represent
sounds which when combined yield a word.
Hieroglyphic writing was used down to the
latest times ; but after a time the scribes
began to dispense with the details of the pic-
tures in order to write more rapidly, and thus
arose the hieratic or priestly writing. It was
employed wherever ornamentation was not
an object. About the eighth century b. c.
the demotic or popular writing came into
vogue. It was used in social and commercial
intercourse for writing the dialect which had
developed among the people, and was a cur-
sive form of the old hieroglyphs. When the
attention of the modern world was directed
to the ancient Egyptian writings, they could
not be read, and for a long time no key could
be found. But when Alexandria surrendered
to the British in 1801 there fell into their
hands a slab of black basalt, called the
Rosetta stone, from its having been found
by the French near the Rosetta branch of
the Nile. It is now in the British Museum.

On this stone is cut a decree by Ptolemy V.,
about 193 B. c. It is repeated in three lan-
guages and in three forms of writing — de-
motic, hieroglyphic, and Greek. A bilingual
inscription, Greek and hieroglyphic,was found
on an obelisk on the island of Philse near the
first cataract. The Greek of these texts was,
of course, easily read, being a known lan-
guage, and the hieroglyphs were deciphered
by comparison with it.

II. 4. Their numbers. The population of
Egypt was greater in ancient than in modern
times. Diodorus Siculus, contemporary of
Julius Cffisar and Augustus, states, on the
authority of the ancient Egyptian records,
that the land contained in the time of the
Pharaohs more than 18,000 cities and villages ;
and he gives the ancient population of the
country as 7,000,000. In the days of Nero, on
the basis of the revenue derived from the poll
tax, it was estimated at 7,500.000, exclusive
of the inhabitants of Alexandria (War ii. 16,
4). This number is quite reasonable in itself,
for the country could support from 8,000,000
to 9,000,000 people. According to the census
of 1882, the present population of Egypt proper
is 6,811,448, or about 600 per square mile, and
is therefore denser than that of most Euro-
pean states.

II. 5. Their history. When Egypt passed
from the i)rehistoric to the historic age it
seems to have existed as a number of small
kingdoms. These were afterwards combined
into an empire by Menes, the first historical
king. Students of Egyptian chronology as-
sign different dates to the commencement of
Menes' reign. These vary from about 5700
B. c. to 2700 B. c. Manetho, a priest of Seben-
nytos in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
reckons thirty dynasties from the accession
of Menes to the Persian conquest of Egypt in
345 B. c. These are now generally grouped
into three periods : those of the Old, the Mid-
dle, and the New Empires. To the Old Em-
pire are assigned the first seven or ten dy-
nasties. Its great feature was pyramid build-
ing, which reached its height under the
fourth dynasty. That of the Middle Empire
was the conquest of at least Lower Egypt by
the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, from the
northeast. They are generally supposed to
have belonged to the Semitic race, but may
have been Hittites. It is believed that it was
during their domination that Abraham vis-
ited Egypt and that Joseph was prime min-
ister. The New Empire began with the eigh-
teenth dynasty. The first notable event in
it was the expulsion of the Hyksos, when
they had ruled by one account 511, by another
625 years. Afterwards, under native rulers,
Egypt attained to high prosperity, and be-
gan a career of conquest and domination in
western Asia, Thothmes III. being its greatest
warrior, and Ramses II. not much inferior.
The latter was probably the Pharaoh who
oppressed the Israelites, and his son Menep-
tah the Pharaoh of the exodus. Other Pha-

Egypt

185

Egypt

r.iohs are mentioned in the O. T. — Shishak,
80, Tirhakah, Necho, Hophra ; see Pharaoh.
Tirhakah assisted in checking the advance
of Senuacherih, king of Assyria, toward
Egyi)t : but he was overthrown by Senna-
cherib's successor Esarhaddon. The Assyr-
ians divided Egypt into twenty districts, and
ajipointed a governor over each. Tirhakah
♦stirred up revolt, and Egypt was reconqnered
bv Ashurhanii>al, who plundered and de-
stroyed Thebes in 664 B. C. (Nah. iii. 8-10).
Psammeticus, one of the petty rulers, rose in
revolt, and, aided by the Asiatic Greeks, re-
stored Egypt to independence, founding the
twenty-sixth dynasty. In 525 B. c. Egypt
was conquered by Cambyses and became a
Persian satrapy. About a century and a quar-
ter later Nephrites succeeded in completely
throwing oti" the Persian yoke, and became
the founder of the twenty-ninth dynasty ;
but in 345 b. c. Egypt surrendered to Arta-
xerxes, and again became a Persian satrapy.
In 332 B. c. it welcomed the Macedonians and
Greeks, led by Alexander the Great ; for it
saw in him a deliverer from the Persian yoke.
After his death it was ruled by the Ptolemies.
In 30 B. c. it became a province of the Eoman
empire, and was governed by prefects until
A. D. 362. Joseph, Jlary, and the infant
Jesus, took refuge there during the time that
Archelaus ruled Judsea. In a. d. 619 Egypt
was conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia, who
lost it again permanently in 628. Between
638 and 640 it passed to the Saracens, and
between 1163 and-1196 to the Turks.

Bast, personification of sexual passion (in
Pi-beseth), and Amon, a god who animates
nature. Each nome or district had its spe-
cial local deity or deities, to whom it {>aid
peculiar honors. Some among the people
were henotheists or worshipers of one god
as far exalted above the others and worthy
of all adoration, and perhaps some were even
monotheists. A remarkably clear knowledge
of ethical and religious truths was possessed
from very early times — truth in regard to
human conduct, sin, justification, immortal-
ity, and with all their nature worship evea
in regard to God.

III. The l^ojourn of the Israelites in Egypt.
1. The descent into Egi/pt. A grievous famine
prevailed throughout the whole known world,
or at least throughout that large part of it
about the eastern and southeastern shores of
the Mediterranean Sea, where dwelt a com-
plex of nations cut off socially and, so far as
obtaining sufficient supplies for the neces-
sities of life, economically from the moun-
tains of Asia Minor and the rich valleys of
the Euphrates and Tigris (Gen. xli. 54 ; xlvii.
13). On occasion of this distress Joseph, who
had risen to authority at the court of Pharaoh
second only to that of the king, urged his
father and brethren to leave Canaan and
settle temporarily in Egypt (xlv. 9-11 ; xlvii.
4, 29, 30 ; xlviii. 21 : 1. 24). Accordingly Jacob
migrated with his tribe. It consisted of the
patriarch himself, his six sons and one daugh-
ter by Leah with twenty-five sons; his two sons
by Leah's maid with thirteen sons and one

Migration of Asiatics into Egj-pt during the Twelfth Dynasty.

II. 6. Their reliyion. The religion of the
Egj'ptians was a spiritualized nature wor-
ship, centering about veneration of the sun
and of the river Nile, two sources of life. A
vast number of deities M'ere adored. They
represented the forces and phenomena of
nature. Ptah, whose name occurs in Me-
neptah. was chief. He represented the or-
ganizing and motive power developed from
moisture. The names of several others are
found in the O. T. — Ra, the sun god, illumi-
nator of the world and awakener of life (in
Ramses) ; Thum, the evening sun, the posses-
sor of creative power and the dispen.ser of
the welcome evening breezes (in Pithom) ;

daughter ; his two sons by Rachel with twelve
sons, of which number three were already in
Egypt ; and his two sons by Rachel's maid
with five sons (xlvi. 8-25). All the souls
which came with Jacob into Egypt, Avhich
came out of his loins (even though perhaps
some were yet unborn, cp. Heb. vii. 9, 10),
were sixty-six souls (Gen. xlvi. 26). All the
souls of the house of Jacob which came into
Egypt first and last, including the head of
the house and Joseph with his two sons who
were born in Egypt, were seventy souls (ver.
27). This is also the enumeration of Ex. i. 5
(as in Gen. xlvi. 15, apparently exclusive of
Jacob, but in reality inclusive of him) and

Egypt

186

Egypt

Deut. X. 22. The Septuagint, however, and
Stephen who follows the Greek version (Acts
vii. 14) reckon seventy-five. This result is
•due to the addition in Gen. slvi. 20 of three
grandsons and two great-grandsons of Joseph,
whose names are obtained from Num. xxvi.
29 and 35 seq. The numerical correspond-
ences of the register, a total of seventy, and
the descendants of each maid precisely half
those of her mistress (Leah 32, Zilpah 16,
Eachel 14, Bilhah 7), suggest design, and can
scarcely be altogether accidental. A com-
parison with Num. xxvi. leads to the belief
that regard was had to the subsequent na-
tional oi'ganization in constructing this table,
and that its design was to include those de-
scendants of Jacob from whom permanent
tribal divisions sprang, even if in a few in-
stances they were still in the loins of the
patriarch when he led his tribe into Egypt.
The tribe of Israel settled in Goshen, and re-
mained in and about this fertile region until
the exodus (Gen. xlvii. 6, 11; Ex. viii. 22;
ix. 26 ; xii. 37).

III. 2. The sojourn as embedded in the na-
tional consciousness. The descent of Jacob
and his family into Egypt, their subsequent
increase and enslavement, their sufferings
and their exodus in a body, were recorded in
their earliest historical document (Gen. xlvi.
4, 28-34 ; xlvii. 27 ; Ex. i. 9, 11, 15-22 ; ii. 11 ;
xii. 31-37; xiii. 21). The feast of the pass-
over, and to a less degree that of the taber-
nacles, bore testimony to the events, and
kept the knowledge of them alive among
the people. Psalmists pitched their songs
of redemption and their hymns in celebration
of Jehovah's might to its key, and fi'om it
prophets drew lessons. The standing types
of the grievous oppression of the church and
of God's redemptive power and love are
Israel's bondage of old in Egypt and deliv-
erance from that furnace of affliction. The
tradition is not peculiar to one tribe, as though
but a portion of the Hebrew folk had en-
dured Egyptian slavery ; it is not exclusively
Judsean, but it is Ephraimite as well. The
prophets of both kingdoms voice it— Isaiah,
Micah, and Jeremiah, among the hills of
Judah (Is. xi. 16; Mic. vi. 4 ; vii. 15; Jer. ii.
6 ; vii. 22), and Hosea and Amos in the king-
dom of Samaria (Hos. ii. 15: viii. 13; ix. 3;
xi. 1 ; xii. 9, 13 ; Amos ii. 10 ; iii. 1 ; ix. 7). The
tradition is the common property of all
Israel. The people as a whole had suffered
Egyptian bondage.

III. 3. The duration of the sojourn. The
biblical data are stated in the following
terms: "He said unto Abraham, 'Thy seed
shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs,
and shall serve them ; and they shall afflict
them 400 years . . . but in the fourth genera-
tion they shall come hither again ' " (Gen. xv.
13-16). "The sojourning of the children of
Israel, which they sojourned in Egypt, was 430
years " (Ex. xii. 40, E. V.) ; according to the
Septuagint and Samaritan Pentateuch in this

passage, the sojourning " in Egypt and in the
land of Canaan was 430 years." God spake
to Abraham "that his seed should sojourn in
a strange land ; and that they should bring
them into bondage, and entreat them evil
400 years" (Acts vii. 6). "The law came 430
years after " the covenant (Gal. iii. 17).
These statements are interpreted to mean :

(1) The children of Israel dwelt in Egypt ■
215 years. For the Seventy, either to re-
move an ambiguity or because their Hebrew
manuscripts differed from the present Hebrew
text, add the words " and in the land of Ca-
naan " to the statement in Ex. xii. 40. Now
from the date of the covenant with Abram,
shortly after his arrival in Canaan, to the
migration of his descendants into Egypt was
about 215 years (Gen. xii. 4 ; with xxi. 5 ;
XXV. 26; xlvii. 9), leaving 215 years for the
sojourn of the children of Israel in Egypt.
This statement is also made by Josephus, who
says, "The Hebrews left Egypt 430 years
after our forefather Abraham came into Ca-
naan, but 215 years only after Jacob removed
into Egypt" (Antiq. ii. 15, 2). In this state-
ment he is following the Septuagint, but he
nullifies his statement by saying elsewhere,
"400 years did they spend under these
labors" (Antiq. ii. 9, 1 ; War v. 9, 4; mani-
festly incorrect, for the Israelites were not
oppressed for 400 years). But however Jo-
sephus may vacillate, Paul dates the law at
Sinai 430 years after the covenant with
Abram, and the genealogies give four gen-
erations between Jacob and the exodus, which
may cover 215 years, but scarcely 400 years
(Ex. vi. 16-20).

The biblical data are explained to mean

(2) The children of Israel dwelt 430 years in
Egypt. (1) The natural interpretation of
Gen. XV. 13-16 requires this, (a) The state-
ment is not that the Israelites should be
afflicted 400 years, but that the entire so-
journ as strangers in a land not theirs, where
they shall be eventually brought into bond-
age, is 400 years, [b) The event is not to take
place until after Abraham's death (ver. 15).
(c) The four generations are equivalent to
the aforementioned 400 years. In this pas-
sage, generation does not mean each succes-
sion of persons from a common ancestor, as
it does in Ex. xx. 5 ; Job xlii. 16, but the age
or period of a body of contemporaries, and
this not in our modern sense of the average
lifetime of all who pass the age of infancy,
but the average period of the activity of any
generation, and this is determined by the
normal span of life. The generation lasts
while any of its members survive (Ex. i. 6 ;
Num. xxxii. 13 ; Judg. ii. 10 ; Ecc. i. 4). The
period of a generation's activity may be
judged from the length of the life of Isaac,
180 years ; of Jacob, 147 years ; of Levi, 137 ;
of Kohath. 133 : of Amram, 137 ; of Aaron,
123; of Moses, 120 (Gen. xxxv. 28; xlvii. 28 ;
Ex. vi. 16, 18. 20 ; Num. xxxiii. 39 ; Deut.
xxxiv. 7). Or the period of a generation's

Egypt

187

Egypt

activity may be estimated from the record
of three generations between the birth of
Abraham and the descent into Ejiypt. when
Jacob was still active, a period of 290 years.
A generation was about 100 years. But are
not just four generations registered — namely.
Levi and Kohath, who came into Egypt with
Jacob, Amraui, Moses, and Moses' sons? A
consecutive genealogy in Levi, Kohath, and
Amram is admitted ; but was Moses the son
of Amram and Jochebed (Ex. vi. 20 ; 1 Chron.
vi. 1-3) ? A difficulty arises if the passage
be so interpreted. (<() Amram and his broth-
ers gave rise to the Amramites, Izharites,
Hebronites. and Uzzielites : and these one
year after the exodus amounted to 8ti00
males ; that is, the grandfather of Moses had
8<i00 male descendants in the days of Moses,
of whom 2700 were between the ages of 30
and 50 (Num. iii. 27; iv. 36). (b) In the
parallel genealogy of the contemporaries of
Moses Bezalel is seventh from Jacob and
Joshua apparently eleventh (1 Chron. ii. IS-
20; vii. 23-27). the language of Ex. vi. 20
does not necessarily, nor even evidently, mean
that Amram and Jochebed were the imme-
diate parents of Moses and Aaron. In Gen.
xlvi. IS. great-grandsons of Zilpah are men-
tioned with others as sons which she bore to
Jacob. lu Mat. i. 8 Joram is said to beget his
great-great-grandson Uzziah. According to
Gen. X. 15-18 Canaan begat nations. \Yhere
the birth of Moses is narrated in detail, he is
not said to be the child of Amram and Joch-
ebed (Ex. ii.). The reason for registering
only four names in the genealogy of Moses and
others (Ex. vi. 16-22) is that the first three
names are official and give the tribe, family,
and fathers house to which Moses and Aaron
belonged. The three names properly and at
once classify Moses and Aaron. (2) 430 years
for the sojourn is also the record of Ex. xii.
40. The statement does not include the so-
journ of the patriarchs in Canaan, for (a)
Abraham and Isaac were not sons of Israel,
and (6) the verse in the Hebrew. Chaldee,
etc., except Septuagint and Samaritan, makes
no reference to Canaan. (3) A sojourn of 430
years best accounts for the number of the
children of Israel at the exodus. (4) On the
interpretation of the data as meaning that
the sojourn lasted 430 years Paul's statement
in Galatians can be accounted for. It is not
his object to measure the exact time between
the covenant and the law. His argument
only requires him to prove that the law was
given long after the covenant, and hence
cannot disannul it. He proves it by citing
the well-known period of the sojourn which
intervened between the two events ; the
largest and most familiar single sum of years
in the interval. He does not state that the
law came exactly 430 years after the cove-
nant ; but he rather says that the law came,
as we all know, 430 years after the covenant.
It is inditierent whether he has the Hebrew
or the Greek text in mind, and whether his

CJalatian readers refer to the Hebrew or to
the Greek edition.

III. 4. The multiplication of the Israelites
dttrinfi the sojouru. il) It has been pointed
out ^Keil) that if from the seventy souls who
went down into Egypt there be deducted the
patriarch Jacob, his twelve sons. Dinah, and
Serah daughter of Asher. and also the three
sons of Levi, the four grandsons of Judah and
Asher. and those grandsons of Jacob who prob-
ably died without male oflspring. inasmuch as
their descendants are not named among the
families of Israel (see Num. xxvi.), there will
remain forty-one grandsons of Jacob (besides
the Levites) who founded families: and if,
furthermore, there be allowed but ten gen-
erations for the 430 years ; nevertheless the
forty-one men would increase to 478,224 males
if each family averaged three sons and three
daughters during the first six generations,
and two sons and two daughters during the
last four generations. These with the sur-
vivors of the ninth generation would amount
to more than 600,000 men above twenty years
of age. (2) It is a mistake to overlook the
fact that the household of the patriarch in-
cluded numerous servants (Gen. xxx. 43 ;
xxxii. 5 : xlv. 10), who were circumcised
(Gen. xvii. 12, 13) and enjoyed full religious
privileges (Ex. xii. 44, 48, 49, etc.), and with
whom intermarriage was no degradation
(Gen. xvi. 1, 2; xxx. 4, 9; Xum. xii. 1: 1
Chron. ii. 34, 35).

III. 5. The change of occupation during the
sojourn. When the Israelites settled in Go-
shen they were a comparatively small tribe,
independent, and herdsmen. But after Joseph
and the men of that generation died, a new
king arose who knew not Joseph (Ex. i. 6-8).
He saw the increasing numbers of the Israel-
ites, and. fearing that they might ally them-
selves with the enemies of Egypt, took meas-
ures to render them a subject people and to
check their increase. Taskmasters were
placed over them, and rigorous service was
exacted from them in the form of agriculture,
brickmaking. and building (Ex. i. 11, 14; v.
6-8). while they still provided some at least
of their own support by herding (ix. 4. 6 : x.
9, 24 : xii. 38).

III. 6. The miracles wrought by 2Toses at the
end of the sojourn. The oppression of the
Lsraelites lasted eighty years or more (Ex.
vii. 7: cp. ii. 2 seq.). At length their cry
came up unto God. and he sent Moses to
deliver them Iii. 23 seq.). The humble am-
bassador of heaven was provided with mir-
acles as his credentials. They were miracles :
that is. in .Scripture parlance, signs, wonders,
and powers (Ps. Ixxviii. 12, 43). They were
wonderful, unusual, and intended to enforce
attention. They were signs accrediting Moses
as the messenger of God to the Israelites (Ex.
iv. 8.9, 30. 31 ; vi. 7) and to Pharaoh (iii. 20 : iv.
21 : vii. 3-5 : viii. 22. 23). They were powers, not
natural phenomena : for (1) design is appar-
ent in them, and not the blindness of nature.

Egypt

188

They form an orderly series; the one is in
logical but not causal relation to its successor ;
they increase in severity, affording Pharaoh
sufficient evidence at the outset of the di-
vine authority of Moses, without inflicting
unnecessary suffering upon the Egyptians ;
and when he refuses to let the Hebrews go,
they become more intense, and bring ever-
increasing pressure upon his obdurate heart
until he finally yields. (2) A distinction was
made, which nature does not make, between

Brickmaking in Ancient Egypt.

the people of God and the Egyptians (viii.
22, 23 ; ix. 4, 25, 26 ; x. 22, 23; xi. 5-7). (3)
A pestilence might have slain a great num-
ber of the Egyptians in one night, but the
tenth plague is a pestilence with a method.
It is not a promiscuous death, the firstborn
in every family of the Egyptians dies.

These signs, wonders, and powers belong
to the first group of miracles recorded in
Scripture. See Miracles.

III. 7. The organization of the Israelites at
the end of the sojourn. The forefathers of the
children of Israel had descended into Egypt
as a family of twelve households, and had
settled together in Goshen. As is quite natu-

Egypt

ral in itself and as appears from the narrative,
they retained their organization despite their
enslavement. They did act amalgamate with
the master race, but remained a distinct peo-
ple and preserved the twelve great family
divisions. By the end of the 430 years the
families of the twelve sons had become twelve
tribes, and the sons' sons, and in a few in-
stances the sons' remoter descendants, had
grown into large family connections. Accord-
ingly, at the time of the exodus there was a
people, Israel, divided into twelve
tribes; and each tribe was subdi-
vided into families or connections,
which derived their names for the
most part from the grandsons of
Jacob (Ex. vi. 14 with Gen. xlvi.
9, and Num! xxvi. with Gen. xlvi.),
and at the time of the second census
numbered 57, without Levi ; and
each family connection into fathers'
houses (Num. i. 2, 18, 20). Au-
thority of various kinds was vested
in (1) Princes by birth (Ex. xvi. 22),
heads of the tribes or family con-
nections (Num. i. 4, 16). (2) Elders,
who were probably heads of tribes
and families, and aged (Ex. iv. 29 ;
xii. 21; xvii. 5-6). (3) Apparently
also in priests (Ex. xix. 22, 24; per-
haps cp. Ex. xxiv. 5). They were
probably men out of the various
tribes who were performing priest-
ly functions for the Israelites ; as
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as head
of the family, had ofiered sacrifice.
(4) The Egyptians had imposed
further organization on the Israel-
ites by setting oflficers (Ex. v. 6, 10,
19) over them ; Hebrews (Ex. v. 15,
16), who had undoubtedly been ap-
pointed on the ground of their
ability to direct. Through these
various representatives Pharaoh
and Moses communicated their will
to all the people with dispatch. The
children of Israel, grouped in tribes,
families, and fathers' houses, offi-
cered and accustomed to obedience,
were not an unwieldy horde, but a
multitude with the organization of
an army. They are fittingly called
the hosts or armies of the Lord, and it is sig-
nificantly said that they went out of Egypt
by their hosts (Ex. xii. 41).

III. 8. The Pharaohs of the oppression and
exodus. Eamses II. is commonly regarded
as the Pharaoh of the oppression, and Menep-
tah as the Pharaoh of the exodus.* This opin-

* In view of various references in the tablets
of Tell el-Amarna to the Habiri making war with
the inhabitants of western Palestine in the days
of Amenophis IV., and the similarity of this
name to the word Hebrew, and the essential
agreement of this date with the date of the ex-
odus which Usher obtained from a study of the
biblical data, certain recent writers are inclined

Egypt

189

Ekron

ion is based on the following considerations :
(1) The Israelites bad not obtained possession
of Palestine in the days of Ainenophis III.
and IV. ; for the country, whose condition at
that time has been revealed by the tablets
found at Tell el-Aniarna, was broken up into
petty governments, and under Egyptian su-
zerainty. Eamses II., moreover, and Eamses
III., both of whom warred in Pale.stine, make
no mention of the Israelites as being in the
land ; and the Hebrew records are silent as
to an invasion of the country by these Egyp-
tian monarchs. (2) In Ex. i. 11 it is noted
that the children of Israel built for Pharaoh
store cities, Pithom and Kamses. The site of

Storehouse for Grain in Ancient Egypt.

Pithom has been identified and the ancient
granaries uncovered. Xo remains have been
found there of earlier date than the reign of
Rimses II.. and his name is inscribed on some
of the stones. Apparently Pithom was built
in the reign of Eamses II. It was Eamses
II. also who erected a new town, with tem-
ples and shrines, adjacent to the ancient
fortress at Zoan. and on this account the
place was called Pa-Eamses, the city of Eam-
ses. These correspondences with the Hebrew
records indicate that Eamses II. was the Pha-
raoh of the oppression. (.3) Meneptah, a son
and successor of Eamses II., in an inscription
in which he records his repulse of the Libyan
inva.sion of his fifth year, closes with describ-
ing certain consequences of this victory. He
mentions the ravaging of Pa-Kanana in south-
em Palestine, the capture of Ashkelon and
Gezer in Philistia, the reduction of a town
near Tyre, the spoiling of the people of Is-
rael, and the widowhood of Khar, i. e. south-
to believe that Amen-hetep II., or Thothmes IV.,
was the Pharaoh of the exodus. The weighty
objections to this theory are— 1. Habiri is not
the natural transliteration of 'Jbri, Hebrew, a
word which begins with unpointed ain and
short i. Habiri is rather connected et5Tnolog-
ically with such Hebrew words as Heber and
Eaber. and hence is regarded by philologists as
most probably meaning the allies. 2. Ramses is a
geographical designation (Ex. i. 11: xii. 37), and
the theory in question is unable to explain how
it could have been so in the days of Amen-hetep
II. or Thothmes IV., years before the first Ramses
ascended the throne of Egj-pt.

ern Palestine. The reference to the people
of Israel has been ])lausibly explained as
noting an attack on the children of Israel
during their sojourn in the wilderness on the
borders of southern Palestiue. See Ph.\r.\oh.
As already stated, Eamses III., who succeeded
Meneptah after an interval, warred in Pales-
tine, but does not mention the Israelites as
being in the country. It is reasonable to
believe that the Israelites left Egj-pt at the
beginning of Meneptah's reign, but had not
spent their forty years in the wilderness and
arrived in Canaan by the reign of Eamses
III. For the date of the exodus, see Chko-

NOLOGV.

E'M. See Ahieam.
E'hud [union].

1. A Benjamite, descended through Jediael
(1 Chron. vii. 10).

2. A left - handed Benjamite, descended
through Gera. He assassinated Eglon. king
of Moab, then the oppressor of Israel, at
Jericho. Fleeing to the hill country of
Ephraim. he summoned the Israelites by
sound of trumpet, put himself at their head,
descended to the valley of the Jordan, seized
the ford of the river, and slew 10.000 Moa bites
as they attempted to cross. He judged Israel
for the remainder of his life, and kept the
people true to Jehovah (Judg. iii. 15-iv. 1).

E'ker [one transplanted, a man of foreign
descent settled in a place].

A man of Judah, a son of Eam, of the
house of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 27).

Ek'ron [eradication].

The most northerly of the five chief Philis-
tine cities (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi. 16. 17).
It was assigned to Judah (Josh. xv. 45, 46),
and afterwards to Dan (xix. 43); but the
boundary line of Judah ran past it (xv. 11),
and it was taken and possessed by the men
of that tribe (Judg. i. IS). After a time it was
recovered by the Philistines. When the people
first of Ashdod and then of Gath became
afraid to retain the ark of God, they sent it
to Ekron, whence it was returned to Israel
(1 Sam. V. 10). Ekron was apparently taken
by the Israelites under Samuel, but was soon
again a Philistine city (vii. 14 ; xvii. 52). Its
tutelary god was Baal-zebub, whom Ahaziah,
king of Israel, sent to consult (2 Kin. i. 2-
16). Judgment was denounced against it
and the other Philistine cities by the prophets
(Jer. XXV. 20 ; Amos i. 8 ; Zeph. ii. 4 ; Zech.
ix. 5, 7). Alexander Balas. king of Syria,
gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabseus (1 Mac.
X. 89). It still existed at the time of the
Crusades. It is believed to be now repre-
sented by the village of 'Akir, situated among
fine gardens, 6 miles west of Gezer, and 12
northeast from Azotus. Xo visible relics of
antiquity have been found at the place ; but
Eobinson was assured by the Mohammedan
sheik of the place that in digging old cis-
terns the stones of handmills, etc., are occa-
sionally brought to light.

Ela

190

Elath

E'la, in A. V. Elah [terebinth or like tree].

Tlie father of one of Solomon's purveyors
(1 Kin. iv. IS).

El'a-dali, in E. V. Eleadah [God hath
adorned].

A descendant of Ephraini (1 Chron. vii.20).

Elah [a large evergreen tree, like the ilex
or terebinth].

1. AvalleynearSocohinwhich Saul and the
Israelites pitched, confronting the Philistines,
just before the combat between David and
Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 19; xxi. 9). Prob-
ably the wady es-Sunt, which is formed by
the junction of three other valleys, and is
about 14 or 15 miles west by south from Beth-
lehem. It is fertile and traversed by a stream.
Wady es-Sunt means the valley of the acacia
(Acacia vera), of which various trees exist in
the valley.

2. A duke of Edom, named from his habi-
tation (Gen. xxxvi. 41 ; 1 Chron. i. 52). See
Elath.

3. A son of Caleb, the son of Jephunneh (1
Chron. iv. 15).

4. A Benjamite, son of Uzzi (1 Chron. ix. 8).

5. The father of one of Solomon's purvey-
ors. See Ela.

6. The son and successor of Baasha in the
kingdom of Israel. He reigned part of two
years. As he was drinking himself drunk in
the house of his steward, in Tirzah, his cap-
ital, he was assassinated, with all his house,
by Zimri, who commanded half his chariots.
This fulfilled the prophecy made by Jehu, the
son of Hanani, to Baasha. That it did so in
no way justified the murderous deed (1 Kin.
xvi. 6," 8-10).

7. The father of Hoshea, king of Israel (2
Kin. XV. 30; xvii. 1; xviii. 1).

E'lam [high].

1. A son of Shem or the inhabitants of
Elam, as being Semites or becoming incor-
porated with the Semites by conquest (Gen.
X. 22; 1 Chron. i. 17). Elam was a region
beyond the Tigris, east of Babylonia. It was
bounded on the north by Assyria and Media,
on the south by the Persian Gulf, on the east
and southeast by Persia. The name is pre-
served in the Greek Elumais, the Latin Ely-
mais. Its capital was Shushan or Susa, which
gave rise to the name Susiana, though some-
times Elymais and Susiana are made the
names of adjacent instead of identical re-
gions. Elam was the seat of an ancient em-
pire. In the time of Abraham, Chedoi-laomer,
king of Elam, was recognized as sovereign by
Babylonian states, and laid even the country
on the Jordan under tribute (Gen. xiv. 1-11).
In the eighth and seventh centuries B. c, when
Assyria was the dominant power in western
Asia, Elam was its doughty opponent ; but
was subjugated after repeated campaigns of
the Assyrians under Sargon, Sennacherib,
and Ashurbanipal. Shushan was at length
taken about Mr> b. c. Elamites rendered mil-
itary service to the Assyrians in the invasion

of Judah (cp. Is. xxii. 6). But before the
close of the century, Elam was relieved of
the Assyrian yoke through the capture of
Nineveh by the Babylonians and the fall of
the Assyrian empire. When Ezekiel prophe-
sied the invasion of Egypt by Nebuchadnez-
zar, he mentioned a prior slaughter of the
Elamites, perhaps by Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek.
xxxii. 24). But Elam, joining with Media,
was ultimately to capture Babylon (Isa. xxi.
2; cp. 9). To this conquest and restoration
the following prophecies regarding Elam seem
to refer (Jer. xlix. 34-39 ;Ezek. xxxii. 24, 25).
Elam was a province and Shushan a capital
of the Persian empire (Dan. viii. 2; Herodo-
tus iii. 91 ; iv. 83; v. 49). On the return of
the Jews from Babylon, Elamites, who had
long before been forcibly settled in Samaria,
joined with others in attemiiting to prevent
the rebuilding of the temple and city of Jeru-
salem (Ezra iv. 9). Elamites were present on
that day of Pentecost which was notable for
the descent of the Holy Spirit (Acts ii. 9).
Elam or Susiana, now Khuzistan, is a prov-
ince of modern Persia.

2. The fifth son of Meshelemiah, a Korah-
ite Levite, in the reign of David (1 Chron.
xxvi. 3).

3. A Benjamite, a son of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 24).

4. The head of a family of which 1254 in-
dividuals returned from Babylon with Zerub-
babel (Ezra ii. 7 ; Neh. vii. 12), and 71 more
with Ezra (Ezra viii. 7). Its representative
signed the covenant in Nehemiah's time
(Neh. X. 14).

5. The other Elam, of whom just as many
descendants returned as of No. 4 (Ezra ii. 31 ;
Neh. vii. 34).

6. A priest who took part in the dedication
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 42).

El'a-sa, in A. V. Eleasa.

A place at which Judas Maccabaeus once
camped (1 Mac. ix. 5) ; probably the ruins
H'asa, which lie midway between the two
Beth-horous.

El'a-sah [God hath made]. The Hebrew
name is sometimes anglicized as Eleasah.

1. A son of Shaphan. He and Gemariah
carried a letter from Jeremiah in Jerusalem
to the exiles in Babylon (Jer. xxix. 3).

2. A son of Pashur, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 22).

E'lath and Eloth, the singular or plural
being used indirtcrently ; also Elah and El,
other forms of the singular [terebinth or
other large tree].

A toAvn on the gulf of Akaba (Deut. ii. 8 ;
1 Kin. ix. 26), on the eastern border of the
wilderness of Paran (Gen. xiv. 6). The car-
avan routes between southern Arabia and
Egypt and Phcenicia passed its gates, mak-
ing its possession valuable to an exactor of
tribute. It was taken by Chedorlaomer from
the Horites (Gen. xiv. 6)*. In it dwelt a duke
of Edom (xxxvi. 41), and it constituted the

El-berith

191

Elder

southern limit of the Edomites (Deut. ii. 8).
It doubtless fell into the hands of David i2
Sam. viii. 14 ; cii. 1 Kin. ix. •2(j ; 2 Chron. ^iii.
17). After a time it reverted to the Edomites.
Uzziah rebuilt it and restored it to Judah i2
Kin. xiv. 22 : 2 Chron. xxvi. 2). It was after-
wards captured by the Syrians and louj; re-
mained in their power (2 Kin. xvi. 6). Elath,
called in the Greek and Eoman period Aila
and ..Elana, gave the name ^Elanitic to the
gulf of Akaba, at the northeastern corner of
which it was situated. It was long the sta-
tion of a Roman legion. It was once the seat
of a Christian bishopric. It was taken and
retaken during the Crusades. It is now
called Ailah and 'Akaba, and consists merely
of extensive mounds of rubbish.

El-be'rith. See Baal-bekith.

El-beth'-el [God of Bethel].

The name given by Jacob to an altar which
he reared at Bethel, after his return from
Mesopotamia. It comniemorated the appear-
ance of God to him there in a dream when
he was fleeing to escape the consequences of
his brother's wrath (Gen. xxxv. 7 ; cp. xxviii.
10 seq.). The sanctuary was named after the
God to whom it was dedicated. Cp. El-el-

OHE-ISRAEL.

El'da-ah [God hath called].

A son or tribe descended from Midian and
related to Abraham (Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chron.
i. 33).

El'dad [God hath loved].

An elder and ofiicer of the Israelites who
was summoned with sixty-nine others to
assist Moses in bearing the burden of govern-
ment. Eldad and Medad for some reason
failed to present themselves with the others
at the tabernacle ; nevertheless they, too,
although absent in the camp, were filled like
the others with the divine Spirit, who work-
eth when and where he will. Joshua was
jealous for Moses' honor, which he feared
would suffer because they had received the
gift without the intervention of Moses ; but
Moses rejoiced, and only wished that the
Lord would put his Spirit upon all his people
(Xum. xi. 26-29).

El'der.

An official who. so far as can be judged,
had by virtue of his right as firstborn suc-
ceeded to the headship of a father's house,
of a tribal family, or of the tribe itself (1
Kin. viii. 1-3; Judg. viii. 14. 16). When he
was the head and representative of a tribe or
of the larger tribal families the elder was an
important i)rince. In the ordinary course of
nature, only men of mature age came into
these positions, hence the designation elder.
Other peoples which were organized on the
tribal system had elders, as the Midianites
and Moabites (Num. xxii. 4, 7). The title
designates high officials generally in Gen.
1. 7. They exercised authority over the
people (Deut. xxvii. 1 ; Ezra x. 6), and rep-

resented the nation in affairs of state (Ex.
iii. 18 : Judg. xi. 5-11 ; 1 Sam. viii. 4), in ex-
tending hoTior to a distinguished guest (Ex.
xviii. 12). in concluding covenants (2 Sam. v.
3). and in religious acts (Lev. iv. 13-15 ; Josh,
vii. 6). A body of seventy elders assisted
Moses in the government of the Israelites
(Num. xi. 16, 24). Each town had its elders,
who administered its civil and religious affairs
(Deut. six. 12 ; xxi. 2 ; Euth iv.2-11 ; 1 Sam.
XI. 3; Ezra x. 14). These functions were still
performed by the elders at the time of the
Eoman government of Juda'a (Mat. xv. 2 ;
xxi. 23; xxvi. 3, 47). See Synagogue and
Sanhedkin.

In the churches founded by the apostles
elder or presbyter and bishop were inter-
changeable designations (Acts xx. 17 with 28,
E. V. ; Titus i. 5, 7), though not strictly .synon-
ymous. The former had primary reference
to the dignity of the office, the latter to its
duties. The distinction between elder or
presbyter and bishop, as two separate orders
of ministers, dates from the second century.
The origin of the office of elder is not re-
corded, but elders existed practically from
the beginning. In a. d. 44 they already ex-
isted in the church at Jerusalem (Acts xi.
30) ; Paul on his first missionary journey ap-
pointed elders in every church (xiv. 23), and
they held office in churches not founded by-
Paul (Jas. V. 14: 1 Pet. v. 1). The office of
elder in the Christian church was evidently
suggested by the office of elder among the
Jews, and was invested with similar author-
ity. Elders were associated with the apos-
tles in the government of the church (Acts
XV. 2, 4. 6. 22, 23 ; xvi. 4 ; cp. xxi. 18). They
were the bishops or overseers of the local
churches (xx. 17, 28; Tit. i. 5), having the
spiritual care of the congregation, exercising
rule and giving instruction (1 Tim. iii. 5; v.
17: Tit. i. 9; Jas. v. 14: 1 Pet. v. 1-4; cp.
Heb. xiii. 17). and ordaining to office (1 Tim.
iv. 14). There were several bishops (Phil,
i. 1) or elders (Acts xi. 30) in a local church.
There is no intimation of any division of
labor among them. As in the synagogue, so
in the Christian church of apostolic times,
preaching was not the peculiar function of
the elders, nor was it restricted to them.
They were, indeed, the regular pastors and
teachers. Aptness to teach was an essential
qualification for the office (1 Tim. iii. 2 ; Tit.
i. 9). But any man who possessed the gift
of prophecv or teaching exhorted (1 Cor. xii.
28-30: xiv.' 24, 31).

In the government of Eeformed churches
the teaching elder is the minister, and the
ruling elder is a layman who is an elder.
The arrangement is convenient, but its ex-
istence in apostolic times is not universally
admitted. Calvin interpreted 1 Tim. v. 17
as teaching two kinds of elders : first, those
who both teach and rule, and second, those
who rule only. But there is wide dissent
from this interpretation. It is urged that

Elead

192

Elhanan

the apostle is speaking of two functions of
the same office, the primitive elder liaving
been, it is contended, both teacher and ruler.
In the Apocalypse the elders are twenty-
four in number, possibly with reference
back to the twelve founders of tril)es under
the Jewish economy, and the twelve apostles
under the Christian church (Rev. iv. 4, 10;
V. 5, 6, 8, 14 ; vii. 11-13; xi. 16 ; xix. 4).

E'le-ad [God continueth].

A descendant, perhaps son, of Ephraim.
He and his brother were killed by the people
of Gath when attempting to carry away the
cattle belonging to that Philistine town.
Ephraim, who was alive at the time, greatly
mourned his loss (1 Chrou. vii. 20-22).

E-le-a'dah. See Eladah.

E-le-a'leh.

A town rebuilt by the Eeubenites (Num.
xxxii. 3, 37). Later it fell into the hands of
the Moabites (Is. xv. 4 ; xvi. 9 ; Jer. xlvii. 34).
The ruins, now called el-'Al, are on top of
a hill on the Eoman road, scarcely 2 miles
north of Heshbon. Tristram describes them
as consisting of stone heaps with a single
standing column.

E-le'a-sa. See Elasa.
E-le-a'sah [God hath made]. In Hebrew
it is the same word as Elasah.

1. A descendant of Judah through Jerah-
meel, but with Egyptian blood in his veins
(1 Chron. ii. 39).

2. A descendant of Saul and Jonathan (1
Chron. viii. 37 ; ix. 43).

E-le-a'zar [God hath helped]. Grecized
as Lazaros, in Latin Lazarus.

1. The third son of Aaron (Ex. vi. 23 ; Num.
iii. 2) and father of Phinehas (Ex. vi. 25).
With his brothers and his father he was con-
secrated a priest, and afterwards acted as
such (Ex. xxviii. 1 ; Num. iii. 4 ; xvi. 37-40;
xix. 3). He was not allowed to mourn when
his elder brothers, Nadab and Abihu, were
killed for offering strange fire (Lev. x. 6-20).
He then became chief of the Levites, and
second only to Aaron in priestly authority
(Num. iii. 32). Before Aaron died on mount
Hor, Eleazar, who had been directed to as-
cend the mountain with him, was invested
with his sacred garments, and succeeded him
in the high-priesthood (xx. 2.'}-28 ; Deut. x. 6).
He held this office during the remainder of
Moses' life and the leadership of Joshua. He
took a prominent part in distributing Canaan
by lot among the several tribes (Josh. xiv. 1).
He was buried in a hill belonging to his son
Phinehas in mount Ephraim (xxiv. 33), and
was succeeded by Phinehas (Judg. xx. 28 ; 1
Chron. vi. 4, 50).

2. A Levite, family of Merari, hou.se of
Mahli. Dying without sons, his daughters
were taken to wife by their cousins (1 Chron.
xxiii. 21, 22; xxiv. 28 ; cp. Num. xxxvi. 6-9).

3. A son of Abinadab. He was consecrated
by the men of Kirjath-jearim to keei) the

ark when they nobly received it from Beth-
shemesh after its restoration by the Philis-
tines (1 Sam. vii. 1).

4. One of David's mighty men, a son of
Dodo, the Ahohite (2 Sam. xxiii. 9 ; 1 Chron.
xi. 12; cp. xxvii. 4 perhaps).

5. A priest, son of Phinehas. He assisted
the high priest in the time of Ezra (Ezra viii.
33).

6. A son of Parosh, who was induced by
Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x.
25).

7. A priest, one of those who acted as mu-
sicians at the dedication of the wall of Jeru-
salem in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xii.
42).

8. Surnamed Avaran, of priestly descent, a
son of Mattathias and brother of Judas the
Maccabee (1 Mac. ii. 5). In the battle be-
tween Judas and the Syrians at Beth-zacha-
rias, he boldly ran into the ranks of the
enemy, crept under an elephant whose trap-
pings indicated that it carried a royal rider,
and thrust it in the belly. The beast in its
fall crushed Eleazar to death (vi. 43-46).

9. An ancestor, perhaps great-grandfather,
of Joseph, the husband of Mary (Mat. i. 15).

El-e-lo'he-Is'ra-el [God, the God of Israel].
The name given by Jacob to an altar which
he erected near Shechem (Gen. xxxiii. 20).

E'leph [an ox].

A village of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 28).
Site unknown.

El'e-pliant.

The English name for a genus of animals
containing two recent species — Elephasindicns,
the Indian, and Elephas africanus, the Afri-
can elephant, with several others now ex-
tinct. Their tusks furnish ivory (1 Kin. x.
22, A. V. margin). The elephant was used
in war (1 Mac. i. 17 ; iii. 34), each beast being
in charge of an Indian driver, and bearing
on its back a tower from which two, three, or
four soldiers fought (1 ]\Iac. vi. 37, where
thirty-two is an obvious error ; Livy xxxvii.
40) . The entire body of elephants was under
a master (2 Mac. xiv. 12). Before entering
battle, it was customary to inflame them by
the sight and even taste of wine (1 Mac. vi. 34 ;
3 Mac. V. 2).

E-leu'the-rus [free].

A river (1 Mac. xi. 7 ; Antiq. xiii. 4, 5)
which flows from Lebanon and empties into
the Mediterranean sea north of Tripoli (Pliny,
Hist. uat. V. 17), and which formed the bound-
ary between Palestine and Syria (1 Mac. xii.
30 ; Antiq. xv. 4, 1 ; Strabo xvi. 2, 12). It is
now called Nahr el-Kebir.

El-ha'nan [God hatli been gracious].

1. A son of Jair and perhaps a Bethlehem-
ite, who slew [the brother of] Goliath of Gath
(cp. 2 Sam. xxi. 19 with 1 Chron. xx. 5). The
text of at least one passage, perhaps of both,
has become corrupt. The letters of ' ' Beth-
lehemite Goliath," with the particle ^eth be-

EU

193

Eliakim

tween them, which stand together in the He-
brew text of Samuel, closely resemble those
of " Lahnii the brother of (Toliath."

2. A Hethleheniite, a son of Dodo, and one
of David's thirty heroes of the second rank
(2 Sam. xxiii. 24; 1 Chron. xi. 2()).

E'U, I. [my God].

A word occurrir.K in the utterance of Jesus
on the cross, sjioken in Aramaic, 'Eli, 'Eli.
lammah sh'bdkiani. "My (Tod, my God, why
hast thou forsjiken me?" (Mat. xxvii. 46 ; cp.
Ps. xxii. 1). In Mark xv. 34, Elol, an Aramaic
synonym of Eli containing a diflerent word
for God, is used.

E'li, II. [i)robably elevation, height] .

A high ])riest of the family of Ithamar (1
Sam. i. ii ; 1 Kin. ii. 27 with 1 Chron. xxiv.
3. 6). He is said to have been the first of
Ithamar's line to receive the office (Autiq. v.
11, 5 ; viii. 1, 3), but it is uncertain which
priest of the other line he succeeded. Deeply
pious, he had the essential qualification for
his exalted office ; but there was one serious
defect in his conduct. He was not sufficiently
firm with his two sous, Hophni and Phinehas,
giving them only mild reproof when their
behavior in the priestly office was absolutely
scandalous (1 Sam. ii. 23-25, 29 ; iii. 1.3). Di-
Tine judgment against him and his hou.se
was therefore denounced by a projihet (ii.
27-36). He should see evil befall the sanc-
tuary, his descendants should die in the
flower of their age, his two sons should die
in one day, and a faithful priest should super-
sede Eli's descendants, from whom they should
seek for subordinate priestly appointments
that they might be fed (1 Sam. i. 9-iii. 21).
The message was confirmed by a similar rev-
elation to young Samuel, and Eli was com-
forted by the evidence which Samuel's call
and the youth's filial and truthful conduct
toward him in the trying circumstances af-
forded, that God had not left himself without
witness in Israel, but had raised up a true
and fearless prophet (iii. 11-18). The fir.st
part of the prediction was soon afterwards
fulfilled, Hophni and Phinehas being killed
in a battle with the Philistines, to which they
had gone as custodians of the ark. Eli, now
98 years old and blind, was sitting out-
side on a seat when a man arrived from
the scene of strife, to say that the Israel-
ites were totally defeated, his two sons,
Hophni and Phinehas, slain, and the ark of
God taken. All but the last item of intelli-
gence he was prepared to hear; but on learn-
ing that the ark of God was captured by the
enemy he fell back api)arently unconscious,
and being stout broke his neck and expired
(iv. 1-18). He had judged Israel forty years.
Ahitub succeeded to the rank of high priest
(xiv. 3) ; but with the death of Eli the office
lost for a long time its importance, for the
ark was in captivity and seclusion, and the
tabernacle was no longer the place of Jeho-
vah's gracious presence. Samuel the prophet
13

was the religious leader of the people. The
judgment against Eli's posterity was executed
when Solomon deposed Eli's descendant Abia-
thar from the high-priesthood, substituting
Zadok in his room (1 Kin. ii. 35).

E-li'ab [God is a father].

1. The son of Helon. and the head of the
tribe of Zebulun in the wilderness (Num. i.
9; ii. 7; vii. 24, 29; x. 16).

2. A Eeubenite, son of Pallu and father
of Dathan and Abiram (Num. xvi. 1, 12;
xxvi. 8. 9).

3. A Levite, an ancestor of Samuel (1 Chron.
vi. 27, 28). See Elihu.

4. David's eldest brother. He was so tall
and had so kingly a countenance that on
seeing him Samuel exclaimed, " Surely the
Lord's anointed is before him." But judged
by the heart he was not worthy of the king-
dom (1 Sam. xvi. 6, 7 ; xvii. 13). One defect
which he had was his inability to appreciate
the larger soul of David, his youngest brother
(28. 29). His daughter Abihail married a son
of David (2 Chron. xi. 18, E. V.).

5. A Gadite, of the heroic type who joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 9).

6. A Levite, musician at the sanctuary in
David's reign (1 Chron. xv. 20).

E-li'a-da, in A. V. once Eliadah (1 Kin.
xi. 23) [God has known — /. e. kindly re-
garded].

1. A son of David, born at Jerusalem (2
Sam. V. 16; 1 Chron. iii. 8). Called also
Beeliada (q. v.).

2. Father of Kezon of Zobah (1 Kin. xi.
23).

3. A Benjamite, one of Jehoshaphat's chief
captains (2 Chron. xvii. 17).

E-li'ah. See Elijah 2 and 4.

E-li'ah-ba [God hath hidden].
A Shaalbouite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 32 : 1 Chron. xi. 33).

E-li'a-kim [God hath established].

1. An ancestor of Christ. He lived before
the captivitT, and was descended from David
through Nathan (Luke iii. 30, 31).

2. Son of Hilkiah. He was over king
Hezekiah's household ; and when Jerusalem
had closed its gates against the Assyrians, he
was one of three representatives of the king
who were sent to confer with the rabshakeh
of Sennacherib (2 Kin. xviii. 18. 26, 37; Is.
xxxvi. 3. 11. 22). Next they were dispatched
to lay the answer of the rabshakeh bef(ire
Isaiah, and desire him to obtain divine di-
rection in the great crisis which had arisen
(2 Kin. xix. 2; Is. xxxvii. 2). The prophet
so highly commended Eliakim, and made
him such promises from God, as to suggest
that he must be regarded as a type of the
Messiah (Is. xxii. 20-25).

3. One of Josiah's sons, made king by
Pharaoh-necho, who changed his name to
Jehoiakim (2 Kin. xxiii. 34 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi.
4).

Eliam

194

Elijah

4. One of the priests who officiated at the
dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
xij. 41).

5. A descendant of Zerubhabel and an an-
cestor vyf Christ (Mat. i. 13).

E-li'am [God is one of the family].

Father of Bath-sheba (2 Sam. xi. .3) ; by
transposition of the constituent parts of the
name called Ammiel (1 C'hron. iii. 5). Per-
haps he was David's mighty man of this
name, the son of Ahithophel (2 Sam. xxiii.
34).

E-li'as. See Elmah.

E-li'a-saph [God hath added].

1. The head of the tribe of Gad in the wil-
derness (Num. i. 14 ; ii. 14 ; vii. 42).

2. A Levite, the son of Lael, and prince of
the Gershonites during the wilderness wan-
dering (Num. iii. 24).

E-li'a-shib [God hath restored].

1. The ancestor from whom the eleventh
priestly course took its name (1 Chron. xxiv.
12).

2. A Levite and singer ■whom Ezra induced
to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 24).

3 and 4. Two men, a son of Zattu and a
son of Baui, similarly persuaded by Ezra
(Ezra X. 27, 36).

5. The high priest, the second in succe.s.sion
from Jeshua (Neh. xii. 10). He lived in the
time of Nehemiah, and with the priests re-
built the sheepgate of Jerusalem (iii. 1, 20,
21). As high priest he could assign chamJiers
in the temple to whomsoever he pleased (Ezra
X. 6). He was allied by marriage with Tobiah
the Ammonite, and his grandson was son-in-
law of Sauballat (Neh. xiii. 4, 28). Not being
strict ill regard to the separation of Jew and
gentile, he even assigned a chamber of the
temple to Tobiah (.5).

6. A son of Elioenai, a descendant of Zerub-
habel (1 Chron. iii. 24).

E-li'a-thah [God hath come].

A son of Hemau, and a musician in the
reign of David (1 Chron. xxv. 4).

E-li'dad [God hath loved].

A prince of the tribe of Benjamin at the
time when the Israelites were encamped at
Shittim on the eve of entering the promised
land. He was appointed a member of the
commission to divide the land among the
tribes (Num. xxxiv. 21).

E-li'e-ho-e'nal, in A. V. Elihoenai [to Je-
hovah are my eye.s].

1. A Korhite porter, the son of Meshelemiah
(1 Chron. xxvi. 3). A. V. has substituted the
variant form Elioenai.

2. A son of Zerahiah. He with 200 fol-
lowers accompanied Ezra from Babylon (Ezra
viii. 4).

E-li'el [God is God].

1. A Levite. family of Kohath, and an an-
cestor of Samuel the prophet (1 Chron. vi.
34J. See Elihu.

2. A Mahavite, one of David's mighty men
(1 Chron. xi. 46).

3. Another of David's heroes (ver. 47).

4. One of the Gadites who came to David
at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 11).

5. A Levite, a son of Hebron. He lived in
David's time (1 Chron. xv. 9, 11).

6. A Beujamite, a son of Shimhi (1 Chron.
viii. 20).

7. Another Benjamite, a sou of Shashak
(1 Chron. viii. 22).

8. A chief man of the half-tribe of Manas-
seh east of the Jordan (1 Chron. v. 24).

9. An overseer of the tithes and offerings
in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chrou. xxxi. 13).

E-li-e'nai [probably, to Jehovah are my
eyes]. Probal)ly a contraction of Elihoenai.

A Beujamite, a sou of Shimhi (1 Chrou.
viii. 20).

E-li-e'zer [God is a helper].

1. A man of Damascus, the steward of
Abraham (Gen. xv. 2; cp. xxiv. 2).

2. The younger son of Moses (Ex. xviii. 4 ;
1 Chron. xxiii. 1.5, 17).

3. A Benjamite, family of Becher (1 Chron.
vii. 8).

4. A son of Zichri. He was a captain over
the Reubenites in David's reign (1 Chron.
xxvii. 16).

5. A priest who blew the trumpet before
the ark iu David's reign (1 Chron. xv. 24).

6. A prophet, son of Dodavah of Mareshah.
He predicted the .shipwreck of Jehoshaphat's
vessels because he had joined with Ahaziah,
of Ahab's family (2 Chron. xx. 37).

7. One of those whom Ezra sent for Le-
vites, when it was found that there were few
of them among the returning exiles (Ezra
viii. 16).

8. 9, and 10. Three men, one a priest, one
a Levite, and one a sou of Harim, whom Ezra
induced to put away their foreign wives (Ezra
X. 18, 23, 31).

11. Au ancestor of Christ who lived be-
tween the time of David and the captivity
(Luke iii. 29).

E-li-ho-e'nai. See Eliehoenai.

E-11-lio'repli [God is a reward].

One of Solomon's scribes (1 Kin. iv. 3).

E-li'hu [he is God].

1. An Ephraimite, son of Tohu and au an-
cestor of Samuel the prophet (1 Sam. i. 1), ap-
parentlv called also Eliab and Eliel (1 Chron.
vi. 27, 34).

2. David's eldest brother, called also Eliab
(cp. 1 Sam. xvi. 6 with 1 Chron. xxvii. 18).
See Jesse.

3. A Manassite captain who with others
joined David on his way to Ziklag (1 Chron.
xii. 20).

4. A doorkeeper during David's reign, of
the family of Obed-edom (1 Chron. xxvi. 7).

5. One of Job's friends, a Buzite, the son
of Barachel (Job xxxii.-xxxvii.).

E-li'jah; in A. V. twice Ellali (1 Chron.
viii. 27 ; Ezra x. 26) ; in A. V. of N. T. Elias,

Elijah

195

Elijah

whii'h is the Hebrew word transliteratoil into
Cireek aud provided with a (ircek teniiiua-
tion [my (iod is Jehovali].

1. One of the greatest of tlie iirojihets. He
was a Tishbite, liaviiig been Ixirn perhaps at
Tishbeh in (JaliU'c ; l)ut lie dwelt in (Ulead (1
Kin. xvii. 1) ;seeTisiiHiTK. He wore a garment
of skin or of coarse camel-hair, which was girt
about his loins with a leather girdle (2 Kin.
i. 8 ; 1 Kin. xix. 115). When Ahab, under the
inliuence of his wife Jezebel, had given him-
self to the worship of the false god Baal,
Elijah suddenly appeared uj)on the scene.
He presented himself before the erring king,
and predicted a drought of indefinite dui-a-
tion as a penalty for the rejection of Jeho-
vah. On account of the famine he retired
first to the brook Cherith, wliere he was
miraculously fed by ravens; see Raven. When
the brook became dry he went to Zarcphath (m
the coast of the ISIediterrauean between Tyre
and Sidon. A poor widow there shared her
little with him, aud in return her barrel of
meal and cruse of oil did not fail until the
famine was ended; and when her son died
he was restored to life at the prayer of the
prophet (1 Kin. xvii. 1-24 ; Luke iv. 24-26).
After many days, in the third year (1 Kin.
xviii. 1 ; Luke iv. 25 ; Jas. v. 17), Elijah was
directed to show himself to Ahab. Then fol-
lowed the scene at mount C'armel. The
priests of Baal endeavored to secure evidence
of Baal's divinity, but failed. Then Elijah
gathered the people about an ancient altar
of the Lord, which had probably been erected
by pious Israelites of the north whom the de-
fection of the ten tribes prevented from wor-
shiping at Jerusalem. It had been thrown
down. Elijah repaired it, taking twelve
stones for the purpose, thus silently testify-
ing that the division of the twelve tribes
into two kingdoms was at variance with the
divine will. To obviate every possibility of
fraud, he made the people drench the sacri-
fice and the altar with water. Then he cried
to the Lord. Jehovah, by consuming Eli-
jah's sacrifice, vindicated his Godhead : and
Baal's prophets, having been proven to be
religious impostors, were taken down to the
brook Kishon. which washed the northern
base of the mountain, and slain (1 Kin.
xviii. 1-46; cp. Deut. xvii. 2-5; xiii. 13-16).
Jezebel, furious at the destruction of her
prophets, vowed the death of Elijah, who
fled away to mount Horeb, where, like Moses,
he was miraculously sustained for forty days
and nights (Ex. xxiv. 18; xxxiv. 28 ; Deut.
ix. 9, 18 ; 1 Kin. xix. 8). a foreshadowing of
the similar incident in the life of Jesus (Mat.
iv. 2 ; Luke iv. 2). There Elijah was rebuked
and sent back to his duty. He was directed
to anoint Hazael king over Syria, Jehu king
over Israel, aud Elisha prophet in his room
(1 Kin. xix. 1-21). When Jezebel and Ahab
peqietrated the judicial murder of Naboth
to obtain his vineyard, Elijah met the king
in the coveted plot of ground, and denounced

Jehovah's vengeance against him and his fe-
male participant in guilt for their great crime
(xxi. 1-29). Elijah did not appear at court
when the expedition against Kamoth-gilead
was planned, but its issue commenced the
verification of the predictions which he had
uttered again.st the royal house (xxii. 1-40).
When .\hab"s successor Ahaziah, seriously
injured by falling through a lattice, sent
messengers to Baalzebub, the god of Ekron,
to ask wht'ther he should recover fif his fall,
Elijah turned them l>ack ; and when twice
a captain of fifty with his men was sent ap-
parently to arrest him, he called fire from
heaven and consumed the whole party. A
third captain was sent, but he did not at-
tempt to arrest the man of God and begged
for life. Elijah went with him (2 Kin.
i. 1-16). Finally the prophet obtained the
great honor, bestowed before only on Enoch
((tcu. v. 24), of being translated to heaven
without dying. A chariot and horses of
fire appeared to him when he had gone
with his servant Elisha to the east of the
Jordan, and, parting them asunder, took
Elijah up in a whirlwind to heaven (2 Kin.
ii. 1-12). Elijah appears to have been trans-
lated just before Jehoram of Israel ascended
the throne (2 Kin. ii. with i. 18 and iii. 1)
and during the reign of Jehoshaphat of
Judah (iii. 11); yet he wrote a document in
which he addressed Jehoram of Judah, who
indeed was a co-regent with .Jehoshaphat,
and threatened him Avith divine judgment,
not only for sins committed during the life-
time of Jeho.shaphat. but for murder which
he committed after Jehoshaphat's death (2
Chron. xxi. 12; cp. 13 with 4). If Elijah
was translated at the time indicated, he
prophesied during his lifetime concerning
future deeds of Jehoram, just as he foretold
future acts of Hazael and Jehu (1 Kin. xix.
15-17). Less in accordance with the lan-
guage of iii. 11 is the explanation that the
account of Elijah's tran.slation is inserted
where it is in 2 Kings simply to complete the
narrative of his public activity, and that
Elijah was still alive when Elisha waswith the
army of Jehoshaphat in southern Judah, and
was living when Jehoram became sole king.
The last two verses of the O. T. predict that
God will send Elijah before the coming of
the great and dreadful day of the Lord (Mai.
iv. 5, 6). The N. T. explains that the refer-
ence is to John the Baptist, who was like the
Tishbite in humble dress and appearance
(Mat. iii. 4; Mark i. 6), and resembled him
also in his fidelitv and the work which he
did (Mat. xi. Il-i4 ; xvii. 10-12; Mark ix.
11-13; Luke i. 17). There are those, how-
ever, who contend that while John appeared
in the spirit and power of Elijah, the O. T.
prophet is yet to appear, in person, before the
second advent of our Lord. Elijah appeared
on the mount of Transfiguration as the repre-
sentative of the O. T. ]irophecy to do honor to
Jesus, its theme (Mat. xvii. 4; Mark ix. 4;

Elika

196

Elisha

Luke ix. 30) ; and Lis ascension, to which
there was nothing analogous in the history
of John the Bajjtist, doubtless foreshadowed
tliat of our risen Lord.

The miracles which were wrought during
the ministry of Elijah belong to the second
of the four miracle periods of redemptive
history, the period of the life and death
struggle between the religion of Jehovah and
Baal worship, when the adherence of the peo-
])le of northern Israel to the faith of their
fathers was at issue, and all other questions
regarding religious observances sank to minor
importance. See Miracle.

2. A Benjamite, a son of Jeroham, resident
at Jerusalem (1 C'hron. viii. 27, R. V.).

3. A priest, a son of Harim. He married
a gentile wife (Ezra x. 21).

4. An Israelite induced by Ezra to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 26, R. V.).

E-li'ka.

A Harodite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 25).

E'lim [strong evergreen trees ; such as oaks,
terebinths, palms].

The second encampment of the Israelites
after the passage of the Red Sea. It was be-
tween Marah aud the desert of Sin, and had
twelve springs of water aud seventy palm
trees (Ex. xv. 27 ; xvi. 1 ; Num. xxxiii. 9, 10).
Two valleys, wady Ghurundel and wady
Useit, or Waseit, are rivals for the honor of
representing the ancient Elim. The former
has more water, and is commonly regarded
as the site. Both are fringed with trees and
shrubs, though the adjacent parts of the
desert are bare. The vegetation consists of
palm trees, tamarisks, and acacias.

E-lim'e-lech [God is king].

A man of Bethlehem of Judah, the hus-
band of Naomi (Ruth i. 1, 5).

E-li-o-e'nai [my eyes (are turned) toward
Jehovah] . The Hebrew form is a legitimate
variant of Eliehoeuai.

1. A descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. iv.
3(5).

2. A Beujamite, family of Becher (1 Chron.
vii. 8).

3. A Levite (1 Chron. xxvi. 3, A. V.). See
Eliehoenai.

4 and 5. Two Hebrews, each of whom was
induced by Ezra to put away his foreign wife
(Ezra X. 22, 27).

6. A man of Judah, descended from Sheca-
niah (1 Chron. iii. 23, 24).

E-li'phal [God has judged].

One of David's mighty men, a son of Ur
(1 Chron. xi. 35). Apparently called Eliph-
elet, the son of Ahasbai (2 Sam. xxiii. 34).
See Ur.

E-liph'a-let. See Eliphelet.

E-li'phaz [God is strong].

1. A son of Esau, by Adah, one of his wives
(Gen. xxxvi. 4).

2. A Temanite, one of Job's friends (Job

ii. 11 ; iv. 1 ; xv. 1 ; xxii. 1 ; xlii. 7, 9). Prob-
ably a descendant of No. 1, who had a son
Teman (Gen. xxxvi. 11).

E-liph'e-leh, in R. V. E-liph'e-le-hu [God
is distinguished (as excellent)].

A Levite, a singer and a harper, who acted
also as a porter when David brought up the
ark from the house of Obed-edom (1 Chron.
XV. 18, 21).

E-liph'e-let, in A. V. twice Eliphalet [God
is deliverance].

1. A son born to David in Jerusalem (1
Chron. iii. 6). A correct Hebrew alternate
form is Elpalet (1 Chron. xiv. 5).

2. Auother son of David's, born also at Je-
rusalem, probably after the death of the
former (2 Sam. v. 16; 1 Chron. iii. 8; xiv. 7).

3. A son of Ahasbai, and one of David's
mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 34). Apparently
called Eliphal in 1 Chron. xi. 35.

4. A descendant of Jonathan and of Saul
(1 Chron. viii. 39).

5. A son of Adonikam. He returned with
Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii. 13).

6. A son of Hashum. Ezra induced him
to put away his foreign wdfe (Ezra x. 33).

E-lis'a-beth [God is an oath, i. e., a cov-
enant maker].

A godly woman, a daughter of the house
of Aaron, aud bearing the name of Aaron's
wife (Ex. vi. 23, Elisheba). She became the
wife of the priest Zacharias and the mother
of John the Baptist. She bore him when she
was of advanced years, his birth and mi,ssiou
having been communicated beforehand by an
angel to her husband. Though of different
tribes, she aud Mary of Nazareth were kins-
women, and Mary visited Elisabeth at a vil-
lage (probably Juttah) in the hill country of
Judsea. Elisabeth, inspired by the Holy
Ghost, welcomed Mary as the mother of the
Lord (Luke i. 5-45).

E-li'sha, in A. Y. of N. T. Eliseus, which
is an imitation of the Greek modification of
the name [God is salvation].

One of the two great prophets of the older
period of Israelite history who labored in the
northern kingdom. He was the son of Sha-
phat, dwelt at Abel-meholah in the Jordan
valley, and was well to do ; twelve yoke of
oxen plowed his fields. He was appointed
by God to be the successor of Elijah (1 Kin.
xix. 16, 19). Elijah found him plowing and
cast his mantle over him. Elisha understood
the significance of the act; and, having ob-
tained the prophet's permission, went home,
gave a farewell feast to his friends, aud re-
turned to be the follower and assistant of
Elijah (19-21). When Elijah went beyond
the Jordan to be translated to heaven, Elisha
kept close to his side ; and when asked to
name what he would like to obtain as a part-
ing gift had the wisdom to petition for a
double portion of Elijah's spirit. He saw the
fiery chariot bear his master away, and tak-
ing the mantle which had fallen from Elijah,

Elishah

197

Elizaphan

struck the Jordan with it, which divided and
permitted liini to cross to its western side
(2 Kin. ii. 1-lM. His subsequent lite was
marked hy a series of miracles, some of knowl-
edge, ot hers of power, expressly wrought in the
name of the Lord. They belong to the sec-
ond group of miracles in redemptive historj-.
They occurred at a time when the religion
of Jehovah was engaged in a des])erate strug-
gle for existence against Baal worship, and,
like the miracles by (iod for Elijah, were in-
tended to accredit the projihet and to attest
Jehovah to be the living <iod. In the name
of the Lord he healed the deleterious waters
of a .spring near to Jericho (19-2"2). He pro-
nounced Jehovah's curse on lads who con-
temptuously insulted the prophet of the Lord
in him, and two bears presently tore forty-
two of them (•23-25). He predicted the de-
liverance and temporary success of the three
kings who were invading Moab (iii. 11-27).
He multiplied a widow's ])ot of oil (iv. 1-7).
He predicted to a Shunammite woman the
birth of a son, and at his prayer that son was
restored to life when he had died (8-37). He
named an antidote to a poisonous plant in
the pot in which food was being cooked for
the iirophets (3S-41). As prophet of the Lord
be fed a hundred men with twenty barley
loaves and a few ears of corn (42-44), told
Naamau to wash in Jordan and he would be
healed of his leprosy (v. 1-19), and foretold
its transference to Gehazi as a punishment
of lying and covetousness (20-27). He made
an iron axhead swim (vi. 1-7). He com-
municated to the king of Israel, without
being informed of them, the movements and
intentions of his Syrian rival (8-12). At his
prayer, the Lord revealed to the prophet's
servant horses and chariots of fire stirrouud-
ing them for their protection (13-17), and
caused blindness to fall on the Syrian emis-
saries sent to arrest them (17-23). He inti-
mated, without being told it. that a messen-
ger from the king of Israel was at the door
to take his life (vi. 32, 33). He predicted
great plenty and consequent cheapness of
food in Samaria, while it was at famine prices
during a siege, adding, however, that an un-
believing lord who discredited the prediction
should not participate in the boon, which he
did not, for he was trampled to death in a
crowd (vii. 1-20). He informed Benhadad,
king of Syria, of his approaching death (viii.
7-15). He declared the destruction of Ahab
and his whole house, and sent a young
prophet to anoint Jehu to execute the threat-
ened judgment (ix. 1-x. 28). He predicted
three victories over the Syrians (xiii. 14-19).
Finally, after his death, a man hastily cast
into the same sepulcher was at once restored
to life on touching the prophet's bones (20, 21).

E-li'shah.

The descendants of Ja van collectively, who
inhabited the country of Elishah (Gen. x. 4).
This country was maritime, and exported

blue and purjde dye stuflfs (Ezek. xxvii. 7).
It has been variously exi)lained as Hellas,
Elis, Aeolis. Italy, and Carthage. Philologi-
cal olijections weigh against the first four;
and there is no proof that Carthage was ever
called Eli.ssa, and this town was besides in
Africa. Alishiya, whose king exchanged
correspondence with the Pharaohs of the
eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, has recently
been suggested (K. D. Wilson) ; but it is as
yet ofl'ered as a mere conjecture.
E-lish'a-ma [God hath heard].

1. Son of Animihud, and prince of the
Ephraimites at the beginning of the sojourn
in the wilderness (Num. i. 10 ; ii. 18), and
ancestor of Joshua (1 C'hron. vii. 26).

2. A man of Judah. descended through
Jerahmeel and Sheshan (1 C'hron. ii. 34, 41).

3. A son of David, born at Jerusalem (1
C'hron. iii. 6). See Elishua.

4. Another son of David (2 Sam. v. 16; 1
Chron. iii. 8).

5. A priest, one of those sent by Jehosha-
phat to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

6. A prince and scribe in the reign of king
Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 20, 21). and prob-
ably identical with the grandfather of Ishniael
of the seed royal who murdered Gedaliah. the
governor of Judtea under the Babylonians i2
ivin. XXV. 25 : Jer. xli. 1).

E-lish'a-phat [God hath judged].

One of the captains of hundreds who sup-
ported Jehoiada in the revolt against Athaliah
(2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

E-lish'e-ba [God is an oath].

Daughter of Amminadab, and sister of
Nabshon. She became the wife of Aaron,
and the mother of Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar,
and Ithamar (Ex. vi. 23).

E-lish'u-a [God is salvation].

A sou of David, born at Jerusalem (2 Sam.
V. 15 : 1 Chron. xiv. 5t. In the correspond-
ing position in the third list of David's sons
(1 Chron. iii. 6) the name Elishama appears.
In view of the reading of the other cata-
logues, and since the name Elishama was
borne by another of David's sons, mentioned
farther on in all three lists, it is reasonable
to believe that Elishama in 1 Chron. iii. 6 is a
misreading of Elishua, as it is a quite intelli-
gible one.

E-li'ud [perhaps from Hebrew "liy'hud,
God of Judah or of the .Tews, a name which
does not occur in the O. T.]

Son of Achim. and father of Eleazar, in
the ancestry of Christ (Mat. i. 14, 15).

E-liz'a-phan or Elzaphan, the forms being
interchangeable in Hebrew [God hath con-
cealed].

1. Son of Uzziel. and chief of the Koha-
thites in the wilderness (Ex. vi. 18,22 ; Num.
iii. 30). He assisted in removing the bodies
of Nadab and Abihu from the camp (Lev.
X. 4).

Elizur

198

Elymais

2. Son of Parnach, and prince of the tribe
of Zebulun in the wilderness (Num. xxxiv.

25).

E-li'zur [God is a rock].

Tlie prince of the Eeubenites in the wil-
derness (Num. i. 5; ii. 10).

El'ka-nah [God hath created].

1. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar, division (jf Korah. He was brother
of Assir and Abiasaph (Ex. vi. 24 ; 1 Chron.
vi. 23 and perhaps 25).

2, 3, and 4. Three Levites, links in one
genealogy, one the son of Joel, the second
the son of Mahath, and the third the son of
Jeroham. Like the preceding, they were of
the family of Kohath, house of Izhar, Kor-
hite division ; but they were descended from
Abiasaph (1 Chron. vi. 36, son of Joel ; 26, 35,
of Mahath ; 27, 34, and 1 Sam. i. 1, of Jero-
ham). The last of the three belonged to the
hill country of Ephraim, lived at Eamathaim
of the Zo]>iiites, was the husband of Hannah
and Peninnah, and the father of Samuel (1
Sam. i. 1; ii. 11, 20).

5. Another Korhite who had dwelt in Ben-
jamin, perhaps because the Korhites were
doorkeepers of the tabernacle which was
pitched in Benjamin (1 Chron. ix. 19), and
who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 6).

6. A doorkeeper for the ark during the
reign of David (1 Chron. xv. 23).

7. A high dignitary at the conrt of Ahaz,
second only to the king (2 Chron. xxviii. 7).

8. A Levite who dwelt in a village of the
Netophathites (1 Chron. ix. 16).

Erkosh-ite.

A citizen of Elkosh (Nah. i. 1). The tradi-
tion that Alkush, two days' journey north of
Nineveh, was the birth and burial place of
Naluim is late, being unknown to early Ara-
bian and Syrian writers; and the contents
of the book of Nahuni are against it. A cred-
ible, but unproven, identification is with the
town Elccsi or Helcesa-i in Galilee, which was
pointed out to Jerome as the birthplace of
the proi)het.

El'la-sar.

A place in or near Babylonia (Gen. xiv. 1,
9). Not improbably Larsa, the remains of
which now constitute the mounds of Seu-
kereh, to the southeast of Erech.

Elm.

An erroneous rendering of the Hebrew
word 'Elah in Hos. iv. 13, A. V. The word
is properly translated " oak " in Gen. xxxv. 4
and Judg. vi. 11, 19, with terebinth on the
margin of R. V.

El-ma'dam, in A. V. Elmodam.

An ancestor of Christ, who lived before the
exil(! (Luke iii. 28).

El'na-am [(Tod is pleasantness].

The father of certain valiant men in David's
army (1 ('bron. xi. 46).

El'na-than [God hath given].

1. The father of Nehushta, mother of king

Jehoiachin (2 Kin. xxiv. 8). He dwelt at
Jerusalem, and was probably the prince El-
nathau, son of Achbor (Jer. xxvi. 22 ; xxxvi.
12, 25).

2, 3, and 4. Three Levites, the first two
chief men, and the third a man of under-
standing, sent for by Ezra to the brook Ahava
(Ezra viii. 16).

E-lo'i [Aramaic, my God]. See Eli, I.

E'lon [an oak or terebinth].

1. A Hittite, whose daughter Esau married
(Gen. xxvi. 34; xxxvi. 2).

2. A son of Zebulun, and founder of a
tribal family (Gen. xlvi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 26).

3. A Zebulonite who judged Israel for ten
years, and was buried at Aijalon, in Zebulun
(Judg. xii. 11, 12).

4. A village of Dan (Josh. xix. 43). Not
identified ; for Beit EUo, 8 miles northwest
by west from Bethel, is not in the limits of
the ancient territory of Dan.

E'lon-beth-ha'nan [Elon of Beth-hanan].

A town in Dan, to judge from its associates
(1 Kin. iv. 9), perhaps identical with Elon.
Its site is not Beit 'Anan, 8i miles northwest
of Jerusalem. This place is in Benjamin, a
diflerent tax district (18), and the name is
differently spelled.

E'loth. See Elath.

El'pa-al [God is a reward].

A man of Benjamin, son of Shaharaim, and
head of a father's house (1 Chron. viii. 11,
12, 18).

El'pa-let, in R. V. Elpelet. See Eliphe-

LET.

El-pa'ran. Sec Elath.

El'te-keh [perhaps, God is a dread].

A town of Dan assigned to the Levites
(Josh. xix. 44 ; xxi. 23). and mentioned in
the records of Sennacherib likewise in con-
nection with Timnah and Ekron. In 701
B. c. Scnuacherib destroyed the town, and in
its vicinity the decisive battle between the
Assyrians and Egyptians was fought. Not
identified ; certainly not Beit Likia. 2 miles
south of the Nether Beth-horon.

El'te-kon [God is firmness].

A village in the hill country of Judah (Josh.
XV. 59). Exact site unknown.

El'to-lad [birth, race].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 30). assigned to the Simeonites
(xix. 4). Called in 1 Chron. iv. 29 simply
Tolad, with omission of what is either tlie
word for God or the Arabic article. Exact
site unknown.

E'lul.

Tlie sixth month of the year (Neh. vi. 15;
1 Mac. xiv. 27), approximately September.
See Year.

E-lu'zai [perhaps, God is my strength].

One of the valiant men who came to David
to Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 5).

El-y-ma'is. See Elam.

Elymas

199

Emerald

El'y-nias [appareutlj- from Arabic 'dUm,
learned].

A Jewish impostor, Bar-jesus by name,
which means son of Jesus or Joshua, who
pretended to learn the future throujj;h sor-
cery. Paul encountered him in Pai)hos, a
town of Cyprus, duriuj; his first missionary
journey. He soujjht to turn from the faith
Sergius Pauhis. tlie Koman deputy or pro-
consul of tlie island, who .seemed disposed to
accept the doctrine of Paul and seek for bap-
tism. The apostle, therefore, severely re-
buked the sorcerer and struck him with tem-
porary blindness, the miracle removing the
last doubt which the proconsul had as to the
claims of Christian truth on his acceptance
(Acts xiii. (J-12).

El'za-bad [God hath bestowed].

1. One of the valiant Gadites who came to
David (1 Chron. xii. 12).

2. A Levite of the family of Obed-edom,
and a doorkeeper at the house of the Lord
(1 Chron. xxvi. 7).

El'za-phan. See Elizaphan.

Em-balm'.

To attempt to preserve a dead body from
decay by the use of sweet spices. The He-
brews seldom embalmed their dead (Gen. 1.
2, 26 ; cp. 2 Chron. xvi. 14 ; John xix. 39), but
the art of embalming was practiced by the
Egyptians from very early times. The em-
balmers were a numerous guild, who dwelt
at the cemeteries. They were divided into
three classes — the first made the incision in
the body, the second handled the spices, and
the third conducted the religious ceremonies
■when the body was placed in the tomb. By
the time of the eighteenth dynasty, shortly
before the time of Moses, they had brought
their art to great perfection. The brain was
drawn through the nose with an iron hook
and reidaced with si)ices. The entrails were
removed, and the abdominal cavity was
Avashed out by the injection of palm wine,

Egyptian Embalming.

and then filled with bruised myrrh, cassia,
cinnamon, and other spices. Next the whole
body was ])lunged in natron, or more exactly
subcarbonate of soda, and left in it for
seventy days. Then it was rolled in linen
bandages only three or four inches wide, but
of the extraordinary length of 700 or even

1000 yards. Gum Arabic was used to keep
the bandages in their place, and finally the
corpse, now mummified, was ])laced in a
case of wood or cartonnage, made in the shape
of a man, and carved :ind ]>ainted to repre-
sent the deceased person. It was often en-
closed in a second or outer case of wood
or in a stone sarcophagus. A less expensive
method required no incision ; the intestines
were dissolved by an injection of oil of cedar.
In the case of the })oor, the abdomen was
merely purged and steeped in natron (Herod,
ii. 85-88, fully confirmed by Egyptian records
and mummies). According to the Sicilian
hi.storian Diodorus, the interment of a rich
man cost the relatives the eqtiivalent of about
.$1200. A second-rate emlialmment cost aVjout
$400, and there was a nnich cheajier kind
for the common peoi)le. Embalming ceased
about A. D. 700. Many mummies are in the
British and other museums. Occasionally
one is unrolled, but it tends to fall to pieces
when exposed to the air.

Em-broid'ery.

Ornamentation by raised figures of needle-
work, executed with colored silks, gold or
silver thread, or any similar material difl'er-
ing from that of the original cloth. Bezaleel
and Aholiab were able to practice, among
other arts, that of embroidering in blue,
purple, scarlet, and fine linen (Ex. xxxv. 35 ;
xxxviii. 23). The screens for the door of the
tabernacle and the gate of the court (Ex.
xxvi. 36 ; xxvii. 16) and the girdle of the
high priest (xxviii. 39, E. Y. ; xxxix. 29) M^ere
embroidered. The wealthy often wore em-
broidered garments (Judg. v. 30 ; Ps. xlv. 14).

E'mek-ke'ziz, in A. V. valley of Keziz [a
vale cut ofi' or vale of fissure].

A town of Benjamin, evidently in a valley
and apparently near Jericho and Beth-hoglah
(Josh, xviii. 21). Scarcely to be connected
with wady el-Kaziz, a branch of the Kidron,
which seems to lie too far west and south.

Em'er-ald [Greek smaracidos].

1. The rendering of the Hebrew ]S!ophek.
It was the first stone in the second row of
those on the Jewish high priest's breastplate
(Ex. xxviii. 18; xxxix. 11). The Syrians
imported jjrecious stones of this kind into
Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 16), and the Tyrians used
them for ornaments (xxviii. 13). The exact
stone intended is doubtful. It may be the
carbuncle (R. V. margin ; cp. Septuagint).

2. The rendering of the Greek S)imi-afidos,
meaning a precious stone of a light green
color. The name was perhaps applied to any
green crystallized mineral. It was used f(jr
signets (Ecclus. xxxii.6) ; a rainbow is likened
to it (Rev. iv. 3) ; it was to be the fourth
foundation in the New Jerusalem (xxi. 19 ;
cp. Tobit xiii. 16). The emerald is a variety
of beryl, distinguished by its color, which is
bright green, from typical beryl, which is
pale green, passing into light blue, yellow,
or white. While the beryl is colored by iron,

Emerods

200

En-gedi

the emerald is colored by chromium. An-
ciently it was found in Cyprus, in Egypt, and
in the mountains of Ethiopia.

Em'e-rods [a corrupted form of hemor-
rhoids].

Piles ; external or internal tumors in the
anal region, formed of dilated blood vessels
(Deut. xxviii. 27). They were inflicted on
the Philistines of Ashdod and Ekron, to com-
pel them to send back the ark which they
had captured (1 Sam. v. 6; vi. 11).

E'mim, in A. V. Emims, a double plural.

The ancient inhabitants of territory after-
wards occupied by the Moabites. They were
tall as the Anakim, and were once a nu-
merous and powerful people (Deut. ii. 9-11).
Chedorlaomer smote them in the plain of
Kiriathaim (Gen. xiv. 5).

Em-man'u-el. See Immanuel.

Em'ma-us.

1. A village 60 furlongs from Jerusalem, a
distance which could be traversed on foot be-
tween the hour for supper and the time of an
evening meeting (Luke xxiv. 13, 29, 33; cp.
Mark xvi. 14: John xx. 19). Vespasian lo-
cated 800 veterans at " Emmaus distant sixty
[according to another reading, thirty] fur-
longs from Jerusalem" (War vii. 6, 6). The
Talmud states that Moza is Colouia. Kubei-
beh, meaning the little dome, 7 miles north-
west of Jerusalem on the Roman road, was
pointed out to the Crusaders as the site of
Emmaus. In the vicinity was the town of
Mozah (Josh, xviii. 26). Three miles to the
south of Kubeibeh is Kulonieh, that is col-
ony, whose distance from Jerusalem is 4
miles or more according to the road followed.
Probably, therefore, the site of Emmaus is
to be found either at Kubiebeh or Kulonieh,
or in the intervening country. The distance
and tradition since the time of the Crusaders
point to Kubeibeh ; the Roman colony to
which Emmaus was assigned may have left
its name attached to a village in the southern
part of its possessions. Conder's suggestion
of the ruin Khamaseh, 8 miles southwest of
Jerusalem, is not happy. The distance suits,
but the name does not readily ; for only rarely
does the smooth breathing, which appears in
the Greek form of Emmaus, represent the
strong guttural h, in Arabic h, i. e. kh (cp.
Huldah and Hermon).

2. A walled town of some note 18 miles, or
160 stades, westward from Jerusalem by a
circuitous Roman road (1 Mac. iii. 40; ix. 50;
War ii. 20, 4). Now 'Aniwas.

Em'mor. See Hamor.
E'na-im [two springs] .
A town on the road from Adullam to Tim-
nath [Gen. xxxviii. 14, 21, in A. Y. open).

E'nam [place of fountains].
A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 34) ; probably identical with Enaim.
E'nan [having eyes, seeing].

The father of the prince of the tribe of
Naphtali in the days of Moses (Num. i. 15).

En-camp'ment. See Caiip.

En-chant'er.

One who practices any form of enchant-
ment. In R. V. of Daniel (ii. 2) it is the
rendering of the Aramaic 'Ashsh(q>hiin, and
denotes conjurers and exorcists who used
incantations and pronounced spells for the
purpose of securing the aid of evil spirits or
of freeing the supposed victims of evil spirits
from their torments.

En-chant'ment.

The practice of magical arts or the utter-
ance of certain words whereby the aid of
evil spirits is invoked, in order to produce
supernatural eflects over human beings, dan-
gerous animals, or nature generally. En-
chantment is not always distinguished from
divination in the English versions (Num.
xsiii. 23 ; xxiv. 1 ; and 2 Kin. xvii. 17, where
enchantment is rather omen ; and A. V. of
Jer. xxvii. 9). Under enchantment are prop-
erly included magic (Ex. vii. 11), conjuration,
exorcism (Dan. ii. 2, in A. V. astrologer), sor-
cery (Acts viii. 9, 11 ; xiii. 8, 10). The prac-
ticing of enchantments was forbidden by the
Mosaic law (Deut. xviii. 10). Enchantments
practiced to prevent a venomous snake from
biting (Eccles. x. 11 ; cp. Ps. Iviii. 5 ; Jer. viii.
17) belong, of course, to a ditferent category.
They require neither trickery nor the invo-
cation of the powers of evil.

En'-dor. [fountain of habitation].

A town belonging to the tribe of Manasseh
(Josh. xvii. 11; reference to En-dor wanting
in Septuagint). Sisera and his king, Jabin,
perished in its vicinity (Ps. Ixxxiii. 10). It
was the residence of the woman with a fa-
miliar spirit, whom king Saul consulted (1
Sam. xxviii. 7). It has been identified as
the village of Endor or Endur, on the north-
ern shoulder of Little Hermon, 6 miles S. E.
of Nazareth.

En-eg'la-im [fountain of two calves].

A place on the Dead Sea (Ezek. xlvii. 10).

En-gan'nim [fountain of gardens].

1. A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 34). Site unknown.

2. A town on the boundary line of Issachar
(Josh. xix. 21), assigned to the Gershonite
Levites (xxi. 29). It seems to be the Giusea
of Josephus (Antiq. xx. 6. 1; War iii. 3, 4).
It is the modern Jcuin, a village of about
3000 inhabitants, on the southern margin of
the plain of Jezi'eel, 5 miles northeast of
Dothan and about 7 southwest from mount
Gilboa.

En-ge'di [fountain of a kid].

A fountain and town originally called
Hazazon-tamar, meaning pruning of a palm
(2 Chron. xx. 2), in the wilderness on the
western shore of the Dead Sea, in the tribe
of Judah (Josh. xv. 62). A difficult caravan
route, crowded between mountain and sea.

En-haddah

201

£n-rimmon

passed the »\H>t. In the time of Ahraham it
was occupied by Aiiiorites, \vho were smitten
at the spot l)y Chedorlaomer (Gt-n. xiv. 7).
David took refuge in the strongholds of the
vicinity (1 Sam. xxiii. 29). In one of the
caves where he was hiding he cut oil" the
skirt of Saul's robe (xxiv. 1-22). The foun-

[initiated, dedicated]. The same name, borne
by others, is rendered Henoch anil Ilaiiocli.

1 and 2. A st)n of Cain, and the city wliich
Cain built and named after him (Gen. iv. 17,

ly).

3. A descendant of Jared, and progenitor
of Methuselah. He lived 365 years, and

Wilderness uf En-gcdi, l>cnrl Sea, anil Mountains of Moab

tain, which still bears the name of 'Ain Jidy,
is a cojiious hot spring of fresh water, burst-
ing forth about 300 or 400 feet above the base
of a vast cliff, midway between the month
of the Jordan and the southern point of the
sea (cp. Ezck. xlvii. 10). The hot water
created an oasis, ricliAvith semi-tropical vege-
tation and celebrated for palms, vineyards,
and balsam (Song i. 14 ; Antiq. ix. 1, 2).

En-had'dah [fountain of vehemence].

A frontier village of Issachar (Josh. xix.
21). Not identified, though conjecturally
near En-gannim.

En-hak'ko-re [fountain of him that called].

A spring in Lebi which burst forth when
Samson cried to the Lord (Judg. xv. 18, 19).
It was long pointed out.

En-tia'zor [fountain of the village].

A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 37),
mentioned in the list between Kadesh and
Iron. Its site has not been positively iden-
tified.

En-mish'pat [fountain of judgment].
The same as Kadesh-barnea (Gen. xiv. 7).
E'noch, in A. V. once Henoch (1 Chron. i. 3)

walked with God. He is the only one of the
line of whom it is not said that he died. He
was not; for God took him (Gen. v. 18-24).
He was translated, and did not see death
(Ecclus. xliv. 16; xlix. 14; Heb. xi. 5). In
Jude 14, 15 there is a prophecy of Enoch's in
which he declares God's just judgment of
the unrighteous. The words of this prophecy
are found in the p.seudepigraphical Book of
Enoch, which is an extravagant production,
amplifying the antediluvian history, and
even rendering it incredible. Jude has either
made a citation from this book or else both
he and the author of the book ciuoted an old
tradition. The N. T. writers have several
times quoted uninspired, and even heathen,
authors.

E'nosh, in A. V. Enos, except in 1 Chron.
i. 1 [man].

The son of Seth (Gen. iv. 26; v. 6-11 ; 1
Chron. i. 1 ; Luke iii. 38).

En-rim'mon [fountain of Rimmon or of
the pomegranate].

A town of Judah, inhabited after the cap-
tivity (Neh. xi. 29), and ajiparently consi-st-

En-rogel

202

Ephesians

ing of the neighboring villages of Ain and
Eiinmon (see each).

En-ro'gel [fountain of the fuller].

A fountain just outside Jerusalem (2 Sam.
xvii. 17), near the valley of Hinnom and on
the boundary line between Judah and Ben-
jamin (Jo.sh. XV. 7 ; xviii. 16). According to
Josephus, it was in the king's garden (Antiq.
vii. 14, 4). During Absalom's rel)elli(iu Jona-
than and Ahimaaz took up tliciralxide there,
to be able to collect and send news to David
(2 Sam. xvii. 17). Near l)y was the stone
Zoheleth, where Adonijah instituted festiv-
ities when he conspired to seize tlic kingdom
(1 Kin. i. 9). The traditional situation of
the fountain, almost universally accepted, is
Bir Eyub, the well of Job, just below the
junction of the valleys of Hinnom and the
Kidron, south of Jerusalem. This is a well,
125 feet deep, walled half way down and
sunk the rest of the distance into the solid
rock. That it is a well and not a fountain is
scarcely a serious objection to the traditional
identification (cp. Gen. xvi. 7 with 14). The
well was doubtless suggested by the copious
streams which at certain seasons are liable to
gush from the ground at this spot. The
identification of En-rogel with the Fountain
of the Virgin in the side of Ophel has a few
advocates, especially Grove and Conder.

En-she'mesb [fountain of the sun].

A fountain and town on the boundary line
between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 7;
xviii. 17). It is commonly identified with
'Ain Hand, a little east of Bethany, on the
road between Jeinisalem and Jericho, and
the last spring until the Jordan valley is
reached.

En-tap 'pu-ah. See Tappuah 2.

E-psen'e-tus [praiseworthy].

A convert belonging to Achaia, and the
firstfruits of that region to Christ. Paul
called him beloved (Eom. xvi. 5).

Ep'a-phras.

A Christian who, coming to Paul whilst
he was a prisoner at Rome, gave a highly
favorable account of the Colossian church,
with which he was connected, perhaps as its
minister. He joined the apostle in sending
it salutations (Col. i. 7, 8; iv. 12). He re-
mained in Eome, and was in some sense
Paul's fellow-prisoner in Christ (Philem. 23).
See Epaphroditiis.

E-paph-ro-di'tus [lovely, charming].

A Christian whom the church at Philippi
sent with a present to the apostle Paul, then
a prisoner at Eome. On arriving at that
capital, he handed over the present, the
receipt of which Paul gratefully acknowl-
edged. Soon afterwards he became so sick
that his life was in danger. It grieved him
greatly that the news of this had reached
Philippi, and created anxiety among his
friends there. On this account Paul thought
it well to send him back to Philippi as soon

as his health permitted (Phil. ii. 25-30 ; iv.
18). Perhaps Epaphroditus and Epaphras
may have been one and the same person, but
there is a difficulty in accepting this view,
for the former seems clearly connected with
the church at Philippi, and the latter with
that at Colossse.
E'phah, I. [darkness].

1. A branch of the Midianites (Gen. xxv.
4 ; 1 Chron. i. 33), rich in camels and drom-
edaries (Is. Ix. 6). They lived in northeastern
Arabia.

2. A concubine of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 46).

3. A man of Judah, a son of Jabdai (1
Chron. ii. 47).

E'phah, II. [perhaps from Egyptian oiphi,
an old measure].

A measure of capacity containing ten omers
(Ex. xvi. 36). and used for such articles as
flour (Judg. vi. 19) or barley (Euth ii. 17).
It was equivalent to a bath or one-tenth of a
cor(Ezek.xlv. 11,14), and contained one Attic
metretes or seventy -two sextaries (Antiq. viii.
2, 9 ; ix. 4, 5 ; and xv. 9, 2, where read metretes
for medimnoi), and, if reckoned at 1952.17
cubic inches, contained a trifle more than 3
pecks, 5 quarts, American measure. Dis-
honest traders sometimes had an ephah of
insufficient capacity and used it for fraud
(Amos viii. 5).

E'phai [fatigued].

A Netophathite whose sons came with others
to the Babylonian governor of .Judsea after the
fall of Jerusalem, and was promised protec-
tion ( Jer. xl. 8). All were subsequently massa-
cred by Ishmael (xli. 3).

E'pher [a calf or mule].

1. A branch of the Midianites (Gen. xxv.
4; 1 Chron. i. 33). Their exact location has
not been determined.

2. A man of Judah descended from Ezrah
(1 Chron. iv. 17).

3. A chief man in the half-tribe of Manas-
seh, east of the Jordan (1 Chron. v. 24).

E-phes-dam'mim [end or coast of Dam-
mim].

A place within the territory of Judah, be-
tween Socoh and Azekah (1 Sam. xvii. 1).
Called Pas-dammim in 1 Chron. xi. 13, a form
perhaps due to corruption of the text. Com-
monly identified with the ruins Damun, about
4 miles to the northeast of Socoh.

E-phe'si-ans, E-pis'tle to the.

This epistle was written by the apostle
Paul when he was a prisoner (iii. 1 : iv. 1 ; vi.
20), probably at Eome A. D. 62, though some
assign it to the Csesarean imprisonment (Acts
xxiv. 27). It is addressed to the saints which
are at Ephesus and the faithful in Christ
Jesus. E. V. notes, however, that some very
ancient authorities omit the words "at Ephe-
sus." The two chief N. T. manuscripts
(Sinaitic and Vatican) omit them, and from
very early times a difference of opinion ap-
pears as to its intended readers, though the

Ephesians

203

Ephesus

tradition of the church called it " to the
Eiiliesians." The nmst i)r()l)able explanation
is that it was a circular letter intended fur
all the churches of the province of Asia, and
that, since Epliesus was the chief of these,
the epistle naturally came to be considered
as addressed to it. I'erhajjs the address was
blank, and cojiies left in each city VA'ith the
blank filled. Its circular character seerns to
be confirmed by the absence from it of local
allu.sions and discussions. It is a doctrinal
and ethical treatise in the form of an epistle.
Like that to the Colossians, it was sent by
Tychicus (vi. '21), and the similarity of lan-
guage and thought shows that the two were
written at the same time. Compare for ex-
ample

Eph. i. 1,2 with Col. i. 1, 2

" i. 3, 21) ; ii. 6 ; iii. 10 ; vi. 12 with Col. i. 5 ; iii.

1-3

" i. 6 with Col. i. 14

" 1. 7 " " i. 14

" i. 8 " " ii. 23

" i. 9 ; iii. 9 ; vi. 19 with Col. 1. 26 ; ii. 2 ; iv. 3

" i. 10 with Col. i. 20, 25

" 1. 11 " " 1. 12

" i. 17 " " 1. 10

" i. 19,20" " ii. 12

" i. 20 " " iii. 1

" 1. 22 " " i. IS

" i. 23 " " ii. 9

These are but examples, to which even the
reader of the English Bible can add many
more. The two epistles were evidently the
product of the apostle's mind acting under
the same circumstances. And Ephesians seems
to have been written just after Colossians. In
it the thought is carried further. The theme
of Colossians is the preeminence of Christ's
person and work. That of Ephesians is the
establishment of the church, considered as
the entire number of the redeemed. The
Ephesians, in fact, may be said to sum up all
Paul's previous teaching for the jiurpose of
stating the purpose of God in the mission of
his Son, which was the redemption of his
chosen people to manifest to all the universe
the riches of his grace. Hence, assuming
salvation through faith, the divinity and
finished work of Jesus and the calling of the
gentiles, it advances to a complete theodicy.
In chap. i. we have what may be called tlie
divine side of the church's history, which
originated in God's sovereign aiid eternal
purpose (3-(i). was eflected by (Inist's work
(7-12), and is certified by the sealing of the
Spirit (13, 14). He prays that they may un-
derstand the hope of Chri.st's calling, of which
the risen and exalted Saviour is the first fruit
and pledge (15-23). In chap. ii. we have the
human side of the history, being taught that
the elect are delivered out of sin and con-
demnation by unmerited grace (1-10), and
are united, Jew and gentile, through Christ
into one spiritual temple (11-22). In chap.
iii. the apostle states his own jiosition as the
minister to the church of this divine mys-
tery (1-13), and prays that they .may realize

and enjoy what God has prepared for them
(14-21). Chaiiters iv.-vi. are an extended
exhortation to walk worthily of their high
calling in all the relations of the i)resent life.
The Epistle to the liomans, addressed from
the East to the West, was Paul's coni])lete
statement of the way of salvation. The E])is-
tle to the Ephesians, addressed from the West
to the East, was his complete statement of
the whole purjiose of God in human history.
It may be said to mark the climax of his
theological instruction. a. t. i'.

Eph'e-sus [according to tradition, permis-
sion].

A city of Lydia on the western coast of
Asia ISIinor, nearly equally distant from
Miletus on the south and Smyrna on the
north. It was one of the twelve cities be-
longing to the Ionian confederation, and was
itself the capital of Ionia. It was situated
at the mouth of the river Cayster, and in the
vicinity of two lakes. Marked out by nature
for the site of a city, its prosperity was in-
creased by the neighboring temple of Diana
and the influx of worshipers from all quar-
ters. The first inhabitants were ejected by
the lonians, a section of the Greek race.
Under the lonians the temple of Diana rose
into celebrity. Ephesns was taken by Croesus,
king of Lydia, whose capital was at Sardis.
Then it fell under the Persian domination.
When the victories of Alexander the Great
overthrew' the Persian empire, Eljihesus came
under Macedonian -Greek rule. Hitherto it
had been confined to a low alluvial plain
liable to be flooded. About 300 b. c, how-
ever, Lysimachus extended it to an adjacent
eminence which the water could not reach.
In 190 B. c. the Romans, after defeating An-
tiochus the Great at ]\Iagnesia, took Ephesus
from him, and gave it to Eumenes II., king
of Pergamos. On the death of Attains III.
of Pergamos in 133 B. c. it reverted to them,
and became the capital of the Roman prov-
ince of Asia. Paul on his way to Jerusa-
lem, toward the end of his second mis-
sionary journey, paid a .short visit to Ephesus,
preached in the synagogue, and left Aquila
and Priscilla there, who continued the work
(Acts xviii. 19-21). On his third, he labored
at Ephesus at least two years and three
months, leaving the city after the riot which
was .stirred up by Demetrius, who made .shrines
of Diana, and who found his craft endangered
by the preaching of the apostle (xix. 1-41 ;
cp. 1 Cor. XV. 32 ; xvi. 8 ; 2 Tim. i. 18). Paul
left Timothy behind to prevent the church
from being corrupted by fiilse doctrine (1
Tim. i. 3). Subsequently at Miletus, return-
ing from Europe, and unable to revisit Ejdie-
sus, he sent for the elders of the church to
meet him at Miletus, and gave them solemn
counsel (Acts xx. 16, 17). Tychicus was after-
wards despatched thither, carrying with liim
the Epistle to the Ephesians (Eph. i. 1 ; vi.
21 ; 2 Tim. iv. 12). The church at Ephesus

Ephesus

204

was the first of the seven churches of Asia
addressed by the apostle John in the book
of Eevelation (Rev. i. 11 ; ii. 1-7), and tradi-
tion makes him spend the last years of his
life in the city. The decay of Ephesus arose
chiefly from the silting up of the harbor by
mud brought down by the Cayster. The de-
struction of the great temple by the Goths
about A. D. 260 completed the desolation.
Now only a few remains of the city exist,

Ephod

tration under Diana. The theater was one
of the largest known of all that have re-
mained to modern times. The auditorium
was semicircular, 495 feet in diameter, and
the' orchestra was 110. The stage was 22 feet
wide. The theater seated 24,500 persons.

Eph'lal [judicious].

A man of Judah of the family of Jerahmeel
(1 C'hrou. ii. 37j.

Ruins of Theater at Ephesus.

but they are of great interest. These are
part of the wall, a fine theater, probably that
in which the natives shouted " Great is Diana
of the Ephesians," and finally portions of
the temple of the goddess.

The temple was a magnificent work of Ionic
architecture, and ranked as one of the seven
wonders of the world. It stood on a platform
about 425 feet in length and 239i feet in
width, measured from the lowest step. A flight
of ten steps led to the pavement of the plat-
form, and three more steps to the pavement
of the temple. The temple itself was 342i feet
in length and lfi4 feet in width. It consisted
of two rows of eight columns each in front
and rear, and two rows of twenty columns
each on either side of the sanctuary. These
with two columns at each entrance of the
sanctuary made one hundred in all. Each
was a monolith of marble 55 feet in height,
and the eighteen at each end were sculptured.
The roof was covered witli large white mar-
ble tiles. The cclla or inner sanctuary, which
these columns surrounded, was 70 feet wide
and 105 long. Its internal ornamentation
was of surpassing splendor, adorned with
works of art by Pliidias and Praxiteles,
Scopas, Parrhasius, and Apelles. See illus-

Eph'od [a covering] .

1. An upper garment worn by the Jewish
high priest. It was one of six sacred vest-
ments which he was required to jiut on when
about to conduct the worship of God (Ex.
xxviii. 4). and was of gold, blue, purple,
scarlet, and fine twined linen. It consisted
of two shoulder pieces joined by the two
edges (xxviii. 6, 7'), and falling over the front
and back part of the body. There was a
hole in the top, doubtless for the head, with
a woven border of the same materials around,
to render the cloth less liable to tear (8, cp.
32). On it, so as to stand upon the shoulders
of the priest when the ephod was worn, wei"e
two onyx stones, each having engraved upon
it the names of six tribes (xxviii. 9; xxxix.
6, 7). In front, to rings attached under-
neath close to the coupling, the breastjilate
was bound with a lace of blue, so that the
breastplate itself might be supported (xxviii.
25,27, 28; xxxix. 19-21). When David de-
sired to a.sk counsel of God in the presence
of the high priest Abiathar, he considered
it essential that the ephod should first be
brought out (1 Sam. xxiii. 9-12 ; xxx. 7, 8),
for with it were the Urini and Thummim
(Ex. xxviii. 30). An ephod might thus readily

Ephphatha

205

Ephraim

become an object of idolatrous worship ( Judg.
viii. ~7 ; xvii. 5). The robe of the ephod was
a garment distinct from the ei)hod, was bhie,
and was sleeveless, fringed at the bottom
with alternate bells of gold and pomegran-
ates of blue, j)urple, and scarlet (Ex. xxviii.
31-35; xxix. 5; xxxix. 22-'JG).

A more siini)lc ephod of linen, probably
without the ornamentation, was worn by
ordinary i)riests. The eighty-five whom Docg
slew all wore the linen ephod (1 Sam. xxii. 18).
Samuel, also, wore an ephod while he was a
child in charge of Eli, the high priest (1 Sam.
ii. 18). David wore one apparently of simple
linen (2 Sam. vi. 14; 1 Chron. xv. 27).

2. The father of Hanniel, prince of Manas-
seh in the time of ]Moses (Num. xxxiv. 23).

Eph'plia-tha.

An Aramaic imperative signifying "be
opened" (Mark vii. 34).

E'phra-im [double fruitfulness].

1. The younger son of Joseph and Asenath,
daughter of rotiiiherah, priest of On. He
was born while Joseph was prime minister
of Egypt (Gen. xli. 45-52). When the two
sons were brought to Jacob on his sickbed,
to receive their grandfather's blessing, Jacob
intentionally laid his right hand (the hand
of greater honor) on the head of Ephraim,
the younger grandson, and his left on that
of Manasseh, the elder. Being remonstrated
with by Joseph, he explained that both should
become a people, but Ephraim should be
the greater and should be the ancestor of a
multitude of peoples or tribal families (Gen.
xlviii. 8-20). Ephraim and Manasseh, though
only grandchildren of Jacob, were treated
as if they were his children, and their de-
scendants were consequently regarded as two
tribes instead of one. Ephraim had the sor-
row of losing two of his sons, who were slain
while making a raid on the cattle of the
Philistines (1 Chron. vii. 20-22).

2. The tribe of which Ephraim was the
progenitor (Josh. xvi. 4, 10; .Tudg. v. 14).
The gi'owth of the tribe was for a time re-
tarded by the death of several of his sons in
a fray against the Philistines (1 Chron. vii.
21-23). At the fir.st census in the wilderness
the Ephraimites numbered 40,500, being the
lowest in number of the tribes excepting only
Manasseh and Benjamin (Num. i. 33). They
fell off during the wanderings, and at the
second census numbered only 32,500, being
now the lowest of all the tribes except Simeon
(xxvi. 37) ; still the double tribe of Joseph
was the largest of the tribes, and numbered
85,200 men, besides women and children (.34,
37; cp. Deut. xxxiii. 17). When Joshua was
the leader of Israel, the tribe rose rajiidly in
reputation, for he was himself an Ephraimite
(Josh. xix. 50; xxiv. 30). The tribe was al-
lotted territory west of the Jordan. Its
southern boundary line ran from the Jordan
at Jericho to Bethel, Lnz, Ataroth-addar,
Upper Beth-horon, Lower Beth-horon, Gezer,

and the sea (Josh. xvi. 1-3, 5). The north-
ern line ran through Michmetliath, near She-
chem, eastward to Taanatli-shiloh, Janoah,
Ataroth, and Naarah, reached .lerichoand the
Jordan (G, 7), and i)assed westward from Mich-
metliath to En-tai)i>uah, the river Kanah and
the Mediterranean (8 ; cp. xvii. 7). It had the
territory of the half-tribe of Manasseh, west
of the Jordan, on the north, and Benjamin
on the south ; it reached tin.' Mediterranean
on the west and to the Jordan on the east.
Shechem was within the territory of Ephraim
(Josh. xxi. 20, 21 ; 1 Kin. xii. 25 ; 1 Chron. vi.
U7). The Ephraimites failed to expel the
Canaanites from Gezer, which was within the
lot of Ephraim ; but, either alone or in con-
junction with their kindred the Manassites,
they captured Bethel (Judg. i. 22-26, 29).
They acted patriotically in the fight cele-
brated in song by Deborah (v. 14). They
quarreled with Gideon, who was a Manas-
site, for not having called them to aid him
in expelling the Midianites from Canaan (viii.
1-3). They resolutely encountered in battle
Jephthah, the deliverer of Israel, for not
having summoned them to assist him in the
Ammonite war, 42,000 of the tribe falling in
the struggle (xii. 1-6). Micah, of graven
image notoriety, resided in mount Ephraim
(xvii. 1) ; and the Levite, the ill-treatment
of whose concubine led to the hostilities
against Benjamin, sojourned there (xix. 1).
Jeroboam was a man of Ephraim, and after
he had become king over the revolted ten
tribes, he rebuilt Shechem in mount Ephraim
to be his capital (1 Kin. xii. 25).

The hill country of Ephraim, or mount
Ephraim, as it is sometimes called, was so
much of the central range of Palestine as
was occupied by the tribe of Ephraim. It
did not include the towns of Taanach, Me-
giddo, Beth-shean, and Abel-meholali, on the
north and east (1 Kin. iv. 8, 12), nor Kirjath-
jearim, Gibeah, or the territory of Benjamin
on the south (Judg. xviii. 12, 13 ; xix. 16 ; 1 Sam.
ix. 4 ; 1 Kin. iv. 8, 19 ; 2 Chron. xv. 8). It was
thus bounded on three sides by the southern
border of the plain of Esdraelon, the Jordan
valley, and the territory of Benjamin. The
term did not propei-ly designate any part of
the district occui)ied by Benjamin. Even
Judg. iv. 5 and 2 Sam. xx. 1, 21 do not neces-
sarily imply any broader use of the term.
But after the establishment of the northern
kingdom with its shifting southern frontier,
the southern limits of the hill country of
E]>hraim were no longer clearly defined.

The wood of Ephraim. in which the battle
took place between the forces of David and
those of the rebel Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 6 ; cp.
xvii. 22, 24, 26, 27), was evidently east of the
Jordan, and near Mahanaim, but its exact
situation is unknown. It probably took its
name either from the defeat of the Ephraim-
ites in the time of Jephthah (Judg. xii. 1
seq.), or because it was ojjposite to the ter-
ritorj- and mountain of Ephraim.

Ephraimite

206

Epistles

For the gate of Ephraim, see Jerusalem
II., 3.

3. The ten tribes of which Ephraim be-
came the head. Used in this sense especially
by the prophets (Is. vii. 2, 5, 9, 17; ix. 9;
xvii. 3 ; xxviii. 3; Hos. iv. 17; v. 3; ix. 3-17).

4. A city to which Baal- hazor was adjacent
(2 Sam. xiii. 23), probably the same place as
Ephraim near to the wilderness (John xi. 54),
and Apha^rema, which at one time belonged
to Samaria (1 Mac. xi. 34). The Roman gen-
eral Vespasian took Ephraim and Bethel dur-
ing his advance on Jerusalem (War iv. 9, 9).
Robinson identifies it with Ophrah of Ben-
jamin, and locates it at the modern village
of Taiyibeh, on a conical hill standing on
high land 4 miles east-northeast of Bethel.
The identification has met general accept-
ance.

E'phra-im-ite.

A member of the tribe of Ephraim (Judg.
xii. 5). Moi-e frequently Ephrathite, as in
the original.

E'phra-in. See Ephron 2.

Eph'ra-thah, in A. V. Ephratah [fruitful-
ness, fruitful land]. A shorter form, occasion-
ally used in the Hebrew text and preserved
in the versions, is Ephrath.

1. The original name of Bethlehem in
Judaja (Gen. xxxv. 19 ; xlviii. 7 ; Ruth iv.
11). It is sometimes called Bethlehem-eph-
ratah (Mic. v. 2).

2. A wife of Caleb, son of Hezron. She
was the mother of Hur (1 Chron. ii. 19, 50 ;
iv. 4).

3. The territory of Ephraim (Ps. cxxxii. 6 ;
see Ephrathite 2) ; or better, Kiriath-jearim,
which belonged to Caleb-ephrathah (1 Chron.
ii. 50, 51), and where the ark had been kept
for a long time.

Eph'rath-ite.

1. A native or inhabitant of Ephrath, i. e.
Bethlehem (1 Sam. xvii. 12 ; Ruth i. 2).

2. An Ephraimite, one belonging to the
tribe of Ephraim (1 Sam. i. 1 ; 1 Kin. xi. 26).

E'phron [vituline].

1. A Hittite, resident at Hebron, and owmer
of the cave of Machpelah, which he sold to
Abraham (Gen. xxiii. 8; xxv. 9).

2. A city which was taken from Jeroboam
by Abijah (2 Chron. xiii. 19). Abandoning the
Hebrew text for the traditional pronuncia-
tion of the synagogue, A. V. and the margin
of the R. V. have Ephrain [two calves or
fawns], an Aramaic dual. Commonly iden-
tified with the town of Ephraim.

3. A city east of the Jordan in the terri-
tory of Manasseh, in a pass on the road be-
tween Karnaim and Beth-shcan. It was cap-
tured by Judas Maccabseus (1 Mac. v. 46-52 ;
2 Mac. xii. 27, 29 : Antiq. xii. 8. 5).

4. A mountain ridge between Nephtoah
and Kirjath-jearira, on the boundary between
Judah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 9).

Ep-i-cu-re'ans.

One of the leading philosophic sects of

Greece and Rome. It derived its name and
its existence from the great philosopher Epi-
curus. He was born 341 B. c. in the island
of Samos, but was of Athenian descent, and
made Athens the scene of his lifework. In
306 B. c. he founded a school or college with
a garden attached, in which he taught for
the next thirty-six years, till his death in
270 B. c. He is said to have written about
three hundred philosophic books, nearly all
of which are lost. In physics he, like De-
mocritus, attributes all nature to changes
among atoms in themselves eternal. He
does not recognize a Creator ; but, with cu-
rious inconsistency, finds a place in his sys-
tem for a multitude of gods, who, however,
supremely happy in themselves, take no part
in human aflfairs. With regard to his etliics,
a popular misconception prevails. He de-
sires that pleasure shall be pursued and pain
avoided ; but the notion that by pleasure he
meant only sensual gratification is erroneous.
He included under the term the pleasure de-
rived from the exercise of the intellect and
the moral faculty. Personally he was so pure
that some thought he was destitute of pas-
sions. The Epicureans were mostly men of soft
temperament, the very opposite of the Stoics,
who were cast in an iron mould. Both phil-
osophic sects rejected Paul's doctrine at
Athens, but both showed their tolerance by
taking the apostle to the court of Areopagus
to have his teaching examined, in place of
exciting a riot against him, as had been done
at various places where he had preached
(Acts xvii. 18-20).

Ep-i-lep'tic.

A person affected with the falling sickness,
a disease which in its severe form is charac-
terized by recurrent attacks of loss of con-
sciousness with spasms (Mat. xvii. 15, in A. V.
lunatic ; Mark ix. 18). In this case the disease
was occasioned by demoniacal possession.

E-pis'tles.

The name given to twenty-one books of the
N. T. The earliest of them antedate the
gospels, Paul having written his epistles to
the Thessalonians about a. d. 52. They are
letters which were written by the apostles,
or which received apostolic sanction ; and
they are addressed to particular churches,
and deal with doctrinal and practical ques-
tions, or to individuals, yet contain matter
of wide import, or to Christians generally,
and not to any one ])erson or cliurch. With
the exception of the Epistle to the Hebrews
and 1 John, they open, according to the
custom of the time, with the name or title
of the writer and that of the person or
church addressed, and then follow words of
greeting. The first thirteen begin with the
statement that the letter was sent by Paul,
or by him in conjunction with other Chris-
tian workers, as Sosthenes (1 Cor. i. 1), Tim-
othy (2 Cor. i. 1 ; Phil. i. 1 ; (,^ol. i. 1 : Phile.
1), or Silvanus and Timothy together (1 Thes.

Er

207

Esar-haddon

i. 1 ; 2 Thes. i. 1). Paul as a rule euii)l(>ye(l
an ajiiaiiucnsis to write from his tlii-tation
(Kuiu. xsi. 2'2), the apustlc adding the .saluta-
tion in his own haud, whieh he s;iys was the
token iu every epistle (1 (.'or. xvi. 21 ; Col.
iv. ly; 2 Thes! iii. 17). In the case of the
Epistle to the Galatians, however, he departed
from his rule, and wrote the whole letter
with his own hand ((Jal. vi. 11). Three of
the lettei-s which are addressed to individ-
uals are frequently called pastoral epistles,
namely, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus. They
contain directions for the training and gov-
erning of churches and the proper treat-
ment of individual members. Of the five
general epistles one bears the name of James,
two that of Peter, and one that of Jude. The
first general epistle of John is anonymous,
while the two letters which follow have for
their wHter one calling himself "the elder"
(2 John 1 ; 3 John 1). The epistles were writ-
ten at first in reply to letters previously re-
ceived, or were based on verbal information
which had come from some quarter as to
matter requiring attention iu auy particular
church (1 Cor. i. 11 ; 1 Thes. iii. 5, 6). But
they are adapted to other persons in like cir-
cumstances ; Paul requested that certain of
his epistles be read by others than by those
only to whom they are addressed (Col. iv.
IG). The apostles claimed that thev are the
word of God (1 Thes. ii. 13 : 1 Pet. i.' 12), and
from the beginning they ranked with the
other Scriptures. Peter in a. D. 68 spoke of
Paul's epistles as part of the Scriptures (2
Pet. iii. 1.5, 16), and Polycarp iu a. d. 11.5
quoted the Psalms and Ephesians side by side
as equally Scripture. See Caxox. The titles
of the epistles were not part of the original
composition. They were prefixed afterwards,
and are no part of Scripture. ^lost of them
are founded on the fnrst verse of the epistle,
and are accurate ; but that prefixed to the
epistle to the Hebrews is not derived from
the letter itself, and is of doubtful accuracy.
The notices appended as to the place where
the epistle was penned were also no part of
the original composition, and some of them
are inaccurate.
Er [awake, on the watch].

1. A son of .Tudah who died in Canaan by
a judgment of God for his wickedness (Gen.
xxxviii. 1-7; xlvi. 12: 1 Chron. ii. 3).

2. A descendant of Judah, of the family
of Shelah (1 Chron. iv. 21).

3. An ancestor of Christ, about midway be-
tween David and Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 28).

E'ran [watchful].

A descendant of Ephraim through Shuthe-
lah. and founder of a tribal family (Num.
xxvi. .36).

E-ras'tus [beloved].

1. A Christian, one of those who ministered
to Paul. He was sent with Timothy from
Ephesus into Macedonia just before the riot
at the former place (Acts xix. 22). He is

I>robal)ly the person mentioned in 2 Tim. iv.

20 as having abode at Corinth.

2. A Christian iu high official position,
chamberlain of the city of Corinth, who
joined with Paul in sending salutations to
the Roman converts (Kom. xvi. 23).

E'rech [Assyrian Uruk and Arku].

A city of .^hinar or Lower Babylonia, one
of those constituting jiart of Ninirod's king-
dom (Gen. X. 1(1). It is now rejireseuted by
the mounds of Warka, a considerable dis-
tance south of Babylon, on a nuirshy region,
east of the Euphrates. The extreme ;in-
tiquity of the city has been established by
the Babylonian inscriptions. Archevites were
settled iu Samaria by Asnapper (Ezra iv. 9).

E'ri [watching].

A sou of Gad and founder of a tribal family
(Gen. xlvi. 16 ; Num. xxvi. 16).

E-sa'ias. See Isaiah.

E-sar-had'don [A.shur hath given broth-
ers] .

The favorite, though not the eldest, son of
Sennacherib, king of Assyria. The partiality
so annoyed two other brothers, Adrammelech
and Nergalsharezer, that they assassinated
their father, escaping afterwards into Ar-
menia (2 Kin. xix. 36, 37: 2 Chron. xxxii.

21 ; Is. xxxvii. 37, 38). When this ba.se mur-
der was perpetrated. Esar-haddon was him-
self conducting a campaign in the northwest,
probably iu Armenia. On receiving news of
the event, he at once started with his anny
for Nineveh, but was met on the way by the
rebel forces. The confederates were, however,
defeated, and Esar-haddon was able to ascend
the throne of Assyria on the 8th of Nisan,
680 B. c. The partiality of the father had
not been mi.splaced. Esar-haddon was equally
eminent as a military general and a political
ruler. In his first y?ar he defeated the son
of Merodach-baladan in southern Babj-lonia.
Later he commenced the restoration of the
city of Babylon which Sennacherib, iirovoked
by its continual revolts against the Assyrian
domination, had given up to plunder. Esar-
haddon also waged war against the Cim-
merian barbarians who had descended upon
the more civilized south from beyond the
Caucasus ; against the mountaineers of Cilicia,
and against the children of Eden who were
in Telassar (cp. Is. xxxvii. 12). In his fourth
year he captured and pillaged Sidon. deported
its inhabitants, razed the city to the ground,
and erected a new town on the old site. Its
king had escaped by sea, but he was pursued,
taken, and beheaded. The same fate befell
his two royal allies. Afterwards twelve tribes
on the mainland and ten in Cyprus submitted
to the Assyrian dominion. Among others
were Manasseh, king of Judah, and the kings
of Edom, Moab, Amnion, Gaza. Ashkelon,
Ekron. aud Ashdod. Esar-haddon success-
fully accomplished two most difficult mili-
tary enterprises, the penetration of the Ara-
bian desert aud of far off Media. He turned

Esau

208

Eshtemoa

his attentioa to a yet greater undertaking,
the conquest of Egypt, but he was for a time
diverted, being compelled in his eighth year
to war with a tribe at the head of the Persian
Gulf and near Ur. At length in his tenth
year his great expedition against Egypt took
place. Marching past Tyre, he left the city
under siege. He entered Egypt, captured
Memphis, and laid the entire country and its
petty kings at his feet. He divided all the
valley of the Nile from Thebes to the Medi-
terranean into twenty satrapies, over the less
important of which he set governors of na-
tive descent, while over those which Avere
important he placed Assyrian governors. It
is highly creditable to Esar-haddon that, when
he found himself conqueror of Egypt, he had
the wisdom to act in a conciliatory manner
to the vanquished. He died (J69 or 668 B. c,
leaving his eldest son, Ashurbanipal, who for
a short time previously had been associated
with him in the government, to ascend the
throne.

E'sau [hairy].

Son of Isaac and Rebekah, and elder twin
brother of Jacob. Esau was so named be-
cau.se he was all over like an hairy garment
(Gen. XXV. 21-26). As he grew up he became
a skillful hunter, and was accustomed to bring
home venison, doubtless the flesh of various
antelopes, to his father Isaac. On one occa-
sion he returned from the chase famishing,
and asked for some red pottage which Jacob
had just made ready. Jacob asked from him
the surrender of his birthright as payment;
and Esau, esteeming the higher blessings
lightly, and caring more for present gratifica-
tion, sold his birthright rather than wait for
the preparation of food. From the red pot-
tage, which was its price, Esau obtained a
second name, Edom, i. e. Red (27-34 ; Heb.
xii. 16, 17). When he was 40 years old he
married two wives, Judith or Oholibamah and
Basemath or Adah, both Hittites (Gen. xxvi.
34, 35; xxxvi. 1, 2). Afterwards he wedded
Mahalath, called also Basemath, the daugh-
ter of Ishmael (xxviii. 9 ; xxxvi. 3). When
Isaac was old and nearly blind, he designed
to confer the covenanted blessing on Esaji,
who was his favorite son. But Jacob was
Eebekah's favorite, and she induced him to
personate Esau and fraudulently obtain the
blessing. Esau resolved to kill his selfish
brother, but did not like to carry out the
murder while his father was living (xxvii.
1-41). To give time for this anger to cool,
Jacob fled to Mesopotamia, and for twenty
years was an exile (xxvii. 42-xxxi. 55). On
his return he took means to appease his
justly ofiended brother; and Esau, who was
of a generous nature, dismissed his vindictive
feeling, and gave Jacob a fraternal reception
(xxxii. 3-xxxiii. 15). Prior to this Esau had
taken up his abode in mount Seir, to which
he at once returned (16). The reconciliation
between the brothers was permanent, and

both met to bury their father (xxxv. 29).
Esau's descendants increased and ultimately
disposse,s.sed the original inhabitants of mount
Seir and became the Edomite people (Deut.
ii. 4, 12, 22). Mount Seir could, accordingly,
be called the mount of Esau (Obad. 8, 9, 19,
21). For the election of Jacob to be the
child of promise and the rejection of Esau,
see Gen. xxv. 23 ; Mai. i. 2, 3 ; Rom. ix. 12, 13.

Es'dras.

The Greek form of Ezra. It is used in the
Septuagint and the Apocrypha, but does not
occur in the canonical Scriptures. See Apoc-
rypha.

E'sek [contention].

A well dug l)y Isaac in the valley of Gerar,
which the Philistine herdmen claimed (Gen.
xxvi. 20).

E'shan, in A. V. Eshean [support].

A village in the mountains of Judah,
grouped with Dumah and Hebi-on (Josh.
XV. 52). Septuagint has Soma ; hence it may
be identical with the ruin es-Simia, near
Dumah, and about 8i miles southwest by
south of Hebron.

Esh'ba-al. See Lshbosheth.

Esh'ban [reason, intelligence].
A son of Dishon, descended from Seir the
Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 26 ; 1 Chron. i. 41).

Esh'col [a cluster; specially of grapes].

1. One of three Amorite brothers, residing
near Hebron and confederate with Abram
(Gen. xiv. 13, 24).

2. A valley near, probably north of, Hebron
(Num. xiii. 22, 23; Deut. i. 24). The region
round about Hebron is celebrated for its large
clusters of luscious grapes. It is uncertain
whether the valley bore this name before the
time of Moses or not. At any rate the name
henceforth suggested to the Israelites the
spot where the spies, whom Moses had sent
to spy out the land, cut the famous cluster
which two of them carried suspended on a
pole between them to save from being dashed
and broken (Num. xiii. 24).

E'she-an. See Eshan.

E'shek [violence, oppression].

A Benjamite, a descendant of Saul (1 Chron.
viii. 39).

Esh'ka-lon-ite. See Ashkelonite.

Esh'ta-ol [perhaps petition].

A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh. xv.
33), eventually allotted to the Danites (xix.
41). It is commonly mentioned in connec-
tion with Zorah (Judg. xiii. 25 ; xvi. 31 ; xviii.
2, 8, 11 ; 1 Chron. ii. 53). It has been iden-
tified as the village of Eshu'a, about Ii miles
east by north from Zorah, and 13 miles west,
slightly north from Jerusalem.

Esh'ta-ul-ite, in R. V. Eshtaolite.

An inhabitant of Eshtaol (1 Chron. ii. 53).

Esh-te-mo'a, once Eshtemoh (Josh. xv.
50) [obedience].

Esliton

209

Esther

1. A town ill the hill couutry of Judah,
given with its suhiirbs to the i)riests (Josh.
XV. 50 : xxi. 14 ; 1 Chroii. vi. 57). David sent
it some of the si)oils obtained on the recap-
ture of Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. 28). The site
has been found at Heniu"a, 9 miles south of
Hebron, a considerable village with the foim-
datioii of ancient walls designed for a large

tOWD.

•2. A Maacathite, sou of Hodiah (1 Chron.
iv. 10, R. v.).

Esh'ton [i)ossiblj' uxorious].

A descendant of Chelub, reckoned in the
genealogy of Judah (1 Chrou. iv. 12).

Es'li [perhaps from Hebrew 'esli, at my
side (is God)].

An ancestor of Christ who lived after the
captivity (Luke iii. 25).

Es'rom. See Hezkon.

Es-senes'.

An order of men among the Jews in the
time of Christ, who numbered about 4000,
and devoted themselves to a more or less
ascetic life. Hopiug by isolation to escape
ceremonial detileraent, they formed colonies
by themselves. The wilderness of Judsea
near En-gedi was a favorite place for their
settlements, but there were colonies in va-
rious towns of Judfea also. Each colony had
its own synagogue, a common hall for meals
aud assemblies, and provision for daily bath-
ing in running water. Whoever became a
member of the order gave up all that he pos-
sessed to it. They read the law of Moses
daily and nightly, and endeavored to regu-
late their lives in every detail according to
it. Their habits were simple. Their food
and clothing were plain. They passed the
day in husbandry and other useful industry.
Money was almost unnecessary, as they sup-
plied their needs by their own labor; and
when they traveled, they found lodging and
food free of cost among their brethren. They
had no slaves, as they recognized no distinc-
tion between men save that of clean and un-
clean. They did not deny the fitness of mar-
riage ; but they abstained from wedlock, ex-
cept one party among them. Their morality
was lofty. They promised "to honor God, to
be righteous toward man, to injure no one,
either at the bidding of another or of their
own accord, to hate evil, to promote good, to
be faithful to every one, especially those in
authority, to love the truth, to unmask liars,
and to keep the hand from theft and the
conscience from unrighteous gain " (Antiq.
xviii. 1. 5 ; War ii. 8, 2-13).

Es'ther [from Persian sUareh, star].

A beautiful maiden whose Hebrew name
was H''dassah, myrtle. Early left an orphan,
she was brought up at Susa, the Persian
metropolis, by Mordecai, her cousin, who
adopted her. The despotic Ahasuerus, i. e.
Xerxes, king of Persia, was angered by the
refusal of his queen to do at his bidding an
14

immodest act at a great banquet, and on the
advice of his sycophantic courtiers divorced
her. But his advisers were afraid that the
monarch would repent of the step he had
taken, and call them to account for their
prominent i)art in the catastrojihe. They
advised him to make choice of a fair maiden
to succeed the divorced queen, and after
many had been introduced to him, Esther
was preferred to them all, and duly installed
in the palace as the queen consort. It was
not known at the time that she was a Jewess.
She came to the throne at a critical time. The
royal favorite was Hainan. Five years after
Esther's elevation (Esth. ii. 16 ; iii. 7), Haman,
annoyed by Mordecai's refusal to do him obei-
sance, wished to revenge himself by the mass-
acre, not simply of Mordecai, but of all the
large Jewish population scattered throughout
the empire. He cast Pur, or lot, to discover
a favorable day to jiresent the matter to the
king or for executing the murderous design.
The lot fell on the 13th day of Adar. He se-
cured the king's consent by the offer of a heavy
bribe (Esth. ii. 5-iii. 15). Mordecai urged
Esther to interfere for the protection of her
race. She was afraid ; but, on being sol-
emnly addressed by her guardian, she, after
fasting and prayer, risked her life by reveal-
ing to the monarch who doted upon her that
she was one of the hated race. The king
also discovered that Mordecai the Jew had
made known a plot against the monarch's life.
Ahasuerus ordered that Haman be hanged,
exalted ^Mordecai to high honors, and per-
mitted the Jews to defend themselves, and
even to take the ofl'ensive against their foes.
The time and manner of Esther's death are
unknown.

The Book of Esther is the last of the his-
torical books of the O. T. In the Hebrew
canon it stands among the Hagiographa ;
formerly, according to the Talmud, between
Daniel and Ezra, but now just after Ec-
clesiastes and immediately before Daniel.
This latter position is due to its being grouped
with four other rolls which were used on five
solemn anniversaries. The last of these an-
niversaries is Purim, hence Esther has been
placed last among the Five Polls. Long after
the completion of the canon, the right of
Esther to its place in that canon was called
in question by the Jews, probably, however,
not seriously, but to afl'ord opportunity for
intellectual display in its defense. The Jews
now regard it with special honor. Christians
have been more divided on the subject of its
merits. Melito of Sardis and Gregory of
Nazianzus omitted it from their lists of
canonical books ; Athanasius classed it with
non-canonical books, and Luther denounced
it. Opposition to it was based mainly on the
fact that the name of God does not occur in
it even once. But iv. 14 implies the existence
of Providence ; iv. 16 recognizes fasting as a
religious practice, and ix. 31 not merely fast-
ing, but a cry or prayer. The great lesson

Etam

210

Ether

of the book is, iu fact, the ovcrniliiii; power
of Providence. Tiiere is undesi^iuHl coin-
cidence between the Book of Esther and the
classic writers. Xerxes was passionate, ef-
feminate, capricious, and cruel, and easily
swayed by his courtiers (Herod, vii. 35, 37;
ix. 107). The feast which led to Vashti's di-
vorce occurred in the third year of the king's
reign (Esth. i. 3), while her successor, Esther,
was not appointed till the seventh year (ii. 16).
During the interval the disastrous expedi-
tion of the king to Greece took place, during
which the battles of Thermopylse and Salamis
were fought, 480 B. c. Herodotus (vii. 7,
etc.) tells that Xerxes convoked a great as-
sembly in his third year to prepare for the
Greek war (ix. 108), and in his seventh tried
to forget his defeat in the pleasures of the
harem. The most potent argument for the
historical character of the incidents desci-ibed
iu Esther is the fact that the feast of Purim,
instituted to commemorate them (Esth. ix.
2()), is still observed. Had they never oc-
curred it would have been difficult to get
the feast established. So early as the Second
Book of the Maccabees, the feast is referred
to as the day of Mordecai (xv. 36). The lan-
guage is Hebrew, like that of Ezra and Ne-
hemiah, but with more Persian words. From
X. 2 it would seem that Xerxes was dead
when it was penned. Its date is generally
fixed about 425 B. C, forty years after his
assassination, or at least iu the reign of Arta-
xerxes, 465-425 ; aud there is no valid reason to
date it later. The Book of Esther is neither
quoted from nor alluded to in the N. T.
Certain apocryphal additions to Esther ap-
pear in the Septuagint. Jerome separated
them from the other portion of the work, and
they now tiud place in the apocrypha.

E'tam [place of beasts of prey].

1. A village on the border of the south
country and the lowland, transferred from
Judah to Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 32; cp. Josh.
XV. 32 aud 42). In the cleft of a rock in its
immediate vicinity Samson dwelt for a time
(Judg. XV. 8, 11). He had gone down to it
from Timnah. Conder fixes it at Beit 'Atab,
5 miles S. E. by E. of Zorah ; most others at
'Aitun, about 11 miles W. S. W. of Hebron.

2. A towu in the neighborhood of Bethle-
hem, fortified by Rehoboam for the defense
of Judah after the secession of the ten tribes
(1 Chrou. iv. 3 ; 2 Chron. xi. 6 ; and Josh. xv.
60 in Septuagint). According to the Talmud,
the temple of Jerusalem was supplied with
water conducted from the spring of Etam,
and an ancient aqueduct extends for 7 miles
from the temple hill, past Bethlehem, to
three pools, the lowest of which is fed by a
neighboring spring, situated on the south,
called 'Ain 'Atan. Josephus relates that Solo-
mon was fond of driving out iu the early
morning to Etan (written also Etam), distant
2 schoiuoi or 7 miles from Jerusalem, where
there was a delightful prospect of gardens

and rivulets (Antiq. viii. 7, 3 ; cp. Song vi.
11, 12; Eccl. ii. 5, 6). Here, then, at 'Ain
'Atan, near the village of Urtas and about 2
miles southwest of Bethlehem, was the site
of Etam. The three reservoirs were discov-
ered by pilgrims at quite a late date and
named the pools of Solomon. The aqueduct
is ancient, antedating the Christian era aud
the Roman period. Pontius Pilate probably
used it as the last section of the great couduit
which he uudertook to build for the purpose
of bringing water to Jerusalem from a dis-
tance of 200 stadia or 23 miles (Autiq. xviii.
3, 2 ; or 400 stadia, War ii. 9, 4). Another
section extends from the three pools to the
wady el-'Arrub near Hebron, and a third
reaches a few miles southward from the
pools to the wady el-Biar.

E'tham [perhaps boundary].

The first encampment of the Israelites
after leaving Succoth, as they were depart-
ing from Egypt. It was ou the edge of the
wilderness (Ex. xiii. 20 ; Num. xxxiii. 6). It
apparently did not lie on the direct road
from Egypt to the Philistine country (Ex.
xiii. 17). The name was extended to a por-
tion of the wilderness of Shur, requiring at
least three days to cross it, aud apparently
reaching to or even including Marah (Num.
xxxiii. 8; cp. Ex. xv. 22). Identifications
have been proposed, but are all conjectural.

E'than [firmness, perpetuity].

1. A descendant of Judah, of the house of
Zerah, family of Perez (1 Chron. ii. 6). He
seems to have been the person of this name
who was celebrated for his wisdom (1 Kin.
iv. 31; Ps. Ixxxix., title).

2. A Levite, of the family of Gershom,
house of Libui (1 Chron. vi. 42, 43; cp. 20
aud Num. xxvi. 58).

3. A Levite, of the family of Merari, house
of Mushi. He was a son of Kishi or Ku-
shaiah, aud was appointed a singer in the
time of David (1 Chron. vi. 44, 47; xv. 17,
19). His name, it appears, was changed to
Jeduthun, praising one, after his appoint-
ment to service in the tabernacle at Gibeon
(1 Chron. xvi. 38-41 ; cp. xv. 17, 19 with

XXV. 1).

Eth'a-nim [incessant rains].

The seventh mouth (1 Kin. viii. 2), called
also Tishri. It was approximately October.
Within it fell the feast of trumpets, the
great day of atonement, and the feast of
tabernacles. See Year.

Eth'ba-al [with Baal, or, to judge from
the Greek form, with him is Baal].

A king of the Tyrians and Sidonians, aud
father of Jezebel (1 Kin. xvi. 31 ; Antiq. viii.
13, 1 and 2 ; ix. 6, 6). He was priest of Ashto-
reth, but slew his brother and seized the
throue (contra Apion. i. 18).

E'ther [abundance].

A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 42), but allotted to the tribe of Simeon

Ethiopia

211

Euphrates

(xix. 7). It is called Tocheii in 1 C'hron. iv.
32. The best suggestitm as to its site is the
ruiiK'd villa.u'c of "Atr, about a mile uorth-
•\vost liy iicirlh of Beit Jibriii.

E-thi-o'pi-a [Cinck Aithiopia, suiil)urnt.
Possibly, however, this may have been sul)-
stituted for the E£:yi)tian Ethanxh, Ethiopia,
with whieh it nearly aj^rees in sound].

1. A country ealled in the Hebrew language
Cush. which is continually nieulioned in cou-
Dection with Egypt (Ps. Ixviii. ',il ; Is. xx. 3-5 ;
Ezek. XXX. 4. 5 ; Dan. xi. 43; Nah. iii. 9) and
sometimes with Libya or the Libyans (2 Cliron.
xvi. iS; Ezek. xxx. 5; xxxviii. 5; Dan. xi.
43 ; Nah. iii. 9), and must certainly have been
iu eastern Africa. It ran southward from
Syene, the southern point of Egypt (Ezek.
xxix. 10. R. V. margin ; cp. Judith i. 10). It
was manifestly the ujiper region of the Nile,
the Soudan, Nubia with Kordofan, Seunaar,
and northern Abyssinia, a region iu large
measure desert, though in jilaces fertile. This
general region was known to the Egyptians
as Kes. The rivers of Ethiojiia (Is. xviii. 1 ;
Zeph. iii. 10) were probably the White and
Blue Niles, with the Atbara or Tacazze. The
topazes of Elhiojiia were celebrated (Job
xxviii. 19). Its inhabitants were tall (Is.
xlv. 14). They were colored men. probably
black (Jer. xiii. 23). They engaged in mer-
cantile transactions, selling the productions
of their country in foreign lands (Is. xlv. 14),
and as a consequence became wealthy (xliii.
3). When the Ethiopians, led by Zerah, in-
vaded Judah, they were signally defeated by
king Asa (2 C'hron. xlv. 9-15; xvi. 8). An
Ethiopian dynasty, the tw-enty-fifth, estab-
lished itself in Egypt ; to it belonged that
Tirhakah who met Sennacherib in battle at
Eltekeh (2 Kin. xix. 9; Is. xxxvii. 9). Isaiah
(xx. 1-6) and Zephaniah (ii. 12) prophesied
against the Ethiopians, while the psalmist
predicted that Ethi(jpia would haste to stretch
out her hands unto God (Ps. Ixviii. 31 ; cp.
Ixxxvii. 4). The prophecy obtained fulfill-
ment in the conversion of the Ethiopian
eunuch (Acts viii. 26-40) and the introduc-
tion of the gospel into Abyssinia, which still
remains a Christian kingdom.

2. There was an Asiatic as well as an Afri-
can Cush. See Cush 1 and 2.

Eth-ka'zin, in A. V. It-tah-ka'zin, with
the case-ending.

A jdace on the boundary line of Zebulun
(Josh. xix. 13).

Eth'nan [gift, hire].

A man of Judah, family of Hczron (1
Chron. iv. 7 ; cp. 5 and ii. 24).

Eth'ni [bountiful, munificent].

A Gershonite Levite (1 Chron. vi. 41). In
ver. 21 he is called Jeatherai. The main
difference is found iu the last consonant. A
scribe seems to have confounded the Hebrew
letters nun and resh.

Eu-bu'lus [well advised, prudent].

A Roman Christian (2 Tim. iv. 21).

Eu'me-nes [well dispo.sed].

King of Pergamos, 197-159 B. c. When the
Romans defeated Antioclius the (Jreat at
JIagnesia in 190 h. c, they assigned the
greater i)art of the defeated king's realm
north of the Taurus mountains to Eumenes in
return for the services wliich he had ren-
dered them (1 Mac. viii. 6-8; Livy xxxvii.
41). Tiiey Ix'stowed Lyeia and ('aria on the
RluKlians. The report, which Judas .Macca-
bieus heard, that the Romans had taken India
and Media also was not true.

Eu-ni'ce [blessed with victory].

A iiious Jewess, mother of Timothy (Acts
xvi. 1 : 2 Tim. i. 5).

Eu'nuch [having the couch].

Properly a chamberlain ; but in the East
persons who had been rendered impotent
were employed for this office, hence an im-
potent man (Is. hi. 3; Mat. xix. 12). There
is scarcely a doul)t that the word is used
in this sense throughout Scripture, even when
it is rendered into English by some other
term. There have been, and still are, mar-
ried eunuchs (Gen. xxxix. 1, rendered f)fficer,
and 7). Eunuchs often obtained high posi-
tion and great authority. The captain of
the guard of Pharaoh and liis chief butler
and his chief baker were eunuchs (Gen.
xxxvii. 36 ; xl. 2, 7, translated officer). Eu-
nuchs ministered at the court of liabylon
(Dan. i. 3). They served in the i>resence of
the Persian king, and acted as doorkeepers
of his palace (Esth. i. 10; ii. 21) ; a eunuch
was over his harem (ii. 3, 14), and a eunuch
was dcjiuted to attend his queen (iv. 5). They
served also at the court of Ahab and his son
Jehoram, and they waited ujion Jezebel (1
Kin. xxii. 9; 2 Kin. viii. 6; ix. 32). Even
ill Judah. although eunuchs were legally ex-
cluded from the congregation of the Lord
(Deut.xxiii. 1), they were employed at David's
court (1 Chron. xxviii. 1), and, in the last
days of the monarchy, at the degenerate
court of the successors of Josiah (2 Kin.
xxiv. 15 with Jer. xxix. 2 ; 2 Kin. xxv. 19).
The eunuchs in Judah were probably in most,
if not in all, cases foreigners (Jer. xxxviii. 7).
The cupbearer of Herod the Great was a eu-
nuch, as were also the official who brought
him his food and the one who assisted him to
bed ; and his favorite wife Mariamne was
served by a eunuch (Antiq. xv. 7, 4; xvi.
8, 1). A eunuch was over the treasure of
queen Candace of Ethiopia, and he was ad-
mitted to baptism (Acts viii. 27, 37 ; cp. Is.
hi. 3).

Eu-o'di-a, in A. V. Euodias [fragrance].

A Christian woman at Philippi blemished
by bickering with Syntyche (Phil. iv. 2).

Eu-phra'tes [Greek modification of the
Hebrew P'rath, which is variously explained
as meaning sweet or broad or with good fords] .

One of the great rivers of western Asia
and the world. It is formed by thejunctioi*
of two streams : the Murad, rising in Armenia,

Eupolemus

212

Eve

between lake Van and mount Ararat, being
the more easterly ; and the Frat or Kara,
rising about 40 miles northeast of Erzeroum,
the more westerly. Sometimes the name Frat,
cognate with the Hehvew P^rath, is applied to
both of these streams. They run in a westerly
direction to about latitude 39° N., and longi-
tude 39° E., after which the combined waters
turn southward, break through the southern
chain of the Taurus mountains, and at various
places are not more than 50 miles from the
Mediterranean. Then the river bends south-
eastward, constituting the western boundary
of Mesopotamia. About latitude 31° N., lon-
gitude 47° E., the Tigris unites with the Eu-
phrates, to constitute what is now called the
Shat el-Arab, which, after a course of about
90 miles more, falls into tlie Persian Gulf.
The whole length of the Euphrates is about
1800 miles. It was one of the rivers of
Paradise (Gen. ii. 14). It was familiarly
known to the Hebrews as " the great river "
or simply "the river." It formed the limit
in the northeasterly direction of the Hebrew
dominion when its extension was at the
greatest (sv. 18; cp. 2 Sam. viii. 3 ; 1 Chron.
xviii. 3; 1 Kin. iv. 21, 24). It was a bound-
ary between east and west, between Egypt
and Assyria-Bal)ylonia, each power de.siring
to possess the country between the brook of
Egypt and the Euphrates. In the Persian
period also it separated east from west (Ezra
iv. 10, 11 ; v. 3; vi. 6; Neh. ii. 7). It was a
boundary of the Seleucidan kingdom (1 Mac.
iii. 32 ; vii. 8), and it was regarded as the
eastern limit of the Roman empire. The
greatest city on its banks was Babylon.
Another important place was the old Hittite
capital Carchemish, the scene of various bat-
tles, especially of one between the Baby-
lonians and the Egyptians, the latter led by
Pharaoh-necho (Jer. xlvi. 2). In the book
of Eevelation certain angels are described
as being "bound in the great river Euphra-
tes" (Eev. ix. 14), and the sixth vial was poured
out upon the Euphrates itself (xvi. 12).

Eu-pol'e-mus [good at war].

Son of that .lohu who obtained special priv-
ileges for the Jews from Antiochus the Great
(1 Mac. viii. 17; 2 Mac. iv. 11). Eupolemus
was one of two ambassadors sent by Judas
MaccabjEUs to Rome to make a treaty with
the Romans. Some think that he is the Jew-
ish historical writer Eupolemus whom Alex-
ander Polyhistor quotes so frequently.

Eu-ra'qui-lo [from Greek euvaJcuIoti, the
northeast wind].

A tempestuous northeast wind which blows
over the Mediterranean (Acts xxvii. 14; in
A. V. Euroclydon). The wind from that
quarter, now called Gregali, blows generally
in early spring, and is the most violent wind
on the Mediterranean. It is sometimes termed
a Levanter.

Eu-roc'ly-don [from Greek eurokludon, per-
haps a wind from the southeast or east] .

A tempestuous wind which blows from the
southeast or the east. It brought the vessel
in which Paul was sailing toward Rome
first into danger, and then to shipwreck
(Acts xxvii. 14, A. Y.). But the revisers
prefer the reading Eiirakuluti, which is in
some manu.scripts, and render Euraquilo.

Eu'ty-chus [fortunate].

A young man of Troas, who, falling asleep
while Paul was preaching there, fell from
the tliird loft or floor. He was taken up
dead, but was miraculously restored to life
by the apo.stle (Acts xx. 9, 10).

E-van'gel-ist [from Greek euaggelistes, a
mes.seuger of good tidings].

An order of men in the primitive church
distinct from apostles, prophets, pastors, and
teachers (Eph. iv. 11). Their name implied
that their special function was to announce
the glad tidings of the gospel to those before
ignorant of them, and as they were not
pastors of particular churches, they were
able to go from place to place preaching to
those who as yet were without the Christian
pale. Philip, who was the means of convert-
ing and baptizing the Ethiopian eunuch, was
an evangelist (Acts xxi. 8), and we find him
successively at Jerusalem (vi. 5), in Samaria
(viii. 5), on the road between Jerusalem and
Gaza (26), in the cities north of Ashdod (40),
and finally at Csesarea (40 ; xxi. 8). Timothy
was also commanded by Paul to do the work
of an evangelist (2 Tim. iv.5). Atalaterdate
the name was given to the writers of the four
gospels.

Eve [life].

The name given by Adam to the first wo-
man because she was the mother of all living
(Gen. iii. 20). Soon after his creation, she was
brought into being to be a help meet for him
(21, 22). The narrative has been variously
interpreted as meaning that — 1. Woman was
formed from the rib of man, Adam being in
a trance and beholding the operation, but
feeling nothing ; 2. Woman was not actually
formed from man's rib, but Adam had a
vision by which he was taught his oneness
of nature with woman and her rights and
privileges ; 3. Woman's relation to man is
set forth in allegory. From a literary point
of view the third explanation is unlikely.
It is utterly improbalile that the writer in-
tended to insert an allegory in the midst of
historical narrative which includes the crea-
tion of the universe, the creation of man,
and the flood. The two human beings were
placed in the garden of Eden ; and in order
to test their obedience, they were forbid-
den to touch or taste the fruit of one par-
ticular tree. Some time afterwards the ser-
pent under Satanic aid and guidance in-
duced Eve first to entertain unjust suspicions
of God, and then to eat the forbidden fruit.
She afterwards persuaded Adam to eat, who
thus shared her guilt. The result was the
fall of man (iii. 1-24 ; 2 Cor. xi. 3 ; 1 Tim. ii.

Evi

213

Exodus

VS). After the expulsion of the guilty pair
from the gardeu, Eve successively became the
mother of Cain, Abel, Seth, with other sons
anil also daughters (Gen. iv. 1, 2, 25, 26; v.
1-5).
E'vi.

One of the tive kings of Midiau, allies or
vassals of Silion, slain in the war waged by
Moses against the Midianites because they
seduced the Israelites to licentious idolatry
(Num. xxxi. 8; Josh. xiii. 21).
E'vil.

The origin of evil is a problem which has
perplexed speculative minds in all ages and
countries. God is not the author of sin, but
he permits it. He has permitted it, because
the revelation of his infinite perfection is the
highest conceivable good and the ultimate
end of all his works, and there could be no
manifestation of certain of his attributes if
sin were not permitted. Were there no
misery, there could be no mercy shown by
God ; and there could be no revelation of his
grace and justice, if there were no sin (Eom.
ix. 22, 23). Sin is permitted that God's jus-
tice may be known in its punishment, and
his mercy in its forgiveness. Holiness and
sin may be nearly balanced on earth ; but in
the universe, sin is very limited in compari-
son with holiness, and the number of lost
men and angels is doubtless small compared
with the whole number of the rational crea-
tures of God.

E-vil-mer'o-dach [in Babylonian, Avil-
mnrdiik, man of god Merodach].

Son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar. He
ascended the throne as early as the seventh
month of 562 b. c, and reigned only two
years. In the first of these two he took
Jehoiachin, the captive king of Judah, from
his prison, and placed him above all the other
rulers whom he had in thrall, giving him a
dailv allowance of food during the remainder
of his life (2 Kin. xxv. 27-30 ; Jer. Hi. 31-34).
A conspiracy was formed against Evil-mero-
dach, his own brother-in-law, Neriglissar or
Nergalshiirusur, being at its head. The king
was accused of lawlessness and intemperance,
and was put to death in 560 B. c. Nerig-
lissar, the chief conspirator, then ascended
the throne (Antiq. x. 11, 2; contra Apion.
i. 20).
E'vil Spir'it. See Demon.
Ex-e-cu'tion-er. See Guard.
Ex'ile. See Captivity and Dispersion.
Ex'o-dus [a going out, a way out].
1. The dei)arture of the Israelites from
Egypt, after they had been divinely eman-
cipated from bondage in that land. There is
considerable ditficulty in settling the exact
route of the Exodus. The miracles by the
hand of Moses were wrought at Zoan, that is
Tanis (Ps. Ixxviii. 12), and Ramses was a
suburb of that capital. Thence the Israelites
journeyed to Succoth (Ex. xii. 37), the site of

which is marked by Tell el-Maskhutuh in
the wady Tumilat, .32 miles south-southeast
of Tanis and 11 miles west of Isma'iliya.
They did not take the shortest route to Pal-
estine, which lay through the land of the
Philistines, but they went by the way of the
wilderness by the Red Sea (xiii. 17, 18). Their
first encampment after leaving Succt)th was
Etham. The site has not been identified;
but it was on the edge of the wilderness
(20). Thence they turned back and en-
camped before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol
and the sea, before Baal-zeplion (xiv. 2; Num.
xxxiii. 7). This camp has not been definitely
located. It w'as, however, west of the Red
Sea. From this place they marched through
the Red Sea into the wilderness of Shur (Ex.
XV. 4, 22 ; Num. xxxiii. 8), and thence along
the coast of the Red Sea toward mount Sinai
(Ex. xvi. 1 ; Num. xxxiii. 10, 15). For the
date of the exodus, see Chronology.

2. The book of Exodus, the second book
of the Pentateuch. In the Hebrew Scriptures
the title consists of the opening words, '' And
these the names." The name Exodus was
appropriately given to the book by the Greek
translators, because it narrates the departure
from Egypt which was a turning point in
Israel's history.

The book is a continuous narrative, and
may be divided into three sections: 1. In
Egypt (i.-xii. 36). The period of several cen-
turies immediately following the descent of
Jacob into Egypt is passed over with a single
remark about the increase of the people after
the death of Joseph (i. 7). Oppression of the
Israelites (8 seq.). Birth, earlier life, and
call of Moses (ii.-iv.). Struggle with Pharoah
and infliction of the plagues ; in connection
with the last plague, institution of the pass-
over (v. -xii. 36). 2. From Egypt to Sinai
(xii. 37-xix. 2). Departure from Ramses (xii.
37-42). Supplementary regulation respect-
ing the passover, stating the condition upon
which foreigners could partake of it (43-51).
Sanctification of the fir,stborn enjoined upon
Moses (xiii. 1, 2) ; announcement to the people
of a seven days' festival to be observed hence-
forth in connection with the passover, and
of God's command to sanctify the firstborn
(3-16). Passage of the Red Sea (xiv.), song of
deliverance (xv. 1-19), bitter water at jNIarah,
manna and quails (20-xvi.). At Rex>hidim :
water from rock in Horeb, victory over Ama-
lek, and visit of .Tetliro (xvii., xviii.). 3. At
Sinai (xix. 3-xl. 38 and uninterruptedly to
Num. X. 10). Establishment of the theocracy:
theocratic covenant proposed by God on con-
dition of obedience (xix. .3-6), approval of
the terms by the elders of the people (7, 8),
the ten commandments and subsidiary laws
enacted and written in the book of the cove-
nant, ratification of the covenant (xx.-xxiv.
8) ; see Theocr.\cy. Manifestation of God's
glory (9-11). Moses in the mount; plan of
the tabernacle and its furniture, tables of
stone (12-xxxi.). The golden calf (xxxii.,

i^

Exorcist

214

Ezekiel

xxxiii. ). Moses' second sojourn in the mount,
with summarizing urgent repetition of cove-
nant laws (xxxiv.). Construction and erec-
tion of the tabernacle (xxxv.-xl.). See Pen-
tateuch.

Ex'or-clst [in Greek, administrator of an
oath ; expeller by adjuration].

One who professes by using words and
ceremonies to eject evil spirits, and deliver
from their malign influence. Certain im-
postors of this sort, vagabond Jews, were en-
countered by Paul at Ephesus (Acts xix.
13-19).

E'zar. See Ezer, II.

Ez'bal.

Father of one of David's mighty men (1
Chron. xi. 37, possibly merely a variant read-
ing of 2 Sam. xxiii. 35).

Ez'bon.

1. A sou of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16). See OzNi.

2. The head of a father's house, family of
Bela, tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. vii. 7).

Ez-e-ki'as. See Hkzekiah.

E-ze'ki-el [God doth strengthen ; or, per-
haps, God is strong].

One of the greater Jewish jirophets, a son
of Buzi, and of priestly family (Ezek. i. 3).
He was carried captive from Judah with Je-
hoiachin, eight years after Daniel's deporta-
tion (xxxiii. 21 ; xl. 1 ; cp. 2 Kin. xxiv. 11-
16). Jo.sephus says that he was a youth at
the time (Antiq. x. 6, 3). He was, in fact,
under the age when Levites assumed their
duties and were reckoned in the census as
men, but he was not a child. He lived with
the Jewish exiles on the river Chebar in
Babylonia, probably at Tel-abib (Ezek i. 1, 3 ;
iii. 15) ; had married probably as early as the
sixth, at least by the ninth, year of the cap-
tivity, and had a house (viii. 1 ; xxiv. 1, 18).
He had grown up in the home land under the
ministry of the prophet Jeremiah. His own
ministry began in the fifth year of Jehoia-
chin's captivity, seven years before the de-
struction of the temple at Jerusalem, while
he was dwelling on the Chebar (i. 1, 2). He
was then in his thirtieth year (i. 1), the age
at which Levites entered upon service (Num.
iv. 3). The theory that the thirtieth year
does not refer to Ezekiel's age, but is a date
reckoned either from the accession of Nabo-
polassar, Nebuchadnezzar's father, or from
the reforms of Josiah, fails in view of Jer.
XXV. 1, 3 ; 2 Kin. xxiii. 36 ; xxv. 6 ; Ezek. i. 2.
Ezekiel's prophetic activity extended over a
period of at least twenty-two years (i. 2 with
xxix. 17). He uttered his prophecies with
freedom, and was resorted to for advice by
the elders of the people (viii. i ; xiv. 1 ; xx. 1),
though his words were not followed as faith-
fully as could have been desired (xxxiii. 30-
33). The time and manner of his death are
unknown. The late tradition that he was
slain by a prince of the people because he
denounced idolatry is worthless.

The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel stands in
the English Bible between Lamentations and
Daniel. As these two books are placed among
the Hagiographa in the Hebrew canon, Eze-
kiel's place in the Hebrew Scriptures is be-
tween Jeremiah and Hosea. The prophecies
are arranged nearly, though not quite, in
chronological order, and they are dated ac-
cording to the years of Jehoiachin's captivity
in which they were delivered. The book
falls into three divisions :

I. Prophecies delivered before the capture
of Jerusalem, foretelling its overthrow for
its sins. In the fifth year the priest is called
to the prophetic oflice and prepared for his
work by a vision (i.-iii. 21), and then is di-
rected to prophesy, by symbolical actions
and their interpretation, the destruction of
the city (iii. 22-vii.). In the sixth year, are
denunciations of Judah for idolatry (viii.) ;
symbolical departure of Jehovah from the
temple because of its profanation (ix.-xi. 13) ;
comfort, the exiles are still God's people, he
will be a sanctuary to them (16), restore them
to the land of Israel (17), give those that re-
form their lives a new heart (18-21). Unbe-
lief and adherence to false prophets are the
reasons for Jehovah's forsaking his city (xii.-
xiv.) ; the event is certain (xv.-xvii.), but
the repentant shall enjoy's God's favor
(xviii.). Lamentation for the princes of
Israel (xix.). In the seventh year, it is proph-
esied that, because Jehovah's name has been
profaned in the sight of the heathen, he will
punish the people, but will afterwards restore
them for his name's sake (xx. 1-44) ; the
doom is certain, the transgressions are come
to remembrance before God (xx. 45-xxiii.).
In the ninth year, the siege of Jerusalem
and the dispersion of the people are symbol-
ized by a caldron (xxiv.).

II. Prophecies of judgment against the na-
tions: in the ninth year, against Ammon,
Moab, Edom, and Philistia (xxv.) ; in the
eleventh year, against Tyre and Sid on (xxvi.-
xxviii.) ; and in the tenth, twenty-seventh,
and eleventh years, against Egypt (xxix.-
xxxii.).

III. Prophecies concerning the restoration,
delivered after the capture and destruction
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. In the
twelfth year, the evening before the news
of the fall of the city reached the prophet,
he received a second formal call to the pro-
])hetic work (xxxiii. 1-22). He is further
taught that, after the judgment, the people
shall recognize that Jehovah is God, and that
a true prophet has been among them (23-33) ;
a good shepherd, even David, shall be raised
up (xxxiv.), their i)resent foes punished
(xxxv.), the people sanctified and restored to
their land (xxxvi.), revived as from the dead,
their twelve tribes re-united (xxxvii.), and
their foes finally overthrown (xxxviii.-
xxxix.). In the twent.v-fifth year, the rees-
tablishment of God's church is disclosed,
being symbolically exhibited in the vision

Ezel

215

Ezra

of the temple enlarged and holy throughout
(xl.-xliii.), its holy services (xliv.-xlvi.), the
river of life issuing from it and making
the desert to rejoice (xlvii.), and the distribu-
tion of the land among the tribes (xlviii.)-
There are no direct quotations from Ezekiel
in the N. T., but the imagery seen in his
visions aftects the language of the book of
Revelation.

E'zel [separation, departure].

The jiluce where Uavid hid until Jonathan
could inform him of Saul's disposition toward
him (1 Sam. xx. 19).

E'zem, in A. V. twice Azem [a bone].

A village near the border of Edom in that
part of the territory allotted to the tribe of
Judah, which was afterwards assigned to
Simeon (Josh. xv. 29 ; xix. 3 ; 1 Chron. iv. 29).
Exact site unknown.

E'zer, I., in A. V. once Ezax, an error not
fiiiiud in the original edition of 1611 [enclo-
sure, treasure].

A Horite tribe and its chieftain (Gen. xxxvi.
21, 30; 1 Chron. i. 38).

E'zer. II. [help].

1. A descendant, jirobably son, of Ephraira,
killed in a raid against the Philistines (1
Chron. vii. 21).

2. A man of Judah, descended from Hur
(1 Chron. iv. 4).

3. A Gadite who joined David at Ziklag
(1 Chron. xii. 9).

4. A son of Jeshua. He was ruler of Miz-
pah, and repaired part of the wall of Jerusa-
lem (Xeh. iii. 19).

5. A priest who took part in the ceremony
at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jeru-
s;ilem (xii. 42).

E'zi-on-ge'ber, in A. V. often Ezion-gaber
[biiekbone of a man].

A town on the Eed Sea, at the northern
end of the gulf of Akaba, near Elatli, on the
confines of Edom (Dent. ii. 8 ; 1 Kin. ix. 26;
xsii. 43 ; 2 Chron. viii. 17). The Israelites
encamped by the town as they journeyed in
the wilderness (Xum. xxxiii. 35). As Eobin-
son suggested, the name may linger in el-
Ghudyan, a small valley with brackish water
opening into the Arabah from the western
mountain some distance north of the fortress
of 'Akaba. the approximate site of ancient
Elath. The respective letters correspond in
Hebrew and Arabic.

Ez'nite. See Adino.

Ez'ra, in R. V. once Ezrah (1 Chron. iv.
17). the pure Hebrew orthography [help].

1. A man who is registered with Judah (1
Chron. iv. 17).

2. One of the chief priests who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 1,
7). A father's house bore his name in the
next generation (ver. 13).

3. A priest descended from Zadok and from
Phinehas (Ezra vii. 1-6). He was a ready
scribe in the law of Moses, making the writ-

ten law, which was in his hand (14), the sub-
ject of study and teaching (10, 11). In the
seventh year of Artaxerxes Longiman\is, king
of Persia from Aii'i to 42.5 B. c, he was com-
missioned by the king to go to Jerusalem to
inquire into the civil and religious condition
of the Jewish community and conform it to
the teaching of God's law (14). He was given
orders on the authorities in the province
Beyond-the-river for monej'' and goods for
the temple and for the exemption of the
temple ofhcials from taxation (21, 24). He
was permitted to lead a fresh company of
Jewish exiles to Palestine, in addition to
those who had accompanied Zerubbabel and
the high priest, Jeshua, nearly eighty years
before. In the seventh year of Artaxerxes'
reign, 459-458 B. c, on the first day of the first
month, Nisan (approximately March), he be-
gan his journey, accompanied by 1500 exiles
(vii. 9). On reviewing his followers at Ahava,
he found a total absence of Levites, but on
sending back for some, a few were persuaded
to accompany him to Palestine. After fast-
ing at Ahava, he again set out. reaching Je-
rusalem on the first of the fifth month, four
months after the departure from Babylon
(viii. 15-32). On his arrival, he gave over the
vessels he had received for the temple, offered
sacrifice, and presented the king's orders to
the neighboring governors (viii. 33-36). He
was grieved to discover that Jews of Palestine
had married heathen wives, even some of
the priests having done so ; but he took de-
cisive measures to compel them to observe
the Mosaic law on the subject, and induced
many to divorce their foreign wives (ix.,x.).
We know nothing of his movements for the
next thirteen years. After Nehemiah had
come to Jerusalem, and repaired its walls in
the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, Ezra took
the leading part in reading the law of Moses
to the colony (Neh. viii.). Ezra marks the
transition fi'om the prophets to the scribes.
For his relation to the law and to the O. T.
books, see Canon. Josephus states that Ezra
died about the time of the succession of Elia-
shib to the highpriesthood (Antiq. xi. 5, 5). He
was certainlj' for a while contemporary with
Eliashib (Neh. iii. 1 ; viii. 9).

The book of Ezra consists of two parts:
1. A narrative of the return of the Jews
from Babylonia under Zerubbabel in the year
538 B. c, the restoration of divine service,
and the erection of the temple in the face of
Samaritan opposition (i.-vi.). 2. An account
of the return of a second body of exiles
under Ezra in the year 459-458, and of Ezra's
energetic and successful measures to put a
stop to the marriage of Israelites with for-
eigners (vii.-x.). The hook is largely com-
posed of copies of public records and official
documents. The provincial documents and
history are written in Aramaic (iv. 8-vi. 18 ;
vii. 12-26) ; namely, copies of the letters sent
to the Persian kings by officials of the prov-
ince Beyond-the-river (iv. 8-16 ; V. 7-17; vi.

Ezra

216

Faith

6-12), the royal replies and decrees imposing
commands on these officials (iv. 17-22 ; vi.
3-5; and vii. 12-26, cp. 21, 24), and the brief
connecting history referring primarily to pro-
vincial atlairs (iv. 23-v. 5; vi. 1, 2, 13-18).
Aramaic had been for several centuries the
language of international commerce and di-
plomacy. The remainder of the book records
the proper domestic history of Judah, and is
vpritten in Hebrew. It includes the royal edict
issued in behalf of the Jews (i. 2-4), copies
of Jewish archives (ii. 1-67: viii. ; x. 18-44),
and the connecting history. It has been sup-
posed that the Aramaic narrative was writ-
ten by a contemporary of Zerubbabel and
eyewitness of the events described (cp. v. 4,
where the pronoun we is used) ; but, since
documents of the time of Artaxerxes are in-
serted (iv. 9-16; 17-22), the written narrative
cannot date earlier than Ezra's time, and the
pronoun we was employed in speaking of a
past generation because the writer felt his
identity with the Jewish people, past and
present, as in ix. 6-15 and Neh. ix. 29, 33.
Some would date the narrative even later ;
but see below.

At least a section of the book was written
by Ezra, beginning with vii. 27, for it is ex-
pressed in the first person. Ezra, therefore,
wrote history, and he may have compiled the
book which bears his name, for the narrative
closes during his lifetime. But why, it may
be asked, if Ezra compiled the book which
bears his name, are two passages in which
Ezra is prominent, namely the ten opening
verses of chapter vii. and the last chapter of
the book, which is inseparable from the pre-
ceding ninth chapter, not expressed in the
first person? The ten introductory verses
are primarily genealogical. The use of the
third person is natural. As the introduction
was begun in the third person, it is with
propriety concluded in the third person.
Parallel changes of person occur in the book
of Daniel, which is regarded as the work of
one author. As to the last chapter of the
book, it would seem that Ezra's record stop-
ped at the ninth chapter and the narrative
was concluded by another person, though not
unlikely he was a contemporary of Ezra and
acted under Ezra's authority, and was the
scribe who drew up the protocol of the pro-
ceedings and wrote down the official list of
the men who gave pledge (x. 18-44).

Some have supposed that those sections in
which the pronoun I is not used were in-
serted in Ezra's narrative by another editor,
whose hand is thought to be discernible in
Nehemiah and Chronicles also, and many
modern critics place the date of the sup-
posititious editor after 330 b. c. The argu-
ment rests ultimately upon the fact that the
books of Ezra and Nehemiah were reckoned
as one book in the Hebrew canon, and upon
the belief that the genealogies in the book
of Nehemiah are carried down until the time
of Alexander the Great ; hence Ezra and Ne-

hemiah must have been edited in the Grecian
period. Now it is a credible, but not a neces-
sary, supposition that the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah were combined and supplemented
by an editor. But apart from the possible
implication of the genealogies (see Nehe-
miah), there is no reason to suppose that this
hypothetical editor belonged to a younger
generation than Ezra and Nehemiah. His
supposed additions concern events in which
Ezra and Nehemiah were participants, and
the history is related as by an eyewitness (cp.
above and see Nehemiah). And assuming
that the books were not edited, and are en-
tirely distinct from each other in authorship
throughout, as they are confessedly in large
part, there was reason for reckoning them as
one. This reason is scarcely found in the
purpose to conform the number of books to
the number of letters in the Hebrew alpha-
bet, twenty-two, or, by peculiar computation,
twenty-four ; but the reason is found rather
in the fact that the books of Ezra and Nehe-
miah form a continuous narrative of post-
exilic Jewish history, and are concerned with
the interrelated work of the contemporary
rulers of the community, Ezra the priest and
Nehemiah the civil governor. The two books
were known to be of diverse authorship (Neh.
i. 1), but were reckoned as one, just as the
twelve minor prophets were counted as one
book, although it was recognized that the
twelve writings were by twelve different
prophets.

Ez'rah, See Ezea 1.

Ez'ra-Mte [alternate form of Zarhite].

A descendant of Zerah, belonging to the
tribe of Judah, as Ethan (1 Kin. iv. 31 ; Ps.
Ixxxix., title ; cp. 1 Chron. ii. 6) and Heman
(Ps. Ixxxviii., title ; cp. 1 Chron. ii. 6).

Ez'ri [probably, (God is) a help].

Overseer of the laborers who tilled David's
fields (1 Chron. xxvii. 26).

Fair Ha'vens.

A harbor in Crete, near the city of Lasea,
where Paul's ship touched (Acts xxvii. 8).
Mr. Smith of Jordanhill located it about 5
miles east of Cape Matala, a promontory on
the southern shore of Candia, just west of
which the coastline turns northward.

Faith.

As far as a difference exists between belief
and faith, belief is assent to testimony, and
faith is assent to testimony, united with trust.
Faith is an active principle ; it is an act both
of the understanding and the will. The dis-
tinction between belief and faith is that be-
tween "believe me "and "believe on me."
The verb believe thus does service for the
two nouns faith and belief. In the Bible
faith or belief is confidence in the absolute

Falcon

217

Fan

truthfulness of CTerv statement which comes
from God i Gen. iv. 6 ; Deut. xxxii. "20 : Mark
xi. -22 : Rom. iv. 3-5^. In this faith the heroes
of Scripture acted tHeb. xi.). In a special
jenie. faith is reliance on God's testimony
regarding the mission and atoning death of
bis Son. the Lord Jesus Christ : John v. 24).
\--: ! a the testimony of Jesus regarding
: : -. If icp. John iii. IS : Acts iii. 16 : xx. il :
z.'j-z'.. iii. "2.5). Faith in the Redeemer, where-
by a sinner rests upon him alone for salva-
tion, is essential to salvation (John iii. 15. 16.
IS: Eph. ii. S. etc. Belief in his historical
existence and in the truth of his claims mav
be produced by evidence, but faith in him. re-
liance upon him for salvation, cannot be. It
is the gift of God ( Eph. ii. S) ; the Spirit ap-
plies the truth to the soul. Human means
should be used, in co«>peration with his
Spirit, for its production lEom. x. 17). It
may exist in larger or in smaller measure
(Eom. iv. 19. 20 : xiv. 1). The apostles when
they deplored the weakness of their faith
prayed to Jesus for its increase (Luke xvii.
5'. It works by love 'Gal. v. 6i. and over-
comes the world il John v. 4). But with all
its importance it is not the greatest of the
three primary Christian graces, that position
being occupied by love (1 Cor. xiii. 13).

The system of doctrine given by revela-
tion of God is termed the feith (Acts tL 7 ;
xxiv. 24 : Eom. i. 5. etc.).

Fal'con.

A diurnal bird of prey other than a vul-
tare. The family includes among its genera
felcons strictly so-called, hawks, kites, eagles.
The word is used in E. V. to render the He-
brew \Ayyah i Job xxrviii. 7 : in A. V. vul-
torei. an unclean bird iLev. xi. 14: Deut.
liv. 13: in A. Y. kite). Several varieties are
mentioned by Tristram as occurring in Pales-
tine: the hobby hawk iFalco subbiiteoK the
red-legged hobby (F. vespertinusi, the Elea-
nora falcon < F. eleanorx).

Fallow Deer jieer of fallow or yellowish
hue].

The rendering of the Hebrew Ynhmur in
A. V. of Deut. xiv. r, ; 1 Kin. iv. 23.' E. Y.
has roebuck iq. v.). The genuine fallow deer
{Dama ndgaris; has horns, with their upper
part palmated. The hair in summer is yel-
lowish-brown all over, with spots : in winter
the tints are less bright. The male is about
three feet high at the shoulder. Its native
country seems to be the Mediterranean region.
It occurs sparingly in Galilee and mount
Lebanon.

Fa-mil'iar Spir^it.

The spirit of a dead person which professed
mediums claimed to summon to consultation
(Deut. iviii. ID. and which appeared to speak
from the earth 'Is. xxix. 4). or to dwell in
the controlling medium < Lev. xx. 27, in He-
brew i. The medium was called the possessor
or lord of a spirit (1 Sam. xxviii. 7, in He-

brew . It revealed the future (Is. viii. 19).
It was either a special spirit which was be-
lieved to always respond to the summons of
the medium, as the English rendering would
lead one to suppose, and who might raise
other ghosts ; or it was any spirit whom the
medium desired. 1 Sam. xxviii. 8 is capable
of either interpretation. ■" Divine by the
ghost " in you or " whom I shall name.'' To
consult familiar spirits was apostasy from
Jehovah iiLev. xix;. 31 ; Is. viii. 19). Under
the Mosaic law a person pretending to possess
the power of consulting a familiar spirit was
to be put to death ( Lev. xix. 31 : xx. 6. 27 :
Deut. xviii. 11). Saul carried out this enact-
ment, but when sorely troubled about his
fate, he sought out a woman of Endor who
had a familiar spirit, asked her to bring back
Samuel to the world, and believed her state-
ment that she had succeeded (1 Sam. xxviii.
3. -5-25). Manasseh favored them that pro-
fessed to have familiar spirits (2 Kin. xxi. 6;
2 Chron. xxxiii. 6). His grandson Josiah
carried out the Mosaic law against them (2
Kin. xxiii. 24). They probably included ven-
triloquists, and the voice of the spirit, which
appeared to come in a whisper from the
ground, emanated from the human pretender
himself.

Fam'ine.

Deficiency of food, generally produced
either by failure of rain leading to the with-
ering of the crops, or by the prevention of
the entrance of food into a beleaguered city.
In Palestine and other countries where a
rainy season alternates with a dry. the only
sure preventive of famine is to impound the
water when there is an over-supply, and use
it for irrigation when the drought sets in.
Famine compelled Abraham to leave Canaan
and sojourn in Egypt iGen. xii. 10). It was
the first of a series of famines connected
with the history of the patriarch and his de-
scendants, and which led the Hebrews to
temporarily withdraw from Palestine (xxvi.
i. : xli. 27-56: xlvii. 13). Other famines oc-
curred in the days of the judges which made
Elimelech remove to Moab (Ruth i. 1). in
Davids reign (2 Sam. xxi. 1). in the rime of
Elijah (1 Kin. xvii. 1-xviii. 46). in Elisha's
time (2 Kin. iv. 38; viii. 1). and in the reign
of Claudius ( Acts xi. 2S). The chief famines
produced in besieged ciries by the foe outside
preventing provisions from entering are those
during the siege of Samaria by Benhadad (2
Kin. vi. 24-vii. 20) and during the sieges of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (xxv. 1-3:
Jer. Iii. 1-6) and by Titns.

Fan.

The winno wing-fan. in Hebrew Mizreh.
still called mkihra by the Arabs, was a fork
with six prongs with which grain, after it
had been threshed, was thrown up against
the air to clear it of the chaff ( Is. xxx. 24 ;
Jer. XV. 7 . A shovel was also used for the
same purpose. See Theeshixg.

Farthing

218

Feast

Far'thing.

1. A Koman Qiiadrans, a small brass coin
equal to the fourth part of an ns. The Greeks
used the Eoman name, calling the coin
hodrantes. In the time of Christ its value
was about one-half of an English farthing, or
one-quarter of a cent (Mat. v. 26 ; Mark xii.
42).

2. An Assarion, diminutive of the Latin as,
a copper coin equal to about one cent (Mat.
X. 29j.

Fast.

Al)stinence from food, or the period during
■which it takes place.

1. Involuntary, arising from the fact that
nothing to eat is procurable. Of this type
were apparently the forty days' fast of Moses
on mount Sinai' (Ex. xxxiv. 28 ; Deut. ix. 9),
of Elijah on his journey to Horeb (1 Kin.
xix. 8), and of our Lord during his tempta-
tion in the wilderness (Mat. iv.2; Mark i. 13;
Luke iv. 2) ; also of Paul (2 Cor. vi. 5).

2. Vohmiary, from religious motives. In
this sense it is often used regarding pre-
scribed periods of abstinence. There do not
appear to be any injunctions regarding fast-
ing in the Mosaic law, and neither the verb
"to fast," nor the nouns "fast" and "fast-
ing," occur in the Pentateuch. If fasts are
prescribed at all, it is in the ambiguous lan-
guage "Ye shall afflict your souls" (Lev.
xvi. 29; xxiii. 27 ; Num. xxix. 7). The tir.st
mention of voluntary fasting is in connec-
tion with king David, who rei'used food when
he supplicated God for the life of the child
borne to him in sin by the wife of Uriah (2
Sam. xii. 22). Many instances of the same
unprescribed fasting are found in the later
■books of the O. T. (Ezra viii. 21 ; Neh. ix. 1 ;
Esth. iv. 3 ; Ps. xxxv. 13 ; Ixix. 10 : cix. 24 ;
Dan. vi. 18; ix. 3). Sometimes fasts were
proclaimed at jieriods of calamity (Jer. xxxvi.
9 ; Joel i. 14), the object being to chasten the
soul (Ps. xxxv. 13; Ixix. 10) and make the
voice heard in heaven (Is. Iviii. 3, 4). The
public fast signified that a load of guilt was
resting on the people, for which they hum-
bled themselves before God (1 Sam. vii. 6 ; 1
Kin. xxi. 9, 12). True fasting must not be
confined to externals, but involves abstinence
from iniquity and illicit pleasures (Is. Iviii.).
In Zechariah's days there were stated fasts
in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months
(Zech. viii. 19), to commemorate the com-
mencement of the siege of Jerusalem in the
tenth month (2 Kin. xxv. ]), its capture in
the fourth month (3; Jer. lii. 6, 7i, the de-
struction of the tem]>le in the fifth month
(2 Kin. xxv. 8, 9), and the murder of Geda-
liali and the Jews that were with him in
the .seventh month (25). Anna served God
with fasting (Luke ii. 37). The Pharisee did
so twice in the week (Luke xviii. 12). When
in the time of Jesus the religious formalists
fasted, they sought to make known the fact
by ostentatiously putting on a sad counte-

nance. This practice was denounced in the
Sermon on the Mount (Mat. vi. 16, 17). The
disciples of John the Baptist fasted ; those of
our Lord did not, at least while he was
among them (Mat. ix. 14, 15 ; Mark ii, 18,
19; Luke v. 33-35), but afterwards in cer-
tain circumstances they did so (Acts xiii. 3 ;
xiv. 23).

There are no injunctions laid upon Chris-
tians to fast ; and the revisers, on the ground
of textual criticism, have removed the word
from Mat. xvii. 21 ; Mark ix. 29; Acts x. 30;
1 Cor. vii. 5.

Fat.

1. Abel offered the fat of the firstlings of
his flock to Jehovah (Gen. iv. 4 ; cp. Num.
xviii. 17). The principle was laid down in
the Mo.saic law that to the Lord belongs all
the fat of sacrificial animals (Lev. iii. 16;
vii. 23, 25). Neither it nor the blood -was
eaten (iii. 17), but was burned as an offering to
Jehovah (Ex. xxix. 13, 22; Lev. iii. 3; iv. 8,
9). In view of the settlement in Canaan
and the remoteness of the majority of the
people from the altar, this provision was ap-
parently abolished with respect to animals
slain solely for food (Deut. xii. 15, 16 ; 21-24),
the animals of the flock and herd being eaten
as were uou-sacrificial animals.

2. A vat (Joel ii. 24). It occurs in compo-
sition in the word winefat (Is. Ixiii. 2).

Fa'ther.

1. The immediate progenitor of a person
(Gen. xlii. 13), or grandfather (xxviii. 13), or
more remote ancestor (xvii. 4). See Parents.

2. The founder of a trade (Gen. iv. 20) or of
anything. The ancestor or head, or one of
the heads, of the inhabitants of a town (1
Chron. ii. 51 ; iv. 14, 18).

3. One who acts toward another with pater-
nal kindness and wisdom (Gen. xlv. 8 , Judg.
xvii. 10; xviii. 19). A title of respect and
honor bestowed upon an authorized teacher,
especially when aged (1 Sam. x. 12 ; 2 Kin.
ii. 12), and upon royal advisers and prime
ministers (Gen. xlv. 8).

4. God, either as the Ci-eator of the human
race (Mai. ii. 10; Antiq. iv. 8, 24; cp. Acts
xvii. 28), or as the begetter and loving guard-
ian of his spiritual children (Rom. viii. 15;
Gal. iv. 6), or as standing in a more myste-
rious relation to Jesus (Mat. xi. 26 ; Mark
xiv. 36 ; Luke xxii. 42). See God.

Fath'om.

A measure much used in reckoning depth
of water (Acts xxvii. 28). It is the render-
ing of the Greek Orgnia, which denotes the
length of the outstretched arms, and was
estimated at 4 cubits or 24 palms (Herod, ii.
149). The English fathom is 6 feet.

Feast.

1. A sumptuous meal atteuded by mirth
and joyfulness (Dan. v. 1).

2. A time set apart by the canons of some
religions for sacred joy. Besides the ap-
pointed seasons, calted feasts or set feasts in

Felix

219

Felix

the English versions (Lev. xxiii. 2. E. V.
margin), which incliuled the weekly Sab-
bath, the memorial of trumpet-blowing on
the lirst day of the seventh month, and tlie
day of atonement (3. 24, 27 1, the Mosaic law
enjoined three annual celebrations expressly
called feasts or rather festivals. They were
the passover on the evening of the fourteenth
day of the first month, with the accompany-
ing feast of unleavened bread commencing
on the fifteenth and lasting seven days (5-6) ;
the feast of weeks, called also fea.st of har-
vest and day of first fruits (Ex. xxiii. 16:
xxxiv. 22 ; Num. xxviii. 26), and in later
times, because celebrated on the fiftieth day
after the passover, Pentecost (Acts ii. 1) : and
the feast of tabernacles or ingathering, which
commenced on the fifteenth day of the seventh
month and continued for seven or eight days
(Lev. xxiii. 34-441. These three annual fe.s-
tivals were deemed so important, that when
they came every adult male not incai>acitated
by disease or infirmity was required to ap-
pear before the Lord at the sanctuary (Ex.
xxiii. 17 : Deut. xvi. 16). For further de-
scription of these feasts, see the appropriate
articles. As Jesus desired to fulfill all right-
«ousnes.^, it may be assumed that he was cus-
tomarily present at Jerusalem three times a
year, on occasion of the three festivals ( John
ii. 23 : vii. 2-37. etc. : Mat. xxvi. 17 : Mark
xiv. 12; Luke xxii. 8: John xiii. 1). In ad-
dition to the festivals prescribed by the law,
a festival called Purim was instituted to com-
memorate annually, on the fourteenth and
fifteenth of Adar. the deliverance of the Jews
from the plot of Hanian (Esth. ix. 21-2S).
I^ter still the festival of dedication was ap-
pointed, which was instituted by Judas Mac-
cabseus, to be celebrated annually for eight
days, from the twenty-fifth day of Chislev,
in commemoration of the rededication of the
temple after its pollution by the agents of
Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mac. iv. 41-59 : John
X. 22 1. The Lord's Supper, instituted by
Christ, or more broadly the Christian's life
of faith, is also a feast (1 Cor. v. 8).

Fe'lix [happy].

A freedman of the emperor Claudius, who
"was appointed procurator of Juda-a. The date
of his appointment to office in Palestine is
disputed. Cumanus succeeded the procura-
tor Tiberius Alexander in A. D. 48 (Antiq. xx.
5, 2). According to Tacitus, Cumanus gov-
erned Galilee, and Felix ruled part of Sa-
maria until, on the deposition of Cumanus,
he was appointed procurator of the whole
province by Quadratus. govenior of .Syria.
Josephus, whii was a boy in Jerusalem in
A. D. 4.-. and became historian of the Jews,
represents I'luuanus as procurator of Judaea.
and states that Felix was sent as successor of
C^imanus by the emperor Claudius to admin-
ister the atfairs of Judaea in .52 (Antiq. xx. 7.
1: War ii. 12, 8i. Probably Cumanus and
Felix exercised a joint procuratorship, with

Cumanus higher in authority. In this arti-
cle A. D. 52 is assumed as the date of his sole
procuratorship in Juda?a. He seems to have
obtained this appointment partly through
the influence of his brother Pallas, who was
a great man at the court of Claudius. Nero,
the successor of Claudius, transferred four
Galilaean cities from Felix to Agrippa. He
was cruel and tyrannical, and in the exercise
of power showed the disposition of a slave
(Tacitus, Hist. v. 9: Annal. xii. 54). Under
his administration arose those collisions be-
tween the Jews and the Syrians at Cfesarea
which were destined to recur and help to-
ward the ruin of the Jewish polity i Antiq. xx.
8. 7 : War ii. 13. 7). Felix" first efl'ort was to
put down the robbers who infested the land.
He was successful, and capturing many of
them, crucified the ordinary sort, but sent
their leader. Eleazar. to Eome (War ii. 13, 2).
Josephus charged him with having encour-
aged the robbers to murder Jonathan, the
high priest. Jonathan had supported the
appointment of Felix to the procuratorship,
but he had displeased Felix by the fidelity
with which he had counseled him regarding
his government of the Jews. The impunity
with which this gross crime was committed
emboldened the robbers. They became the
Sicarii, people who concealed daggers about
their persons and, mingling with crowds, stab-
bed tho.'e to whom they had an antipathy
(Antiq. xx. 8, 5). Next false prophets arose
and led people in multitudes into the wil-
derness, where they were told C4od would
show them the signals of liberty. No signals
were, however, shown ; and Felix, believing
these gatherings in the wilderness to be the
commencement of revolt, attacked the people
present and slew them in large numbers (War
ii. 13, 3 and 4). An Egyptian soon after-
wards made his appearance as a prophet and
led out a great mob to the mount of Olives,
under the pretense that they would see the
walls of Jerusalem fall down, leaving them
every facility for entering the city. Felix
attacked them with troops, slaying about 4(X)
and taking about 2(iO more prisoners. The
Egyptian escaped. His insurrection was in
A. D. 55. and when about five years later the
riot about Paul arose. Claudius Lysias, the Eo-
man commandant at Jerusalem, seems to have
half suspected that the apostle was the Egyp-
tian back again to excite fresh troubles (Acts
xxi. 38: Antiq. xx. 8. 6>. Felix was procu-
rator when Paul was arrested on the false
charge of profaning the temple, and when to
prevent the apostle's assassination it was
needful to send him to Caesarea. the letter
explaining the case was written by Claudius
Lysias to Felix, whose headquarters were at
Caesarea (Acts xxiii. 26i. The trial took place
before Felix. Felix' wife Drusilla. who was
a Jewess, was present at an interview when
Paul reasiiued of righteousness, temperance,
and judgment to come, with such power that
Felix trembled lActsxxiv. 1-26). No won-

Fenced Cities

220

Field

der, for Felix liad seduced her away from
her rightful husband (Antiq. xx. 7, l,"i). But
there was no real repentance for his sin on
Felix' part. He procrastinated, and said to
the apostle, " Go thy way for this time ; when
I have a convenient season, I will call for
thee." It does not apjiear that the convenient
season ever came. It is discreditable to Felix
that, convinced as he evidently was of the
apostle's innocence, he failed to release him,
hoping that his prisoner would bribe him to
do that justice which it was his bounden
duty to grant without money. Disappointed
as to the bribe, he attempted, when going out
of office, to make political capital out of the
apostle, by leaving him bound to please the
Jews. This favor did not, however, prevent
them from complaining of him after he had
ceased to be procurator and returned to Rome,
about A. D. 60. They represented that he had
not acted well in the Cajsarean riots, and he
would have been punished by Nero had not
the powerful intercession of his brother Pal-
las, who was a favorite with the reigning em-
peror, been exerted in his favor (Antiq. xx.
8, it). He was succeeded in the procurator-
ship by Porcins Festus.

Fenced Cit'ies.

Towns fortified by walls, towers, gates, and
bars (Deut. iii. 5; 2 Chron. viii. 5 : Neh. iii.
l-3'2). Such were the cities of the Canaauites
and the Amorites when the Israelites warred
against them (Nnm. xiii. 28 ; Deut. iii. 5 ;
Josh. xiv. 12). After the Israelites had oc-
cupied Canaan, they, like their predecessors,
had fenced cities (Deut. xxviii. 52 ; 2 Sam.
XX. 6 ; 2 Kin. xiv. 13 ; 2 Chron. xii. 4 ; Jer. v.
17 ; Hos. viii. 14; Zeph. i. 16). For illustra-
tion and description of the walls, see Jeru-
salem and Lachish.

Fer'ret.

The rendering of the Hebrew '"nalcah, a
ceremonially unclean animal, classed by the
Hebrews with reptiles (Lev. xi. 30 ; in E. V.
gecko).

Fes'tus [festal, joyful].

Porcins Festus, who succeeded Felix as
procurator of Judsea in the reign of Nero,
while Pallas was still the emperor's favorite
and Burrus was still alive (Antiq. xx. 8. 9).
Pallas was put to death in A. d. 62, and Bur-
rus died not later than February of the same
year. Two years before the arrival of Fes-
tus, Paul could say that Felix had been for
many years a judge unto the nation (Acts
xxiv. 10, 27). If the procuratorship of Felix
be reckoned from A. D. 48 (see Felix), he
would have been many years in office in Pal-
estine in A. D. 54 or 55, and Festus may have
succeeded him in 55 or 56, the second and
third years of Nero respectively. This date
is adopted by some authorities, with the re-
sult of putting the dates of important events
in Paul's life, among others his imprison-
ment, four or five years earlier than the date
generally accepted by leading investigators

who date Felix' accession in 52 and Festus'
appointment in 60. The commotions which
had arisen under the administration of his
predecessor, Felix, went on and increased.
The Sicarii proceeded to assassinate people
whom they disliked. Sometimes they set
fire to the villages, having plundered them
first. Then an impostor led his adherents
into the wilderness, where the forces of Fes-
tus routed them with great slaughter. King
Agrippa soon after built himself a large din-
ing room in the palace which overlooked the
temple. The Jews, annoyed to find them-
selves under supervision, blocked his sight
by a wall which also injured the view hith-
erto possessed by the Eoman soldiers on
guard near the temple. Festus ordered the
demolition of the wall, but an appeal to Nero
to allow it to remain was successful (Antiq.
XX. 8, 11). His character contrasts favorably
with that of Felix (War ii. 14, 1). He rein-
vestigated Paul's case, and was satisfied of
his innocence, but committed one mistake, in
attempting to please the Jews, by asking the
apostle if he would consent to be tried at
Jerusalem. It was against this injudicious
proposal that Paul appealed to Caesar (Acts
XXV. 1-xxvi. 32). Festus died at his post,
and was succeeded, about A. D. 62, by Albinus,
who is not mentioned in the Scripture nar-
rative (Antiq. xx. 9, 1).

Fe'ver.

A disease, or rather a genus of diseases, at-
tended by dryness and heat of the body, with
consequent thirst, a high pulse, and other
symptoms. Fevers are of three leading types,
intermittent, remittent, and continued. Fe-
vers of all the types now named doubtless
existed in ancient Palestine, though it is not
possible in all cases to identify them with cer-
tainty. Fever is the rendering of the He-
brew Knddnhath, burning (Lev. xxvi. 16, in
A. V. burning ague; Deut. xxviii. 22). In
the latter passage it is associated with inflam-
mation and fiery heat, both febrile symptoms.
Fever is likewise the correct rendering of the
Greek Purefos, from Pur, fire (Mat. viii. 15 ;
Luke iv. 38; John iv. 52; Acts xxviii. 8).
Galen and the Greek physicians divided
fevers into greater and lesser. Luke in the
passage quoted does so also, as might be ex-
pected from one who was himself a medical
man. Fever so uniformly attends certain
diseases that the two are mentioned together,
as in the designation " fever and dysentery."
When the sword, the famine, and the pesti-
lence, are mentioned in this order of succes-
sion the pestilence was probably typhus fever.

Field.

In biblical usage, unenclosed ground, wheth-
er xiasture or tillage (Gen. xxxvii. 7, 14-16),
of whatever extent, from a small area to the
territory of a people (xiv. 7, margin of E. V. ;
xxiii. 9 : Euth i. 6, rendered countiy ; Mat.
vi. 28 ; xiii. 24). It might be wooded (1 Sam.
xiv. 25, rendered ground). Boundaries, when |

Fig

221

Firkin

artificially marked, were indicated by stoues
(cp. Deut. xix. 14).

Fig.

A tri'c producing good fruit (Judg. ix. 10)
and the fruit itself (Num. xiii. 23), both called
T''enah in Hebrew, while in CTreek the tree is
Sul-e and the fruit Siikun. The tree is native
in western Asia. The young tree does not
bear fruit unless the ground is cultivated
(Luke xiii. <>-!•), and old trees speedily de-
generate and fail when neglected (Prov.
xxvii. 18). The young fruit, or rather blos-
som, appears in spring before the leaves open,
on branches of the last year's growth, and
the tirst rijie fruit is ready in June, in favor-
ed localities eai-lier (Is. xxviii. 4 ; War iii. 10,
8). The late figs grow on the new wood,
keep appearing during the season, and are
ripe from August onward. They are dried
for preservation, pressed into cakes, and form
a staple article of food (1 Sam. xxv. 18 ; xxx.
12). The unripe fruit of autumn often sur-
vives the winter and ripens when vegetation
revives in the spring, before and after the
leaves appear (Song ii. 13). The tree was
highly prized, and is often mentioned along
with the vine (Deut. viii. 8; Ps. cv. 33; Jer.
V. 17 ; Joel i. 12), and to sit under one's vine
and one's fig tree was the symbol of prosperity
and security (1 Kin. iv. 25 ; Mic. iv. 4 ; Zech.
iii. 10). The barren fig tree of our Lord's
parable meant the Jewish nation. Figs were
used in medicine, and there is mention of
their employment as a poultice (2 Kin. xx. 7).

The fig, the Ficns carica of cultivation, is a
tree 20 to 30 feet high. The leaves, which
come forth late in spring and are shed at the
approach of winter, are often 8 or 10 inches
acro.ss. They are heart shaped with three or
four lobes. The fruit is of so anomalous a con-
struction that botanists have had to give it a
distinct name and place among fruits. It is
a hollow receptacle, with minute flowers on
its inner side, which later produce the true
fruit. The tree is wild in southern Europe
and the north of Africa. It is indigenous in
Palestine, where it grows wild in fissures of
rocks and on walls, besides being everywhere
cultivated (Deut. viii. 8).

Fir and Fir Tree.

Tlie rendering of the Hebrew B'rosh, Ara-
maic B'loth (2 Sam. vi. 5; Song i. 17). The
R. V. places cypress on the margin. The tree
grew with the cedar in Lebanon (1 Kin. v. 8,
10 ; Is. xiv. 8: xxxvii. 24 ; Ix. 13 ; Zech. xi.
2). It was used for the woodwork of Solo-
mon's temple along with cedar (1 Kin. v. 8,
10; vi. 15, 34; 2 C'hron. ii. 8; iii. 5), for the
planks of ships (Ezek. xxvii. 5), for spears
(Nah. ii. 3, R. V.), and for musical instruments
(2 Sam. vi. 5). The stork made its nest within
its branches (Ps. civ. 17). The Vulgate trans-
lates the Hebrew word once by cypress (Song
i. 17), but elsewhei'e by ahies, fir, except 2
Sam. vi. 5; 2 Chnm. ii. 8; Nah. ii. 3. The
Septuagiut commonly renders it by cypress,

but also by pine and juniper. All of these
trees belong to the Cotiifeni' or j>ine family.
The only true fir of the region is Ahics ciUca.
It grows on the higher i)arts of Lebanon and
in the mountains northward, attaining a
height of from 30 to 75 feet. The cyi>ress
(Ctipressiis sempervirens) is a tall tree, from 20
to ()0 or 75 feet. The wood is reddish yellow,
pleasant to the smell, and durable. It was
much used for cabinet work. It is extensively
planted in burial grounds in tlie East, for
which its slender pyramidal form and grace-
fulness render it well adai)ted. See Cypress.
The Syrian or Alejipo pine {Pi nun hale^yensh) is
found in the mountains of western Palestine,
and is one of the characteristic trees of the
lower Lel)anon. It is inferior in size to the
fir and the cypress. The stone pine {Piiins
maritimn) grows on the coast and in sandy
plains, but is not common. In Gilead there
are extensive forests of Finns carica on the
highest mountains above the line where the
evergreen oaks cease. A tall, fragrant juni-
per (Jnni2)erus excelsa) grows abundantly on
Lebanon. For Is. xliv. 14, see Ash.

Fire.

Fire was found to be indispensable (Ecclus.
xxxix. 26). It was used in the arts (Gen. iv.
22), in the preparation of food (Ex. xvi. 23 ;
Is. xliv. 16), and for warmth (Jer. xxxvi. 22;
John xviii. 18; Acts xxviii. 2). Otferiugs
were made to Jehovah by fire (Gen. viii. 20).
The fire carried, as it were, the sacrifice to
God, who took delight in the ofl'ering, or, to
speak figuratively, smclled a sweet savor (21).
The otl'erer kindled the fire himself (xxii. 6).
Moses oflered burnt ofterings on the great
altar, newly erected (Ex. xl. 29), but at the
conclusion of the consecration of Aaron and
his sons to the priesthood, fire came forth
from the presence of the Lord and consumed
the sacrifice (Lev. ix. 24). God accepted and
appropriated the offering. This fire was not
allowed to go out (vi. 9-13). Likewise at the
dedication of the temple and the new altar,
fire came from heaven and consumed the
sacrifice (2 C'lirou. vii. 1). On other occasions
also God indicated his acceptance of a sacri-
fice by causing it to kindle (Judg. vi. 21 ; 1
Kin. xviii. 23, 24 ; 1 Chron. xxi. 26 ; as to
this matter, cp. Gen. xix. 24 ; Ex. ix. 23 ; 2
Kin. i. 12). Among the heathen there were
fire worshipers (Wisd. xiii. 2). The wor-
shijiers of Moloch and some other idolaters
burnt their children in the fire as an act of
pietv (2 Kin. xvi. 3 ; xxi. 6 ; Jer. vii. 31 ; Ezek.
xvi." 20, 21).

Fire 'pan.

A pan made of brass, gold, or silver (Ex.
xxvii. 3 ; 1 Kin. vii. 50; 2 Kin. xxv. 15), and
used for carrying fire (Lev. xvi. 12, where it
is rendered censer).

Fir'kin.

A measure of capacity (John ii. 6). It is
the rendering of the Greek MetrHex, which,
reckoned at 1952.17 cubic inches, held nearly

Firmament

222

FisMug

8 gallons, 3V pints, wine measure, American
standard.

Flr'ma-ment [Latin finnamentum, a sup-
port, a lirm foundation].

The sky or heaven {Gen. i. 8), an expanse
beaten out as it were, if we eniiiloy the figure
embodied in the Hebrew word (cp. Ezek. i.
22), which divided the primeval watery mass
(Gen. i. 6), so that part of tlie waters were
above it and others were below it (i. 7; Ps.
cxlviii. 4). The stars and planets were placed
in it, where they move unimpeded (Gen. i.
14, 17). Birds fly in front of it (20, E. Y.
margin). The heavens, and presumably the
firmament, are compared to a teut spread
above the earth (Ps. civ. 2 ; Is. xl. 22), are
likened in strength to a molten mirror (Job
xxxvii. 18), and are spoken of as tliough
having doors and windows, through which
the rain pours and God's blessings descend
(Gen. vii. 11 ; 2 Kin. vii. 2; Ps. Ixxviii. 2^5;
civ. 13). This conception was current in
ancient Semitic thought. The doctrine of
the division of the primeval fluid chaos is
not unacceptable to modern thought; otlier
features are regarded as naive. They are
not taught in the Scriptures as facts. They
lingered in Hebrew .speech and imagery as an
inheritance, and were used in both poetic
and prose writings even when, for example,
the agency of the clouds in bringing rain
was understood (Gen. ix. 14; Job xxvi. 8;
xxxvi. 27-29; xxxvii. 11; xxxviii. 34; Ps.
Ixxvii. 17; cxxxv. 7; Is. v. 6 ; Jer. x. 13).

First'born or Firstling, the former being
used chiefly of men, the latter always of
beasts.

To the firstborn ofispring of men and ani-
mals God the giver has the first claim (cp.
Gen. iv. 4). Among the Israelites an addi-
tional reason existed in the fact that Jehovah
had purchased the peo]de from Egyptian
bondage. The tenth and last i)lague of
Egypt had slain the firstborn of the Egyp-
tians, and the firstborn of the Israelites had
been preserved only by sprinkling blood on
the lintels and door posts of the houses with-
in which they resided (Ex. xii. 12, 13, 23,
29). Saved in this manner, they became con-
secrated to Jehovah. Every firstborn male
of man and beast was holy to the Lord (xiii.
2 ; xxxiv. 19), and could not be used by man
(Lev. xxvii. 26). The firstborn of the father
was obligated to service at the sanctuary,
from which he must be redeemed (Ex. xiii.
13, 15; xxxiv. 20; cp. Lev. xxvii. 6). On
this occasion he was brought to the sanctuary
and presented to the Lord (Luke ii. 22 ; cp.
Num. xviii. l.'i). The Levites were after-
wards substituted for the Israelite firstborn
(Num. iii. 12, 41 ; vii. 13-19 ; cp. Ex. xxxii.
26-29 ; Deut. xxxiii. 9). Those of animals
also, against which the tenth plague was
partly directed, became similarly consecrated
to Jehovah, but there were distinctions among
them of various kinds. The firstling of clean

animals was sacrificed. Unclean animals, of
which the ass is named as rejiresentative,
either had the neck broken or were replaced
by a lamb (Ex. xiii. 13, 15; xxii. 30; xxxiv.
20). On the establishment of the priesthood
at Sinai, the disposition of these animals was
specified. The fat of the clean animal was
burned and the flesh was given to the priest.
The unclean animal was redeemed or sold
(Lev. xxvii. 27; Num. xviii. 15-18). Later,
in view of the new circumstances in which
it was foreseen that the people would be placed
in Palestine, and the inconvenience and ex-
pense of the journey to the sanctuary, a de-
lay was authorized in presenting the firstling
at the house of God. The firstling might be
kept beyond the eight days originally pre-
scribed until the time of an annual festival ;
and the flesh, instead of falling as a perquisite
to the priest, was given to the pilgrim who
brought the animal, and to his family, to eat
at the sanctuary (Deut. xv. 19, 20). But de-
fective animals were eaten at home without
religious ceremony (21-23).

For the legal privileges of the firstborn son,
see Birthright.

First'fruits.

The fruits first ripe, the plucking of which
was an earnest of the coming harvest. First-
fruits were to be given as an ottering to Jeho-
vah : on behalf of the nation, a sheaf at the
feast of unleavened bread and two loaves at
the feast of weeks (Lev. xxiii. 10, 17) ; and
bj' individuals (Ex. xxiii. 19; Deut. xxvi. 1-
11). The term is used figuratively in Rom.
viii. 23 ; xi. 16 ; xvi. 5 ; 1 Cor. xv. 20, 23 ; xvi.
15 ; Jas. i. 18 ; Eev. xiv. 4. See Firstborn.

Fish'ing.

Fishing went on largely in Egypt in the

Fishing with the Hook in Ancient Egypt.

Fitch

223

Flea

main channel of the Nile aud in the several
branches into which it separates before reach-
ing the Mediterranean (Is. xix. 8), and the
Israelites when in bondage in Egyjit did cat
fish freely (Num. xi. 5). The fishing along
the Mediterranean coast of Palestine was
largely in the hands of the Tyrians and
Sidonians in the north (Xeh. xiii. Hi) and the
Philistines in the .south. To the Israelites
belonged the sea of Galilee, which was their

meadow. It was a water plant; and grew,
among other places, on the edge of the Nile.
It is not likely that it was the flag, which is
an iris, with three brightly colored petals. It
seems to have been the Egyptian designation
for the crowded mass of water plants, rushes,
reeds, sedges found along the margin of the
Nile.

2. The rendering of Suph (Ex. ii. 3, 5; Is.
xix. 6), a plant growing by the brink of the

Fishing with a Net in Ancient Egypt.

chief fishing ground. Tristram enumerates
twenty-two species of fish in its waters, many
of them also passing down the Jordan. The
Dead Sea was too salt for fish, save for a very
few. In certain places there were artificial
fish-ponds (Song vii. 4). Fish were on sale
in Jerusalem {2 Cbron. xxxiii. 14 ; Xeh. xiii.
16). For fishing, lines, hooks, and spears
were used (Job xli. 1, 7 ; Is. xix. 8 ; Amos iv.
2; Mat. xvii. 27), and nets were cast from
boats (Luke v. 4-7).

Fitch [obsolete form of English ?'efc?i].

A tare ( ]'icin), an herb much cultivated as
ft forage plant (Is. xxviii. 25, 27. Hebrew
Ke.^ah). The plant so de.signated was sown
broadcast ; and when its fruits were ripe, they
were beaten out with a staff to separate the
seeds. R. V.. following Septuagint. Vulgate,
and the Eabbins. places black cummin {Xigella
$ativa) on the margin, aud considers the plant
to have been what is now called, from its
fennel-like leaves, fennel flower. It is of
the crowfoot or buttercup order (Ennuncu-
lacese). It is a foot and a half high, with
yellow or, more rarely, blue petals, many
Stamens, and several seed vessels, with nu-
merous black acrid and aromatic seeds, which
are used in the East for seasoning dishes and
as a carminative. It grows wild in the Medi-
terranean lands, and is cultivated in Pales-
tine for its seeds.

The Hebrew Kussemeth is likewise trans-
lated fitch in Ezek. iv. 9, A. V. ; but else-
where in A. V. it is rendered rye, and every-
where in E. Y. it is translated spelt.

Flag.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew 'Ahii in
Job viii. 11. On the margin of R. V. it is
translated reed grass, and also in the text of
(Sen. xli. 2, R. V., where A. V. renders it

Nile. It also grew in salt water (Jon. ii. 5,
where it is rendered weeds). The Red Sea
ill Hebrew is called the sea of Suph. It is
evident that the plant meant is not the flag,
which does not grow in salt water. The word
denotes aquatic vegetation, whether seaweeds
or fresh water reeds and sedges.
Flag'on.

1. A vessel for holding liquids (Is. xxii.24,
in Hebrew Xebel).

2. The rendering in A. Y. of the Hebrew
word '"sliishah, something pressed closely
together (2 Sam. vi. 19 ; 1 Chroii. xvi. 3 ;
Song ii. 5 ; Hos. iii. 1). The R. Y. correctly
translates it cake of raisius.

Flax.

The rendering of the Hebrew words Pish-
teh aud Pishtah aud of the Greek Linon
(Is. xiii. 3 with Mat. xii. 20). It was a plant
cultivated in Egypt and elsewhere (Ex. ix.
31). It had stalks, which were spread on
flat roofs of houses and dried by exposure to
the heat of the sun (Josh. ii. 6). Its fibers
were fine (Is. xix. 9). and were woven like
wool (Prov. xxxi. 13 ; cp. Hos. ii. 5). It is
undoubtedly the flax plant (Linum usitatissi-
mum), the type of the botanical order Lina-
cete. or flaxworts. It is a small plant, with
solitary erect stems, five petals, five fugitive
petals, with five perfect and as many rudi-
mentary stamens. It is now found only in a
state of cultivation. The woody fiber of the
bark furnishes the flax fiber of which linen
is woven, and the seeds constitute the lin-
seed of commerce, valued on account of its
oil.

Flea.

An insect, called in Hebrew Pnv'o.sTi, leaper
(1 Sam. xxiv. 14 ; xxvi. 20). The species is
very cqmmon in Palestine ; so much so that

Flesh

224

Flood

it has become a popular saying that the kiug
of the iieas has his court at Tiberias.
Flesh.

1. The muscles of the auimal body, whether
of mau, beast, bird, or fish ; or, less precisely,
all its softer parts (Gen. xl. 19 ; Ex. xii. 8 ;
xvi. 8; Lev. xxi. 5; Jol) x. 11; Luke xxiv.
39; 1 Cor. xv. lid). It is distinct from the
spirit (Job xiv. 2-2 ; Is. x. IS, Hebrew ; xxxi.
3; Mat. xxvi. 41; Col. ii. 5).

2. All beings possessed of flesh, man and
the inferior animals, especially man (Gen.
vi. 13, 19; viii. 17; Acts ii. 17; Rom. iii. 20;

1 Cor. i. 29) ; often in contrast with God wlio
is spirit (Ps. Ivi. 4 ; Is. xxxi. 3 ; xl. 6-8 ; Joel
ii. 28; Mat. xvi. 17).

3. Human nature deprived of the Spirit
of God, dominated by the appetites and
obeyed bv the mind (Rom. vii. 5; viii. 5-7;

2 Cor. vii! 1 ; Gal. v. 16-20; 2 Pet. ii. 10), thus
including the whole unregenerated and un-
sanctified nature of man (Rom. viii. 8, 9 ; cp.
John iii. 6).

Flint.

In Scripture, any hard or intractable rock
(Deut. viii. 15 ; xxxii. 13 ; Ps. cxiv. 8) ; and
hence figuratively, uncomiiromising firmness
in the discharge of duty (Is. 1. 7 ; Ezek. iii.
9). In it the miner sinks his shaft in quest
of gold (Job xxviii. 9, R. V.). Broken frag-
ments were used as rude knives (Ex. iv. 25;
Josh. V. 2, R. v.. where in Hebrew the ge-
neric word for rock is used).

Flood.

A stream, especially a great stream (Job
xiv. 11 ; xxviii. 11 in A. V.), as the Nile in
its inundations ( Jer. xlvi. 7 ; Amos viii. 8 in
A. v.), the Euphrates (Josh. xxiv. 2, A. V.),
the Jordan (Ps. Ixvi. 6, A. V.). An inunda-
tion (Dan. ix. 26; Nah. i. 8 ; Mat. vii. 25, 27;
Luke vi. 48). A great restless mass of water ;
the sea and its currents (Ps. xxiv. 2; Jon.
ii. 3).

Specially, the deluge in the time of Noah.
It was sent as a divine judgment on the
antediluvians for their wickedness (Gen. vi.

5-13). Secondary causes were employed to
bring on the catastrophe. Two are mentioned :
the fountains of the great deep wei'e broken
up, and the windows of heaven were opened.
Thus i>art of the water was that of the ocean,
the rest was produced by a downpour of rain
continuing forty days and nights (vii. 11, 12).
All the high mountains under the whole
heaven were covei-ed, fifteen cubits upward
the waters prevailed, and all flesh died that
moved on the earth, man, bird, beast, and
creeping thing. Noah only was left and they
that were with him in the ark (vii. 19-23) ;
see Ark. The waters prevailed 150 days,
until at length the ark rested on the moun-
tains of Ararat. Two and a half months
later the tops of the mountains were seen
(viii. 3-5). Three months later, after investi-
gating the state of the water by means of
birds which he sent forth, on New Year's day
Noah removed the covering trom the ark
and saw that the face of the ground was
dried ; but eight weeks more elapsed before
God gave command to go forth from the ark
(viii. 13-15).

The months are reckoned at thirty days
each, and the number of days which measure
an interval is the ditfereuce between the
dates obtained by simple subtraction (vii. 11
with viii. 3, 4). On this mode of reckoning,
and dating from the day of entrance into
the ark as first day, it is interesting to note
the days and weeks. The first day which
dawned fair and beautiful after the forty
days and nights of rain was the forty-second,
a recurring seventh day, fit reminder of di-
vine rest and favor. Land was seen on a re-
curring first day, the new world wherein
dwelt righteousness began like the old ou a
first day. Noah released the birds, at inter-
vals of a week, either on successive sixth
days, in expectancy of the morrow, or ou
seventh days. Noah removed the covering
on New Year's day, old reckoning; but it
was also a recurring seventh day. And eight
weeks later, on the recurring seventh day,
God released Noah from the ark.

vii. 4, 10. Command to begin embarking the animals,
vii. 11. Entrance of Noah into the ark, and in the evening, as re-

lated by the Babylonian tradition, bursting of the storm,
vii. 12. Rain 40 days and 40 nights, so that

Rain ceased toward evening,
vii. 24. The waters prevailed on the earth

viii. 3. 150 days, so that the

viii. 4. Ark str"anded

The waters decreased continually until
viii. !'■>. Tops of the mountains visible,

viii. 6. After seeins the mountain tops, Noah waited 40 days;

exiiectiuK tliat, iis the rain had fallen 40 days, the waters
would iieiliaps abate fmm the ground in 40 days; and then
(or on the fdllowiug- day) the
Raven released, which "returned not,
After 7 days (cp. " yet other," v. 10) a
viii. 8. Dove released, which returned.

After yet other 7 days, the
viii. 10. Dove released, which returned with olive leaf. So Noah
knew that the waters were abated from oft' the earth.
After yet other 7 days, a third time the
viii. 12. Dove released, which did not return, since food and shelter

were now found outside tile ark,

2 mo. 10th dav.

2 mo.

17th day.
27th dav.

7 mo. 17th day.

10 mo. 1st day.

11 mo. nth (or 12th) day.
n mo. 18th (or 19th) day.

11 mo. 25th (or 26th) day.

12 mo. 2d (or 3d) day.

Flood

225

Flood

^'ot\vith^^tamUll,ar tliese favorable indications, Koah did
not leave the ark, but waited for God's command. After
nearly a month, on New Year's day
viii. i:l. Noah kk.moved thk covkiung of the ark, and saw that the

waters were dried up and the face of the ground was dried, 1 mo. 1st day.

But Noah still awaited God's bidding, and eight weeks
later, the earth being dry, God gave the
viii. 14, 15. CoMM.\NU TO GO FOKTH FKOM THE AUK, 2 mo. 27th day.

A.s is now gcncnilly known, the account of
the flood was handed down by tradition. The
description oriijinated with eyewitnesses. Its
lan.u'uasie must be understood in the sense
which it bore to the authors and promulga-
tors of the narrative centuries before the
days of Moses. The extent of the flood can-
not be determined from the account of it
which has been transmitted. The dehige
may have been universal and covered the
gloiie. or it may have been confined to a
locality of greater or less extent. All the
mountains under the whole heaven, that is
within the horizon of the inmates of the ark
as they drifted on the waters, were covered
(compare the employment of similar language
iu Col. i. 23). The purpose of the flood was to
destroy the C()rrupt race of man (Gen. vi. 7, 13,
17; vii. 4), and with man all animals depend-
ent upon the existence of dry laud were in-
volved in destruction. This was also the re-
sult as discerned by those who were saved iu
the ark (vii. '21-23), aud as confirmed by their
descendants wheu they migrated in the earth.
They met uo survivors. They found the world
uninhabited. Xoah had been instructed to
take the male and female of every kiud of
animal, and to gather food for them (vi. 20,
21). The language of the command was in-
tended to be understood iu its usual sense,
as any man of that age would understand it.
Noah doubtless took specimens of every ani-
mal of which he had knowledge and food
suitable for them (cp. Dan. vi. 25) ; but there
is no evidence that he believed himself to be
commanded to seek for species as yet un-
known, or if under sui)ernatural impulse the
animals unsought came to him (as some would
unnecessarily interpret vii. 8, 9), to gather
peculiar food and provide peculiar shelter for
strange animals of diflerent kinds and from
different climes.

The tradition of the flood was current
among the people from whom the Hebrews
sprang. In the ancestral home of Abraham
the flood was remembered as a great crisis in
human history. An Assyrian scribe, record-
ing the names of ancient kings, remarks con-
cerning certain of them, that they "were
after the flood." Ashurbanipal refers to in-
scriptions " of the time before the flood."
The Babylonian priest Berosus devoted the
second volume of his history to the ten ante-
diluvian kings of the Chaldeans, considering
that the flood marked the close of the first
period of human history. The tradition of
the deluge which was current in Babylonia
and Assyria diflered iu some details from the
Hebrew account. The Hebrews. Assyrians,
and Babylonians once dwelt together in Baby-
15

Ionia, and were one i>eople with one tradi-
tion, but in course of transmission from age
to age this tradition underwent slight changes
and received unessential additions. When
the Semites of Babylonia became three na-
tions, dwelling apart and diverse in religion,
the tradition of the flood which each pre-
served bore the impress of the national pe-
culiarities. The Hebrew account was mono-
theistic, the Assyrian aud Babylonian narra-
tive is polytheistic. It is further observable
to the attentive reader that the Hebrew ac-
count not only as a whole, but in minute
I)articulars, is credible, aud reflects the con-
ditions of a primitive age, which cannot be
said of the Assyrian and Babylonian.

The Assyrians and Babylonians themselves
had slightly divergent traditions. The story,
as current in Bal)yloiiia in the time of Alex-
ander the Great, was recorded by Berosus
(Autiq. i. 3, 6; cou. Apion. i. 19), and is
quoted iu full by the church historian Euse-
bius. A form which is much older, which in
fact is the oldest known and the best pre-
served, though even variations of it were
current, is embodied in the epic that cele-
brates the deeds of Izdubar or Gilgamesh,
king of Erech. Izdubar had been smitten with
disease, and he determined to seek help from
his ancestor Situapishtim, who had been trans-
lated to the gods, was dwelling "at the
mouth of the rivers," and had knowledge
of life and death. After a long journey, in
which he encountered many difficulties and
dangers, Izdubar found Sitnapishtim. He
belonged to a generation long past, but still
enjoyed the freshness and vigor of youth.
Astonished, Izdubar exclaimed : " Howcamest
thou, Sitnapishtim, to see life amid the
gods •>"

" I will open to you, Izdubar," replied Sitnap-
ishtim, "the concealed story, and also the oracle
of the gods [with reference to the cure of your
disease] will I declare. You know the city of
Surippak, which stands on the Euphrates. That
citv was old when the gods who dwelt therein
were moved at heart to bring about a flood-storm.
God Anu was there among others, and Bel and
Ninib. The god Ea. however, deliberated with
them, and he revealed unto me their purpose
[bv means of a dream (1. 177)]. ' Man of Surip-
pak, son of Ubaratutu,' said he, 'tear down the
house, build a ship, despise property, and save
life. Bring into the ship seed of life of every
kind.' I paid attention, and said to god Ea, 'O
my lord, what thou hast commanded I will re-
spect bv carrying out.'

" On "the morrow [preparations were begun].
On the fifth dav I laid the framework— 140 cubits
its height, 140 cubits its extent above. 1 divided
its interior, 1 provided a rudder. Over the out-
side I poured three measures [sars] of bitumen
and likewise over the inside. ^Vllen the ship

Flood

226

Flood

was completed I filled it with all that I pos-
sessed—with silver, gold, and seed of life of
every kind. I took on board all my men-ser-
vants and maid-servants, the cattle and the beast
of the field, and the artisans.

" The snn-god set a time. ' When the sender
of violent rain causes a heavy rain to pour down
in the evening, enter into the ship and shut the
door.' The set time came. He who sends vio-
lent rain caused a heavy rain to fall in the even-
ing. The dawning of the day I feared, I trem-
bled to behold the niorning. I entered the ship,
closed the door to shut it in, and committed the
immense structure with its cargo to Puzur-bel,
the pilot.

" As soon as the dawn appeared, a dark cloud
ascended on the horizon. In the midst of it the
storm-god rolled the thunder. The gods Nebo
and Marduk marched on before, went as guides
over hill and dale; the miglity pest-god tore
loose the ship, the god Ninib caused the streams
to overflow their Ijanks. The Anunnaki, spirits
of the subterranean regions, lifted torches and
made the laml tlicker by the light. The storm-
god raised billows which reached to heaven.
All light was turned to darkness. Man saw not
his fellow, human beings were not discerned by
those in heaven.

" The gods also were terrified at the flood-
storm, sought refuge, ascended to heaven, and
crouched at the wall like a dog in his lair. Then
the goddess Ishtar, like a woman in travail,
cried out— she of beautiful voice called : ' Man-
kind which was is become mud, the very evil
which I foretold in the presence of the gods and
just as I foretold it to them. A storm for the
annihilation of my people I declared it would
be. I brought forth men, but to what purpose?
Like fry offish they fill the sea.' The gods over
the spirits of the" subterranean regions wept
with her, sitting bowed in tears, their lips cov-
ered.

"Six days and six nights * wind, flood-storm,
and rain prevailed : on the seventh day the rain
abated ; the flood, the storm which had writhed
like a woman in travail, rested ; the sea with-
drew to its bed, and the violent wind and the
flood-storm ceased.

" I looked on the sea, at the same time shout-
ing; but all men were become mud. I opened
a window ; and, as the light fell upon my face,
I shrank back and sat down weeping ; over my
cheeks the tears coursed. I had looked on every
side— a wide expanse, sea.

"A bit of land, however, rose to the height of
twelve measures. To the country of Nisir the
ship took its course. A mountain of that land
stranded the vessel and kept it from moving
farther. On the first day and on the second
day mount Nisir held the "ship, on the third day
and on the fourth day likewise, on the fifth and
sixth days likewise." When the seventh day
came I released a dove. The dove flew hither
and thither ; there was no resting place, so it
returned. Next I sent forth a swallow. The
swallow also flew hither and thither, and, as
there was no resting place, returned. Then I
sent forth a raven. The raven flew away, and,
when it saw that the waters had fallen, it ap-
proached, alighting but not returning.!

* Mentioning the nights as well as the days, as
does the Hebrew narrative at the same point.
Delitzsch reads "six days and seven nights."
His text thus contains a formula often found
elsewhere, c. f/., 1. 188. The majority of Assyr-
iologists who have examined the tablet discern
the marks for six days and six nights, not for
seven nights.

t Or, the raven flew away and saw the abate-
ment of the waters : [thereupon] he eats, alights
carefully, but does not return.

" I then sent forth [all the animals] to the four
winds. I poured out a libation, I made an
ottering on the summit of the mountain. I set
vessels by sevens, and underneath them spread
sweet cane, cedar, and herb.s. The gods smelled
the savor and like flies gathered about the
oll'erer.

" When the goddess Ishtar arrived, she raised
aloft the great ornament which the god of the
sky had made at her request. 'By the ornament
of my neck, never will I forget; "l will think of
these days, and to eternity not forget them. Let
all the gods come to the ottering except Bel, for
he inconsiderately caused the deluge and con-
signed my people to the judgment.' But Bel
came also ; and, when he saw the ship, was filled
with wrath against the gods of the heavenly
spirits. ' What soul has escaped ?" he cried ; ' no"t
a man shall survive the judgment.' Then god
Ninib opened his mouth and spake to the valor-
ous Bel : ' Who else than god Ea has done this
thing? Ea knows surely every exorcism.' Ka
also opened his mouth, and said to the valorous
Bel; 'Thou, valorous chieftain of the gods, so
utterly without reflection hast thou acted and
caused the flood. On the •sinner lay his sin, on
the evil doer his evil deeds. Desist [from wrath]
that he be not cut off; be gracious also. Instead
of causing a flood-storm, send the lion and tlie
hyena, famine and pestilence, and let them di-
minish men. And as for me, I did not reveal
the purpose of the great gods; I sent Atrahasis* .
a dream and he perceived the purpose of the
gods.'

" Then Bel became reasonable, and went up
into the ship, grasped my hand and led me up.
He led up my wife also, and made her kneel at
my side. Then turning to us he placed himself
between us and blessed us, saying: ' Heretofore
Sitnapishtim was a [mere] man; now let him
and his wife be exalted to equality with tlie
gods, and let him dwell afar oft" at "the mouth
of the rivers.' Thereupon he took me away and
placed me afar off at the mouth of the rivers."!

The account of the flood existed in this
form among the Assyrians and Babylonians
before the seventh century b. c, for the
colophon affixed to the tablet on which it is
recorded states that the document is the
property of A.shurbanipal, who reigned over
Assyria from 668 to about 626 b. c, and that
the words were copied from an older tablet.
It existed in the .same form centuries earlier,
for fragments of it have been found which
were written in the time of Ammizaduga,
the fourth successor of Hammurabi, king of
Babylon, who is believed on good evidence
to have been Abraham's contemporary Am-
raphel.

A coin bearing a picture of the flood was
struck at Apamea in Phrygia in the reign of
the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, 193-
211 A. D. A boat, inscribed with the letters NQE,
the Greek spelling of Noah, floats on the waves.
A man and a woman are in it. A bird ]ierches
on it ; and another bird flies toward the ves-

* In the accotint which Berosus wrote in Greek,
this name is written Xisuthrus, the constituent
parts l)eing transposed. It is another name of
Sitnapishtim.

t Such is essentially the cuneiform story. As
here reproduced, it is slightly abridged ; chiefly,
however, by the omission of niutilated lines and
of sentences whose translation is still uncer-
tain.

Flute

227

Fountain

scl, bearing a branch between its feet. Be-
fore the ark the foriticr inmates are seen,

Coin of Apamea,re]irL'St.'ntiiij; Noah and the Ark.

having quitted itand got on dry hmd. Apamea
was formerly called Kibotos, the Ark. The
■coins of towns frequently exhibited some
prominent event in their history or local
traditions.

Flute.

A mnsical instrument used in Babylon (Dan.
iii. 5) ; in Aramaic Maxhrokitha', whistle, pipe.
Pipes consisting of one, two, or more reeds
were in use. According to the Septuagint, it
was Pan's pipe, which consisted of several
reeds, joined side by side in a series, and grad-
ually diminishing in length.

A flute or pipe, in Greek Aulos, was played
in the house of mourning (Mat. ix. 23) and on
occasions of joy (Eev. xviii. 22). See Pipe.

Flux. See Dysextery.

Fly.

1. A flying insect; a two-winged insect,
one of the order Dipfera. specially the do-
mestic fly {^fusca dompfticn). So troublesome
are flies of various kinds in hot countries (Is.
vii. 18 ; Ecc. x. 1) that the Ekronites wor-

j shiped a god Baal-zebub, lord of flies, who was
supposed to be able to keep the annoyance
I within bounds (2 Kin. i. 2).

2. The rendering of the Hebrew 'Arob. a
[voracious, biting insect of Egypt (Ex. viii.

21; Ps. cv. 31). It devoured (Ps. Ixxviii. 45)
land destroyed (Ex. viii. 24. margin). Accord-
jing to the Septuagint, the dog fly.

Fol'ly.

The absence of, wisdom, disregard of the
[true nature of things in their relation to man

[land C4od. Hence injudicious action or con-
jduct (Prov. XV. 21; Ecc. i. 17 ; x. 1:2 Cor.

j xi. 1), and ^^-ickedness (Gen. xxxiv. 7; Deut.

IbKxii. 21 ; Josh. vii. 15 ; Judg. xix. 23 ; xx. 6).

I Food.

I I _ The food of the Hebrews, when they lived a
^simple nomadic life, consisted largely of bread
[lind the products of the herd, such as milk,

purds, and occasionally meat (Gen. xviii. 7, 8 ;
Fudg. V. 25). Wild honey was also eaten (,Tudg.
iv. 8, 9). When they adopted a settled life in

Palestine, the i)roducts of garden, vineyard,
and olive yard Mere added, such as lentils,
cucumbers, beans 12 .Sam. xvii. 28), pome-
granates, figs, grapes (Num. xiii. 23; xx. 5;
Mat. vii. l(i). Sweet and sour wine were im-
portant articles of food. Fish were eaten,
locusts also, and fowl and eggs (1 Kin. iv.
23; Xeh. xiii. l(i; Mat. iv. 1« ; Luke xi. 12).
A simple repast consisted of broad and len-
tils (Gen. XXV. 34) or other pottage (2 Kin.
iv. 38), or bread and wine (Gen. xiv. 18), or
roasted grain and sour wine (Ruth ii. 14).
Abraham honored his uqexpected guests with
a more pretentious meal, consisting of butter
and milk, cakes made of fine flour, and the
flesh of a calf (Gen. xviii. 3-8). A greater
variety of foods came on the tables of the
rich and great (1 Kin. iv. 22, 23 ; Xeh. v. 18).
See Meals.

Fool.

One destitute of understanding or wisdom
(2 Cor. xi. 16) ; especially a wicked man,
the doctrine taught being that nothing shows
a greater want of understanding than for a
man to commit wickedness. The greater the
talents, the greater the responsibility, and
consequently the folly of misusing them for
evil ends (1 Sam. xxvi. 21 ; 2 Sam. iii. 33 ;
xiii. 13 ; Ps. xiv. 1 ; cp. 2, 3, etc. ; Prov. xxvi.
10; Mat. V. 22). See Folly, Philosophy,
and Wisdom.

Fool'isli-ness.

The same as folly (2 Sam. xv. 31 ; Prov.
xxii. 15).

Foot 'man.

1. A soldier who marches and fights on
foot, in contradistinction to one on horseback
(Num. xi. 21 ; 2 Kin. xiii. 7; 1 Chron. xviii. 4).

2. A runner (1 Sam. xxii. 17).

For'est.

An extensive wood (Is. xliv. 14). One grew
on Lebanon, famed for its cedars and firs (1
Kin. vii. 2) ; another stretched from the Medi-
terranean Sea well into the hill country of
Ephraim (Josh. xvii. 1.5, 18) ; a third was in
Judah (1 Sam. xxii. 5) ; and a fourth existed
bevond Jordan near Mahanaim (2 Sam. xviii.
6-9).

For-tu-nat'us [fortunate].

One of three messengers, apparently from
Corinth, who reached Paul, and supplied
what was lacking on the part of the church
in that city (1 Cor. xvi. 17).

Foun'tain.

A spring arising from under a rock or a
bank, or welling U]) from the ground (Deut.
viii. 7). In the geography of Palestine it re-
quires to be carefully distinguished from mere
wells, pools, and cisterns. Strong fountains
are numerous in Palestine. They are the
permanent source of rivers, and give life and
fertility to the soil. Many towns are named
from them, as En-dor and the other com-
pounds of En. Figuratively, fountain symbol-
izes the permanent and inexhaustible source

Fountain Gate

228

Frontlet

of spiritual blessings (Ps. xxxvi. 9 ; Jer. ii. 13 ;
Kev. vii. 17: xxi. (i). Children are also de-
scribed as a fountain proceeding from the
parents (Deut. xxxiii. 28; Ps. Ixviii. 2(i).

Foun'tain Gate. See Jerusalem II. 3.

Fowl.

Any bird ((leu. i. 26 ; Lev. xi. 13-19).

Fowl'er.

One who catches birds by a net or other
snare (Ps. cxxiv. 7 ; Prov. vi. 5) ; hence figu-
ratively one who ensnares the innocent or
unwary, and takes their life, or lures them
to moral and spiritual ruin (Ps. xci. 3; cxxiv.
7 ; Hos. ix. H).

Fox.

An animal which dwells in holes iiVIat. viii.
20), especially among solitary ruins (Lam. v.
18), and is sly and careful for its own safety
(Luke xili. *32 ; Ezek. xiii. 4). Tristram
enumerates two species as occurring in Pales-
tine, the Egyptian fox {Vulpes nilotica), and
the tawny fox (Vulpes flave.scens). The farmer
is abundant in central and southern Pales-
tine, as well as east of the Jordan, and the
latter, which is somewliat larger, and may
perhaps be only a variety of the common
fox ( Vulpes vuhjaris), in the wooded parts of
the country.

Under the general name of fox, Shti'al, the
Hebrews, like the modern inhabitants of
Palestine, appear to have comjjreheuded the
jackal, which belongs to the dog family, al-
though they had a special name for the
jackal. The jackal is perhaps intended in
Judg. XV. 4 (cp. K. V. margin) ; for it abounds
in the lowland of Philistia, goes about by
night in bands, and spends the day as a pack
in some cave. It is thus easily caught ; where-
as the fox is a solitary animal and ditficnlt to
capture. The jackal also devours carrion
(Ps. Ixiii. 10), which the fox is loath to do.
The jackal eats fruit as well as flesh, and
may be intended in Song ii. 15, yet the fox
trami)les and destroys vineyards.

Frank'in-cense.

A fragrant gum of a tree (Ecclus. 1. 8;
Song iii. 6). It is white in color, as its He-
brew name iJbonah denotes. It was an in-
gredient in the holy anointing oil with which
priests were consecrated to their sacred func-
tions (Ex. XXX. 34). It was added with oil to
the meal offerings (Lev. ii. 1, 2, 15, 16, R. V.),
and ultimately burned (vi. 15). No frankin-
cense was added to sin otTerings (Lev. v. 11)
and offerings of jealousy (Num. v. 15). Pure
frankincense was poured upon the twelve
loaves of showbread (Lev. xxiv. 7 ; cp. also
] C'hron. ix. 29; Neh. xiii. 5). The drome-
daries of Midian, Ephah, and Sheba, brought
it to Palestine from Arabia (Is. Ix. 6; Jer. vi.
20). A hill of frankincense is mentioned in
the Song as existing apparently in Palestine
(Song iv. (i : cp. Ecc. ii. 5; Antiq. viii. 6, 6;
ix. 1. 2). Watt (Economic Products of India,
Vol. i. pp. 14, 15) considers that the true

frankincense of antiquity, the olibauum of
European commerce, comes from Boswellia
floribunda, oin; of the Amyridaceie (Amyrids),
growing in India, or from other species of
the genus, especially II. Carferi, B. Freremm,
and B. senuta, of which there are two va-

Frankinccnse (BoswclUa Carteri).

rieties, B. serrata proper, the B. thurifera of
Roxburgh, and the variety B. glabra. The
first and fourth species are Indian ; the sec-
ond and third occur on the Somali coast of
Africa and on the south coast of Arabia. The
frankincense itself is gum resin, which is
dry, consists of tears often an inch long,
with a balsamic odor, especially when burnt.
A poor quality, reddish in color, is obtained
in spring. The best quality is gotten later
and is white.

Frog.

An amphibious animal (Ex. viii. 3; Ps.
Ixxviii. 45; cv. 30; Rev. xvi. 13) ; probably,
in the former ]>assages, Eana punctata, the
dotted frog of Egypt.

Frontlet.

A band for the forehead ; then, figuratively,
the constant i)ublic exhibition of a trait or
obedience to a command (Ex. xiii. 16 ; Deut.
vi. 8, 9: xi. 18; cp. Prov. iii. 3). The in-
junction was interjjreted literally by the
later Jews; and in obedience to it, a small
box, divided into four compartments, each
with a short passage from the books of Moses,
was jdaced between the eyes and kept in po-
sition by a band or fillet encircling the head.
Frontlets were a kind of phylactery.

Fuller

229

Gad

FuU'er.

OiK' wliosf ocininitidii is either to full un-
dressed cloth, eleaiisiug it from oil aud j;reasc.
and rendering; it thick or<'oniiiact by theapiili-
cation of [ircssiire to it, or else chielly to thor-
oughly cleanse soiled garments (Mark ix. :i).
The clothing was steeiied in soaj) and water
(Mai. iii.'J) and trodden, as tlic Hel)rew name
denotes. Tlie fuller's fountain, En-rogel, was
situated to the southeast of .lerusalem. The
fuller's tield was near Jerusalem, and had
beside it a highway and the conduit of the
upper pool (Is. vii. :? ; xxxvi, 2), which was
so near tlie wall of tlie city that tlie Assyrian
ambassadors, standing there and speaking,
were licard and undi'rstood by the people on
the city wall (2 Kin. xviii. 17). The conduit
is commonly regarded as the channel which
conducts the water from the Birket Mamilla,
in the ujiper Hinnom valley northwest of
Jerusalem. int(j the city. If, however, the
conduit referred to is the tunnel connecting
the fountain of the Virgin with the pool of
Siloam. the fuller's field laj' near Eu-rogel.

Fur'long.

The rendering of the Greek noun Stadiou
(liUke xxiv. 13; John vi. 19; xi. 18; Eev. xiv.
20). The Greek stndion was 600 Greek and
606| English feet, or about I of a Roman mile.
It is a little less than an English furlong,
which is 660 English feet, or I of an English
mile. See Me.\sure.

Fur'nace.

1. An oven for smelting iron from the ore
(Deut. iv. '20: 1 Kin. viii. 51). See Iron.

2. A crucil)le for refining gold and silver,
and for melting gold, silver, brass, tin, and
lead (Prov. xvii. 3 ; Ezek. xxii. 20). See Smith.

3. A bake oven ; so in Neh. iii. 11 ; Is. xxxi.
9. See Bkeau.

G.

Ga'al [loathing].

A son of Ebed, and an antagonist of Abim-
elech, wliom the men of Shechem had made
king. During Abimelech's absence the She-
chemites dealt treacherously against him, and
set an ambush ft)r him in the mountains. At
this juncture Gaal. at the head of a band of
followers, came to the city, and having gained
the confidence of its inhabitants, began to
vilify him publicly and to assume authority.
Zebul, Abimelech's governor in Shechem,
sent him word of what was going on, and ad-
vised him to lay an ambush against the city
by night, and attack the rebels in the morn-
ing. The assault was successful. Gaal was
driven out, but was neither captured nor
slain (Judg. ix. 26-41).

Ga'ash [trembling, earthquake].

A hill in the hill country of Ei»hraim, south
of Tinniath-serah (.Tosh. xxiv. .'50; Judg. ii.
9 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 30 ; 1 Chrou. xi. .32). Exact
situation unknown.

Ga'ba. See Geba.

Gab'bai [tax gatherer].

A I'.injamite who consented to live in Je-
rus;tlem after the captivity (Neh. xi. 8).

Gab'ba-tha [an elevated i)lace].

Tlie equivalent in Aramaic of the Greek
word L'lthostnituH, a pavt'ment of tessellateil
Work (John xix. 131, On it stood the public
tribunal on which Tontius Pilate siit to decide
cases. Probablv it was an open space in front
of Herod's palace (cp. War ii. 14, 8). There
is no reason to believe that Pilate, like Ciesar
on his campaigns, carried a trans])ortal>li^
pavement about with him, which he laid
wherever he wished to erect his tribunal.

Ga'bri-el [man of God].

An angel of high rank sent to interpret a
vision to the prophet Daniel (Dan. viii. 16-
27). He was commissioned again to visit the
prophet to give him skill and understand-
ing, and reveal to him the proi)hecy of the
seventy weeks (ix. 16-27). At a long subse-
quent period he was dispatched to Jerusalem
to announce to Zacharias the birth of John
the Baptist (Luke i. 11-22), and to Xazareth
to hail the Virgin Mary as chosen to the high
privilege of being mother of the Messiah (26-
31). Gabriel described himself as habitually
standing in the presence of God (19). Thence,
doubtless, he departed at longer or shorter
intervals to carry the divine messages to and
from this earth or other worlds.

Gad [good fortune].

1. A sou of Jacob by Zilpah, Leah's hand-
maid. At his birth Leah said, " Fortunate !''
and she called his name Gad (Gen. xxx. 10,
11 ; cp. 13, R. v.). Jewish tradition adopted
a difl'erent reading from the text, and made
Leah say, " A troop or fortune ctimeth." Jacob
prophesied : " Gad, a troop shall press upon
him: but he shall pre-ss upon their heel''
(Gen, xlix. 19, R. V.). Moses blessed God
who enlarged Gad, and praised the valor of
the tribe and its fidelity to duty (Deut. xxxiii.
20, 21). Gad had seven sons (Gen. xlvi. 16),
each of whom, with the possible exception of
Ezbon, founded a tribal family (Num. xxvi.
15-18).

2. The tribe of which Gad was the pro-
genitor, the Gadites (Num. i. 14 ; Deut. xxvii.
13 ; Ezek. xlviii. 27, 28, 34). At the first cen-
sus in the wilderness the Gadites capable of
bearing arms were 45,650 (Num. i. 24, 25) ;
at the second there were 40,500 (xxvi. 15-
It^). Valiant Gadites joined David at Ziklr.g
(1 Chron. xii. 8). The territory occupied by
the tribe was east of the Jordan, and was as-
signed them by Moses, but with the proviso
that, before finally settling down in it, the
warriors of the tribe should cross the river
with their brethren, and give assistance in
the conquest of Ganaan (Num. xxxii. 21-32 .
The territory of the Gadites was situated be-
tween that of Reuben on the south and the
half tribe of Manasseh on the north. It in-
cluded the southern part of mount Gilead

Gadarenes

230

Galatia

from the Jabbok southward to Heshbon, and
from the vicinity of Eal)))ath-ammou on the
east westward to the Jordan valley. In the
valley it took in the entire eastern bank from
IJeth-nimrah, near the northern end of the
Dead Sea, to the lake of Genuesaret (Josh,
xiii. 24-28; Deut. iii. 12, 16, 17). The country
was adapted to pasturage (Num. xsxii. 1-4).
Kamotli in C4ilead was in the territory of
Gad, and was appointed a city of refuge (Josh.
XX. 8). 2 Sam. xxiv. 5 probably means that
the enumerators passed from the Arnon to-
ward Gad and unto Jazer.

3. A prophet, David's seer, who, when
David was in the cave of Adullam, advised
him to quit that place of refuge and seek
safety elsewhere (1 Sam. xxii. 5), and who
later gave the king the option from God of
three kinds of punishment for his having
numbered the ])eople (2 Sam. xxiv. 11-14).
He aided in arranging the musical service
of the sanctuary (2 (Jhron. xxis. 25), and he
wrote an account of David's reign (1 Chrou.
xxix. 29).

4. Perhaps a heathen deity was known by
the name of Gad, for Isaiah rei)resents the
Israelites as engaging in idolatrous worship,
and setting a table for Fortune [Hebrew Gad]
and filling up mingled wine unto Fate [He-
brew Meni] (Is. Ixv. 11, R. V.).

6ad-a-renes'.

Natives or inhabitants of Gadara, which
Josephus calls the metropolis of Pertea and a
place of strength, adding that it had wealthy
inhabitants (War iv. 7, 3). He also describes
it as a Greek city (Antiq. xvii. 11, 4). Eu-
sebius places it east of the Joi-dan, nearly op-
posite to Tiberias and Scy thopolis. It has been
identifiedasUmmKeis, about 5i English miles
southeast from the southern side of the sea
of Galilee, with the river Yarmiik between.
There are remains of two theaters, a ceme-
tery with rock-hewn tombs, and sarcophagi,
the former cut in the limestone rocks, the
latter made of basalt. The hot springs be-,
longing to Gadara are north of the Yarmuk,
while Umm Keis lies to the south of that river.
Gadarenes is the reading approved by textual
criticism in Mat. viii. 28 (cp. Mark v. 1 ; Luke
viii. 26, 37, A. V.). See Gekgesenes.

The designation " counti-y of the Gada-
renes " may perhaps have been used by the
evangelist in a broad, general sense and have
been adopted because Gadara was a well-
known city, and sufficiently indicated the
locality.

Gad'di [fortunate].

The spy who represented the tribe of Ma-
nasseh in the exploration of Canaan (Num.
xiii. 11).

Gad'di-el [God hath given fortune].
The spy representing Zebulun in the ex-
ploration of Canaan (Num. xiii. 10).

Ga'di [a Gadite].

Father of king Menahem (2 Kin. xv. 14).

Ga'ham [flaming, burnt].

A sou of Nahor and Eeumah (Gen. xxii. 24).

Ga'har [hiding place] .

Head of a family of Nethinim w'ho returned
from captivity (Ezra ii. 47; Neh. vii. 49).

Ga'ius [a common Eomau name, sometimes
written Cams].

1. A Macedonian, one of Paul's companions
in travel who were dragged into the amphi-
theater during the riot at Ephesus (Acts xix.
29).

2. A man of Derbe, who accompanied Paul
into Asia Minor on his last journey thither
(Acts XX. 4).

3. A Christian of Corinth, baptized by Paul,
noted for hospitality to his fellow Christians
(Rom. xvi. 23; 1 Cor. i. 14). Perhaps he was
the person to whom John addressed his third
epistle {',> John 1).

Gal'a-ad. See Gilead.
Ga'lal [a rolling, as e. g., the rolling of
one's way on the Lord].

1. A Levite (1 Chron. ix. 15).

2. Another Levite, the son of Jeduthun
(1 Chron. ix. 16 ; Neh. xi. 17).

Ga-la'tia.

A district of central Asia Minor, bounded
on the north by Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and
Pontus, on the east by Poutus and Cappa-
docia, on the south by Cappadocia and Ly-
caonia, on the west byPhrygia and Bithynia.
Its name was derived from the fact that cer-
tain Gallic tribes, after having about 280
B. c. invaded Macedonia and Greece, mi-
grated to Asia Minor and received this ter-
ritory from Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, in
return for services rendered him in war.
Other Gallic tribes passed onward through
central Europe, finally settling in Gaul, i. e.
France. The Gauls were commonly called
Galatai by the Greeks. The chief cities of
Galatia were Pessinus, Ancyra, and Tavium.
The territory, however, varied in size at
different times according to the fortunes of
war. In 189 B. c. the Galatians were sub-
dued by the Romans, but retained their self-
government, and were favored by their con-
querors, since they were valuable allies.
Hence under their last king, Amyutas, their
territory was much extended to the south,
so as to include part of Phrygia, Pisidia, Ly-
caonia, and Isauria ; and, after the death of
Amyntas (25 B. c), this enlarged region be-
came the Roman province of Galatia. In 7
B. c. Paphlagonia and part of Pontus were
added on the north, and after A. D. 63 other
territorial changes were frequently made.
During the travels of Paul therefore the
term Galatia was applicable both to the orig-
inal Galatic territory and to the large Ro-
man province. In which sense it is used in
Acts xvi. 6 (where the A. V. has " when they
had gone throughout Phrygia and the region
of Galatia," and the R. V. "they went
through the region of Phrygia and Galatia,"
but which Prof. Ramsay translates " thej'

Galatians

231

Galbanum

went through the Phrygo-CJahitic region "),
and in Acts xviii. 23 (wliieh transhition is
open to simihir ditlerences of opinion), and
in Paul's epistle to the " churches of Gala-
tia," is disputed. If Galatia meant the Ko-
nian province, then Paul evangelized it on
his first missionary journey (Acts xiii., xiv.)
in company with Barnabas. If it meant the
old territory of Galatia, then he evangelized
it on his second journey (Acts xvi. (>). The
churches of Galatia are also mentioned in
1 Cor. xvi. 1. In 2 Tim. iv. 10 we read that
(_'rescens had gone to Galatia, which, hov^--
ever, many think meant Gaul (now France).
1 Peter was addressed to the Christians of
Galatia among others (i. l),and there Galatia
clearly means the Koman jnovince. There
are, however, serious difficulties in so under-
standing it in The Acts and in the Epistle to
the Galatians. G. T. p.

Ga-la'tians, E-pis'tle to the.

A letter addressed to the churches of Gala-
tia (i. 2), showing that there were a number
of them in dilierent parts of the territory.
What churches are thus described depends
on the meaning we attach to the term Gala-
tia (q. v.). The date of the epistle also turns
on this point. If Galatia be the Roman prov-
ince, and the churches of Galatia tho.'ie found-
ed on Paul's tirst journey (Acts xiii., xiv.),
then the epistle was probably written toward
the latter part, or at the close, of Paul's sec-
ond journey, since Gal. iv. 13 ("the first
time," R. V.) implies that he had visited
them twice, and since it seems necessary to
date the epistle later than those to the Thes-
salonians. If. however, Galatia means Gala-
tia proper, and if it was evangelized on the
second journey (Acts xvi. 6), then the epistle
could not have been written before the apos-
tle's sojourn in Ephesus, since Acts xviii. 23
mentions his second visit, on this interpreta-
tion, to Galatia. Most scholars take this latter
Yiew, and date the epistle in A. D. 55 or 56.
Others, however. i)ut it still later, thinking
that its resemblances to Romans show that
it was written shortly before that epistle, say
in the winter of 57-58. Whatever its readers
and date, it was occasioned by the operations
of certain Judaiziug teachers among the Ga-
latians, who assailed Paul's authority, and
taught the necessity of observing the Mosaic
laws. They declared that Paul, not being
one of the original apostles, was dependent
on others for his knowledge of the gospel.
They seem also to have charged him with
being himself inconsistent in his preaching
of gentile freedom from the law. They also
attacked his doctrine, and persuaded his con-
verts to adopt .Jewish observances. The very
gospel being thus at stake, Paul wrote this
epistle with great intensity of feeling and
vigorous argument. After the introduction
(i. 1-10), in which he opens the subject of
their error in listening to false teachers, and
■vehemently asserts the divineness of the gos-

pel which he had jjreached, he defends his
ajjostolic authority (i. 11-ii. 21) as given di-
rectly by Christ and not dependent on man.
He also shows that the Jerusalem church
and the original apostles agreed with his
position (ii. 1-10), and that (ii. 11-21) he had
never changed his teaching, even when Peter
at Antioeli had seemed by his conduct to op-
pose it. In chap. iii. and iv. he defends his
doctrine of justification by faith alone, ap-
pealing in proof to their own experience of
salvation through faith (iii. 1-5), to the teach-
ing of Scripture (iii. 0-2!)), to the analogy of
souship and its rights under the civil law
(iv. 1-11), to their personal afl'ectiou for him-
self (iv. 12-20), and to the illustration which
the narrative of Genesis provided in the
account of Hagar and Sarah and their sons
(iv. 21-31). In v.-vi. 10 he applies the doc-
trine of freedom from the law, bidding them
to maintain, yet not to abuse, their liberty,
and to exerci.sc it with meekness and a sense
of responsibility. Vi. 11-18 is a conclusion,
probably in the apostle's own handwriting
(see ver. 11 in R. V.), in which he summarizes
the substance of his instruction. This epis-
tle is the magna charta of Christian liberty.
It is of special value also for the details it
gives about the apostle's life. Its harmony
withtheaccountinThe Acts of Paul's life, and
of his relation to the church, has been much
contested, but may be completely proved.
The epistle proves also that the older apos-
tles were in accord with Paul, though to him
was allotted the work among the gentiles. It
gives in briefer outline, and with special ap-
plication, the same scheme of salvation and
the same view of the Hebrew dispensation
which is more elaborately and calmly pre-
sented in the Epistle to the Romans. All men
being under law, and condemned as sinners
by the law, salvation is impossible by the
works of the law. Christ alone can save,
since he has by liis death met the claims of
the law against those who believe. The law
was neA'er intended to save, but to be a
schoolmaster (i. e. a slave who led children
to school) to bring us to Christ. By faith
Abraham was saved, and by faith alone do
we become children of Abraham, partakers
of the blessing and heirs of the promise.
Judaism, as a method of salvation, was there-
fore a misinterpretation even of the O. T.,
and the distinction between Jew and gentile
has been done away. The declaration of
these truths made Christianity a world re-
ligion instead of a Jewish sect. g. t. p.

Gal'ba-num.

A fragrant spice (Ex. xxx. 34 ; Ecclus. xxiv.
15), in Hebrew Ilelh'nah. in Greek Chalbane.
The Greek and Roman Galbanum was a gum
brought from Persia. It is generally sup-
posed to have come from two umbelliferous
plants. Ferula galbaniflna and F. rubricauUs.
The Levant galbanum of European com-
merce is a ditferent plant. The umbellif-

Galeed

232

Galilee

eroiis plant from which it comes is imper-
fectly known.

Gal'e-ed [heap of witness].

A cairn erected by Jacob iu mount Gilead,
north of the Jabbok. The exact situation is
unknown. It was between the respective
homes of Laban and Jacob, and was intended
as a memorial of the covenant concluded be-
tween them there, that neither would pass
that place to do the other injury (Gen. xxxi.
45-54) ; see Mizpah. The two names Gilead
and Galeed are never confused in Hebrew.
Their pronunciation is ditlerent; and the
former is a common noun rather than a
proper name, and took the definite article.

Gal'ga-la, in E. V. Gilgal.

A place (1 Mac. ix. 2), presumably one of
the towns known as Gilgal.

Gal-i-lse'an.

A native or inhabitant of Galilee (Mark
xiv. 70; Luke xiii. 1).

Gal'i-lee [Hebrew g((lH, circle,
region, district].

Oi-iginally a district in the hill
country of Naphtali (2 Kin. xv.
29; 1 Chron. vi. 76), Kedesh being
one of its cities (Josh. xx. 7 ; xxi.
.32). The twenty unimportant
towns given by Solomon to Hiram
were iu the land of (ralilee (1 Kin.
ix. 11). In this region many of
the Canaanites remained (Judg. i.
30-3.3 ; iv. 5), and the expression
" Galilee of the nations " or " gen-
tiles" implies that the district or
region so called was inhabited
chiefly by a non-Jewish popula-
tion (Is. ix. 1 ; cp. 1 Mac. v. 15 and
Mat. iv. 15). The name Galilee
gradually extended until it in-
cluded the countrj' as far south
as the plain of Esdraelon (1 Mac.
v. 55; X. 30; xii. 47, 49). Many
of its inhabitants had been car-
ried away, especially during the
Assyrian wars (2 Kin. xv. 29; 1
Kin. XV. 20), and the few Jews
who settled in Galilee after the
return were taken to Judpea by
Simon Maccabpeus about 1(34 b. c.
(1 Mac. V. 23) ; but Galilee soon
after became thoroughly Jewish.
It formed part of the kingdom of
Herod the Great, and on his death
passed under the authority of
Herod the tetrarch. It was the
most northerly of the three i)rov-
inces west of the Jordan into which
(if Phoenicia be ignored) Palestine
was divided in the times of the
Romans. At the period of the
Jewish war, a. d. 70, it was di-
vided into Upper and Lower Gal-
ilee, and was bounded on the north by Ty-
rian territory, on the south by the north-
ern boundary line of Samaria and Scj^th-

opolis to the Jordan, on the east by Hippene,
Gadaris, Gaulonitis, and the kingdom of
Agrippa ; that is, by the Jordan and its lakes,
and on the west by Phojuicia. Lower Galilee
lay to the south of Upper Galilee, and ex-
tended from Tiberias to near Ptolemais, now
Acre, on the Mediterranean Sea (War iii. 3, 1 ;
Life 13, 14, 37; cp. also Judith i. 8). It was
at that time densely jiopulated. It furnished
an army of 100,000 men (War ii. 20, (i). There
were 240 cities and villages within the limits
of the two Galilees (Life 45). The smallest
of them, it is incorrectly stated elsewhere,
had 15,000 inhabitants (War iii. 3, 2). The
largest city was Sepphoris, and the largest
village Jajiha (Life 45). The mixture of
races tended to jiroduce a distinct accent or
even dialect (Mark xiv. 70 ; Luke xxii. 59 ;
cp. Acts ii. 7). The people also was sup-
posed to be one which never would produce
a prophet (John vii. 41, 52). Nevertheless,
nearly all the apostles of Jesus were natives

I a 3

S,-a/o of Mile.

of Galilee, and he himself was brought u}i in
it. In his maturer years he made it the chief
scene of his ministry, for on its eastern limits.

Galilee, Sea of

233

Galilee, Sea of

was the lake of Geuucsaret, or sea of Gali-
lee, while within its area were Chorazin,
Bethsaida, Qiperiiauin, Naiu, Caua of (iali-
lee, aud Nazareth itself. Galilee is about 60
miles long by 25 broad ; it is generally moun-
tainous, with fertile valleys between. Its
scenery is picturesque. Lower Galilee, which
is divided from Upper Galilee on a line run-
ning almost due west from the northern end
of the lake to Acre, is really at a less eleva-
tion above the sea level than I'pper Galilee,
its mountains being all under l?o<J feet high.
It is a corn-growing country. The higher
province has summits of -JOOu" 3000, and 4000
feet altitude. It is characterized by olive
groves.

It is enclosed by hills, save where the Jor-
dan enters and leaves. The hills on the
eastern side rise to the height of 1000 feet
and more : those on the western side toward
the southern end of the lake are of like
character, but toward the northwest they are
lower and less steep. It is designated a sea,
from its considerable extent, though its water
is fresh. Its length from the entrance to the
exit of the Jordan is 12i miles : its greatest
breadth, which is opposite to ilagdala, is 74
miles. Its eastern side is destitute of con-
spicuous indentations, while on the western
side there is a swelling bay extending from
Tell Hum on the north to Tiberias on the
south. The depression of the surface of the

Southern End of Sea ui

Gal'i-lee, Sea of.

A fresh-water lake, fed by the river Jor-
dan. It was called originally the sea of Chin-
nereth (Num. xxxiv. 11), later the lake of
Grennesaret (Luke v. 1 : Antiq. xviii. 2. 1 ;
cp. xiii. .5. 7 : 1 Mac. xi. 67), and sea of Galilee
or Tiberias (John vi. 1; xxi. 1). The latter
name is preserved in the Arabic form Bahr
Tabariya.

lake below that of the Mediterranean is 662.5
feet. Lying so low, it has a semitropical cli-
mate, and the ice-crowned Hermon being at
no great distance, sudden and violent storms
at times rush down the mountain slope and
terminate on the lake. The water abounds
in fish. Tristram enumerates twenty-two
si)ecies; two of Blenuiidie. seven of Chro-
midse, one of Sihiridie, and twelve of Cy-

Galilee, Sea of

234

Gall

Sea of Galilee from below Tiberias, with Heriuou in the distance.

prinidse. Some are called after biblical per-
sonages, viz., Chromis Andrew. C. Siinonis. and
C. Maiidaleme. The best fish for the table of
all now in the lake are the sheattish ( Chirias
macracanthus) and the barbel {Burhns lomji-
ceps). The sheattish belongs to the same fam-
ily as the American catfisli, and attains a
length of three feet. It is called by Josephus
Cor acinus ; and as it occurs in tlie Upper Nile
also, a copious spring by the lake was sup-
posed to be a vein of the Nile (War iii. 10, 8).

Fish of the Sea of Galilee (Chromis Simo7iis).

The most abundant fish is Chromis tiheriadis.
Tri.stram has seen them in shoals of over an
acre in extent, so closely packed that it
seemed impossible for them to move. Their
dorsal fins, rising above the water, give it at
a distance an appearance as if a heavy shower

were pattering on one spot of the glassy lake.
These fishes are taken both in boats and from
the shore in nets. Of course, most of the
fishes of the lake are found in the .Jordan
and its tributaries also. For illustrations of
the shore of the lake, see Capernaum, Gen-
NESARKT, and Magdala.

Gall [remotely from Greek chole, bile].

1. The bitter secretion of the liver, bile
(Jol) xvi. 13; XX. 2.5). In Hebrew M'rerah
and M'rornh, as being fluid or bitter. The
poison of asps was anciently l)elieved to come
from their bile (xx. 14). Venomous, malig-
nant feeling against what is good was called
the gall of bitterness (Acts viii. 23).

2. A poisonous, bitter herb (Deut. xxix.
18 ; xxxii. 32, 33 : Ps. Ixix. 21), called in He-
brew Rosh, in Greek Chole. It grew up spon-
taneously in the furrows of fields (Hos. x. 4,
where the English versions translate it hem-
lock, though in all other passages they call it
gall). It was associated in rhetorical lan-
guage with wormwood (Deut. xxix. 18). A
sore punishment was likened to a drink of
gall water (.Ter. viii. 14 ; ix. 1.5 ; xxiii. 15). A
stupefying drink, made of wine mingled with
gall, was mercifully oti'ered to .Tesus at the
place of crucifixion (Mat. xxvii. 34). The
characteristics do not well agree with hem-
lock, which is not Iiitter, nor with tlie poppy.
They suit the colocynth. which, however, is
called in the Bible the wild gourd.

Gallery

235

Games

Gal'ler-y.

A long room or corridor, or a partial story
in a building (Ezek. xli. 15, 16 ; xlii. 3, 5). A
dilferi'ut Hebrew word, rendered galleries in
A. V. of Song vii. 5. doubtless uieaus tresses,
as it is translated in K. V.

Gal'ley,

A low Hat-built vessel with one or more
bauks, i. e. rows of oars (Is. xxxiii. 21 ; 2 Mac.
iv. -JO).

Gal'lim [beaps].

1. A village near Gibcab of Suul and Ana-
thotli (Is. X. 29, 30), ai)pai'ently not a great
distance from Baburim (1 Sam. xxv. 44 ; 2
Sam. iii. lo-llj).

2. A town of .Tudab called Gallim, men-
tioned by tbe Septuagiut in a group witli
Tekoa, Betblebem, Etam. and especially iu
connection witb towns soutliwest of Jerusa-
lem (Josb. XV. between 59 and 60).

Gal'li-o.

Koman proconsul of Acbaia at the time of
Paul's first visit to Corinth. His original
name was Marcus Annans Novatus; but he
was adopted into the family of Lucius Junius
Gallio, and took the name Junius Annseus
Gallio. He was tbe brother of the Eomau
philosopher Seneca, and, like him, was put
to death by tbe emperor Nero. When the
Jews, maddened by tbe suc-
cess of Paul at Corinth, drag-
ged him before tbe procon-
sul's tribunal, Gallio refused
to take notice of religious
questions, and summarily
dismissed the case. He re-
mained equally indifferent
■when the riotous Jews took
Sosthenes, the ruler of tbe
synagogue, evidently one of
Paul's converts, and beat
him before tbe judgment
seat (Acts xviii. 12-17).

Gal'lows.

Haman had a gallowsmade
fiftv cubits high, on which to
haiig Mordecai ( Estb. v. 14, R. V. margin tree).
Hanging by a rope about tbe throat was not
a Persian nietbod of punishment. Haman no
doubt intended to impale Mordecai (cp. ii.
23: Herod, iii. 159).

Ga-ma'U-el [God's reward].

1. Son of Pedahzur and bead of the tribe
of Manasseh in the wilderness (Num. i. 10 ;
ii. 20 ; vii. 54, .59).

2. A member of tbe Jewish sanhedrin, of
the Pharisee sect, and a doctor of the law,
held in high reputation by tbe Jewish peo-
lile. He showed bis superiority to his col-
leagues in counseling them not to persecute
Peter and the other apostles, on the ground
that if their work were simply man's, it would
finally come to nothing, even if they took no
measures against it ; while if it were from
God and they persecuted it, they would be

fighting against God, and the inevitable issue
would be their defeat (Acts v. 34-39). Gama-
liel bad Paul for one of bis pupils, and taught
him .hidaism most etlectively (xxii. 3). Tra-
dition, as embodied in tlu^ Talmud, makes
(lamaliel the grandson of tbe celebrated
rabbi Hillel. It states also that Gamaliel
long presided over tbe sanhedrin, which is
improbable, for at this time the i)residency
was held by the high i)riests. He died about
A. D. 50.

Games.

In tbe N. T. there are numerous allusions,
more or less clear, to the games of ancient
Greece. Tbe most imjjortant of these were
four in number : the Olympic games, at Olym-
pia, in tlie district of Elis. in the Pelopon-
nesus ; tbe Pythian games, at Delphi, in
Phocis; the Nemean games, at Argos, in Ar-
golis, in the Peloponnesus; and the Isthmian
games, on the isthmus of Corinth. The con-
tests carried on were chariot, horse, and foot
racing, quoiting, boxing, wrestling, hurling
the sx>ear. The intending comjietitors went
through a long course of severe training. Im-
mense multitudes were spectators of their skill,
and though tbe direct rewards of tbe victors
were but slight, tbe honor given to them by
their fellow citizens and countrymen was be-
yond measure great. Similar games were in-

Grecian Games of Pulling and Wrestling.

troduced into Judsea by hellenizing Jews in
the reign of Antiocbus Epiphanes, and were
fostered by Herod tbe Great (1 IMac. i. 10, 14 ;
Antiq. xv'. 8, 1) ; see Gymna.sium. As the
Isthmian games were held iu tbe vicinity of
Corinth, and the other three at no great dis-
tance, it is natural for Paul's two epistles to
the Corinthians to contain metaphors or com-
parisons borrowed from the games. In 1 Cor.
ix. 24-27 there is allusion to the training of
a competitor in the games, to running, and
to fighting, the object in view being to gain
a prize. There are scattered allusions of a
similar kind through other eT>i.stles (Gal. ii.
2 ; v. 7 ; Phil. ii. 16 ; iii. 14 : 2 Tim. ii. 5). In
Hebrews there is a notable passage (xii. 1, 2).
The vast multitude of men and women who
have borne testimony to their faith iu God
is likened to the immense concourse of spec-

Gammadim

236

Garrison

tators at a foot race. The competitor lays
aside every weight to make himself lighter,
and the long flowing garment, which else
would beset him and perhaps throw him
down. He requires patience to go forward
perseveringly, but obtains it by looking at
the umpire seated at the end of the course,
ready to confer the prize if it be fairly won.
Every one of these details had a distinct
spiritual reference, which would come home
with great power to every reader of the ei)is-
tle who had seen any of the Grecian games.

Gam'ma-dim, in A. V. improperly Gam-
madims [valorous men].

Certain brave people who garrisoned the
towers of Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 11).

Ga'mul [recompensed].

A descendant of Aaron whose family in
David's reign was made the twenty-second
course of the priests (1 Chrou. xxiv. 17).

Gar'den.

The first garden of which we read in Scrip-
ture was that of Eden, which God caused to
grow for man in his state of innocence (Gen.
ii. 8-iii. 24; Ezek. xxviii. 13; xxxi. 8, 9).
Gardens, specially of herbs, were watered by
the foot in Egypt with water obtained from
the Nile (Deut. xi. 10). The reference is prob-
ably to irrigation by means of a wheel over
which an endless rope with buckets passed,
and which was turned by the foot. Artificial
irrigation was practiced in Palestine also (Ecc.
ii. 6 ; Is. Iviii. 11 ; Jer. xxxi. 12), Ahab desired
to have a garden of herbs near his palace at
Jezreel, and it was to obtain land for the
purpose that he coveted Naboth's vineyard
(1 Kin. xxi. 2). Lilies and other flowers
were cultivated in gardens (Song v. 1 ; vi. 2).
So also were fruit trees (Jer. xxix. 5, 28 ;
Amos. ix. 14). The garden of Gethsemane
seems, from its name, to have been planted
mainly with olive trees, and to have had a
press in it wherewith to express the oil from
their fruit. There was a royal garden at
Jerusalem (2 Kin. xxv. 4), another at Etam
near Bethlehem (Antic], viii. 7, 'S; cp. Song
vi. 11 ; Ecc. ii. 5), another in the palace at
Shushan (Esth. i. 5). To protect gardens
against depredators they were enclosed with
fences (Song iv. 12 ; Is. v. 2, 5), and occa-
sionally a lodge was placed within them, at-
tended by a watcher (Is. i. 8). In the seclu-
sion and coolness of gardens people walked
(Hist, of Susanna i. 7), sometimes bathed (15),
spread repasts (Esth. i. 5), engaged in devo-
tion (Mat. xxvi. 36), practiced idolatrous rites
(Is. i. 29; Ixv. 3; Ixvi. 17; rp. 2 Kin. xvi. 4),
and occasionally buried their dead (John xix.
41).

Ga'reb [rough, scabby].

1. An Ithrite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 38 ; 1 Chron. xi. 40).

2. A hill near Jerusalem on the west (Jer.
xxxi. 39 ; cp. 38, 40). Exact situation un-
known.

Garlic.

A bulbous plant resembling the onion, and
in Hebrew called from its odor .S'/(wm. It was
much eaten in Egypt (Herod, ii. 125), and
the Israelites when there used it for food
(Num. xi. 5). It is AlUiott safirnni, of the
same genus as the onion, but with moi'e taste
and scent than that esculent. It is a native
of central Asia, is grown largely in the Medi-
terranean region, and is eaten by the com-
mon people as a relish to their bread.

Gar'ment. See Clothing.

Gar'mite [pertaining to Gerem, or bony].

An ajipellation of probably the father of
Keilah (1 Chron. iv. 19).

Gar'ner.

A place for storing grain, a granary (Ps.
cxliv. 13 ; Joel i. 17; Mat. iii. 12).

Gar'nish.

To adorn, to decorate with ornamental ad-
ditions (2 Chron. iii. 6 ; Job xxvi. 13; Mat. xii.
44; xxiii. 29; Luke xi. 25; Eev. xxi. 19).

Gar'ri-son.

A military post ; a body of troops stationed
in a fort (1 Sam. xiv. 1, 15 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 14-
16 ; 2 Cor. xi. 32). A difiereut Hebrew word
from that used in the foregoing passages from
the O. T. is also rendered garrison by the Vul-
gate and English versions in 1 Sam. x. 5 ; xiii.
3. But this word certainly means a pillar in
Gen. xix. 26, and an officer stationed at a
place in 1 Kin. iv. 19. What does it mean in
1 Sam. X. 5; xiii. 3? There is no authority
for rendering it by garrison except that that
meaning yields good sense in these and some
other passages. The author of the Books of
Samuel, however, uses a difierent word for
garrison. Pillar is suitable in the first of
these passages. If this is the true meaning,
then the Philistines had erected memorial
columns in the land of Israel as monuments
of their victory or dominion, such as the He-
brews set up at Mizjiah (1 Sam. vii. 12). It
was quite customary for conquerors to erect
memorials in the conquered country. Egyp-
tian and Assyrian kings carved records of
their conquests on the clifi" at tlie Nahr el-
Kelb near Beirut, which were never efiaced,
not even when the Phoenicians regained their
independence, but exist to this day. Driver
believes that the word means pillar in xiii. 3
also, and cites Amos ix. 1 in proof that Jona-
than could be said to have smitten a pillar.
But as the word means oflicer in 1 Kin. iv.
19, as this attested meaning yields good sense,
not only in 1 Sam. x. 5 and xiii. 3, but also
in 2 Sam. viii. 6, 14, and as a difierent word is
evidentlj' used to denote a garrison, it is better
to believe that the author of the double Book
of Samuel always uses it in the sense of oflicer.
The smiting of a Philistine oflicer by Jona-
than was an act of rebellion and a just cause
of war. It was so regarded by the Philis-
tines. His overthrow of a pillar would have
been a mere act of wanton violence, unless

Gashmu

237

Gaza

there was a body of Philistines posted iu its
vicinity to i)rote(t it iVoin desecration ; and
it was not customary to yiiard such monu-
ments.

Gash'mu. See Geshkm.

Ga'tam [jniuy].

A descendant of Eliphaz (Gen. xxxvi. 11 ;
1 Cliron. i. 3tj), and chief of a tribe of the
sons of Esau (Geu. xxxvi. Ki).

Gate.

In walled cities or palaces a gate was es-
sential for the egress and ingress of the in-
habitants, and for defense against the en-
trance of an enemy. It was often protected
by a strong tower {2 Chron. xxvi. 9), indeed
the gateway frequently led through the
tower. There were bars to place across tlie
gates, and render them stronger against as-
sault (Dent. iii. 5 ; 1 Kin. iv. 13 ; 2 Chron.
viii. 5 ; xiv. 7). The gate was a place of pub-
lic concourse where business was carried on
(1 Kin. xxii. 10 ; 2 Kin. vii. 1 ; Ezek. xi. 1) ;
legal transactions conducted and witnessed
(Gen. xxiii. 10, 18 ; Ruth iv. 1-11) ; cases tried
and judgment pronounced (Deut. xxi. 19 ;
xxii. 1."); XXV. 7-9; Job xxxi. 21; Amos v.
15). There were gates in the enclosures
connected with the mansions of the aristoc-
racy (Luke xvi. 20), where love of magnifi-
cence and displav found expression (Prov.
xvii. 19).

Gatli [wine press].

One of the five great Philistine cities (Josh,
xiii. 3 ; Judg. iii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi. 17 ; vii. 14 ; xvii.
52). It was noted as the residence of a remnant
of the Anakim, men of great stature (Josh. xi.
22; cp. Num. xiii. 33; Dent. ii. 10, 11). To
this race, Goliath and the other gigantic war-
riors i)robably belonged (1 Sam. xvii. 4 ; 2
Sam. xxi. 15-22 ; 1 Chron. xx. 4-8). The town
was cai)tured by David (1 Chron. xviii. 1).
During Solomon's reign, it had a king of its
own who was probably subject to the king at
Jerusalem (1 Kin. ii. 39, 42). It was fortified
by Eehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 8), but soon again
reverted to the Philistines. It Mas captured
by Hazael (2 Kin. xii. 17). Uzziah broke
down its wall (2 Chron. xxvi. 6) ; and hence-
forth it drops out of history. Micah, indeed,
names it, but he uses an ancient form of
speech (i. 10; cp. 2 Sam. i. 20). When after-
wards the Philistine cities are mentioned,
Gath is missing (.Jer. xxv. 20; Zeph. ii. 4;
Zech. ix. 5) ; and it is not referred to in Mac-
cabees, nor by Josephus, when he relates
events subsequent to the year 750 b. c. Nu-
merous theories have been offered as to its
site. It has been located — 1. Near the sea;
at Yebnah (so the Crusaders) ; 2. In or on the
border of the Shephelah, at Beit Jibrin: or
Deir Dubban. 4i miles north of Beit Jibrin;
or Kefr Dikkerin, 4 miles to the northwest
of Beit Jibrin : or, following the same high-
way 4 miles farther, at Tell es-Safiyeh on the
vale of Elah, at the junction of the She-
phelah with the maritime plain ; or Tell Zaka-

riya, 5 miles east up the valley. All that is
known is that Gath lay inland, on the bor-
ders of the Hebrew territory, and in a sense
between Ashdod and Ekron, but ai>jiarently
southwest of the latter town and nearer the
mountains (1 Sam. v. 8; vii. 14; xvii. 52).

GatL-he'pher, in A. V. once through mis-
apprehension Git-tah-he'plier [wine press
of the well].

A town on the boundary line of Zebnlun
(Josh. xix. 13). It was the birthplace of the
prophet Jonah (2 Kin. xiv. 25). In Jerome's
day it existed as a small village, 2 Roman
miles east of Sei)iilioris. This location cor-
responds with the village of el-Meshhed or
Meshhad, 3 miles northeast of Nazareth.
Here one of Jonah's tombs exists, its chief
rival being at the site of ancient Nineveh.

Gath-rim'mon [pomegranate press].

1. A town on the boundary line of the tribe
of Dan (Josh. xix. 45), assigned to the Koha-
thite Levites (xxi. 24; 1 Chron. vi. 69). Ex-
act site unknown.

2. A town in Manasseh west of the Jordan,
assigned to the Kohathite Levites (Josh. xxi.
25) ; probably an erroneous transcription of
Ibleam or Bileam (q. v.).

Gauls. See Galatia.

Ga'za, in A. V. thrice Azzah, according as
one or other Greek modification of the He-
brew word 'A~zali is imitated [strong].

The most southerly of the five Philistine
cities (Josh. xiii. 3; 1 Sam. vi. 17; Jer. xxv.
20). It was very ancient (Gen. x. 19). It
was situated on the great highway between
Mesopotamia and Egypt, at the very edge of
the desert ; and it was the terminus of a trade
route from southern Arabia. It was assigned
to Judah (Josh. xv. 47), and was captured by
the men of that tribe (Judg. i. 18). It re-
verted to the Philistines (cp. Judg. yi. 4).
Samson carried ofl" the doors of the city gate
(Judg. xvi. 1-3). When his eyes were put
out, it was in the prison house of Gaza that he
had to grind (20, 21). The tutelary god of
Gaza, as of Ashdod, was Dagon. The last act
of Samson's life was to bow with his strength
against the two middle pillars of the temple
of Dagon and throw them from their place
(23-31). Gaza was the limit of Solomon's
dominion toward the southwest (1 Kin. iv.
24). Hezekiah smote the Philistines as far
as Gaza's gates (2 Kin. xviii. 8). Pharaoh
took the city (Jer. xlvii. 1), ]irobably Pharaoh-
necho or Pharaoh-hophra, i.e. Apries (Herod,
ii. 159. l(Jl). Judgment wasdenounced against
it and the other Philistine cities by the
prophets (Jer. xxv. 20 ; xlvii. 1. 5 : Zeph.
ii. 4 ; Zech. ix. 5). One sin specified was its
sale of captured Hebrews to the Edomites
(Amos i. 6). It held out against Alexander
the Great for five months, and when it fell
its inhabitants were massacred. Jonathan
Maccaba'us was shut out of Gaza, and burnt
its suburbs; but he eventually made peace
without storming the place (1 Mac. xi. 61,

G-azara

238

Gedaliah

62). It was afterwards captured by his
brother Simon (xiii. 43-48; Antiq. xiii. 5, 5).
About 96 B. c. it was captured after a year's
siege and destroyed by Alexander Jannseus
(Antiq. xiii. 13, 3). It was taken by Pompey
in 62 B. c. (4, 4; War i. 7, 7). Gabiuius, the
Roman president of Syria, rebuilt it in .57
B. c. on a new site (Antiq. xiv. 5, 3). The
old town had acquired the designation Desert
Gaza (cp. Antiq. xiv. 5, 3 ; Acts viii. 26 ; and
s.'C Smith, IHsturiml Geography). About A. D.
6j the Jews destroyed it; but it soon rose
anew, and there are coins belonging to it
struck in honor of Titus and Adrian. It after-
wards became the seat of a Christian bishopric.
In A. D. G34 it was taken by the Arabs, and,
with the exception of one or two brief inter-
vals during which it was held by the Cru-
saders, has since remained in Mohammedan
hands. Gaza, called by the Arabs Ghuzzeh,
still exists as a town, with some thousand in-
habitants. It is situated on a low, round hill,
about 50 or 60 feet above the plain, but ex-
tends from the hill acro.ss the plain to the
east and north. On the north there are im-
mense olive groves, the finest in Palestine ;
and the great staple of the city is soap, manu-
factured from the olive oil. Ghuzzeh is not
now fortified ; but there are indications where
the ancient walls existed, and slight remains
of buildings exist on the hill. It is about 2^
miles from the Mediterranean, the interme-
diate space being occupied by sandhills, with
sandy tracts between.

Ga-za'ra. See Gezer.

Ga'zath-ite. See Gazite.

Ga-zelle'.

A small antelope, called in Hebrew S'bi.
Where A. V. renders this word by roebuck,
E. V. substitutes gazelle ; and where A. V.
renders it by roe, R. V. generally places ga-
zelle on the margin. There is no doubt
that the gazelle {Gnsella doicas) is intended.
It was ceremonially clean (Deut. xii. 22 ; xiv.
5), was hunted (Prov. vi. 5 ; Is. xiii. 14), and
was swift-footed (2 Sam. ii. 18 ; 1 Chron. xii.
8). Its beauty and grace rendered it a term
of endearing comparison (Song ii. 9, 17; viii.
14). It is about 3 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot
9 inches high. The horns are larger in the
male than in the female ; the limbs and whole
form in both sexes graceful ; the fur mostly
fawn colored about the head, more fulvous
on the other parts. It is found in Syria,
Egypt, and Arabia, mostly in small groups or
nearly solitary. It is timid, and fiees from a
pursuer rapidly and with great bounds. Tris-
tram found a second species of gazelle {Gnzelhi
iirabica), larger than the common one, east of
the Jordan.

Ga'zer and Ga-ze'ra. See Gezer.
Ga'zez [shearer].

A son and perhaps also a grandson of the
elder Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 46).

Ga'zite, in A. V. once GazatMte.

A native or inhabitant of Gaza (Josh. xiii.
3 ; Judg. xvi. 2).

Gaz'zam [devourer].

Founder of a family of Nethinim who re-
turned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 4b).

Ge'ba, in A. V. thrice Gaba [a hill].

A city within the limits of Benjamin (Josh.
xviii. 24), which was allotted to the priests
(xxi. 17). It must be distinguished from
Gibeah of Saul (Is. x. 29). Geba was the
northern extreme of the kingdom of Judah
(2 Kin. xxiii. 8; Zech. xiv. 10). A village,
still bearing the old name, marks the site, 6
miles N. N. E. of Jerusalem and 2 miles S.
W. of Michmash.

Ge'bal [mountain].

1. An ancient city on the Mediterranean
Sea, 17 miles north of Beirut (Ezek. xxvii. 9 ;
cp. Josh. xiii. .5 ; 1 Kin. v. 18, R. Y.). It was a
great seat of the lascivious worship of Adonis.

2. The northern portion of the mountains
of Edom (Antiq. ii. 1, 2 ; ix. 9, 1 ; Ps. Ixxxiii.
7) ; known also as Teman.

Ge'ber [a man, a hero].

Solomon's i)urveyor for the territory of
southern Gilead (1 Kin. iv. 19), and probably
father of the purveyor for northern Gilead
and Argob (13).

Ge'bim [cisterns, locusts].

A village north of Jerusalem (Is. x. 31).
Exact site unknown.

Geck'o.

The rendering of the Hebrew '"nnkuh, a
ceremonially unclean animal which the He-
brews classed with creeping things (Lev. xi.
30, R. v.). The gecko is a wall lizard. It
has wliite spots on its back ; and it emits a
plaintive wail, whence the Hebrew name. The
common gecko or fan-foot {Ptyodactylus (jecko)
is very common in Palestine. It frequents
houses, running over the walls and ceiling.
It is able to do this by reason of the peculiar
construction of its toes, which are provided
with plates under which a vacuum is created
when the animal walks, thus causing it to
adhere.

Ged-a-li'ah [Jehovah is great] .

1. A harper, son of Jeduthun (1 Chron.
XXV. 3), and head of the second of the twenty-
four companies of twelve musicians each
which David appointed for the service of the
sanctuary (9).

2. An ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah
(Zeph. i. 1).

3. A son of Pashhur in Jeremiah's time
(Jer. xxxviii. 1).

4. A man of Judah of high birth, son of
Ahikam, son of Shaphan. He was a])poiuted
by Nebuchadnezzar governor of Judah after
the capture of Jerusalem. He fixed his resi-
dence at Mizpah, where he was treacherously
assassinated by Ishmael of the seed royal (2
Kin. XXV. 22-26 ; Jer. xxxix. 14 ; xl.o-xli. 18).

5. A priest whom Ezra induced to divorce
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 18).

Gedeon

239

Genealogy

Ged'e-on. See Gideon.

Ge'der [a wall].

A lowii, ajuiarently in the extreme south
of Judah (Josh. xii. 1.5). Exact site unknown.
It may be the -siime as Beth-gader or Gedor '.i.

Ge-de'rah [wall, enelosure, shcepfold].

1. A tdwii in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. ;>!)). Louder locales it at Jedireh. a ruin
4 miles and -11 miles respectively to the north-
west of Zoraii and Eshtaol (33). See Gede-

EOTH.

2. A village of Benjamin (ep. 1 Chron. xii.
4). Conder suggests Jedireh, a ruin about 6
miles north by west of Jerusalem.

Ge'der-ite.

A man of Geder or Gederah (1 Chron. xxvii.
28; cp. Josh. xv. 36).

Ge-de'rotli [enclosures, sheepfolds].

A town in or near the lowland of Judah
(Josh. XV. 41). In Ahaz' reign it was taken
by the Philistines (2 Chron. xxviii. 18). Its
site, or that of Gederah, is commonly fixed
at Katrah, called in 1 Mac. xv. 39 Kidron,
in the maritime jilain about 4 miles south-
west by south of Ekron.

Ged'e-^o-tha'im [two enclosures, two.sheep-
folds].

A town within the territory of Judah (Josh.
XV. 36), otherwise unknown. The Septuagint
regards it as a common noun, and translates
it "its cattle-enclosures." It is in favor of
this rendering that, Avhile the towns are
reckoned up as but fourteen, fifteen names
are given, including this one. Still this word
must not be summarily rejected.

Ge'dor [wall, fortress, walled enclosure].

1. A son of Jehiel, and a brother of Ner,
the ancestor of Saul (1 Chron. viii. 30, 31 ;
ix. 35-37).

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 5d ; 1 Chrou. iv. 4, IS). Its site is
marked bv the ruins Jedur, 7^ miles X. by
W. of Hebron.

3. A town, apparently in the territory of
Simeon, not far from the southwestern bound-
ary of Palestine (1 Chron. iv.39) ; see Gedee.
The Septuagint, however, reads Gerar.

4. A village, apparently in Benjamin (1
Chron. xii. 7; cp. 1).

Ge-har'a-shim. See Chak.^shim.

Ge-ha'zi [valley of vision].

The servant of Elisha. He informed the
prophet of the desire w^iich the Shunammite
woman had for a son : but when the son
granted died, and tlie afflicted mother seized
the feet of Elisha to supplicate him to pray
God for her, Gehazi would have thrust her
away (2 Kin. iv. 14, 27). Elisha. in order to
teach that it is not magic, but faith and
prayer which avail, sent Gehazi to lay the
prophet's staff on the dead child. He did
so, but without effect (29-.37). When Xaaman
the .Syrian obeyed the directions of Elisha,
and was cured of leprosy, he wished to make
the prophet a present. The man of God re-
fused ; but Gehazi thought it a pity that his

master had spared the Syrian, and, therefore,
following liiui, asked for a talent of silver
and two changes of raiment, and was easily
l)ersuaded to take two talents instead of one.
On being questioned by his master as to
where he had been, he denied that he had
been anywhere, and as a jienalty for his
avarice and lying, and for bringing the
prophetic oliice into contempt, the leprosy
of Naaman the Syrian cleaved unto him
(2 Kin. V. 20-27). More sayings and doings
of Eli.sha's servant are subsequently reportid,
but the individual referred to was ]irobably
Gehazi's successor, rather than himself.

Ge-hen'na. See Hell 2.

Gel'i-lotli [circles, regions].

Apjiarently the same place as Gilgal, op-
posite the ascent of Adummim (cp. Josh. xv.
7 and xviii. 17).

Ge-mal'li [probably, possessor or rider of
a camel].

Father of the spy Ammiel (Num. xiii. 12).

Gem-a-ri'ah [Jehovah hath completed or
perfected].

1. A son of Hilkiah. He was one of two
messengers sent by Zedekiah to Nebuchad-
nezzar. Jeremiah took advantage of the op-
portunity to send by them a letter to the
captives in Babylon (Jer. xxix. 3).

2. A prince, son of Shaphan the scribe, and
brother of Ahikam. He occupied a chamber
in the temi)le. He joined in requesting Je-
hoiakim not to burn Jeremiah's writings (Jer.
xxxvi. 10, 11, 12, 25).

Gen-e-al'o-gy.

The tracing backward or forward of the
line of ancestry of an individual or a family.
The regulations of the commonwealth of
Israel necessitated this being done to a large
extent. Succession to the royal sovereignty,
the high-priesthood, the headship of tribe,
tribal family, and father's house, depended
upon lineage. There was general knowledge
on the subject from the earliest period. Gen-
ealogy was revealed of itself by reason of
the constitution of tribes, which were di-
vided on the lines of growth into great fam-
ilies, and these in turn into smaller families
and so-called houses. Birth in a household
declared one's relation to the several divisions
of the tribe as distinctly as the native place
determined one's classification according to
the geographical divisions and subdivisions
of a kingdom. Definite genealogical records
are traceable from the beginning of the He-
brew nation (Num. i. 2. 18; 1 Chron. v. 7,
17). Claimants in the days of Ezra sought
their register among those that were reck-
oned by genealogy, but could not find it, on
which account they, as polluted, were ex-
pelled from the priesthood (Ezra ii. 61, 62;
Neh. vii. 63. 64). The endless genealogies
against which Timothy and Titus were warn-
ed seemed to have been (Juostic genealogies
of icons and other imagmarv beings (1 Tim.
i. 4 ; Tit. iii. 9).

Genealogy

240

Two genealogies of Christ are given ; one
by Matthew in the direct, and one by Luke
in the reverse, order of descent (Mat. i. 1-
16 and Luke iii. 23-38). Matthew's pur-
pose is to show Christ's legal title to the
throne of David and to the covenant with
Abraham (Mat. i. 1). Luke begins with tlie
second Adam, the eternally begotten Son of
God, and ascends to the fir.st Adam, the sou
of God by creation (Luke iii. .38). Appar-
ently to help the memory, either Matthew
or the official record from which he quoted
made 3 X 14 = 42 generations for the period
between Abraham and Jesus ; viz., fourteen
generations between Abraham and David,
fourteen between David and the Babylonian
captivity, and fourteen more between the
Babylonian captivity and Jesus Christ. To
carry out this artirtcial division Ahaziah,
Joash, and Amaziah are omitted between
Joram and Uzziah in the second fourteen.
There may be similar omissions in the last
fourteen. In Luke there are forty-one names
in the line of descent from David to Jesus,
against twenty-eight, or, with the omitted
three, thirty-one in Matthew. If the Sheal-
tiel and Zerubl)abel of Matthew are the same
as those of Luke, as can scarcely be ques-
tioned, the ditliculty arises that in Matthew
Shealtiel is the son of Jechoniah, but in
Luke the son of Neri ; indeed, the two lines
of descent from Datid to Jesus are different
in the two evangelists. They diverge from
David; one line passes through SDhmion and
the other through his brother Natlian. Put-
ting both in the direct order of descent, they
stand thus :

From Matthew's

From Luke's

genealogy.

genealogy.

David.

David.

Solomon.

Nathan.

Mattatha.

Rehoboam.

Menna.

Abijah.

Melea.

Asa.

Eliakim.

Jouam.

Jehoshaphat.

Joseph.

Joram.

Judas.

Symeon.

Levi.

Matthat.

Uzziah.

Jorim.

Jotliam.

Eliezer.

Ahaz.

Jesus.

Hezekiah.

Er.

Manasseh.

Elmadam.

Amon.

Cosam.

Josiah.

Addi.

Jechoniah.

Melchi.

Neri.

Shealtiel (Salathiel).

Shealtiel (Salathiel).

Zerubbabel.

Zerubbabel.

Rhesa.

Joanan.

Abiud.

Joda.

Joseeh.

Seraein.

Eliakim.

Mattathlas.

Maath.

Azor.

Naggai.

Esli.

Sadoc.

Nahum.

Amos.

Genealogy

Achim.

Mattathias.
Joseph.

Eliud.

.Tannai.
Melchi.

Eleazar.

Levi.

Matthan.

Matthat.

Jacob.

Heli.

Joseph, the husband

Joseph, the husband

of Mary.

of Mary.

Two explanations of these divergent gen-
ealogies are possible.

I. The early church generally explained
both tables as recording the genealogy of
Joseph. Julius Africanus (A. d. 220;, the
first known investigator of the question,
adoi)ted the theoiy that Joseph's grand-
fathers in the two genealogies, Melchi [Afri-
canus has a corrupt text] and Matthan, had
married successively the same woman, and
that consequently Heli and Jacob were half-
brothers, having the same mother but difler-
ent fathers. Heli married and died child-
less; and Jacob, according to the law of
Levirate marriage (Deut. xxv. 6), took the
widow to wife, and raised up seed to his
brother Heli by begetting a son Joseph.
Hence Matthew can say, "Matthan begat
Jacob, and Jacob begat Joseph ;" and Luke
can say, "Joseph the sou of Heli, the son
of Matthat."

A readier solution of the problem on the
lines of this theory is that the table in Mat-
thew contains the legal successors to the
throne of David, while that in Luke gives
the paternal ancestors of Joseph. The line
of Solomon became extinct in Jechoniah,
otherwise known as Jehoiachin ; and the
succession passed over to the collateral line
of David which sprang from David's son
Nathan. The representative of this line was
Shealtiel. For a brief space the royal line
and the natural lineage of Joseph were iden-
tical ; but after Zerubbabel the two lines sep-
arated. The family of the elder son, in
whom the title to the throne inhered, at
length became extinct, and the descendants
of the younger son succeeded to the title.
Matthat of this line (by some identified with
Matthan) became heir apparent. He is sup-
posed to have had two sons, Jacob and Heli.
The elder Jacob had no son, but probably a
daughter, the Virgin Mary. The younger
Heli had a son Josei)h ; and Joseph, since his
uncle Jacob had no male descendant, became
heir to his uncle and to the throne. Broad
genealogical terminology enables Matthew to
say "Jacob begat Joseph," and Luke to say
" Jo,seph, the son of Heli."

II. Since the Eeformation a different con-
ception of the two genealogies has won favor,
and is probably correct. According to this
opinion, the table in Matthew gives the gen-
ealogy of Jo.sei)h, and exhibits him as heir to
the throne of David, while the table in Luke
gives the genealogy of Mary, and shows Je.sus
to be the actual S(m of David. With the clear
declaration of Luke that Jesus had no human
father, with the customary Hebrew usage of

Generation

241

Gennesaret

the word son for desceiuliiiit however remote,
and on the basis of the ;ii>i)roved (Jreek text,
the advocates of tliis view render Luke iii.
23, " Jesus, being son (as was su])pi)sed of
Joseph) of Heli. etc." Jesus, according to
Luke, is grandson of Heli, Mary's father,
and thus a lineal descendant of David. A
difficulty, not however peculiar to this theory,
but lying etjually against the tirst-nientioned
hypothesis, is Matthew's record that Sheal-
tiel was begotten by king Jechoniah, whereas
l^uke makes Shealtiel the sou of Neri. Per-
haps the simidest solution is the following :
Jechoniah. who spent years in ca])tivity, aj)-
pears to have been the surviving nominal
king of Judah in the year 56'2, twenty-five
years after the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kin. xxv.
27). He apparently had no sons when car-
ried oil" captive in 59b b. c. He was com-
paratively young, and children are not men-
tioned in the enumeration of his family (2
Kin. xxiv. 8, 12, 15). Jeremiah prophesied
that no son of his should occupy the throne
(Jer. xxii. 30; cp. what is sjiid of his father,
xxxvi. 30). In the genealogy as given in
Mat. i. appears the eutrj-. "After the carry-
ing away to Babylon, Jechoniah begat Sheal-
tiel." All Scripture references are in har-
mony, and the two genealogies are intelligi-
ble, if this notice in Matthew be understood
as a broad declaration in genealogical form
denoting legal succession to the throne. The
title passed from Jechoniah on his death to
Shealtiel, a lineal descendant of David. There
may of course have been close kinship be-
tween Jechoniah and Shealtiel. If Jechoniah
had no son surviving him, but only a daugh-
ter, the inheritance passed to her children
according to the law (Num. xxvii. 8-11). The
phraseology of the genealogies is therefore
explained on the assumption that Neri mar-
ried the daughter of Jechoniah and begat
Shealtiel by her. Shealtiel's lineage was reck-
oned as usual through his father back to
Nathan and David, but his title to the throne
"Was reckoned through his maternal grand-
father Jechoniah to .Solomon and David.

In 1 Chron. iii. 17 is the record : "The sons

•of Jeconiah ; Assir [not to be rendered "the

captive," for the definite article is not used],

I Shealtiel his son, and Malchiram. etc." The

I epithet " his son " is peculiar to Shealtiel, pe-

j culiar also in that it is deemed necessary to

apply it to one of a group already designated

I as sons of Jeconiah. It marks Shealtiel as

the king's successor. He could be called his

j son, if his daughter's .son, just as Abiezer, son

of the sister of Gilead, son of Manasseh, is

reckoned among the sous of Manasseh, and

1 apparently even among the sons of Gilead

(1 Chron. Vii. 14, 18; Num. xxvi. 30).

Gen-er-a'tion.

1. A begetting or producing, or the person
or thing produced (Gen. ii. 4; v. 1) ; in He-
trew only plural ToI'doth.

2. Each succession of persons from a com-

16

mon ancestor (Gen. 1. 23; Ex. xx. 5; Dent.
xxiii.2) ; in Hebrew expres-sed by a modifica-
tion of the jiroper numeral or by i)or with an
ordiual number.

3. The age or period of a body of contem-
poraries, not in the modern sense of the
average lifetime of all who survive infancy,
but the average period of the activity of
any body of contemporaries as determined
by the normal span of life. The generation
lasts as long as any of the meml)ers survive
(Ex. i. 6; Num. xxxii. 13; Judg. ii. 10; Ecc.
i. 4) ; in Hebrew Dor.

Gen'e-sis [Greek genesis, origin (of the
world)].

The name, borrowed from the Septuagiut,
of the first O. T. book, called by the Hebrews
from its initial word B^iesliith, "In the be-
ginning." It naturally divides itself into
three sections : first, the history of the uni-
verse, showing God's relation to it, and intro-
ducing human history (i.-ii. 3) ; second, a
sketch of human history before Abraham,
showing God's relation to the human race,
and introducing the history of the chosen
people (ii. 4-xi. 26) ; and third, the history
of the covenant people down to the descent
into Egypt (xi. 27-1.). The second section
includes the creation of man and his original
condition (ii. 4-25), the fall (iii.), the jirogre-ss
of sin (iv. 1-15), the worldly race (16-24), the
godly line (25-v. 32), the increase of wicked-
ness (vi. 1-8), the flood (vi. 9-ix. 17), the re-
peopling of the earth (ix. 18-x. 32), the build-
ing of the tower of Babel (xi. 1-9), and the
Semitic race in its earliest germs (xi. 10-26).
The third section includes the early history
of Abraham, his call, and his sojourn in
Canaan (xi. 27-xxv. 10), the life of Isaac
from his father's death to the departure of
Jacob for Mesopotamia (xxv. 11-xxvii. 40),
the life of Jacob from his departure for Meso-
potamia to the death of Isaac (xxvii. 41-xxxv.
29), the descendants of Esau (xxxvi.), the early
history of Joseph to the time v\hen he was sold
into Egypt (xxxvii.), Judah's sin and shame
(xxxviii.), Joseph in Egyj)! (xxxix.-xlv.),
Jacob and his whole household with Joseph
in Egypt (xlvi.-xlix.), and the death of Jacob
and Joseph (1.).

The writer of the book has embraced his
narrative after the introduction in ten suc-
cessive sections, each under a caption begin-
ning with the formula, " These are the gen-
erations of" (ii. 4; V. 1 ; vi. 9; X. 1 ; xi. 10;
xi. 27; xxv. 12, 19; xxxvi. 1; xxxvii. 2).
For unity and authorship, see Pentateuch.

Gen-nes'a-ret ; in A. V. of 1 Mac. Gen-
nesar, in R. V. of same Gennesareth [per-
haps, garden of Hazor].

A land adjacent to the lake of Gennesaret,
on its western shore (Mat. xiv. 34 ; Mark vi.
5.3) ; described by Josephus as a fertile plain,
30 stades in length by 20 in breadth, watered
by a fountain called Capharnaum. and pro-
ducing walnuts, palms, fig trees, olives, and

Gentiles

242

Gerar

I'laiii of Gennesaret, viewed from the Northeast.

grapes (War iii. 10, 8). It is almost certainly
identical with tlie plain called el-Ghuweir,
formed by a recession of the hills from the
shore just north of Magdala.

The lake of Gennesaret (Luke v. 1 ; Antiq.
V. 1, 22 ; xviii. 2, 1 and 3) or Gennesar (War.
ii. 20, 6), or the water of Gennesareth or
Gennesar (1 Mac. xi. HT ; Antiq. xiii. .5, 7), was
a common name for the sea of Galilee.

Gen'tiles.

All nations of the world other than the
Jews (Is. xlix. 6; Rom. ii. 14 ; iii. 29). The
Jews were the cho.sen people of God ; their
religion was sublime, and its truth stood in
strong and favorable contra.st to the untruths
of the gentile religions; and strict laws were
enacted to prevent the corruption of manners
and of the true religion through contact with
idolaters. These things led the Jews, though
unjustly, to feel contempt for the gentiles. *
The Israelites had tjecn chosen for a purpose.
They were to l)e a light to the gentiles (Is.
xlix. l-(i). The gentiles were embraced in
the promises (Is. ii. 2-4; Amos ix. 12; Zech.
ix. 7). The attitude of the Jews recalls that
of the Indian Brahmins, who will not eat
witli their countrymen of inferior caste, and
much lesii with those of no caste at all, or
with strangers of another nation. When
Peter, taught by the vision at Joppa, broke
through caste restriction, visiting and eating
with (_V)rnelius, it gave offen.se to some even
of the Christian Jews (Acts x. 28 ; xi. 3) ; and
when Paul in his defense before Claudius
Lysias, after narrating his conversion, inti-

mated that Jesus had said unto him " Depart :
for I will send thee far hence unto the gen-
tiles," the people, who had given him au-
dience unto this word, lifted up their voices
and said, " Away with such a fellow from the
earth: for it is not lit that he should live"
(Acts xxii. 21. 22). The early churches con-
sisted lo a much larger extent of gentiles
than of Jews, and the first Council of Jeru-
salem declined to impo.se on the former the
burden of the Mosaic law (Acts xv. 1-2S*).

Ge-nu'batli [theft, robbery].
The son of the Edomite prince Hadad and
the Egyptian queen's si.ster (1 Kin. xi. 20).

Ge'ra [a grain].

1. A son of Bela and grandson of Benja-
min (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; 1 Chron. viii. 3).

2. Another descendant of Bela, perhaps re-
moter than son (1 Chron. viii. 3, and prob-
ably 7).

3. A Benjaniite, father of Ehud (Judg. iii.
1.5).

4. A Benjaniite, father of that Shimci who>
cursed David (2 .'^am. xvi. 5).

Perhaps 3 and 4 denote the founder of the
family to which Ehud and Shimei belonged,
and are identical with the grandson of Ben-
jamin.

Ge'rah. See Weights.

Ge'rar [water pot or a course or dry].

An ancient city on the southern border of
Palestine near Gaza (Gen. x. 19 ; 2 Chron. xiv.
13), and early occupied by Philistines (Gen.
xxvi. 1). Tlie countrj' subject to it extended

Gerasenes

243

Gershonites

toward Kadesh and Sliur (xx. 1,9 with xxvi.
6, 17, 18). It is commonly identified witli
the ruins I 'mm Jernir. (i miles south ot'Oaza
on the wady (iluuzeh. A location about 50
miles south, in the immediati' vicinity of
Kadesh, has been less plausibly urjied, namely
the wady .Terur, a branch of the wady esh-
Sheraif which drains into wady el-'Arish.
Possibly this indicates the considerable ex-
tent of the region dominated by Gerar.

Ger-a-senes'.

The jteople of Gerasa (R. V. of Mark v. 1
aud Luke viii. 26, 37 ; manuserii)ts vary be-
tween Gerasenes, tiadarenes. Gergesenes) ;
sec Gekcjesexes. Gerasa was one of the ten
cities which formed the Decapolis. It was
situated 37 miles southeast of the sea of
(ialilee and '.12 miles southeast of Gadara.

Ger-ge-senes'.

The peojde of Gergcsa (Mat. viii. 28, A. V.,
but in K. V. Gadarenes). Gergesa is perhaps
still echoed by Kersa, the name of a ruin
on the eastern shore of the sea of Galilee,
opposite Magdala, 5 miles from the entrance
of the Jordan into tlie lake. A shoi't distance
south of the site is the only {dace on this
coast where the steej) hills come down close
to the water. The introduction of the name-
Gergesenes into the testis, however, ascribed
to Origen, who is said to have felt that Gadara
was too far from the lake, and was told by
people acquainted with the region that an
old town named Gergesa existed, and near
it was the declivity down which the swine
ruslied.

Ger'i-zim [plural of Gerhzi, Gerizites ; cp.
Girzite].

A mountain which rises in steep rocky
precipices so as to constitute the southern
boundary of the v'alley in which Xablus, the
ancient Hhechem, lies, and to face the more
elevated mount Ebal, on the northern side of
the valley. Mount Gerizim rises 2849 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean, and
700 feet above the town. When the Israelites
conquered central Pale.stine Joshua carried
out the direction given to Moses, and jtlaced
half of the tribes in front of mount Gerizim
to pronounce blessings, and the other half
over against mount Ebal to i)ronounce cunses
(Deut. xi. 29 : sxvii. 12. 13 ; Josh. viii. 33-
35). Jotham, the son of Gideon, standing on
mount Gerizim, proclaimed his parable to
the men of Shechem (Judg. ix. 7). Josepbus
(Antiq. xi. 8, 2, 7) .says that Manasseh. brother
of Jaddua, the high priest in the time of
Alexander the Great, had married the daugh-
ter of a foreigner, Sanballat. The elders at
Jerusalem commanded him either to divorce
ber, or no longer to ajiproach the altar.
Manasseh thought of divorcing her, though
she was still dear to him ; l)Ut her father, San-
ballat, deprecating this step, ju-omised to build
for his son-in-law. if he retained his wife, a
rival temple to that of Jerusalem. He kept
his word, erecting one ou mount Gerizim.

This was the origin of the Samaritan tem]ile
on that mountain, and must be dated before
330 H. r. If Sanliallat was the Samaritan of
that name who wa^ an oi)]H)nent of the Jews
in the time of Xehcmiah, about 445 n. c. (Neb.
iv. 1 ; xiii. 28), and not an official sent by
Darius Codomannus (Autici. xi. 7, 2 : xii. 5, 5),
the tem]>le was built considerably before 330,
jicrhaiis about 380 B. c. It was destroyed by
John llyrcanus, 129 B. c. The erection of
the edifice made Gerizim the Samaritan sa-
cred mountain. It was to it that the woman
of Samaria and Jesus referred as " this moun-
tain " (John iv. 20, 21); and Jacob's well, at
which they were conversing, was on a spur
of mount Gerizim. Gerizim, now called Jebel
et-T6r, constitutes a tract of high tableland
stretching far toward the west and southwest
of Nablus. There is a smooth sheet of rock on
the top of the mountain, with a cave beside
it. From the days of Benjamin of Tudela, a
Jewish rabbi who traveled in Palestine about
A. D. IKiO, on to quite recent time.s, the view
was held that Gerizim, the mountain of bless-
ings, was fertile, and Ebal, that of curses,
barren, till Robinson pointed out that, with
the exception of a small ravine coming down
from Gerizim opposite the west of Nablus,
both mountains are equally barren. See il-
lustration under Shechem.

Ger'shom [often interpreted as meaning
" .stranger there ;" but the vocalization and
the variant form Gershon Avith its patronymic
show that the Hebrews did not regard the
word as having that meaning. It rather sig-
nifies "banishment." In Ex. ii. 22, the au-
thor, according to custom, plays uj)on the
general sound].

1. Gershon, the son of Levi (1 Chron. vi.
16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71). See Gershon.

2. The elder son of Moses, born to him in
Midian (Ex. ii. 22; xviii. 3). He gave rise to
a father's house which was reckoned among
the Levites, not among the priests (1 Chron.
xxiii. 14-16).

3. A descendant of Phinehas the priest,
and head of a father's house in that line in
the time of Ezra (Ezra viii. 2).

Ger'slion [banishment].

A son of Levi, and founder of the Gershonite
family (Gen. xlvi. 11; Ex. vi. 16; Num. iii.
17). He is sometimes called Gershom, which
is formed by a different affix, Viut has the same
meaning. His two sons, Libui and Shimei,
gave rise to two subdivisions of the greater
tribal family (Ex. vi. 17; Num. iii. 18; 1
Chron. vi. 17).

Ger'shon-ites.

The children and descendants of Gershon,
constituting one of the three great divisions
of the Levitical body. In the wilderness
they encamped on the western side of the
tabernacle, and had charge of the tabernacle
itself, the tent with its hangings, and those
of the courtyard (Num. iii. 23-26; iv. 21-28).
To aid them in moving the tabernacle there

Gerzites

244

Gethsemane

■were assigned them two wagons and four
oxen (vii. 7). They consisted of two families,
those of the Libnites and those of the Shim-
eites, and at the first census in the wilder-
ness numl)ered 7500 males (iii. 21, 22). Of
the thirteen cities assigned to them, two were
in the half-tribe of Mauasseh beyond the
Jordan, four were in Issacliar, four in Aslier,
and three in Naphtali (Josh. xxi. 27-33J.
Tliey were reorganized by David (1 Chrou.
xxiii. 7-11).

Ger'zites. See Girzite.

Ge'shan, in A. V. Gesham, an error which
crept into the later editions, the original of
Kill having Geshan.

A man of Judah, a sou of Jahdai (1 Chron.
ii. 47).

Ge'shem and Gashmu, the latter being the
Arabic form, of which Geshem is the regular
Hebrew modification [rain, body].

An Arabian, a great op])onent of the Jews
after their return from captivity. He ridi-
culed the pro])osal of Nehemiah to rebuild
the wall of Jerusalem, as if this were tanta-
mount to rebellion (Neh. ii. 19). Not suc-
ceeding in deterring the Jew by this means,
he joined with others in plotting violence, if

Josh. xii. 5 ; xiii. 11, 13 ; 1 Chron. ii. 23). Evi-
dently it was situated to the eastward of
Maacah, for Maacah bordered on Naphtali.
It constituted an Arauiiean kingdom (2 Sam.
xiii. 37; xv. 8). Here David obtained a wife,
and hither his son Absalom fled after the
murder of Amnon (2 Sam. iii. 3; xiii. 37).

Gesh'u-rites, in A. V. twice Geshuri, the
Heljrew instead of the English term being
employed.

1. The people of Gesliur (Deut. iii. 14 ;
Josh. xii. 5 ; xiii. 11, 13).

2. A people who dwelt in ancient times in
the country south of Philistia in the direc-
tion of Egypt (Josh. xiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. xxvii. 8).

Ge'ther.

A family of the Arama-ans (Gen. x. 23; 1
Chron. i. 17). Their locality has not been
determined.

Geth-sem'a-ne [an oil press].

A garden, presumably of olives and fur-
nished with a press to squeeze oil from the
fruit. It was east from Jerusalem, a little
beyond the brook Kidron, and at or near the
foot of the mount of Olives (Mat. xxvi. 30
with3(J; Mark xiv. 26 with 32; John xviii.
1). It was a favorite spot with our Lord, who

Tlie Traditional Garden of Gethsemane.

noteven actual murder.against him. Failingin
this purpose also, he allo^^ed the report to be
circulated far and wide on his authority that
Nehemiah was fortifying the city preparatory
to rebelling against Persia and proclaiming
himself king (vi. 1 seq.).

Ge'shur [a bridge].

A district lying between Hermon and Ba-
shan and marching on Argob (Deut. iii. 14 ;

often resorted to it for retirement (Luke xxii.
39; .John xviii. 2), and it is now forever
sacred as having been the scene of his agony
and of his betraval and arrest (jVIat. xxvi.
36-.56: Mark xiv". 32-."i2 ; Luke xxii. 39-53;
John xviii. 1-12). The traditional site of
Gethsemane lies a little east of the bridge by
which the road from St. Stephen's gate of
Jerusalem crosses the Kidron. The garden

Geuel

245

Gibea

is sitiiateil at the aiijilo made by the rtivision
of tlie road into two branches, one, the most
northerly, leading direelly up the face of
the mount of Olives, while the more south-
erly one winds gently around the southern
brow of the hill. The garden is nearly
siiuare, and the Latins have recently enclosed
it with a wall, its northern side 150 feet and
its western one KiO feet. Eight venerable
olive trees are within, on which it is said
the tax levy can be traced back to the occu-
jiation of Jerusalem by the Arabs in the
seventh century ; and many equally old are
outside on the sloi)e of the mount. These
trees, however, did not witness our Lord's
agony, for all the trees around Jerusalem
were cut down during the siege of the city
by Titus (War v. 1'2, 4). Robinson thinks
that the spot is the same as that described by
Eusebius as at the mount of Olives, and
afterwards more definitely by Jerome as at
the foot of the mount ; but he is doubtful if
it is the genuine (iethsemaue. Thomson says,
" The i)osition is too near the city, and so
close to what must have always been the
great thoroughfare eastward, that our Lord
would scarcely have selected it for retire-
ment on that dangerous and dismal night.*'
He believes Gethsemaue to have been in a
secluded vale several hundred yards north-
east of the traditional site. Barclay thinks
it evident that the present enclosure, from
its narrow dimensions, can occupy only in
part the site of the ancient garden, and finds
a better jiosition higher up in the valley.
Porter strifes that the Greeks, envious of
the Latins, have recently enclosed a piece
of ground a little north, beside the Virgin's
tomb, and contend that this is the true garden.

Ge-u'el [majesty of God].
The spy who represented the tribe of Gad
in the exploration of Canaan (Num. xiii. 15).

Ge'zer (in A. V. twice Gazer) [a place cut
off]. In A. V. of 1 Mac. the Greek forms
Gazera and Gazara are used.

A Canaanite town not far from Lachish
and the lower Bethhoron (Josh. x. 33). It
was on the boundary line of Ephraim (xvi.
3 ; cp. 1 Chron. vii. 28), and with its suburbs
was assigned to the Kohathite Levites (Josh.
xxi. 21 : 1 Chron. vi. 67). The Ephraimites
failed to expel the Canaanite inhabitants, and
occujiied the city with them at least for a
time (Josh. xvi. 10; Judg. i. 29). More than
one battle in David's reign was fought at or
near Gezer (2 Sam. v. 25 ; 1 Chron. xiv. Ifi ;
XX. 4). One of the Pharaohs captured Gezer
from theCanaanites, who seem again to have
possessed it in every part. After burning it,
he gave the ruins over to Solomon as a dowry
with his daughter when she was married to
the Hebrew king. The city was at once re-
built. It was an important place in the wars
of the Maccabees. Bacchides strengthened
its fortifications (1 Mac. ix. 52). It was be-
sieged and taken by Simon, and made

stronger than before (xiii. 43, R. V. 4S. .53 ;
xiv. 34). M. Clermont (ianneau identified
the site by inscriptions; one of whicli, per-
haps as old as the llerods, marked the limits
of Gezer, and gave in Hebrew letters the
actual name. It is now called Tell Jezarand
is situated about 18 miles west-northwest of
Jerusalem, and 03 east of Ekron.

Gez'rite. See Girzite.

Gi'ah [lireaking forth, as of a spring].

A village somewhere between (iiheon in
Benjamin and the ford of the Jordan near
the Jabbok (2 Sam. ii. 24, cp. 16, 29).

Gi'ant.

A man of abnormally tall stature ; like
Og king of Bashan, whose bedstead was nine
cubits in length by four in breadth (Deut.
iii. 11), Goliath of Gath, whose height was
six cubits and a span (1 Sam. xvii. 4), and
the man whom Benaiah slew, whose height
was five cubits (1 Chron. xi. 23). A stalwart
race of men like the Anakimand other early
nations of Canaan and the countrv east of
the Jordan (Deut. i. 28 ; ii. 10, 11, 20, 21 ; ix.
2). When Hebron was captured by the He-
brews, the Anakim who escaped destruction
took refuge in the Philistine towns. Goliath
of Gath, Ishbi-benob. and other Philistine
giants were probably of this expelled race of
the Anakim (1 Sam. xvii. 4 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 15-
22). The valley of the Rephaim or giants
near Jerusalem was a perpetual reminder, by
its name, of the early race which long in-
habited it (Josh. XV. 8 ; xviii. 16). The ex-
act meaning of n'philim, the word rendered
giants in Gen. vi. 4 ; Num. xiii. 33, A. V.,
is uncertain, and accordingly it is left un-
translated in E. V. It may refer to large-
ness of stature or fierceness of disi)osition or
debased character or illegitimacy of birth.
In the latter passage the word describes the
Anakim. In the former passage the Nephi-
lim. as the name is transliterated in R. V.,
are described as mighty men, men of renown.
The description is the same as that given of
David's most noted warriors (1 Chron. xi.lO,
24).

Gib'bar [mighty man, hero].

A man whose children, or a place of whose
former inhabitants some descendants, re-
turned from ca])tivity with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii. 20). In the parallel passage in Neh.
vii. 25 Gibeon stands in place of Gibbar.

Gib'be-tlion [perhaps, conical height].

A town of Dan (Josh. xix. 44) assigned to
the Levites of the family of Kohath (xxi.
20-23). The Philistines gained possession of
it. Nadab was a.ssassinated there while lay-
ing siege to the place (1 Kin. xv. 27). Omri
before he ascended the throne also besieged
the town (xvi. 15, 17).

Gib'e-a [a hill].

Probably a village (1 Chron. ii. 49) ; cp.

GiBEAH 1.

Gibeah

246

Gibeon

Gib'e-ah [a bill].

1. A village iu the bill country of Judali
(Josb. XV. 57) ; probably soutb or southeast
of Hebron. Jeb'ah (Jeb'a), on au isolated
bill eight miles west by south from Bethle-
hem, lies outside the group included in verses
55-57.

2. A town of Benjamin near Ramab (Judg.
xix. 13, 14) ; called also Geba, the masculine
form of the same name (xx. 10, K. V. margin,
with 4). It is designated Gibeah of Benja-
min (ibid. ; 1 Sam. xiii. 2 ; xiv. l(i), and Gibeah
of the children of Benjamin (2 Sam. xxiii.
29) ; and appears to be identical with Gibeah
of Saul (1 Sam. xi. 4; xv. 34; _Is. x. 29).
Its inhabitants by their misbehavior brought
down punishment, not merely on themselves,
but on the whole tribe of Benjamin (Judg.
xix., XX.). Gibeah was Saul's place of resi-
dence when be was called to l)e king (1 Sam.
X. 26), and it served as the political capital
of his kingdom, though the ecclesiastical
center was at Shiloh. Gibeah still existed
iu the days of Isaiah and of Hosea (Is.
X. 29 ; Hos. ix. 9 ; x. 9). The town was
situated on the highway from Jerusalem to
the north, about midway betM'een Jerusalem
and Eamah (Judg. xix. 13 ; Autiq. v. 2, 8, cp.

west-southwest of Seilun (Shiloh), and 3^
miles east by south of Tibneh (Timnatb). The
tradition of the Samaritans, which locates
the grave at 'Awertah, 4i miles south of She-
chem, is late.

4. Gibeah or hill of God (1 Sam. x. 5).
Probably essentially the same as Gibeah of
Saul, for it appears to have been Saul's home
(11, 14). For the reason of the name, see
ver. 5. Its identity with Kam Allah, height of
God, 4 miles northwest by north of Kamah,
has been i)roposed. The determination de-
pends largely upon the identification of
Kachel's sepulcher and Zuph (cp. ver. 2-5
with xiii. 3).

Gib'e-atli [a bill].

A town of Benjamin, mentioned in imme-
diate connection with Jerusalem (Josh, xviii.
28). The name is a mere variant of Gibeah.

Gib'e-ath-ite.

A native or inhabitant of Gibeah (1 Chron.
xii. 3).

Gib'e-on [i)ertaining to a hill].

The chief city of the Hivites, a people of
Canaan (Josh. xi. 19), included iu the gen-
eral designation Amorite (2 Sam. xxi. 2).
They possessed also Chephirah, Beeroth, and

r^-^'-n^^,

Gibeon.

viii. 12, 3 ; War v. 2, 1). It is commonly
identified with Tell el-Ful, 2| miles nrrth of
Jerusalem, although no ancient remains have
been discovered except the ruins of a watch-
tower.

3. A hill or town in the hill country of
Epbraim, belonging to Phinebas ; where
Eleazar the high priest, the son of Aaron,
was buried (Josh. xxiv. 33; Antiq. v. 1, 29).
Perhaps Jibia with ancient ruins, 8i miles

Kirjath-jearim (Josh. ix. 17). They obtained
a treaty with Joshua by false pretenses. The
deceit was discovered, and they were made
slaves of the Israelites (ix. 1-27). But the
treaty was re.spected : the Gibeonites were
aided against their enemies (x.) ; and sev-
eral centuries later, when Saul violated its
provisions by a massacre of Gibeonites, the
sense of justice was satisfied by the execu-
tion of seven of Saul's sons (2 Sam. xxi. 1-9).

Gibeonites

247

Gideon

Gibeon was within the territory assigned to
the Benjaiiiites (Josh, xviii. 25); and was
given, witli its suburbs, to the family of
Aaron (xxi. 17). Saul's ancestors dwelt fora
tinio in the town, and were nuii of influence
(1 t'hron. viii. 'J!) ; ix. 8."j). In the contest be-
tween Ish-bosheth and David, a battle took
place here {2 Sam. ii. 8-17, 24 ; iii. 30). Here
David gained a victory over the Philistines
(1 t'hron. xiv. Ki; in 2 Sam. v. 2.') Geba). In
its vicinity Joab murdered Amasa (2 Sam.
.\x. S). Ill David's reign, and in that of Sol-
omon, prior to the bnildiug of the temple,
tlie tabernacle was erected there for a time.
Here Solomon received a communication
fnim God in a dream (1 Kin. iii. 5-1.5 ; ix.
2: 1 Chrou. xvi. 3H ; xxi. 29 ; 2 Chrou. i. 3,
13). (libeonites returned from tlie exile
(Nell. vii. 2r)). and aided in rebuilding the
wall of Jerusalem (iii. 7). According to Jo-
sephus, Gibeon was 40 or 50 stadia (about 4V
to () miles) from Jerusalem (Antiq. vii. 11, 7;
War ii. 19. 1). Its site is found at tlie modern
village of el-Jib, oi miles northwest by north
of .lerusalem. Jib being simply a contraction
of (Til)eon. It is an oblong hill or ridge,
composed of horizontal layers of limestone
rock forming almost regular steps from the
plain upward. These are in parts steep of
ascent, and the place, wliich is naturally
strong, could be easily fortified. The hill
stands in the midst of a basin consisting of
broad valleys in a high state of cultivation.
The houses of the village number forty or
fifty, are scattered over the broad summit of
the hill, and are almost all, in whole or in
part, ancient, though now sadly dilapidated.

On the southeast of the ridge on which
Gibeon stands is a fine fountain of water,
which flows into a subterranean reservoir
artificially cut. Not far from it, among olive-
trees, is an open reservoir 59 feet long by 36
feet broad ; it was doubtless intended to re-
ceive the superfluous waters of the cavern.
On the west is a tank, 11 by 7 feet in size, cut
in the rock, and called el-Birkeh, the pool.
In the plain a little lake, 6 to 8 acres in ex-
tent, is formed during the winter. One or
other of these was doubtless the pool or great
waters of Gibeon (2 Sam. ii. 13 : ,Jer. xli. 12).

The wilderness of Gibeon was perhaps sim-
ply the uncultivated plateau between Gibeon
and Ramah. If a desert is meant, it was at
considerable distance east from the city (2
Sam. ii. 24).

Gib'e-on-ites.

The inhabitants of Gibeon or of that city
with its three dependent towns (2 Sam. xxi.
1-4, 9).

Gib'lites, in R. V. Gebalites.

The people of the town and, kingdom of
Gebal (Josh. xiii. 5; 1 Kin. v. 18; in text of
A. V. stonesquarers).

Gid-dal'ti [I have magnified].
A singer, a son of Heman (1 Chron. xxv. 4),
and head of the twenty-second of the twenty-

four companies of twelve musicians each
which were appointed in David's reign for
the service of the sanctuary (29).

Gid'del [he hath magnified].

1. Head of a family of Nethinim (Ezra ii.
47; Neh. vii. 49).

2. Head of a family of Solomon's servants
(Ezra ii. 5(j ; Neh. vii. 58).

Gid'e-on, in A. V. of N. T. Gedeon in imi-
tation of the Greek pronunciation [a cutting
ot!', a hewing down].

A son of joash, family of Abiezer, tribe of
Manasseh, who dwelt at Ophrah (Judg. vi.
11). He was divinely summoned to deliver
the Israelites from the tyranny of the MU\-
iauites, who had invaded and seized Pales-
tine. As he was threshing wheat in the wine
press at Ophrah, to hide it from the Midian-
ites, an angel saluted him, and conmiissioned
him to undertake the deliverance of his peo-
ple. The first step was directed against his
father's altar of Baal, which he threw down.
The idolatrous 'worshipers demanded his
death ; but his father Joash called on his
opponents to hand over the pleading for Baal
to Baal himself. If he was a god, of course
this was within his power. The multitude
were pacified, and Gideon received a second
name, Jerubbaal, "Let Baal plead," and, as
Baal was regarded as abominable, Jerubbe-
sheth, "Let the shameful thing plead" (2
Sam. xi. 21 ; cp. Ish-bosheth). Having sum-
moned the men of Manasseh, Asher, Zebulun,
and Naphtali (Judg. vi. 35), he yet hesitated
until his call had been confirmed by the
miracle of the fleece (36-40). Going forward
to the battle with his followers intentionally
reduced to 300, that the glory of the victory
might be not with man but with Jehovah, he
made a night attack on the Midianite camp,
which was pitched in the vallev of Jezreel
(33), by the hill of Moreh (vii.'l). In the
confu.sion thus produced the Midianite sol-
diers slaughtered each other. Then inducing
the Ephraimites to seize the fords of Jordan,
who inflicted fresh losses on the fugitives as
they attempted to cross, he himself, with the
tribesmen of Manasseh, Asher, Zebulun, and
Naphtali (vii. 23), pursued the enemy across
the Jordan to the confines of the desert. In
this flight Oreb and Zeeb, Zebah and Zal-
munna were captured and slain. This vic-
tory was the celebrated day of Midian (Is.
ix. 4: X. 26 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 11). Having deliv-
ered the northern Israelites from the foreign
yoke, and having pacified the Ejihraimites,
who were angry because, as they supposed,
he had slighted them, Gideon saw the land
at rest. He refused, however, to be made
ruler, but returned to his own house (Judg.
viii. 22. 29). It is painful to add that the vic-
tor took the earrings of the Midianites and
made them into an ephod. If it was pat-
terned after the ephod of the high priest, it
was costly, for it was wrought with gold
thread and bore precious stones set in gold.

Gideoni

248

Gilboa

Gideon put it in bis own city, where tlie
angel of the Lord had appeared unto him,
where he liad erected an altar, and where he
had been divinely authorized to otl'er a sac-
rifice (vi. :n-28; 'cp. Ex. xx. 24, 25). These
high privileges led him to consider the
priestly office open to him, and he made the
official ephod, and pi'obably the Urim and
Thummim, in order to use them to inquire
of the Lord ; and the thing became a snare
to Gideon and his family and a means of
seduction to Israel (Judg. viii. 24-27). He
had many wives, and seventy sons, besides
one son by a concubine, Abimelech. who
made himself king on the death of his father.
Gideon died in a good old age (vi.-viii. ; Heb.
xi. 32).

Gid-e-o'ni [a cutting off].

Father of the prince of the tribe of Benja-
min in the time of Moses (Num. i. 11).

Gi'dom [a cutting off].

A vilhige apparently in Benjamin, between
Gibeah and the rock of Eimmon (Judg. xx.
45).

Gier' Eagle.

1. The rendering in the A. Y. of the He-
brew Raham, so named from its affection for
its young. In E. V. the word is translated
vulture, which is the meaning of gier. It
was ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi. 18; Dent,
xiv. 17). Undoubtedly the Egyptian vulture,
Pharaoh's hen or chicken (Neophron peroiopte-
riis), is meant, which the Arabs still call
raham. Its general color is white, but the
primary feathers of the wings are black. The
young are brown. The length of the adult
is a little over two feet. It ranges in sum-
mer from the south of France, by southern
Europe and northern Africa, to the west of
India, where it is replaced by a closely al-
lied species. The Egyptian vulture is a
funereal-looking bird, generally seen acting
as a scavenger in Eastern cities, camps, and
outside hospitals. It is common in Palestine
during its northern migration, and breeds in
that country.

2. The rendering in the R. V. of the He-
brew Peres (Lev. xi. 13 ; Deut. xiv. 12). See

OSSIFRAGE.

Gifts.

Gifts were given by fathers to sons (Gen.
XXV. 6), or as dowry to daughters on their
marriage (xxxiv. 12), or by people present by
invitation at a wedding (Ps. xiv. 12). They
were bestowed upon fellow men out of good
will (Esth. ix. 22) or to secure favor (Prov.
xviii. 16). It was forbidden to offer them to
judges for the purpose of bribery (Ex. xxiii.
8; Deut. xvi. 19; Prov. xxix. 4). Monarchs
bestowed them as a reward for service (Dan.
ii. 48), or as a gracious favor to cause public
rejoicings (Esth. ii. 18). They were brought by
subjects as tribute (2 Sam. viii. 2, G ; 2 Chron.
xxvi. 8; Ps. xiv. 12; Ixxii. 10; Mat. ii. 11).
Gifts were required for the expenses of re-
ligious worship (Mat. v. 23. 24 ; viii. 4 ; Luke

xxi. 5). Essentially the same customs as to
gifts still ])revail throughout the East.

The gift of God is eternal life through
Jesus Christ (John iv. 10; Kom. vi. 23).
Christ received gifts for men (Eph. iv. 8).
He not only opened up a way for them to
God, and enables them to stand before the
just and holy One, but he has obtained for
them the gift of the Holy (Thost (John xiv.
16 ; xvi. 7 : Acts ii. 38), and all the marafesta-
tions of the Spirit in the hearts and lives of
believers, repentance (Acts v. 31), faith (Ei)h.
ii. 8), love (Rom. v. 5), joy, peace, long suffer-
ing, gentleness, goodness, meekness, temper-
ance (Gal. V. 22). All Christian virtues are
graces, that is gifts. God bestows various gifts
upon men, qualifying them severally as he
will for different forms of work in the king-
dom (Rom. xii. 6 ; 1 Cor. vii. 7 ; xii. 4, 9 ; Eph.
iv. 7-16). See Miracle, Tongue.

Gi'hon [bursting forth, as a fountain or
stream ; a stream, river].

1. One of the four rivers of Paradise (Gen.
ii. 13). See Eden.

2. A spring in a valley outside the walls of
Jerusalem from which the city obtained part
of its water supply (2 Chron. xxxii. 30 ;
xxxiii. 14 ; Antiq. vii. 14, 5). It was not
in sight of the stone of Zoheleth, near En-
rogel ; but the sound of the trumpet and the
noise of the shouting at Gihon were heard
at En-rogel (1 Kin. i. 40-45). There was an
upper and presumably a lower Gihon, as early
as the time of Hezekiah at least (2 Chron.
xxxii. 30). Upper Gihon is commonly iden-
tified with Birket Mamilla, and lower Gihon
with Birket es-Sultan. The former of these
pools is less than half a mile west, the latter
not the third of a mile south, of the Jaffa
gate. These ])ools, however, are not now
fed by living springs. Largely on this ac-
count the question has been raised in recent
years whether Gihon should not be identified
with the fountain of the Virgin, on the east-
ern slope of Ophel, and distant some 400
yards from the pool of Siloam. with which it
is connected by an ancient tunnel.

Gil'a-lai [perhaps weighty].

A Levite, a musician who took part in the
dedication of the wall of Jerusalem when re-
built under Xehemiah (Neh. xii. 36).

Gil-bo'a [a bubbling fountain].

The mountain on which Saul sustained de-
feat by the Philistines and met his death (1
Sam. xxviii. 4 ; xxxi. 1, 8 ; 2 Sam. i. 6, 21 ;
xxi. 12; 1 Chron. x. 1, 8). It is the north-
eastern spur of mount Ephraim, and forms
the watershed between the Kishon basin and
the Jordan valley. The ridge lies west-north-
west and east-southeast, being about S miles
long and 3 to 5 miles in breadth ; and is di-
vided by ravines into several ]ilateaus. The
highest point, which is at Jebel Abu Madwar.
is 1648 feet above sea level, and about 1200
feet higher than the plain of Esdraelon at its
foot. The western slopes of the range are

Grilead

249

Giloh

grailiial. but those facinj; north are steep and
rallied, witli iirecipiees in many jilaces. The
eastern sUipes over tlie Jordan vaUey are also
steep, in places precipitous, especially toward
the south. On the table-lands and gentle
western slopes pasture land is found, wheat
and barley grow, and olives and tigs are cul-
tivated. The rest of the ridge is naked rock,
or is covered with wild grass and brushwood.
A village, .lelbon, preserves the memory of
the name (Jilboa.

Gil'e-ad, in A. V. of Maccabees Galaad
[hard, rugged, rough].

1. The son of Machir and grand.son of Ma-
uasseh. He founded a tribal family (Num.
xxvi. 29. 30; Josh. xvii. 1).

2. Father of Jei)hthah (Judg. xi. 1).

3. A Gadite (1 Chron. v. 14).

4. The mountainous country east of the
Jordan, extending from the table laud of
Moab northward to the Yarmuk at least
(Deut. iii. Itl, 17; 1 Sam. xxxi. 11), and per-
haps further, since the ruggedness of the
land continues unchanged north of that river.
It is divided by the Jabbok into two parts
(Josh. xii. 2). The southern half was as-
signed to the tribe of Gad, and the northern
half was included in the territory of half
Manasseh (Deut. iii. 12, 13: Josh. xiii. 24-311.
The name is still connected with a mountain
sonth of the Jabbok in its designation Jebel
Jil'ad. The last interview between Laban
and Jacob took place in mount Gilead (Gen.
xxxi. 21). It was a ]ilacc well suited for
cattle (1 Chron. v. 9, 10; Song iv.) ; and the
sight of Gilead and the land of Jazer (cp. 1
Chrou. xxvi. 31) suggested to the Eeubeuites
and the Gadites, who had large flocks and
herds, the expediency of applying to Moses for
permission, which was conditionally gran-ted
them, of settling permanently on the eastern
side of the Jordan (Num. xxxii. 1-42 ; Josh,
xiii. 8-11). Within the limits of Gilead grew
the celebrated balm (Jer. viii. 22 ; cp. Gen.
xxxvii. 25). In an extended sense the term
Gilead includes the whole region east of the
Jordan (Deut. xxxiv. 1 ; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg.
XX. 1 ; 2 Sam. ii. 9 ; 1 JIac. v. 17, 24-27, 36 ;
Antiq. xii. 8, 3 ; in ix. 8, 1, Gilead and Bashan
are distinguished).

5. A mountain abutting on the valley of
Jezreel (Judg. vii. 3; cp. ver. 1 and vi. 33).
While Gilead in this passage may be a mis-
reading for Gilboa, it must be remembered
that the spring which best corresponds in
position with that at which Gideon's men
drank, and the mountain from which it
issues, and the river down which the dis-
comfited Midianites fled, are called respect-
ively the spring, mountain, and river Jalud,
which is Arabic for Goliath. To spring, moun-
tain, and river, are thus attached a name
which po.ssibly perpetuates Gilead in a cor-
rupt form. There is perhai)s better evidence
than the present name. Gilead was part of
Naphtali (2 Kin. xv. 29). It may be that
Naphtali extended across the Jordan to the

east, but it is quite possible that Gilead de-
noted a rugged district of Xaphtali west of
the Jordan ; and if so, the correctness of the
text of Judg. vii. 3 is confirmed.

6. A city in the region of Gilead (Hos. vi.
8: cp. xii. 11).

Gil'gal [act of rolling, wheel, a circle].

1. The first encampment of the Israelites
after crossing the Jordan, and their head-
quarters during the conciuest of Canaan (.Josh.
iv. 19-24). The special association whicli
they had with the name was the rolling away
of their reproach by their circumcision after
long neglect of the ordinance in the wilder-
ness (Josh. V. 7-9). The camp was pitched
between the Jordan and Jei-icho. On its site
arose a town, which was on the northern
border of Judah (xv. 7). There were quar-
ries in its vicinity (Judg. iii. 19). These last
two references are, however, believed by
some authorities to indicate the existence of
another Gilgal at the foot of the mountains.
It is uncertain whether this town or another
place of the name was on Samuel's circuit
(1 Sam. vii. 16), and where, it may be
judged, Saul, the opposition to him having
ceased, was made king and the kingdom re-
newed (xi. 15). At any rate, it was at Gilgal
in the Jordan valley where a muster of the
people took place to form an army which
should encounter the Philistines then op-
]>rcssing the land, when Saul, finding it diffi-
cult to hold the people together until Samuel
should come and offer sacrifice, himself of-
fered burnt offerings (xiii. 4, 7, 8 ; cp. 12, 15).
For his disobedience the forfeiture of his
kingdcmi was announced to him (13, 14).
There, too, Saul incurred a second rebuke
for his disobedience in sparing Agag (xv. 12,
21, 33 ; cp. 34). It was to Gilgal also that the
representatives of the tribe of Judah went to
welcome David back after the death of Absa-
lom (2 Sam. xix. 15, 40). Like other holy
places, it became a focus of idolatry under
the kings who succeeded Jeroboam, and it was
in consequence denounced by the jirophets
(Hos. iv. 15 : ix. 15 ; xii. 11 ; Amos iv. 4 ; v. o).
It is probably the house of Gilgal or Beth-
gilgal mentioned after the captivity (Xeh.
xii. 29). Its site is Jiljiilieh, a ruin 2 miles
east of Jericho.

2. A village from which Elijah and Elisha
went down to Bethel (Deut. xi. 30 ; 2 Kin.
ii. 1-4 : iv. 38 (?)). It was probably the pres-
ent village of Jiljilia, on the top of a high
hill, 7 miles north by west of Bethel ; though
when the levels are taken, its site is actually
lower than that of Bethel.

3. A town associated with Dor and Tirzah
(Josh. xii. 23) ; probably Jiljiilieh. a little
north of the brook Kauah, and 5 miles north-
east by north of Antipatris.

Gi'loh [exile].

A village in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 51) : enumerated with towns lying
to the south of Hebron.

Gilonite

250

Gnat

Gi'lo-nite.

A native or inhabitant of Gilob, as Ahith-
opliel (2 Sam. xv. 12; xxiii. 34).

Gi'mel.

Tlie third letter of tlie Hebrew alphabet.
The Greek letter gamma, and consequently
tlie English C have the same origin ; but in the
spelling of Hebrew and Greek names in the
English versions, gimel and gamma (though
not these letters only) are represented by G,
their approximate equivalent in sound and a
form fal)rieated out of C.

Gimel stands at the head of the third sec-
tion of Ps. cxix. in several versions, since
each verse of the section begins with this
letter in the original.

Gim'zo [abounding in sycomores].

A town with depeiulent villages situated
in .Tudah. It was taken by the Philistines
during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii.
18). Robinson identified it with Jimzu, on
an eminence about 3 miles east-southeast of
Lydda.

Gin.

A noose or trap, laid on the ground, in
■which birds, beasts, and even men are caught
(Job xviii. 9; Amos iii.,5). The two words
Mokesh and Pah, of which it is the transla-
tion, are usually rendered by snare.

Gi'nath.

Father of Tibni (1 Kin. xvi. 22).

Gin'ne-thoi, in A. V. Ginnetho [gardener].

A chief of tlie jiriest.s who returned with
Zerubbabel from Babylon (Xeh. xii. 4, 7). In
the next generation, a father's house among
the priests, which occupies the same position
in the corresponding catalogue, bore the
name Ginnethon (ver. 16). The difl'erence is
merely that between a jod and a final nun.
Probably Ginnethon stood originally in ver. 4.

Gin'ne-thon [gardener].

1. A father's liouse among the priests in
the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh.
xii. 16); see Ginnethoi.

2. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, sealed a covenant to worship
Jehovah (Neh. x. 6).

Gird'le. See Clothing and High Priest.

Gir'ga-shites, in A. V. once Girgasites
[perhaps, dwellers on clayey soil].

A tribe of Canaan (Gen. x. 15, 16 ; xv. 21 ;
Deut. vii. 1 ; Josh. iii. 10 ; xxiv. 11 ; Neh. ix.
8). It is not known what part of the coun-
try they inhabited. They must not be con-
founded with the Gergesenes.

Gir'zite, in A. V. Gezrite ; in margin Giz-
rites and Gerzites respectively, following a
Hebrew tradition.

A people living south of the Philistine
country and mentioned with the Amalekites
and (Teshuritcs (1 Sam. xxvii. 8).

Gish'pa, in A. V. Gispa [blandishment].

An overseer of the Nethiuim in Nehemiah's
time (Neh. xi. 21).

Git'tah-he'pher. See Gath-hepher.

Git'ta-im [two wine presses].

A village of Benjamin (Neh. xi. 31, 33), to
which the Beerothites fled probably at the
time of Saul's cruelty (2 Sam. iv. 3; cp. xxi.
1, 2). Exact site unknown.

Git'tite [of Gath].

A native or inhabitant of Gath (2 Sam. vi.
10, 11 ; XV. 18, 19, 22).

Git'tith [Gittite].

A musical term (Ps. viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv.,
titles). It is the feminine form of the He-
brew adjective for Gittite, and it denotes
either a musical instrument in use in Gath,
or a vintage .song to the tune of which the
psalm should be sung, or a march of the Git-
tite guard (2 Sam. xv. IS).

Gi'zo-nite.

The designation of Hashem, one of David's
mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 34). It points
either to his paternity or to his birthplace, it
is uncertain which. Neither man nor place
with a name like Gizoh is found in the
Bible.

Giz'rite. See Girzite.

Glass.

1. A mirror (Ex. sxxviii. 8; Job xxxvii.
18 ; 1 Cor. xiii. 12, all A. V.) ; see Mirror.

2. The rendering of Hebrew Z'knVdli (Job
xxviii. 17, R. V., where A. Y. has crystal)
and of Greek 'Ualos and its adjective (Rev.
iv. 6; XV. 2; xxi. 18, 21). It is probably real
glass. Glass was known to the Greeks as
early as the time of Herodotus, and to the
Egyptians long before the exodus.

Glean'ing.

Gathering the grain which the reapers
haVe failed to remove, or the grapes which
remain after the vintage (Judg. viii. 2 ; Ruth
ii. 2, 7, 9, 16; Is. xvii. 6). For the benefit of
the i)oor, the fatherless, the widow, and the
stranger, the owner was instructed by the
law not to glean his harvest field or vine-*
yard, nor return for a forgotten sheaf, nor
gather fallen fruit (Lev. xix. 9, 10; xxiii. 22;
Deut. xxiv. 19).

Glede [the glider].

The common kite (Dent. xiv. 13). The
word is used to render the Hebrew Ra'ah;
which, however, is a copyist's error for
Da'ah; see Daleth. A later scribe seems to
have written Dnyyuh on the margin as a cor-
recaon, which afterwards crept into the text
(for it is not mentioned in the corresponding
list in Lev. xi.), and is rendered kite in R. V.,
vulture in A. V.

Gnat.

The rendering of the Greek Konops, a small
insect (Mat. xxiii. 24), abounding in marshes
and vexatious by reason of its bite, from
which the Egyptians protected themselves at
night by sleeping under nets (Herod, ii. 95).
It is evidently some species of Cule.r. a genus
known by its hairy antennae, plumed in the

J

Goad

2.31

God

iiuiles, its proboscis, its slender l)()(ly. its two
gauzy wings, its long legs, iuul its l)loi)(l-
siuking proi)ensities. " To strain at" in the
A. V. is a nnsprint in the original edition of
Kill for "strain out." The earlier English
versions have "out," and the K. V. corrects
the error of A. V., and translates "to strain
out the gnat, and swallow the camel." To
anxiously strain out any small insect which
has accidentally fallen into the water one is
about to drink, but unconcernedly to swallow
a camel, is to be particular about minute points
of ceremouy or of duty, while practicing gross
violations of the moral law.

Goad.

A long pole sharpened at the point or iron-
tipped, used to urge cattle forward (1 Sam.
xiii. 21). With one Shamgar slew 600 Philis-
tines (.Judg. iii. 31). "It is hard for thee to
kick against the pricks" (Acts ix. 5, A. V.)
is the metaphor of a recalcitrant animal in-
juring it.self against the ox goad. The words
of the wise are compared to goads (Eccles.
xii. 11).

Go'ali, in A. V. Goath [lowing].

A place near Jerusalem to the west or south
(Jer. xxxi. 39).

Goat.

The rendering of cjuite a number of
Hebrew words in the Old Testament, and of
more than one Greek word in the New :
'Attud, he goat, probably as leader of the
flock; Tai/ish. he goat, perhaps as butting;
Saphir, he goat, as the leaper ; 'Es, she goat,
also a goat without regard to sex ; Sa'ir, he
goat, and f^'^irah, she goat, as shaggy ; and the
Greek words Tragos, he goat; 'Aix, goat, as
the springer; ^Eriphos and 'Eriphiou, a young
goat, kid. Goats were tended with the
sheep by the same shepherd (Gen. xxvii. 9 ;
XXX. 32), but iu separate companies (Mat.
XXV. 32). Their hair was woven into cloth
{Ex. XXV. 4 ; XXXV. 2(5), the flesh and milk
were used for food (Lev. vii. 23; Deut. xiv.
4; Prov. xxvii. 27), and in extremity their
hairy skin served as clothing (Heb. xi. 37).
They were an important item of a cattle
owner's wealth (Gen. xxx. 33, 43; xxxi. 1;
1 Sam. XXV. 2; 2 Chron. xvii. 11). The goat
was a sacrificial animal, used for burnt ofl'er-
ing and sin offering (Gen. xv. 9; Ex. xii. 5;
Lev. i. 10; iv. 24; Num. vii. 17; xv. 27; Ps.
Ixvi. 15 ; Is. i. 11 ; Ezra vi. 17 : viii. 3,5 ; Heb.
ix. 12). The domestic goat (Capra hircus)
belongs to the great family of Bov'ulx, or
hoUow'-horned ruminants. The closest af-
finity is believed to be to the sheep, and
there is a series of connecting links between
the two animals. One of the few points of
dift'erence is that in the goat the horns are
simply curved backward. Their habits are
diflerent. In Palestine the sheep may be
seen grazing the tender herbage and grass,
while the goats browse tender twigs and
leaves. Every flock of goats has its own
Stately leader (cp. Jer. 1. 8). The goat was

very abundant in ancient Palestine, as was
to be exi)ecte(l in a hilly and somewhat dry
country. It is now more numerous than the
sheep, and constitutes the chief wealth of
the country. The ordinary goat of Syria is
black in color, and has jiendant ears a foot
long hanging down below the recurved hoi-ns.
It is Linna.'us" Cupru mambrica. His Capra
hircus, variety nufiorensis, the Mohair goat,
is also occasionally bred in the north of
Palestine.

Goat, WUd.

An animal, in Hebrew Ya'el, eminent. Its
refuge is among the high hills (Ps. civ. 18)
and rocks (Job xxxix. 1), En-gcdi being its
special haunt in Palestine (1 Sam. xxiv. 2).
It is a species of ibex (Copra beden), called
hy the Arabs beden. It is of a much lighter
color than the Euroiiean iliex. Its horns are
more slender and recurved, wrinkled, and
knotted on the front face only. It is found
iu Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Moab, and in the
wilderness of Jud;ea near the Dead Sea.
Tristram met with it twice at its favorite
spot, Eu-gedi, and found its teeth fossil iu
cave breccia on Lebanon, where it does not
now occur. Wild goat is also the rendering
of the Hebrew 'Akko, perhaps meaning grace-
ful neck (Deut. xiv. 5). It may be the .same
species.

Go'atli. See Goah.

Gob [small pit, cistern, or locust].

A place at which war was waged with
the Philistines twice in the reign of David
(2 Sam. xxi. 18, 19). Site unknown. The
text is uncertain. In 1 Chron. xx. 4 the seat
of war is Gezer.

God.

The English word God is derived from a
root meaning to call, and indicates simply the
object of worship, one W'hom men call upon
or invoke. The Greek word which it trans-
lates in the pages of the N. T., however,
describes this object of worship as Spirit ; and
the O. T. Hebrew word, which this word in
turn represents, conveys, as its primary
meaning, the idea of jjower. On Christian
lips, therefore, the word God designates fun-
damentally the almighty Spirit who is wor-
shiped and Avhose aid is invoked by men.
This primary idea of God, in which is
summed up what is known as theism, is the
product of that general revelation which
God makes of himself to all men, on the
plane of nature. The truths involved in it
are continually reiterated, enriched, and
deepened in the Scriptures; but they are not
so much revealed by them as presupposed at
the foundation of the special revelation with
which the Scriptures busy themselves — the
great revelation of the grace of God to sinners.
On the plane of nature men can learn only what
God necessarily is, and what, by virtue of his
essential attributes, he must do ; a special com-
munication from him is requisite to assure us
what, in his infinite love, he will do for the

God

252

God

recovery of siuners from their guilt aud mis-
ery to the bliss of communion with him. And
for the full revelation of this, his grace in the
redemption of sinners, there was requisite an
even more profound unveiling of the mode
of his existence, liy which he has been ulti-
mately disclosed as including in the unity of
his being a distinction of jiersons, by virtue
of which it is the same God from whom,
through whom, and by whom are all things,
who is at once tlie Father who provides, the
Son who accomplishes, and the Spirit who
applies, redemption. Only in the uncovering
of this supernal mystery of the Trinity is
the revelation of what God is completed.
That there is no hint of the Trinity in the
general revelation made on the plane of na-
ture is due to the fact that nature has noth-
ing to say of redemption, in the process of
which alone are the depths of the divine na-
ture made known. That it is explicitly re-
vealed only in the N. T. is due to the fact
that not until the N. T. stage of revelation
was reached was the redemi)tion, which was
being prepared throughout the whole O. T.
economy, actually accomplished. That so
ineffable a my.stery was placed before the
darkened mind of man at all is due to the
necessities of the plan of redemption itself,
which is rooted in the trinal distinction in
the Godhead, and can be apprehended only
on the basis of the Trinity in Unitv.

The nature of God has been made known
to men, therefore, in three stages, corre-
sponding to the three planes of revelation,
and we will naturally come to know him,
first, as the infinite Spirit or the God of na-
ture; then, as the Kedeemer of sinners, or
the God of grace ; and lastly as the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost, or the Triune God.

1. God, the Infinite Spirit. — The conviction
of the existence of God bears the marks of
an intuitive truth in so far as it is the uni-
versal and unavoidable belief of men, and is
given in the very same act with the idea of
self, which is known at once as dependent
and responsible and thus implies one on
whom it depends and to whom it is responsi-
ble. This immediate perception of God is
confirmed and the contents of the idea de-
veloped by a series of arguments known as
the " theistic proofs." These are derived
from the necessity Ave are under of believing
in the real existence of the infinitely perfect
Being, of a sufficient cause for the contingent
universe, of an intelligent author of the
order and of the manifold contrivances ob-
servable in nature. and of a lawgiver and judge
for dependent moral beings, endowed with
the sense of duty and an ineradicable feeling
of responsibility, conscious of the moral con-
tradictions of the world and craving a solution
for them, and living under an intuitive per-
ception of right which they do not see real-
ized. The cogency of these proofs is cur-
rently recognized in the Scriptures, while
they add to them the supernatural manifes-

tations of God in a redemptive process, ac-
comjianied at every stage by miraculous
attestation. From the theistic proofs, how-
ever, we learn not only that a God exists,
but also necessarily, on the principle of a
sufficient cause, very much of the nature of
the God which they iirove to exist. The idea
is still further developed, on the principle of
interpreting by the highest category within
our reach, by our instinctive attribution to
him, in an eminent degree, of all that is the
source of dignity and excellence in ourselves.
Thus we come to know Goil as a personal
Spirit, infinite, eternal, and illimitable alike
in his being and in the intelligence, sensi-
bility, and will which belong to him as per-
sonal spirit. The attributes which are thus
ascribed to him, including self-existence, in-
dependence, unity, uniqueness, unchange-
ableness, omnipresence, infinite knowledge
and wisdom, infinite freedom and power, in-
finite truth, righteousness, holiness and good-
ness, are not only recognized but richly illus-
trated in Scripture, which thus puts tiie seal
of its special revelation upon all the details
of the natural idea of God.

2. God, the Redeemer of Shiners. — While re-
iterating the teaching'of nature as to the ex-
istence and character of the personal Creator
and Lord of all, the Scriptures lay their
stress upon the grace or the undeserved love
of God, as exhibited in his dealings with his
sinful and wrath-deserving creatures. So
little, however, is the consummate divine
attribute of love advanced, in the scriptural
revelation, at the expense of the other moral
attributes of God, that it is thrown into
prominence only upon a background of the
strongest assertion and fullest manifestation
of its companion attributes, especially of the
divine righteousness and holiness, and is ex-
hibited as acting only along with and in en-
tire harmony with them. God is not repre-
sented in the Scriptures as forgiving sin be-
cause he really cares very little about sin ;
nor yet because he is so exclusively or pre-
dominatingly the God of love, that all other
attributes shrink into desuetude in the pres-
ence of his illimitable benevolence. He is
rather represented as moved to deliver sinful
man from his guilt and pollution because he
pities the creatures of his hand, imraeshed
in sin, with an intensity which is boi-n of
the veheniL^uce of his holy abhorrence of sin
and his righteous determination to visit it
with int(derable retribution ; and by a mode
which brings as complete satisfaction to his
infinite justice and holiness as to his un-
bounded love itself. The biblical presenta-
tion of the God of grace includes thus the
richest development of all his moral attri-
butes, and the God of the Bible is conse-
quently set foi-th, in the completeness of that
idea, as above everything else the ethical
God. And that is as much as to say that
there is ascribed to him a moral sense so
sensitive and true that it estimates with un-

God

253

Gog

lailiug accuracy the exact moral character
of every iiorscm or deed presented for its
coiiteiuiilation, and responds to it with the
precisely aiijivopriate degree of satisfaction
or reprohatiiin. The intinitude of his love
is exhihited to us i)recisely in that while we
were yet sinners he loved us, though with
all the force of his infinite nature he reacted
against our sin with illiuiitahle ahhorrence
and indignation. The mystery of grace re-
sides just iu the inijiulse of a sin-hating
God to show mercy to such guilty wretches ;
and the supreme revelation of God as the
God of holy love is made in the disclosure of
the mode of his procedure iu redemption,
by which aloue he might remain just while
justifying the ungodly. For iu this pro-
cedure there was involved the mighty para-
dox of the infinitely just Judge himself be-
coming the sinner's substitute before his own
law and the infinitely blessed God receiving
in his own ]iei-son the penalty of sin.

3. God, the Fnthei\ Son, and Holy Ghost.—
The elements of the ])lau of salvation are
rooted in the mysterious nature of the God-
head, iu which there coexists a triual dis-
tinction of persons with absolute unity of
essence ; and the revelation of the Trinity
was accordingly incidental to the execution
of this plan of salvation, iu which the Father
sent the Sou to be the propitiation for sin, and
the Sou, when he returned to the glory
which he had with tlie Father before the
world was, sent the Spirit to apply his re-
demption to men. The disclosure of this
fundamental fact of the divine nature, there-
fore, lagged until the time had arrived for
the actual working out of the long-])romised
redemption ; and it was accpmplished first of
all in fact rather than in word, by the actual
appearance of God the Son on earth and the
subsequent manifestations of the Spirit, who
was sent forth to act as his representative in
bis absence. At the very beginning of Christ's
ministry the three persons are dramatically
exhibited to our sight in the act of his bap-
tism. And though there is no single passage
in Scripture in which all the details of this
great mystery are gathered up and expounded,
there do not lack passages in which the three
persons are brought together in a manner
which exhibits at once their unity and dis-
tinctness. The most prominent of these are
perhaps the formula of baptism in the triune
name, put into the mouths of his followers
by the resurrected Lord (Mat. xxviii. 19).
and the apostolic benediction in which a
divine blessing is invoked from each person
in turn (2 Cor. xiii. 14). The es.sential ele-
ments which enter into and together make
up this great revelation of the Triune God
are, however, most commonly separately in-
sisted upon. The chief of these are the
three constitutive facts: (1) that there is but
one God (Deut. vi. 4 ; Is. xliv. 6 ; 1 Cor. viii.
4: James ii. 19); (2) that the Father is God
(Mat. xi. 25 ; John vi. 27 ; viii. 41 ; Eom. xv.

6; 1 Cor. viii. 6; Gal. i. 1, 3, 4 ; Eph. iv. 6;
vi. 23 ; 1 Thes. i. 1 ; Jas. i. 27 ; iii. 9 : 1 Pet.
i. 2; Jude 1) ; the Son is God (John i. 1, 18 ;
XX. 2.i ; Acts XX. 2» ; Kom. ix. 5; Hcb. i. 8;
Col. ii. 9: Phil. ii. (i ; 2 Pet. i. 1) ; and the
Spirit is God (Acts v. 3. 4 ; 1 Cor. ii. 10, 11;
Eph. ii. 22), and (3) that the Father, Son. and
Holy Ghost are personally distinct from one
another, distinguished l)y jii-rsoual i>rououus,
able to send and be si'Ut by one another, to
love and honor each the other, and the like
(John XV. 2() ; xvi. 13, 14 ; xvii. 8, 18, 23 ; xvi.
14 ; xvii. 1). The doctrine of the Trinity is
but the synthesis of these facts, and, adding
nothing to them, simply recognizes in the
unity of the Godhead such a Trinity ol' per-
sons as is involved in the working out of the
plan of redemption. In the prosecution of
this work there is implicated a certain rela-
tive subordiuatiou iu the modes of operation
of the several persons, by which it is the
leather that sends the Sou and the Son who
sends the Spirit ; but the three i)ersons are
uniformly represented in Scripture as iu their
essential nature each alike God over all,
blessed forever (Rom. ix. 5) ; and we are
therefore to conceive the subordination as
rather economical. /. e. relative to the func-
tion of each in the work of redemption, than
essential, /. e. involving a ditiereuce in nature.

B. B. w.
Gog.

1. A Eeubenite (1 Chron. v. 4).

2. The prince of Eosh, Meshech. and Tubal
(Ezek. xxxviii. 2, E. V.), who is prophetically
described as invading the land of Israel in the
last times, and being defeated on the moun-
tains with immense slaughter ( Ezek. xxxviii.,
xxxix.). He and his people and his allies
serve the prophet as a type of heathenism
contending against the kingdom of God. The
name was probably borrowed from Gyges, the
chief of a Lydiau princely family called the
Mermuada^. It is said that about 700 B. c.
they murdered the reigning sovereign of
Lydia, who belonged to a rival house called
the Heraclidse, and jdaced Gyges on the
throne. He was celebrated by the Greeks for
his wealth, and gained popularity by sending
large donations to the temple of Apollo at
Del]ihi. He made war on the Greek cities in
Asia Minor. In his old age his country was
invaded by an apjiarently Celtic horde called
the Cimmerians, who came from the Crimea.
He defeated them in battle, capturing sev-
eral of their chiefs. But fearing a repetition
of the invasion, he sent presents to Ashur-
banipal, the Assyrian king. For a long time
no one could be found who understood the
Lydian language spoken by the ambassadors.
At length a man was obtained who compre-
hended what they said, and the friendship
of Gyges was accepted. It was only deceji-
tive, for in a short time Gyges aided Egy]>t
in its revolt against the Assyrian ruler, who hi
retaliation stirred up the Cimmerians to a
fresh invasion of Lydia, in which, about 662

Golan

254

Gorgias

B. C Gyges was killed, leaving his son Ardys
to asceucl the throne iHerod. i. 7-15). See
GoMKR, Magog.

3. A mystic pei'souage, akin in character
to the Gog of Ezekiel. to appear immediately
befoi-e the close of the present dispensation
(Rev. XX. S-15).

Go'lan [exile, emigration].

A city of Bashau, within the territory of
the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan.
It was assigned, with its snburbs, to the Ger-
shonite Levites (Josh. xxi. 27; 1 Chrou. vi.
71), and was one of the cities of refuge (Deut.
iv. 4.3 ; Josh. xx. 8 ; xxi. 27). Alexander Jan-
njeus sustained a severe defeat near this
place, and on a later campaign demolished
the town (War. i. 4, 4 and 8). The town
gave name to the small province of Gaulanitis,
or Gaulonitis, as the name was also pronounced
(Antici. viii. 2, 3, various Greek texts). This
region was situated between Hermon and the
Yarmuk, and extended from the neighbor-
hood of the Jordan eastward. The eastern
border has not been determined. The dis-
trict is divisible into a southern and more
arable, and a northern and more rocky half.
It was surveyed by Schumacher, who with
other authorities considers that the site of
the town was at Sahem ej-Jaulan, about

17 miles east of the sea of Galilee, where
there are extensive ruins. Gaulonitis is now
known as JauUiu. Porter describes it as a
table-land watered by streams from Hermon
and numerous fountains, and with pastures
which are among the richest in Syria ; yet it
is now almost wholly desolate.

Gold.

A precious metal anciently ol)tained in
Havilah (Gen. ii. 11, 12) ; Sheba (1 Kin. x. 2;
Ps. Ixxii. 15), and Ophir (1 Kin. xxii. 48; 2
Chron. viii. 18 ; Job xxii. 24 ; Ps. xlv. 9). It
was lavishly used for overlaying the furni-
ture of the tabernacle and the tem])le, and
ornamenting the latter edifice itself (Ex. xxv.

18 ; 1 Kin. vi. 22, 28). It was made into idols
(Ex. XX. 23 ; xxxii. 31 ; Ps. cxv. 4 ; Is. xl. 19 ;
Acts xvii. 29), crowns (Ps. xxi. 3), chains
(Gen. xli. 42), rings (Song v. 14), earrings
(Judg. viii. 26). It was used for coinage at a
comparatively early date (Ezra ii. 69,R. V.;
cp. Acts iii. 6 ; xx. 33). Its figurative mean-
ing appears in Rev. iii. 18, etc.

Gol'go-tlia [Greek from Aramaic gidgalia',
Hebrew (juUjolefh, a skull]. See C.x^lvarv.

Go-li'ath [exile, or an exile].

The giant from the Philistine city of Gath
who was slain by David (1 Sam. xvii. 1-58;
xxi. 9, 10; xxii. 10; cj). Josh. xi. 22; Num.
xiii. 33). Perhaps another giant of Gath, be-
sides the one slain by David, bore the name
of Goliath (2 Sam. xxi. 19), just as two heroes
of the time were called Elhanan ; but see 1
Chron. xx. 5.

Go'mer. I. [perfection].

Daughter of Diblaim, and wife of Hosea
the prophet (Hos. i. 3).

Go'mer, II.

A peojile descended from Japheth, and in-
hal)iting the north (Gen. x. 2, 3 ; 1 Chron. i. 5,
tj ; Ezek. xxxviii. 6). They were probably the
Cimmerians of classical history. They are
mentioned by Homer as people of the far north
(Odys. xi. 14). They entered Asia l¥om the
Crimea, which itself preserves their name, and
the regions beyond the Caucasus (Herod, iv.
11, 12),. settled in Cappadocia, and threatened
the Assyrian empire, but were defeated by
Esarhaildon. Turning westward, they overran
pai't of Asia Minor, fighting more than one
battle with Gyges, king of Lydia, whose name
is probably pi-eserved in the Scripture Gog.
Him they killed. They were afterwards
driven outof Asia (I^ydia) by Alyattes (Herod,
i. Kj). They are generally considered to have
been identical with the Cimbri of Roman
times, and the Cymry of Wales. Cambria
and even Cumberland still preserve the mem-
ory of their name.

Go-mor'rah, in A. V. of N. T. Gomorrha
[accumulation or, perhajjs, submersion].

One of the cities of the plain ((tCU. x. 19;
xiii. 10). Its king was defeated by Chedor-
laomer (xiv. 2, 8, 10, 11). It was one of the
cities destroyed on account of their wicked-
ness by fire from heaven (Gen. xviii. 20 ; xix.
24-28 ; Deut. xxix. 23 ; Is. i. 9 ; xiii. 19 ; Jer.
xxiii. 14 ; xlix. 18 ; Amos iv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 9 ;
Mat. X. 15). Conder points out that there is
a great blutf called Tubk 'Amriyeh, and near
it a wady called Wady 'Amriyeh, whose
stream falls into the northwestern part of
the Dead Sea, about 9 miles in a direct line
from the entrance of the Jordan. The con-
sonants are the same as in Gomorrah, and the
modern name may perhaps echo the ancient
name.

For the vine of the fields of Gomorrah
(Deut. xxxii. 32), see Vine.

Go'pher Wood.

The wood of which the ark was made (Gen.
vi. 14). Geseuius suggested that the Hebrew
gopher is an altered form of kopher, pitch,
and refers to trees of the pine family, and
specially, perhaps, to the cypress, the three
first consonants of the Greek kiipuristius being
nearly those of the word gopher.

Gor'gi-as.

A Syrian general under Antiocluis IV. In
166 B. c. he led a detachment of trooi»s from
Emmaus, in the Philistine jdain, where the
main army was encam]ied, to make a night
attack on Judas Maccaba?us ; but Judas, hav-
ing learned of the plan, withdrew his forces
and led them to a successful attack on Gor-
gias' own camp. When Gorgias returned,
his followers saw their camji in fiames and
fled (1 Mac. iii. 38-iv. 25). A little more than
a year later Gorgias was commanding at
Jamnia. and he met and defeated Joseph and
Azarias. who in the absence of Judas had
charge of the troops in Judsea, and were ad-
vancing to attack the town (v. 55-62).

Gortyna

255

Gospel

Gor-ty'na.

All iiii]Miitaiit city in the suuthcrii part of
C'reti- 1 Mac. xv. 23).

Go'shen.

1. A district of Egyjit, adajited for Hocks
and berds. .situated in the delta, a few miles
to tlie northeast of On. It belonged to the
nome called Arabia ((ien. xlvi. 34, Sejitua-
giut), and funned part of the laud of Kaiiises
(xlvi. 28; xlvii. 11, 27, Septuagint). Thither
Joseph went up in his chariot to meet his
father who wa.s coming from Canaan (xlvi.
28. 29). The Hebrews were allowed to set-
tle there (xlvii. (>). and the mas.s of the peojile
were still there at the time of their oppres-
sion (Ex. viii. 22; ix. 6).

2. A regi(m in the south of Judah (Josh.
X. 41 : xi. If)). Exact situation unknown.

3. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 51). Exact site unknown.

Gos'pel.

The English word gospel is derived from
the Anglo-Saxon godspel, which meant good
tidings. This etymology is found in the
Ormulum, Introduction, line l.")7. Later
it became godspel, which meant God-story.
i. e. the story about God, i. e. Christ. The
word, as now used, describes both the mes-
sage which Christianity announces and the
books in which the story of Christ's life and
teaching is contained. A similar transition
in meaning was experienced by the Greek
word fuaggellon (whence the Latin evunqe-
liiim and our evangel) which gospel was and
is used to translate. In the N. T. it never
means a book, but the message which Christ
and his apostles announced. It is called the
gospel of God (Rom. i. 1 ; 1 Thes. ii. 2. 9;
1 Tim. i. 11) ; the gospel of Christ (Mark i.
1 ; Rom. i. 16 ; xv. 19 ; 1 Cor. ix. 12, 18 ; Gal.
i. 7) : the gospel of the grace of God (Acts
XX. 24); the gospel of peace (E])b. vi. 15) ;
the gospel of your salvation (Ei)h. i. 13) ;
and the glorious gospel (2 Cor. iv. 4). It was
preached by our Lord (Mat. iv. 23; xi. 5 ;
Mark i. 14'; Luke iv. 18; vii. 22) ; by the
apostles (Acts xvi. 10; Rom. i. 15; ii. 16;
1 Cor. ix. 16, etc.), and by evangelists (Acts
viii. 25). But in the post-apostolic age the
term was also applied to the writings in
which the apostolic testimony to Jesus was
contained. Each one of them was called a
gospel and the four together were called the
gospel. Our present Englisli usage, there-
fore, exactly corresponds with that of the
early Christians of the age immediately suc-
ceeding the apostolic.

The Four Go.«j>e/.s-.^Historical evidence
shows that our four gospels have been attrib-
uted from the earliest times to Matthew",
Mark, Luke, and John, respectively, and that
from the very beginning of the post-apost<ilic
age they were received by the church as
authoritative documents and as containing
the apostolic testimony to the life and teach-
ings of Christ. In the second century they

were quoted, coninieiiti'd upon, and de-
scribed ; s<i that there need be no doubt of
their authenticity. An examination of the
N. T. ejiistles also shows that our gospels de-
scribe Jesus as the same kind of jierson,
doing tlie same kind nf works, and having
the same liist(jry to which the epistles allude.
They may, therefore, be coiitidently accepted
as trustworthy reports. The first three have
much in common and. in general, present the
life of the Lord from the .same point of view.
They are called the synoptic gospels (fmm
the Greek sioiopsiti, a seeing together), and
in particular are quite dillerent from John's.
The synoptics take for their chief theme
Chri.st's ministry in Galilee; the Fourth Gos-
pel gives prominence to his labors in Judfea ;
though his betrayal, arrest, trial, crucifix-
ion, and resurrection are so important that
they are narrated by all. The only prior in-
cident recorded by all the evangelists is the
feeding of the five thousand. The synoptics
al.so say comparatively little of the divinity
of Christ, while John especially records the
Lord's self-testimony to it. They present
mainly Christ's teaching about the kingdom
of God, his parables, his instruction of the
common peojile ; while .Tohn records his
teaching about himself and this usually in
the form of extended discourses. At the
same time the Fourth Gospel assumes and
implies the other three, and they in turn are
often made intelligible only by the facts-
which John records. Thus John i. 15 implies,
the fact recorded in Mat. iii. 11, etc. ; John
iii. 24 the fact given in JIat. iv. 12 ; John vi.
2, 15, the whole synoptic .story of the Gali-
Isean ministry, etc. So in turn Christ's re-
ce])tion in Galilee and the willingness of
Peter, Andrew, James, and John to leave all
and follow him arc only explicable by sucli
events as are recorded in John i. and ii. ;
and the sudden rise of the Sabbath contro-
versy in the .synoptics (see Mark ii. 23, etc.)
is likewise to be explained by the events of
John V. Moreover, while the synoptics have
the same general point of view, each of them
has its individual characteristics, determined
by the writer's puri)Ose and the readers
whom he had in mind. Matthew, writing
from the Jewish point of view, sets Jesus
forth as the royal ^lessiah. He constantly
cites in jiroof O. T. prophecies, and is inter-
e.sted to give Christ's teaching concerning
the true kingdom of God in contrast to the
false views of current Judaism. Mark,
writing evidently for gentiles, and possibly
for the Romans in particular, represents
mainly Christ's power to .save as shown in
his miracles. Luke, long the companion of
Paul, sets the Lord forth as the gracious
Saviour, and is fond of exhibiting his favor
to the fallen, the outca.st, and the poor. So
John has his special purpose, which is to
represent Jesus as the incarnate, divine
Word, revealing the Father to those who
would receive him. None of the gospels.

Gospel

256

Gospel

however, aims at beiug a complete biography
of our Lord. They are collections of his
acts aud words, made for the purpose of jirac-
tical and doctrinal instruction. The student
must construct his conception of the history
of Jesus out of the materials furnished by
the gospels. They themselves were prepared
with other objects in view.

The question has often been asked from
what sources the four evangelists derived
their information. Matthew aud John were
ai)ostles and therefore possessed personal
knowledge of the events they record or were
in a jiosition to obtain it from those who had it.
But Mark also was a companion of Paul and
Peter, and is said, by very early tradition, to
have embodied in his Gospel the preaching of
Peter about Jesus. Luke himself assures us
(i. 1-4) that his knowledge was obtained from
" eyewitnesses .... of the word " and that he
had made himself well acquainted with the
facts. Thus the gospels give us the testi-
mony of the apostles. The many coinci-
dences of language in the synoptics confirm
this. If any itinerant speaker or preacher,
such as a foreinu missionary home on furlough,
relates at dirt'ercnt places incidents of his ex-
perience abroad, he gradually settles into a
fixed narrative through his very desire to be
accurate, repeating the same stories in the
same form, though now and then adding
particulars wliich he had omitted elsewhere.
It is probable that the apostles aud early
evangelists acted in much the same way ; so
that their recital became largely stereotyped.
After a while parts of this narrative were
put into writing for use in the newly founded
churches. Thus a gospel narrative became
current which, while doubtless differing in
extent in different places, had much of its
matter, even to the very words, in common.
The verbal coincidences, therefore, of our
synoptic gospels attest that they give us the
common apostolic testimony to Jesus. The
Fourth Gospel, on the other hand, contains
material which at first was not so widely
called for, but which John finally wrote, out
of his own knowledge, when the needs of
the church seemed to demand it. The coin-
cidences between the synoptics have raised,
however, the further question whether any of
them have directly copied from the others.
This question is often called the synoptic
problem. The facts which enter into its so-
lution are very many and complex. While
the three have much in common, Matthew
and Luke have much that is not in Mark,
and each of them has much that is not in
the others. Even Mark has some material
peculiar to himself. Moreover, even in the
sections which are in common the language
of one evangelist often difl'ers as remarkably
as in otiier jioints it agrees with that of his
colleagues. In the ancient church it was
thought that Mark abbreviated Matthew and
Luke. Many modern writers think, on the
other hand, that Matthew and Luke drew

from Mark his historical narrative. But it
seems to be more probable that all three were
independent, but used largely the language
of the gospel narrative which had become
current ; while at the same time they felt
free also to use their own Avords because they
were conscious of being fully acquainted
with the facts. In attempting to trace the
literary history of the synoptics we should
not forget also the promise made by Christ to
the apostles, and meant doubtless for others
who might be emidoyed in the proclamation
of the gospel, " But the Comforter, even the
Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in
my name, he shall teach you all things, and
bring to your remembrance all that I said
unto you" (John xiv. 26, R. V.).

To obtain a clear idea of the life of Christ
it is necessary to construct a harmony of the
gospels. This, of course, should be done with
fidelity to the chronological indications, few
though they are, which the gospels contain.
But it should also be remembered that the in-
dications of time and relation are not only
few, but also often doubtful, aud that, there-
fore, a harmony must be regarded in many
points as merely ai)proximate. Matthew's
method is mainly topical, and, therefore, he
seldom provides a basis for a harmony. Mark
appears to be much more chronological, and
his order may generally be followed ; but
there is much that he does not give at all.
Luke follows in the first half of his work
nearly the order of Mark, though with im-
portant differences, and lie, too, is often top-
ical in his method. But John's Gospel by
noting successive feasts which Jesus attended
provides the general framework into which
the other material should be fitted. It is on
this basis that the following outline aud har-
mony have been prepared : We believe that
the feast of John v. 1 was a passover ; that
therefore Christ's ministry included four
passovers (John ii. 13; v. 1 ; vi. 4 ; xiii. 1), at
the last of whi(;h he died. The ministry
was thus about three years and a quarter in
length, since John i. shows that Christ was bap-
tized a few months before his first passover.
Others however, denying that John v. 1 was
a passover, make the ministry two and a
quarter years in length. On this, as on
many similar points, absolute demonstration
is impossible. In the following table, more-
over, the dates assigned to some of the events
must likewise be regarded as open to ques-
tion. It appears clear to most students that
Herod the Great died about April 1, 4 B. c.
If so, Christ was probably born in December,
5 B. c, or January, 4 B. c. We assume the
date to be December 25, 5 b. c, without, how-
ever, meaning to afiirm that there is any
evidence for the exact day of the month.
If then, when he was baptized, he was about
thirty (Luke iii. 23), his baptism is probably
to be assigned to the latter part of A. D. 26
or the beginning of A. d. 27. We assume for
it January A. D. 27. If his ministry in-

Gospel

257

Gospel

fliult'il four passovci-s, he died at the pass-
over of A. I). 30. Mauy coiiiiilex calcula-
tions tend to confirm these dates, though
they are not capable of perfect demonstra-
tion. One view assumes that " the fifteenth
year of Tiberius C'iesar" (Luke iii. 1) is to be
dated from the time wlicn Tiberius became
co-regent with Augustus in the empire (A.

D. 11-1"2). At that time he became in the
provinces the practical ruler. It is well
known that our common Christian calendar
dates the birth of Christ too late. The fol-
lowing harmony nearly agrees with Kobin-
son's ; but .some changes in bis arrangement
have been introduced.

Harmony of the Four

Gospels

Incidents.

Time.

Place.

Matthew.

Mark.

Luke.

John.

1. Introductory verses.

1.1-4

2. Prologue to the Fourth

.

i. 1-18

(iospel.

1

3. ThegeuealogyofChrist

i. 1-17

iii. 23''-38

4. .Annunciation to Zach-

B. C. C

The temple.

i. 5-25

arias of .John the Bap-

tist's birth.

5. .\nnuuciation to Mary

" .')

Nazareth.

26-38

of Christ's I)irth.

€. Marv's visit to Eliza-

" "

A city of Judah.

39-56

l)et"h.

7. Birth of John the Bap-

" "

" "

57,58

8. Circumcision and

.. ..

•■

59-79

naming (jf John.

9. Annunciation to Jo-

" "

Nazareth.

18-23

seph of Christ's birth.

10. The birth of Jesus.

" "

Bethlehem.

24, 25 1 ...

ii. 1-7

11. Annunciation to the

" "

Near Bethlehem.

8-14

shepherds.

12. Visit of the shepherds

" "

Bethlehem.

15-20

to adore Christ.

1?.. Circumcision of Jesus.

'• 4

"

. . .

21

14. Presentation in the

" '•

Jerusalem.

22-38

temple; prophecies of

Simeon and .\nna.

l.'i. Visit of the Masi.

'• "

Bethlehem.

ii. 1-12

Ifi. Fliiiht into Egvpt.

'• "

Bethlehem to Egypt.

13-15

17. .^laughter of the chil-

" "

Bethlehem.

16-18

dren by Herod.

18. Keturn from Egypt to

" "

Egj-pt to Nazareth.

19-23

39

Nazareth.

19. Life of Jesus at Naza-

B. C. 4-A. D.

Nazareth.

ii. 40-52

reth for thirty years,

26

but with one "record-

ed visit to Jerusalem

at the feast of the

passover when 12

A. D. 9

years of age: John in

retirement in the

desert.

i. 80

20. The public ministry of a. d. 26

At the Jordan.

iii'. 1-12

i.' 1-8

iii. 1-18

19-28

John the Baptist."

21. Jesus baptized and wit-

" 27

" "

13-17

9-11

21-23*

29-34

nessed bv John.

22. The temptation of Je-

" "

Wilderness of Ju-

iv. 1-11

12, 13

iv. 1-13

sus.

diea (?).

2:^. John, Andrew, and Pe-

Near the Jordan.

35-42

ter, meet Jesus.

24. Philip and Nathanael

On the way to Gali-

4:3-51

called.

lee.

2-i. The first miracle; wa-

(1 11

Cana of Galilee.

ii. 1-11

ter changed to wine.

2r.. Christ goes to Caper-

" " 1

Capernaum.

. . .

12

naum.

1

27. The first passover;

money changers driv-
en from the temple.

28. Instruction of Nico-

demus.

29. Jesus preaches in

Judfea.
17

Early Judsean Ministry
.Vpr. A. D. 27; Jerusalem.

" " Judaea.

ii. 13-25

iii. 1-21
22

Gospel

258

Gospel

Harmony of the Four Gospels. — Continued.

Incidents.

30. Renewed testimony of

John to .Ie.sus.

31. Jesus (loparts forGal'e.

32. Inttiview with woman

of Samaria.
3S. Cureofnobieman'ssonl
34. Imprisonment of John

the Baptist. |

27 or 28 Cana.

. . [Fortress of Maclire
I rus.

xiv. 3-5

John.

vl. 17-20 j ill. 19, 20

35. Commencement of

Christ's public work
in Galilee.

36. First rejection at Naz-

areth.

37. Call of Simon, Andrew,

James, and Jolin. j

38. Cure of demoniac in

the synagogue.

39. Cure of Peter's wife's

mother.

40. Cure of many on the

same evening.

41. Circuit throughGalilee

42. Cure of a leper. t

43. Healing of paralytic. !

44. Call of Matthew (Levi);

his feast.

45. The second pass- Apr.

O'ver ; healing of im-
potent man at pool
of I^ethesda, and dis-
cussion with the Jews.

46. Plucking ears of corn

leads to discussion of
the Sabbath question.

47. Cure on Sabbath of

man with withered
hand.

48. Plots against Jesus ;

extraordinary enthu-
siasm of the people ;
many follow him
from" all the land.

49. Selectionof the twelve

apostles.

50. Sermon on the mount.

51. Healing of centurion's

servant.

52. CircuitthroughGalilee,
•SS. Raising of widow's son^

54. Inquiry of John the

Baptist about Jesus,
and the latter's re-
ply, etc.

55. Jesus anointed by a

sinful woman. " |

56. A further circuit

through Galilee with
his disciples. i

57. Beginning of the day

of parables (see iV-'i):
cure of a demoniac:
blasphemy of Phari-
sees reproved,

58. Pharisees' desire for a

sign commented on.

59. Christ's mother and

brethren desire to see
him.

60. 'WoesagainstPharisees

61. Discourses to the peo-

ple on trust in God,
against worldliness,
etc. I

Early Galilsean Ministry.
D. 28 Galilee. iv. 12-17 i. 14, 15 iv. 14, 15

Nazareth.

Near Capernaum.

Capernaum.

Galilee.

A city of Galilee.

Capernaum.

Jerusalem.

On way to Galilee(?).
Capernaum.
Near Capernaum.

I Capernaum.

; Galilee.

Nain.

Galilee.

» " Capernaum.

18-22

viii. 14, 15

16,17

iv. 23-25

viii. 2-4

ix. 1-8

9-13

xii. 1-8
9-13
14-21

V. 1-viii.l
viii. 5-13

xi. 1
x'i. 2-19

16-20

21-28

29-31

32-34

35-39

40-45

ii. 1-12

13-17

23-28
iii. 1-6
7-12

13-19

xii. 22-37 iii. 20-30

38-45
46-50

31-35

16-30

v. 1-11

iv. 31-37

38,39

40,41

42-44

v. 12-16

17-26

27-32

vi. 1-5
6-11
17-19

12-16

20-49
vii. 1-10

vii. 11-17
18-35

36-50
viii. 1-3

xi. 14, 15,
17-23

16, 24-26,
29-36
27,28;

viii. 19-21

xi. 37-.54
xii. 1-59

Grospel

259

Gospel

Hakmony of thk Four Gospels. — Continued.

traditions.

79. Daughter of Syroplioe-

nician healed. '

80. Deaf and dnmb man

healed and others.

81. The WW fed.

82. The Pharisees and Sad-

ducees again require
a sign.

83. Diseiplcs warned

against the leaven of
the Pharisees, etc.

84. Blind man healed.

85. Peter's confession.

86. Christ foretells his

death and resurrec-
tion.

87. The transfiguration.

88. Healing of the demo-

niac boy.

89. Christ again foretells

his death and resur-
rection.

90. Tile tribute money.

91. Instructions to disci-

ples on humility, etc.

Incidents.

1
Time, i Place.

Matthew.

Mark.

Luke.

John.

62. Remarks on theslaugh-

A. u. 28. Capernaum.

xiii. 1-5

ter of the (ialihiaiis.

03. Parables of the sower.

" "

"

xiii. 1-53

iv. 1-34

viii. 4-18;

tlie tares, the seed

xiii. 18-21

growing secretly, the

mustaril seed, the

leaven, tlie hid treas-

-

ure, the pearl, tlie

dragnet, and other

sayings.
I'll. The three inquirers.

..

Near sea of Galilee.

viii. 18-22

ix. 57-62

('>.'>. The tempest stilled.

'• "

Sea of Galilee.

23-27

35^1

viii. 22-25

til). The demoniacs of Ga-

" "

East shore of sea of

28-34

V. 1-20

26-10

dara (or Gerasa i.

Galilee.

67. Incjuiry of John's dis-

" Capernaum.

ix. 14-17

ii. 18-22

v. 33-39

ciples and the Phari-

sees about fasting.

I'S. Raising of .Jairus'

" "

"

18-26

V. 21-43

viii. 41-56

daughter, and cure of

woman with bloody

issue.

69. Curcof two blind men.

" "

"(?)

27-31

70. Cure of a dumb demo-

" "

" CO

32-34

niac.

71. Second rejection at

" "

Nazareth.

xiii. 54-58

vi. l-6»

Nazareth.

72. The twelve sent out.

" Galilee. '

ix. 35-x.l,

C-IS

ix. 1-6

X. 5-xi. 1

73. Herod's inquiry about

A. n. 29 (?)

"

xiv. 1, 2,

14-16,

7-9

Jesus, with which is

6-12

21-29

connected the ac-

count of the recent

murder of John the
Baptist.
74. The twelve return;

.,

North east coast of sea

13-21

30-44

10-17

vi.1-14

Jesus retires with

of Galilee.

them across the sea;

ftoon fed.

75. Jesus walks on the wa-

ter.

76. Triumphal march

" "

Sea of Galilee.

22-33

45-52

l.J-21

" " Gennesaret.

34-36

53-56

through Gennesaret.

77. Discourse on the Bread Apr. a. d. 2'J Capernaum.

22-71

of Life at the time of

the third passover.

78. Reproof of Pharisaic

" "

'*

XV. 1-20

vii. 1-23

Later Galilsenn Mimstry.
A. D. 29 Region of Tyre andxv 21-28 j vii. 24-30
Sidon. j 1

The Decapolis. I 29-31 I 31-37

" I " " 32-38 viii. 1-9

Near Magadan [A. V. 39-xvi. 4^ 10-12

Mat. Magdala] ; in i

Mark, the parts of;

Dalmanutha.
Sea of Galilee. 5-12 i 13-21

Bethsaida.

Region of Csesarea
Philippi.

Galilee.
Capernaum.

22-26
13-20 27-30

21-28 ' 31-ix. 1

xvii.1-13
14-21

xviii.1-35

2-13
14-29

18-21
22-27

28-36
37^3»

43''-45

46-50

vii. 1

Gospel

260

Gospel

Harmony of the Four Gospels. — Continued.
The Last Journeys to Jerusalem.

Incidents.

Time.

92. Final departure from a. d. 29

Galilee ; rejected in
Samaria.

93. The seventy instruct-

ed and sent out.

94. Christ attends the Oct. '

feast of taberna-
cles.

95. [The woman taken in

adultery] bracketed in
R. V.

96. Discussion with the

Jews during the
feast.

97. Jesus apparently re-

tires from Jerusalem
and the seventy re-
turn to him.

98. A lawyer instructed ;

parable of the good
Samaritan.

99. Jesus at the house of

Martha and Mary.

100. The disciples taught

how to pray.

101. The feast of dedi- Dec'

cation; blind man
healed ; parable of
the shepherd; con
flict with the Jews
Jesus retires to Pe
rrea, beyond Jordan.

102. Ministry in Persea.

103. Parable of the barren

fig tree,
lot. Healing infirm wom-
an on the Sabbath.

105. Teaching and jour

neying toward Jeru
salem ; warned

against Herod.

106. Dines with a Phari

see ; healing of man
with dropsy; parable
of the wedding feast

107. Requirements of true

disciples.

108. Parables of the lost

sheep and coin and
the prodigal.

109. Parable of the unjust

steward.

110. Pharisees reproved ;

parable of the rich
man and Lazarus

111. Instructs disciples in

forbearance, faith,
and humility.

112. The ten lepers.

11.3. The suddenness of his
advent.

114. Parable of the impor

tunate widow.

115. Parable of the Phari-

see and the publican

116. The raising of Laz-

arus.

117. Counsel of Caiaphas ;

Jesus again retires.

118. Precepts concerning

divorce.

Place.

Matthew.

From Galilee to Ju-
dsea.

" Jerusalem.

Judaea.

" Bethany.
" jJudcea.
" Jerusalem.

30 Persea.

xix. 1»
xi. 20-24

Mark.

xi. 25-30

xix. 1>>, 2

Between Samaria
and Galilee (R. V
margin).

Persea.

Bethany.

Jerusalem. Ephraim
Persea (?).

X. 1»

xix. 3-12

Luke.

ix. 51-56
X. 1-16

17-24

25-37

38-42
xi. 1-13

xiii. 6-9
10-17
22-35

xiv. 1-24

25-35
XV. 1-32

xvi. 1-13
14-31

xvii.1-10

11-19

20-37

xviii. 1-8

9-14

John.

vii. 2-52

[53-viii.
11]

viii. 12-59

ix. 1-x. 38

39-42

2-12

xi. 1-46
47-54

Gospel

261

Gospel

Harmony of the Four Gospels. — Continued.

Incidents.

Time. Place.

Matthew.

Mark.

Luke.

John.

U9. Christ blesses Uttle

A. D. 30 Persea.

xix. 13-15

X. 13-16

xviil. 15-

children.

17

120. The rich young ruler,

" "

"

16-30

17-31

1&-30

etc.

121. Parable of the labor-

" "

"

XX. 1-16

ers iu the vinevard.

122. Third prediction of

" "

"

17-19

32-34

31-34

his death and resur-

rect iun.

123. Ascent to Jerusa-

" "

"

20-28

35-45

lem ; nquest of

James and John.

12-1. Two blind men heal-

■' "

Jericho.

29-34

46-52

35-43

ed near Jericho.

125. Conversion of Zac-

'• "

"

. . .

xix. 1-10

chsus.

126. Parable of the pounds

" "

"

11-28

1-27. Arrival at Bethany

" "

Bethany.

. .

xi. 55-

six days before the

xii. 1

passover.

12S. Supper at Bethany:
anointed by Mary ;
hostility of" rulers".

129. Triumphal entrj- into

Jerusalem : spends
night at Bethany.

130. Cursing of barren fig

tree : clean.sing of
temple : praises of
the children; mira-
cles.

131. Lesson of the fig tree.

132. The sanhedrin de-

mand Christ's au-
thority : his reply
and parables of the
two sons, the wicked
husbandmen, and
the marriage of the
king's son. I

133. Question of the Phar-|

isees (tribute to
Ccesar) : of the Sad-I
ducees (the resur-j
rection) : of the law-!
yer (the great com-|
mandmehtcChrist's
question (David's I
Lordi. '

lai. Warnings against
scribes' and Phari-
sees, j

135. The widow's mite.

136. Visit of the Greeks;;

last teachings.

137. Christ's prediction of

the fall of Jerusa-
lem, the future of
the church, and the
second advent.

138. Instructions to watch:

parables of five vir-
gins and talents ; the
last judgment.

139. Conspiracy of the

rulers : tfeacherj- of ,
Judas.

Saturdav,
Apr. 1,"
A. D. 30

Sundav,
Apr. 2

Mondav,
Apr. 3

Tuesday,
Apr. 4

Tuesday

evening,

Apr. 4

The Lasi Week.
Bethany.

Mount of Olives, Je
rusalem,and Beth
any.

Xear and in Jerusa
lem.

On the way to Jeru-
salem.
Jerusalem.

xxvi.6-13 xiv. 3-9 ... ' 2-11

1

xxi. 1-11 xi. 1-11 xix. 29-44 12-19

12-19 12-19 45-48;

xxi. 37,31

140. Preparations for the
passover.

Tuesday
evening
Apr. 4, or
Wednes-
day. .\pr. 5
Thursday,
Apr. 6 "

20-22 20-2.5[26]

23-32, I 27-33 ;
33^6 ; xii. 1-12
xxli. 1-14

15-22,
28-33,
34-40,
41-46

13-17,
18-27,
28-34,
35-37

XX. 1-8,
9-19

20-26,
27-40,
41-44

Mount of Olives.

Jerusalem.

Bethany and Jerusa-
lem.

xxiii.1-39 38-40 ' 45-47

... I 41-44 I xxi. 1-J
sxiy. 1-31 xiii. 1-27 xxi. 5-2i

32-XXV.46 2S-37 29-36

xxvi. 1-5, xiv. 1, 2, ' xxli. 1-6
14-16 i 10,11 I

17-19 12-16 7-13

xii. 20-50

Gospel

262

Gospel

Harmony of the Four Gospels. — Continued.

Incidents.

Time. '

Place.

Matthew.

Mark.

Luke.

John.

141. The last passover ;

Thursday

The upper room in

xxvi. 20

xiv. 17

xxii. 14-

.strife of tho disci-

evening,

Jerusalem.

18,24-30

ples.

Apr. 6

142. The feet vvasliing.

11 11

xiii. 1-20

143. The traitor announc-

" "

21-25

18-21

21-23

21-35

ed: Judas withdraws.

144. Tlie Lord's Supper.

" "

" "

26-29

22-25

19,20

145. Prediction of Peter's

" "

" "

31-38

36-38

fall, and other warn-

inss.

146. Last discourses with

" "

" "

xiv. 1-

the disciples and

xvii. 26

prayer.
147. Renewed prediction

u

On the way to Geth-

30-35

26-31

of Peter's fall and of

semane.

the scattering of the

disciples.

148. The agony in the gar-

" "

Gethsemane.

36-46

32-42

39-46

xviii. 1

den.

149. The arrest of Christ ;

Thursday

"

47-56

43-52

47-53

2-12

dispersion of the dis-

night, Apr.

ciples.

6-7 __

150. Preliminary exami-

High-priest's palace

13, 14,

nation before .Annas.

ill Jerusalem.

19-24

151. Examination before

" "

" "

57, 59-68

53, 55-65

63-65

sanhedrin ; mock-

ery of Jesus.

1.52. Peter's denials.

" "

58, 69-75

54, 66-72

54-62

15-18,
25-27

153. Final condemnation

Early Fri-

.<

xxvii. 1

XV. 1*

66-71

of Jesus by the san-

day morn-

hedrin.

ing, A])r. 7

1.54. Je.sus led to Pilate,

The governor's resi-

2, n-14

l>'-5

xxiii. 1-5

28-38

who seeks to secure

dence in Jerusa-

his release.

lem.

155. Jesus before Herod.

Friday,
Apr. t

Jerusalem.

.

6-12

156. Pilate further seeks

" "

Governor's residence

15-26"

6-15"

13-25

39,40

to release Jesus ; the

Jews demand Earab-

bas.

157. Pilate delivers Jesus

" "

" "

26i'-.30

15'>-19

xix. 1-3

to death ; scourging.

158. Pilate again seeks to

" "

" "

_

4-16"

release Jesus.

159. Judas' remorse and

" "

Jerusalem.

3-10

suicide.

160. Jesus led to cruci-

" "

31-34

20-23

26-33"

16'', 17

fixion.

161. The crucifixion.

" "

Near Jerusalem.

3.5-38

24-28

33>>, 34, 38

18-24

162. Incidents at the cross.

"

"

39-49

29-36

.3,5-37,
39-45»

25-29

163. The death of Jesus.

Friday,
3. P.M., Apr.

50

37

46

30

164. Incidents following

Friday,

Jerusalem and vicin-

51-56

38-41

Lib, 47-49

his death.

Ayjr. 7

ity.

165. Taking down from the

"

Near Jerusalem.

57-61

42-47

50-56

31-42

cross ; burial.

166. The watch at the sep-

" "

62-66

ulcher.

107. Visit of the women. I

168. Visit of John and Pe-j

ter : return of Mary
Magdalene to sepul-
cher nnd Christ's ap-
pearance to her.

169. Report of the watch.

170. Interview with two

disciples on the way,
to Emmaus.

Pundav,
A pr. 9

The Rcsiirirctiou.

Jerusalem and vicin-
itv.

xxvm.

1-10

11-15

xvi. 1-8 xxiv.1-11

[xvi. 9- , 12 ,xx. 1-lS

11]*

[12, 13]*

13-35

Gospel

263

Gospel

Harmony of the Four Gospels. — Continued.

Incidents.

Time.

Place.

Matthew.

Mark.

Luke.

John.

171. Christ appears to the

Sundav,

Jerusalem.

[xvi. 14]*

xxiv. 36-

XX. 19-24

eleven Thomas be-

Apr. 9

49

ing absent.

ITJ. Christ. H week later.

Apr. 16

"

25-29

ai;ain appears to

tiiom. 1 honias being

pre.-ent.

17:'. Ai'pearance to seven

A. D. 30

Sea of Galilee.

xxi. 1-23

di.scipKs: I'eter's

restoration, etc.

17 i. The great commis-

" "

Mountain in Galilee.

xxviii.

[15-18]*

sion, t^ee 1 Cor. xv. 6.

le-iX)

17.'>. The ascension. See

May 18,

Mount of Olives to-

[19,20]*

50-53

Acts. i. 1-11.

A. D. 30

ward Bethany.

176. St. John's closing

XX. 30, 31:

words.

xxi. -24,25

* The last twelve verses of Mark are in R. V. spaced from the preceding
whether they originally formed part of Mark's Gospel.

Index for Finding any Passage in the Harmony.
Matthew.

because of doubt
G. T. P.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.'

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

i.

1-17

3 '

xii. 14-21

48

xxi. 20-22

131

18-'23

9

22-37

57

23-xxii. 14

132

24-25

10

38-45

58

xxii. 15-46

133

11.

1-12

15

46-.i0

59

xxiii. 1-39

134

13-15

16

xiii. 1-5:}

63

xxiv. 1-31

137

16-18

17

54-58

71

32-xxv. 46

i:«

19--J3

18

xiv. 1,2

73

XX vi. 1-5

139

111.

1-12

20

3-5

U

6-13

1'28

13-17

•21

6-12

73

14-16

i:?9

IV.

1-11

22

13-21

74

17-19

140

12-17

35

■ 22-33

75

20

141

18-22

37

34-36

76

21-25

143

2:V25

41

XV. 1-20

78

26-29

144

V.

1-viii. 1

50

21-28

79

30-35

147

Till.

2-4

42

29-31

80

36-46

148

.=W13

51

32-38

81

47-56

149

1-1,15

39

39-xvi. 4

82

57

151

16, 17

40

xvi. 5-12

83

58

1.52

18-22

64

13-20

85

59-68

151

2:^-27

65

21-28

86

69-75

152

28-34

66

xvii. 1-13

87

xxvii. 1

153

IX.

1-8

43

14-21

88

o

154

9-13

44

'< 22, 23

89

3-10

1.59

14-17

67

24-27

90

11-14

1.54

18-26

68

xviii. 1-35

91

l-5-26>

1.56

27-31

69

xix. 1»

92

26»'-30

1.57

32-34

70

Jb 2

102

31-ai

160

3.5-x. 1

72

3-12

118

S>-:58

161

X.

•2-4

49

13-15

119

39-49

162

5-xi. 1

72

16-:?0

120

50

163

XI.

1

52

XX. 1-16

121

51-56

164

2-19

54

17-19

1-22

57-61

165

20-24

93

1 20-28

123

62-66

lf,6

25-30

97

! 29-34

1-24

xxviii. 1-10

167

xii.

1-8

46

xxi. 1-11

129

11-15

169

9-13

47

1'2-19

130

16-20

174

Marl:

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse,
i. 29-31

Section. ^
39

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

i. 1-8

20

ii. 18-22

67

9-n

21

32-W

40

23-28

46

12, 13

•M

:i5-:«

41

iii. 1-6

47

14,15

3.->

40-45

42

7-12

48

]r.--io

:'7

ii. 1-12

43

1:^-19

49

21-28

38

1.3-17

44

■Ji3-:;0

57

Gospel

264

Gospel

Index for Finding any Passage in the Harmony. — Continued.

Chapter

and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

iii.

31-35

59

ix. 33-50

91

xiv. 22-25

144

IV.

1-34

63

x. 1»

92

26-31

147

35-41

65

1"

102

32-42

148

V.

1-20

66

2-12

118

43-52

149

21-43

68

13-16

119

53

151

VI.

1-6"

71

17-31

120

■54

152

6''-13

72

32-34

122

55-65

151

14-16

73

35-45

123

66-72

152

17-20

34

46-52

124

XV. 1»

153

21-29

73

xi. 1-11

129

lb-5

154

30-44

74

12-19

130

6-15*

156

45-52

75

20-25[26]

131

15b-ly

157

53-56

76

27-xii. 12

132

20-23

160

vn.

1-23

7S

xii. 13-37

183 1

24-28

161

24-30

79

38-40

134

29-36

162

31-37

80

41-44

135

37

163

vni.

1-9

81

xiii. 1-27

137

38-41

164

10-12

82

28-37

138

42-47

165

13-21

83

xiv. 1,2

139

xvi. 1-8

167

22-26

84

3-9

128

9-11

168

27-30

85

10,11

139

12,13

170

31-ix. 1

86

12-16

140

14

171

IX.

2-13

87

17

141

15-18

174

14-29

88

18-21

143

19,20

175

30-32

89

1

Luke.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Sectii

i. 1-4

1

viii. 26-40

66

xviii. 31-34

122

5-25

4

41-56

68

35-43

124

26-38

5

ix. 1-6

72

xix. 1-10

125

39-56

6

7-9

73

11-28

126

57,58

7

10-17

74

29-44

129

59-79

8

18-21

85

45-48

1,30

80

19

22-27

86

XX. 1-19

132

ii. 1-7

10

28-36

87

20-44

133

8-14

11

37-43"

88

45-47

134

15-20

12

43»-45

89

xxi. 1-4

135

21

13

46-50

91

5-28

137

22-38

14

51-56

92

29-36

138

39

18

57-62

64

37,38

130

40-52

19

X. 1-16

93

xxii. 1-6

139

iii. 1-18

20

17-24

97

7-13

140

19,20

34

2.5-37

98

14-18

141

21-23*

21

38-42

99

19,20

144

23''-38

3

xi. 1-13

100

21-23

143

iv. 1-13

22

14,15

57

24-30

141

14,15

35

16

58

31-38

145

16-30

36

17-23

57

39-46

148

31-37

38

24-26

58

47-53

149

38, 39

39

27,28

59

54-62

1.52

40.41

40

29-36

58

63-65

151

42-44

41

37-54

60

66-71

1.53

V. 1-11

37

xii. 1-59

61

xxiii. 1-5

154

12-16

42

xiii. 1-5

62

6-12

1.55

17-26

. 43

6-9

103

13-25

156

27-32

44

10-17

104

26-33"

160

33-39

67

18-21

63

33'>-34

161

vi. 1-5

46

22-35

105

35-37

162

6-11

47

xiv. 1-24

106

38

161

12-16

49

25-.35

107

39-45»

162

17-19

48

XV. 1-32

108

451'

164

20-49

50

xvi. 1-13

109

46

163

Vii. 1-10

51

14-31

110

47-49

164

11-17

53

xvii. 1-10

111

50-56

165

18-35

54

11-19

112

xxiv. 1-11

167

36-50

55

20-37

113

12

168

viii. 1-3

56

xviii. 1-8

114

13-35

170

4-18

63

9-14

115

36-49

171

19-21

59

1.5-17

119

50-53

175

22-25

65

18-30

120

Gourd

265

Governor

IxDKX FOR FiXDiXG AXY PASSAGE IN THE Haemoxy. — Continued.
John.

Chapter

and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

Chapter and Verse.

Section.

i.

1-18

o

vii. 2-52

94

xviii. 15-18

1.52

19-28

20

53-viii. 11

95 1

19-24

150

•2»-S4

21

viii. 12-59

%

25-27

152

35-42

23

ix. 1-x. 38

101

28-38

154

43^1

24

X. 39-12

102

39,40

156 -

ii.

1-11

25

xi. 1-16

116

xix. 1-3

157

12

26

i 47-.>l

117

4-16»

158

13-K

27

1 55-xii. 1

127

16», 17

160

iii.

1-21

28

xii. 2-11

12S

lS-24

161

22

29

12-19

129

■25-29

162

23-36

30

20-50

136

30

163

iv.

1-3

31

xiii. 1-20

142 i

31-42

1G5

4-42

32

21-35

143

XX. 1-18

168

43-04

33

36-38

145

19-24

171

V.

1^7

45

xiv. 1-xvii. 26

146

•25-29

172

vi.

1-14

74

xviii. 1

148

30,31

176

15-21

75

2-12

149

xxi. 1-23

173

22-71

77

13,14

150

24-25

176

vii.

1

80

Gourd.

The rendering of the Hebrew Kikayon in
Jonah iv. 6. 7. 9. 10. the margin of the R. V.
substituting PalmaChristi. The plant so desig-
nated grew up in a night, sheltering the proph-
et Jonah from the fierce heat of the Ninevite
sun : but its decay vras as rapid as its growth.
The Septuagint translates the Hebrew word
by the Greek holokunfhe. meaning the pump-
kin iCticurbita pepo), which may be consid-
ered the type of the gourd family {Cucitr-
bifacese). A native of Astrakhan, along the
northwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. it
may well have been introduced into the
Ninevite region before the time of Jonah.
It is in favor of the identification that it is a
plant of rapid growth. But the Hebrew
kiknjion is very like the Graeco- Egyptian kiki,
which means the castor-oil plant {Ricinus com-
munis). This is sometimes called Palma
Christi (Christ's palmi. It is not. however,
a palm, but a euphorbiaceous plant, like the
little milky weeds called spurges. It is a
native of India, but was cultivated in south-
em Asia and Egypt (Herod, ii. 94 1. It at-
tains a height of from 8 to 10 feet, growing
to a considerable height in a few days. The
stem is purplish-red and covered with a
pearl-like bloom, the leaves are peltate and
palmate, the flowers are in racemes, the seed
vessel has three two-valved cells, each one-
seeded. If this was the plant which shaded
Jonah, its raj>id growth was miraculous.

Gourd, Wild.

The rendering of the Hebrew word Pak-
ku'oth. splitters, bursters i2 Kin. iv. .39). It is
the fruit of a wild vine growing in Palestine,
which flouri.<hes when other vegetation is
dead or dying through excessive drought.
A son of the prophets gathered a lapful of
the fruit near Jericho, and put them into a
pot to be cooked, but the moment the pottage
of which they constituted the chief ingre-
dient was put to the month the taste betrayed

that there was death in the pot : in other
words, that the fruits gathered were poison-
ous (3S-41). The plant was pretty clearly
one or other of two .species of the gourd or-
der, thecolocynth. or the squirting cucumber,
probably the former. The colocynth i CHruUns
colocynthis) is a prostrate gourd-like plant with
tendrils, growing in southern Spain, in north-
ern, eastern, and southern Africa, in Arabia,
India, etc. In Palestine it is wild on the mari-
time plain and in the Jordan valley, in the
latter of which places the prophet found his
wild gourd or wild vine. It may be seen of
a lovely emerald green when all vegetation
near has withered under the fiery hot wind
of summer. If the traveler pluck the smooth
gourd-like fruits and cut them across with
his penknife, he will find that they both look
and smell like the cucumber. If then he
put them to his lips, he will feel as if he had
touched fire. The colocynth is a valuable
but dangerous medicine. The other claim-
ant, the squirting cucumber ( Ecballium agreste,
formerly Momordica elaterium). also a gourd-
like plant with tendrils, has prickly fruits,
which, when it is ripe and the stalk is loosened,
burst and squirt forth their poisonous pulp, a
phenomenon which would quite agree with
the etymology of the word. The squirting
cucumber grows in wa.ste places and by the
roadside throughout Palestine, and its unfit-
ness for food would probaVjly be known to
the young companion of Elisha.

Gov'em-or.

One who governs a land by authority of a
supreme ruler to whom he is subordinate.
Joseph when prime minister of Egypt was
called its governor (Gen. xlii. 6; xlv. 26).
When Nebuchadnezzar, after capturing Jeru-
salem, departed, he left a governor. Gedaliah,
behind, to rule the conquered people ( Jer. xl.
5: xli. 2, etc.). After the captivity, the Is-
raelites were ruled by Persian goventors;
Zerubbabel, Xehemiah, and others, though

Gozan

266

Greece

Jews by birth, beiug Persian officials (Neh.
V. 14, 18; Hag. i. 14). Poutiu.s Pilate was
governor of Jiuhea when our Lord was cnici-
tied, and is so called (Mat. xxviii. 14), though
his specific Roman title was procurator (q. v.).

Go'zan.

A town and district in Mesopotamia on the
river Habor (2 Kin. xvii. 6 ; xviii. 11 ; xix.
12; 1 Chron. v. 26; Is. xxxvii. 12). In an
.Assyrian inscription the town Gozan is as-
sociated with Nisibis. Gozan is probably the
Gauzanitis of Ptolemy and the Mygdonia
of Strabo. It was a province of Mesopotamia,
situated on the upper part of the Khaliour
river, and along the southern slopes of mount
Masius. It is unnecessary to follow Ewald,
who, governed by 1 Chron. v. 26, thought that
the river of Gozan was distinguished from
tiie Habor, and found it in the Ozan, which
empties into the Caspian Sea, and is suppo.sed
to have formed the northern boundary of
Media. Ptolemy mentions a town of Media
called Gauzania in its vicinity.

Grape. See Vine.

Grass.

A i)lant belonging to the endogenous order
Graininaccx, of which the ordinary grasses
growing in fields, or the cultivated cereals,
may be considered as typical representatives.
Popularly, the term grass is extended to
many other endogenous plants, and even to
various exogens, especially those possessing
linear leaves. This does not matei-ially differ
from the meaning of the word grass in the
book of Genesis. In chap. i. 11, 12 the veg-
etable kingdom is divided into three great
classes : grass, herbs, and trees. The word
grass is used in a more limited sense when
man's brief life on earth is com])ared to
grass, which in the morning flourishes and
in the evening is cut down and withers (Ps.
ciii. 15 ; cp. also xxxvii. 2; xc. 5; xcii. 7; cii.
11 ; Is. xl. 6, 7; Mat. vi. 30; Luke xii. 28).

Grass'hop-per.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew 'Arheh,
the numerous or gregarious, in A. V. of Judg.
vi. .5 ; vii. 12 : Job xxxix. 20 ; Jer. xlvi. 23. It
is undoubtedly the migratory locust, as the
E. V. makes it, and as even the A. V. has it
in Ex. X. 4 ; Joel i. 4. See Locust.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Hagab in
Lev. xi. 22; Num. xiii. 33; Ecc. xii. 5;
Is. xl. 22. It is very small (Num. xiii. 33)
and voracious (2 Chron. vii. 13, where it is
rendered locust). It perhaps derived its
name from its covering the ground or hiding
the sun. On the margin of Lev. xi. 22. R. V.,
it is admitted that it is unknown whether
the animal was a grasshopper or a locust.
The grasshot)per family, now called Acridiidx,
consists of leaping orthopterous insects, with
four-jointed tarsi, wing cases in repose placed
like the two sloping sides of a roof, and long,
tapering antennse. The type is the great
English grasslioiijier {Locnxtd riridisaima).

3. The rendcrinji of the Helirew Gob and

Gobay, creeper from the earth (Nah. iii. 17).
It devours the grass (Amos vii. 1, where R.
V. renders locust). It was prol)ably an in-
sect of the locust family ; but of which species
is unknown.

Grave.

The cavity in the ground in which a body
is interred. The Jews were sometimes buried
in graves dug in the earth (Tobit viii. 9, 18),
but more comnKmly in caves scooped out in
rocks or naturally existing (Gen. xxiii. I) ;
Mat. xxvii.60 ; John xi. 38). See Sepulcher.

Grav-en Im'age.

An image of wood, stone, or metal fash-
ioned by means of a sharp cutting instru-
ment as distinguished from one cast in a
mould (Is. XXX. 22; xliv. 16, 17; xlv. 20; cp.
Hab. ii. IS, 19). Sometimes, however, the
image was first cast and then finished by the
graver (Is. xl. 19; xliv. 10). Graven images
were in use among the Canaanites before the
Israelites entered the country (Deut. vii. 5;
xii. 3). They were also used in Babylon and
elsewhere (Jer. 1. 38; li. 47, 52). The second
commandment expressly forbade the peoi)le
of God to make them (Ex. xx. 4 ; Deut. v. 8 ;
cp. also Lev. xxvi. 1; Ueut. xxvii. 15; Is.
xliv. 9; Jer. x. 14; li. 17).

Greaves. See Aemok.

Gre'cians.

1. The people of Greece (Joel iii. 6).

2. Jews who spoke Greek as distinguished
from those who used Aramaic, which in N. T.
times was impularly called by the Jews He-
brew (Acts vi. 1 and ix. 29, in R. V. Grecian
Jews; and xi. 20, A. V. and margin of R. V.).
See Hellenist.

Greece, in A. V. of Daniel Gre'ci-a [from
Gntikoi, an old name of a tribe in Epirus, and
of the Greeks generally. It fell into disuse,
Hellenes taking its place, but it was revived
by Sophocles] .

A small but highly celebrated country in
the southeast of Europe. Its northern limit
was never perfectly defined ; it may. how-
ever, be placed at the Olympian chain of
mountains. On the south it was bounded by
the Mediterranean ; on the east bj- the ^Egean
Sea, now the Archipelago ; and on the west
by the Ionian Sea, now regarded as ])art of
the Mediterranean ; and the Adriatic Sea,
now the gulf of Venice. Its position during
the time when the Mediterranean was the
highway of civilization gave it unequaled
advantages, which it was not slow to seize.

The authentic history of Greece with its
first written records dates from the first
Olympiad, 776 R. v. Previous to that time,
and including the period known as the heroic
age, history is so mingled with legend that it
is difficult to separate truth from myth. It
seems certain, however, that the Greeks were
descended from four tribes, which in turn
claimed descent from a common ancestor,
Hellen. Of these tribes, the jEolians and

Greece

267

Grove

the Acbseans played a proniiuent part durin":
the herciie au'e, Htmier sometimes speakiiij;
of the wliole (ireek i)eople as Aeha'aus. Tlie
other two tribes, the Dorians and the louians,
became more important in historic times, the
Athenians and the Spartans being descended
from them respectively. The early historic
period, frcmi 776 B. c. to oOO B. c\. may be re-
garded as a period of individual growth by
the did'erent states comjirising the nation.
These states were theoretically independent
of each other, but were united by a common
language and literature, by national games,
and a general national development. There
were also frequent though changing political
alliances. During this jieriod the founda-
tions of Gn'ciau architecture, art, literature,
and philosophy were laid. (Trecce was early
within the geographical knowledge of the
Hebrews, who called it Javan. that is Ionia
(Uen. X. 4) : but it was known merely as a
country at the ends of the earth (Is. Ixvi. 19 ;
Ezek. xxvii. i:> : Joel iii. <>). A))out the year
.')00 B. c. Greece came into prominent notice
on account of her struggle with Persia, at
that time the great world-power. As early
as o4() Cyrus captured Sardis, the capital of
Lydia. The fall of this city was followed by
the subjection of the Greek cities of Asia to
the Persian yoke. The Hellespont was crossed
by the Persians in the reign of Darius, and
^lacedonia submitted in 510. But the Greek
cities of Asia rose and maintained determined
revolt against their conquerors during the
years 500 to 495 ; and the Greeks of Europe
defeated the Persians at Marathon in 490,
and, after sutfering reverses at Thermopylfe,
inflicted crushing defeats upon them at Sala-
mis in 480. and at Plata:>a and Mycale in 479.
The struggle with Persia resulted in drawing
the entire nation together under the leader-
ship of one state. The first state to attain
this supremacy was Athens. She held the
leadership for 70 years, but during the last
28 years of that time the energies of the na-
tion were used in carrying on the Pelopon-
nesian war. This war, which began in a
quarrel between Corinth and her colonies,
finally drew into the struggle the Avhole naval
and military strength of the nation, led on
one side by .Sparta and on the other by Athens.
The war resulted in the downfall! of the
Athenian power. Then followed the period
of the Spartan supremacy, followed in turn
by the Theban supremacy, which lasted until
338 B. c, when all Greece fell under the
power of Philip of Macedou, and became
thenceforth a part of the Macedonian empire.
It is under the rule of Alexander the Great
that Greece conies into direct contact for the
first time with .Judsea. On bis march to Per-
sia Alexander passed through .Tudiea. which
fell into his hands without a struggle. See
Alexander. From this time (irecian in-
fluence sjiread rapidly and took firm hold in
the countries situated around the eastern end
of the Mediterranean Sea. Even after the

Roman conquest the influence of the Greek
language, culture, and i)hilosoy>hy remained
paramount, and even influenced the .Jewish
religion itself. In the time of Christ the
Greek language was spoken throughout the
civilized world. After the death of Alexan-
der, his empire fell into the hands of liis gen-
erals, who jiarceled it out among themselves.
At first Greece proper was held in the name
of his infant son, but soon he, as well as all
members of Alexander's family, were jiut to
death, and the country became the prey of
auyoni- strong enough to take it. until it
finally fell under the dominion of Rome.
The last struggle against Rome resulted in
the battle of Leucoi)atra. 14G r.. c, and
shortly after Greece was declared a Roman
province. The division of the Roman jiower
into the Eastern and Western empires revived
Greek influence for a time. The Eastern em-
pire survived long after the Western empire
fell, but finally it came to an end in the cap-
ture of Constantiuoiile by the Turks in 1453.

Some of the apostle Paul's most earnest
labors took place in Greece, notably in Athens
and Corinth, besides his general travels
through Achaia, the name at that time for
ancient Greece.

Greek.

1. A native of Greece, one of the Greek
race (Acts xvi. 1 ; xvii. 4). When Jew and
Greek are opjiosed in the N. T., the term
Greek is used for a heathen in general, the
Greeks being looked on as the highest tyjie
of men existing in the gentile world (Rom.
i. 14, 16; X. 12).

2. The language spoken by the ancient
Greeks, and of which that of their modern
successor is only a development (John xix.
20; Acts xxi. 37"; Rev. ix. 11). It belongs to
the Aryan family of tongues, having affini-
ties to the Sanscrit of ancient India, to
Latin, and to nearly all the languages of
modern Europe, not excepting our own. In
power of full and precise expression it more
nearly approaches perfection than almost any
other form of speech. The O. T. was trans-
lated into it before the advent of Christ (see
Septuagixt) ; the X. T. (Matthew iiossibly
excepted) was composed in Greek from the
first.

Grey'hound.

The rendering of the Hebrew Zarzir, well
girt or well knit in the loins, in Prov. xxx.
31. The greyhound is figured on the Assyrian
monuments. The word may, however, de-
note the war horse (R. \. margin) as orna-
mented with girths and buckles about the
loins; or the starling, as the corres]ionding
word in Arabic, .Syriac. and post-biblical
Hebrew, denotes.

Grinding. Sec ^Iill.

Grove.

A group or clump of trees. In the A. V.
it is uniformly a mistranslation of

1. The Hebrew word 'Eshel (Gen. xxi. 33 ;

Guard

268

Habakkuk

cp. 1 Sam. xxii. 6). The R. V. renders this a
tamarisk tree. See Tamarisk.

2. The Hebrew word '"shernh, with its two
plurals '"nherim and '"sheroth (Ex. xxxiv. 13,
and elsewhere except Gen. xxi. 33). See

ASHERAH.

Guard.

In Oriental countries, where the king, as a
rule, is despotic, measures which give ofl'ense
excite hostility against him personally. This
necessitates that he should be continually de-
fended by a bodyguard ; and such a military
organization is more than useless unless com-
plete dependence can be placed on its fidelity.
Hence, service in the bodyguard is consid-
ered specially honorable, and its captain is a
high officer. Such an appointment was filled
by Potiphar (Gen. xxxvii. 36; xli. 12), by
Benaiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 22, 23 ; 1 C'hron. xviii.
17), by Nebuzaradan (2 Kin. xxv. 8 ; Jer.
xxxix. 9, 10), by Arioch (Dan. ii. 14), and
others. The captain of the guard and his
men were often employed to inflict capi-
tal punishment on political or other ofi'enders.
In Mark vi. 27, the Greek word is spehonla-
tor, spy. Such spies constituted a division in
each Eoman legion, and under the empire
acted as the bodyguard of a general and were
employed as messengers and to seek out per-
sons proscribed or sentenced to death.

Gud'go-dah. See Hor-haggidgad.

Guest.

One temporarily entertained in the house
of another. It may be used when he is pres-
ent only for a few hours at a feast (I Kin. i.
41 ; Zeph. i. 7; Mat. xxii. 10, 11). Important
houses had a guest chamber (Mark xiv. 14 ;
Luke xxii. 11 ; cp. also 2 Kin. iv. 10). Great
consideration was shown to a guest (Gen.
xviii. 1-8; xix. 3; Ex. ii. 20; Judg. xiii. 15;
xix. 20-24; Job xxxi. 32). Kindness to
strangers was enjoined under the Mosaic law
(Dent. X. 18, 19), and their entertainment
was formally enjoined in the N. T. (Heb.
xiii. 2; cp. Mat. xxv. 43). The rule obtained,
which, being founded on proper moral feel-
ing, was worthy of all respect, that unless
there was a sincere desire to benefit the en-
tertainer, one should not be guest in the house
of a notorious sinner (Luke xix. 7).

Guilt' Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Gu'ni [painted with colors].

1. A son of Naphtali, and founder of a
tribal family (Gen. xlvi. 24 ; Num. xxvi. 48 ;
1 Chron. vii. 13).

2. A Gadite (1 Chron. v. 15).

Gur [lion's whelp or other young animal].

An ascent near Ibleam, where Ahaziah,
king of Judah, was killed by order of Jehu
(2 Kin. ix. 27). Exact situation unknown.

Gur-ba'al [sojonrn of Baal].

A place inhabited by Arabs (2 Chron. xxvi.
7) ; probably in the desert to the southeast
of Judah.

Gym-na'si-um, in A. V. Place of Exer-
cise.

A public place in Jerusalem for athletic
exercise and exhibitions, below the western
cloister of the temple (War iv. 9, 12 ; vi. 3,
2; 6, 2), below the palace of the Asmonseans
(Antiq. xx. 8, 11 ; War ii. 16, 3), below the
citadel or acropolis (2 Mac. iv. 12, 27; not the
Syrian fortress called the Acra, which was
erected later, 1 Mac. i. 33). It was situated
near the council house, by the first or inner-
most wall, and at the end of the bridge
which led from the temple across the Tyro-
pceon valley (War v. 4, 2; cp. vi. 6, 2). It
was erected by hellenizing Jews, under the
leadership of Jason, by permission of Anti-
ochus Epiphanes (1 Mac. i. 10, 14 ; 2 Mac. iv.
7 seq.). The essential features of a gym-
nasium were: 1. An open court for boxing,
wrestling, pitching quoits, and throwing the
javelin (2 Mac. iv. 14, jjahestra, di.scus) ; 2.
A stadium or course for the foot race ; 3. A
colonnade for a place of recreation and for
athletic exercises in winter (Antiq. and War,
passim xystos) ; 4. A bathroom. The gym-
nasium at Jerusalem was condemned by strict
Jews because it introduced heathen customs ;
led Jewish youth to wear the hat of Hermes,
to exercise stark naked in public, and to be
ashamed of the mark of their religion ; and
infected even the priests and caused them to
neglect their official duties (1 Mac. i. 14, 15;
2 Mac. iv. 13-17). It existed until the over-
throw of the city by Titus ; and was not only
resorted to for athletic sports, but was also
occasionally used for popular assemblies (War
ii. 16, 3).

H.

Ha-a-hash'ta-ri [the Ahashtarite].

A Hezronite, son of Ashhur (1 Chron. iv.
6 ; cp. ii. 24).

Ha-ba'iah [Jehovah hath hidden].

Father of certain Jews claiming sacerdotal
descent. Their names not being found in
the register, they were put out of the priest-
hood (Ezra ii. 61 ; Neb. vii. 63).

Ha-bak'kuk [embrace, or ])erhaps the
name of a garden plant].

A prophet of Judah, the details of who.se
life are unknown. It is inferred from his
psalm (chap, iii.) and from the directions to
the chief musician (19) that he was of the
tribe of Levi and one of the temple singers.

The book of Habakkuk is the eighth of
the minor prophets. It consists of 1. A first
complaint : his cry to God against violence
and wickedness is unheeded (i. 2-4). The
Lord's response : God is raising up the Chal-
deans to inflict punishment (5-11). 2. A
second complaint : fear lest the fierceness
and wickedness of this instrument of judg-
ment shall involve the good with the bad in
the punishment (12-17). The Lord's re-

Habazziniah

269

Hadadezer

spouse : the just shall live by his faith (ii. 1-
4). Aceorilingly faith in the certainty that
Cioil will iiuni^h wickedness enables the
prophet to i)runouuce five woes against the
great world-jiower for five forms of wicked-
ness (O-20). 3. A jirayer of praise (iii. 1-19),
in which after an invocation and a petition
that (iod in wrath renienil)er mercy (2), the
proi)het describes God's appearance in maj-
esty and the ensuing consternatiou of his
enemies (3-1")), and expresses the quiet cou-
tidence of taith in God (1(5-19).

The book is not dated, but was evidently a
production of the Chaldean period. 1. The
temjile is still standing (ii. 20), and musical
service is conducted (iii. 19). 2. The rise of
the Chaldeans to a formidable power among
the nations occurs during that generation (i.
5, (i). and the slaying of the nations by the
Chaldeans had already begun (6, 17).

The Chaldeans and their method of war-
fare had ))een long known to the Hebrews.
They began, however, their great career of
subjugation, and attained to the leading place
among the powers of the world by their over-
throw of Nineveh in 607 B. c, and their vic-
torj- over the Egyptians at Carchemish in 605.
!Most critics accordingly date the prophecy in
the early part of Jehoiachim's reign, about
the time of the battle of Carchemish. It
may, however, antedate the fall of Nineveh
by some years. Babylonian captivity had
been long predicted (Mic. iv. 10; Is. xi. 11 ;
xsxix. 6, 7), and events before the fall of
Nineveh indicated that the time prophesied
was at hand.

Hab-az-zi-ni'ah, in A. V. Habaziniah.

A Kechabite who lived long before Jere-
miah (Jer. XXXV. 3).

Ha-ber'ge-on [a small hauberk].

A coat of mail to defend the breast and
neck (2 Chron. xxvi. 14; Neh. iv. 16; in R.
V. coat of mail). In Job xli. 26, R. V. on
good grounds substitutes pointed shaft in the
text, and places coat of mail in the mar-
gin. Habergeon, or coat of mail, is also used
to translate a dill'erent Hebrew word of un-
certain meaning in Ex. xxviii. 32 ; xxxix. 23.

Ha'bor [joining to].

A river of ^Mesopotamia to which cap-
tives from the ten tribes were carried (2 Kin.
xvii. 6; xviii. 11; 1 Chron. v. 26). It has
been identified as the Khabour, which, floM'-
ing southward through Mesopotamia, after a
course of 190 miles, falls into the eastern side
of the Euphrates at Kerkisij'eh, the ancient
Circesium. Those who regard Gozan as a river
identify the Habor with that eastern branch
of the Tigris above Nineveh which bears the
same name.

Hach-a-li'ali [Jehovah is dark (from dis-
pleasuri-i].

The father of Nehemiah (Neh. i. 1).

Hach'i-lah [dark, gloomy].

A hill in the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sam.
xxvi. 1-3), southeast of Hebron, and on the

south of the desert, not far from Maon (xxiii.
19, 24-26). David concealed himself there
whilst fleeing from .Saul, and there Saul
afterwards encamped when engaged in his
pursuit.

Hacli'mo-ni [wise].

The founder of the Hachmonite family, the
members of which are called sons of Hach-
moni (1 Chron. xi. 11 ; xxvii. 32), or simply
Uachmonites (cp. 2 Sam. xxiii. 8).

Ha'dad, I. [sharpness, fierceness].

A son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15. in A. V.,
following present Hebrew text, Hadar; 1
Chron. i. 30).

Ha'dad, II.

1. A deity worshiped by the Aramaeans. It
occurs in jirojier names, as in Beuhadad,
Hadadezer. The Assyrian scribes identified
Hadad with their own weather-god Rammau,
i. e., Rimmon.

2. A king of Edom, son of Bedad, and of
the city of Avith. He smote Midian in the
field of Moab (Gen. xxxvi. 35, 36 ; 1 Chron. i.
46, 47).

3. A king of Edom, whose city was Pan or
Pai (1 Chron. i. .50). In Gen. xxxvi. 39 he is
called Hadar. See Daleth.

4. An Edomite prince, who escaped from
his country when Joab, at the head of the
Israelite army, was engaged for six months
in the cruel task of cutting off every male in
Edom. Hadad was then a little child, and
was taken by his guardians to Egypt, where
he was received with much kindness by
Pharaoh, the king, who as.signed him a man-
sion and an estate, provided him with food,
and gave him an Egyptian princess, sister of
the (lueen, to wife. But when Hadad was
grown to manhood, and heard that David
and Joab, the great foes of his race, were
dead, love of country made him determine
to return home, and, bidding adieu to the
king of Egypt, he departed for Edom, and
on arriving became an adversary to Solomon,
moved, it would appear, mainly by the con-
sideration that he was David's son (1 Kin. xi.
14-22).

Ha-dad-e'zer [Hadad is a help].

Son of Rehob and king of Zobah, in Syria.
When going to recover his border at the river
Euphrates, he was met and defeated by king
David. The Syrians of Damascus, who after-
wards arrived to assist him, shared his fate.
From Betah and Berothai, cities of Hadad-
ezer, David took much brass or copper. Toi,
king of Hamath, probably a Hittite by race,
had formerly been at war with Hadadezer,
and he congratulated David on his victory
(2 Sam. viii. 3-13; 1 Chron. xviii. 3-10).
Hadadezer is frequently called Hadarezer,
the latter form being doubtless an early mis-
reading of daleth ; see D.\^leth. He is the
same king who, renewing the war with David,
became confederate with the Ammonites, and
sent his army, led by his general, Shobach,
to try another engagement with their com-

Hadadrimmon

270

Haggai

mon foe. Again it pleased God that David
should be victorious, and Shobach was among
the slain. The dependent kings who had
served Hadadezer now made peace with
David, and Hadade/er is heard of no more
(2 8ani. x. 6-19 ; 1 Chron. xix. 16-19).

Ha-dad-rim'mon [Hadad and Rimmon,
two Syrian divinities]. Eimmon means also
a pomegranate.

A city in the plain of Jezreel, near Megiddo
(Zech. xii. 11). Jerome says that it was the
place in his day called Maximianopolis. This
is now called Rummaneh. and is about a
mile northwest by west of Taanach.

Ha'dar. See Hadad, I. and II.

Ha-dar-e'zer. See Hadadkzek.

Had'a-shah [new].

A village in or near the lowland of Judah
(Josh. XV. I!?). It has not been identified.

Ha-das'sah [a myrtle].

The original Jewish name of queen Esther
(Esth. ii. 7). The name has a certain simi-
larity in sound to that of Atossa, who was
the mother of Xerxes (Herod, vii. 2). But
the women were diiiereut. Esther was his
queen.

Ha-dat'tah. See Hazor-hadattah.

Ha'des. See Hell 1.

Ha'did [sharp, pointed ; a point].

A town of Benjamin, mentioned in con-
nection with Lod, i. e. Lydda (Ezra ii. 33;
Neh. xi. 34). It is commonly identified with
Adida, a town built upon a hill of the Shephe-
lah and overlooking the plain (1 Mac. xii. 38 ;
xiii. 13 ; Antiq. xiii. 6, 5). Its site is located
at Haditheh, 3 miles east of Lydda.

Had'lai [frail].

A man of Ephraim (2 Chron. xxviii. 12).

Ha-do'ram.

1. An Arabian tribe descended from Jok-
tan (Gen. x. 27; 1 Chron. i. 21).

2. A son of the king of Hamath (1 Chron.
xviii. 10). See Joram 1.

3. An officer over Rehoboam's levy (2 Chron.
x. 18). See Adoniram.

Ha'drach.

A country mentioned in connection with
Damascus and Hamath (Zech. ix. 1), and, in
Assyrian inscriptions, with Zobah also. Its
exact situation is unknown.

Ha'gab [a locust].

Founder of a family of Nethinim (Ezra
ii. 46).

Hag'a-bah or Hagaba [a locust].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, distinct
from that of Hagab (Ezra ii. 4.5 ; Neh. vii. 48).

Ha'gar, in A. V. of N. T. both times Agar,
in imitation of the Greek [if Hebrew, flight].

An Egyjitiau bondwoman of Sarah, prob-
ably obtained during Abraham's sojourn in
Egypt (Gen. xvi. 1 ; ep. xii. 10). After Abra-
ham had been ten years in Canaan, and the
promised son had not been born to him,

Sarah, now 76 years old, despaired of sharing
in the promise, and proposed earthlj- means
to secure a son to Abraham and obtain the
name of mother. In accordance with a cu.s-
tom of the times, she gave her maid to Abra-
ham. When Hagar perceived herself to be
with child she despised her misti-ess; and,
being treated by her harshly, fled into the
wilderness. There the angel of the Lord
found her at a fountain between Shur and
Bered, revealed to her the future of the child
she was to bear, and bade her return to her
mistress. Hagar called the name of the place
"the well of the living one who seeth me"
(Gen. xvi. 1-16). She then returned to her
mistress, and in due time gave birth to Ish-
mael. Some fifteen years later the youth
Ishmael mocked at the child Isaac. For this
offense Hagar, with a skin of water on her
shoulder, and Ishmael (for form of expres.sion
cp. xliii. 15) were expelled with God's ap-
proval from the family of Abraham. They
wandered in the wilderness of Beer-sheba
until the water was spent. The exhausted
boy whom she had been supporting she cast,
as one would a sick person (Mat. xv. 30),
under the shade of a bush, and sat down a
bow-shot off" that she might not see him die.
Again the angel of the Lord intervened, di-
recting her to a well in the vicinity, and re-
minding hei of the promise concerning the
boy. The la.st we hear of Hagar is her taking
a wife for her son out of the land of Egypt,
whence she herself had originally come (xxi.
1-21). For Gal. iv. 21-31, see Ishmael.

Ha-gar-ene', Ha'gar-ite, and Ha'ger-ite.

See Hagkite.

Hag'ga-i [festal, perhaps as born on a fes-
tival day].

A prophet, contemporary with Zechariah
(Hag. i. 1 with Zech. i. 1). He prophesied
after the return from Babylon. The work
on the temple had ceased for lr> years, and
Haggai was largely instrumental in arousing
the people to proceed with the building
(Ezra V. 1, 2; vi. 14).

The book of Haggai is the tenth of the minor
prophets. It consists of four pro]>hecies de-
livered within the space of four months in the
second year of Darius Hystaspis, 520 b. c.

1. On the fii-st day of the 6th month the
prophet reproaches those who left the temple
in ruins, and built ceiled houses for them-
selves, and he points out that God's blessing
is withholden from their ordiuary labor.
In consequence of this exhortation, work on
the temple was resumed on the twenty-fourth
day of the same month (i.).

2. In the 7th month, 21st day, he en-
courages those who mourn over the humble
character of the new building as compared
with the splendor of the old edifice. He
predicts that the latter glory of the house
shall be greater than the former glory, for
God will shake the nations and the desirable
things of all nations, their silver and gold,

Haggeri

271

Halah

shall conic and fill the house with glory, and
God will give peace in that place (ii. 1-9 ;
Heb. xii. 2iW2S).

3. In the 9th month, 24th day, he adds a
sequel to the first prophecy. As the touch
of the unclean pollutes the clean, so their
former neglect of God polluted their labor
and God did not bestow his blessing. But
their revivi'd zeal for God will be accom-
panied bv fruitful seasons from the Lord (ii.
10-19).

4. On the s;ime day he adds a sequel to the
second proi>hecy. When the Lord shakes
the nations, he will establish Zerubbabel,
who represents the royal line of David (ii.
20-'j:ji.

Hag'ge-ri. See Hagri.

Hag'gi [festal or festival of (Jehovah)].

A son of Gad, and founder of a tribal fam-
ily (Gcu. xlvi. 16 ; Num. xxvi. 15).

Hag-gi'ah [a festival of Jehovah].

A Levite, a descendant of Merari (1 Chron.
vi. 30).

Hag'gith [festal].

One of David's wives, the mother of Ado-
nijah (2 .Sam. iii. 4; 1 Kin. i. 5).

Ha'gri, in A. V. Haggeri.

Rather an adjective than a proper name
(1 Chron. xi. 38); see Mibh.\k.

Ha'grite ; in A. V. Hagarite, and once
Hagerite, and once, in Ps. Ixxxiii. 6, Haga-
renes, in which passage R. V. in its text fol-
lows A. V.

A nomad people who dwelt throughout all
the land east of Gilead, and were rich in
camels, sheep, and asses. During the reign
of Saul they were vanquished, and in a large
measure destroved, by the Israelite tribes east
of the Jordan" (1 Chron. v. 10, 18-22). A
Hagrite had charge of David's flocks (1
Chron. xxvii. 31). They are the Agraoi of
the Greek geographers. It is questionable
whether their name is at all connected with
the town Hejer or Hejera, in the Arabian
desert near the Persian Gulf.

Ha'i. See Ai.

Hail.

Small globules of ice formed of raindrops
which have been carried into a cold stratum
of the atmosphere. Hail falls not merely
in cold and temperate climates, but in hot,
nay, even in tropical latitudes, where snow
and ice are not to be found, except at great
elevations. When it falls in the warmer re-
gions, it tends to be larger than in temperate
countries, as raindrops also are larger. In
all places two or more hailstones can unite so
as to make an irregularly shaped mass of
ice, which, when large, becomes formidable
by the momentum with which it descends.
Hail occasionally falls in Egypt (Ex. ix. 22-
25) between December and Ai)ril. It is more
frequent in Palestine (Josh. x. 11 : Hag. ii.
17). The area affected by a hailstorm is
generally a long, narrow line, so that of two

places near each other, one may be in and
the other out of the storm. Thus Goshen
might oscaiic it, wliilst the adjacent di.strict
of Egypt to tile wi'stwanl might be in its
track and sutler severely (Ex. ix. 2(j) ; and a
pursuing army might be untoucheel by the
storm, and yet see their fleeing foes beaten
down by the falling stones (Josh. x. 11).

Hair.

The natural covering and ornament of the
head. In Egypt men ordinarily shaved the
head, but when mourning let tlie hair grow
(Herod, ii. StJ; iii. 12). The Assyrians wore
it long (i. 195), falling to the shoulders. The
Israelites also woi-e it tolerably long ; but cut
it to prevent its reaching an extreme length
(cp. Num. vi. 5 : 2 Sam. xiv. 26 ; Antiq. xiv:
9, 4), and the services of the barber were
sometimes employed (Ezek. v. 1). Hebrew
women wore the hair long (Song. vii. 5 ;
Eev. ix. 8; cp. 1 Cor. xi. 15), binding it up
or braiding it (Judith x. 3; xvi. 8; 1 Tim.
ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. iii. 3). Oil was used for the hair
by both men and women (Ps. xxiii. 5 ; Mat.
vi. 17). Herod the Great, in order to con-
ceal his age, dyed his hair black (Antiq. xvi.
8, 1). The priests were forbidden to make
any baldness upon the head (Lev. xxi. 5),
and none of the Israelites was allowed to
make a baldness between the eyes for the
dead (Deut. xiv. 1) : for it was a disfigui-e-
ment of the body which God had created.
The captive woman who was cho.sen by a
Hebrew for his wife, and the leper in the
day of his cleansing were required to shave
the head for purposes of purification (Lev.
xiv. 8, 9; Deut. xxi. 12). The Nazirite also,
when the time of his service was ended,
shaved his head as a sign of the fulfillment
of his vow (Num. vi. 18). See Beard.

Hak'ka-tan [the small or the younger].
Father of a certain Johanan (Ezra viii. 12).

Hak'koz, in A. Y. sometimes Koz, once
Coz, the first syllable being omitted since it
is the definite article [the thorn].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family
had grown to a fi^ther's house in the time of
David and was made the seventh of the
twenty-four courses into which David dis-
tributed the priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 10).
Perhaps it was members of this family who
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, but,
failing to find their register and establish
their genealogy, were put from the priest-
hood (Ezra ii. 61, 62 ; Neh. yii. 63, 64). They
appear to have eventually succeeded, how-
ever, in establishing their right to the office
(Neh. iii. 21 : c]). Ezra viii. 33).

2. A man of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 8).

Ha-ku'pha [bent, bowed, curved].

Founder of a family of Nethinim (Ezra ii.
51 ; Neh. vii. 53).

Ha'lah.

A district of the Assyrian empire, to which
captives from the ten tribes were carried (2

Halak

272

Hamath

Kin. xvii. 6; xviii. 11 ; 1 Chron. v. 26). Prob-
ably the district kni)\vn later as Cbalkitis, iu
Mesopotamia, uear Gozau, in tbe basin of tbe
Habor and the Saokoras (Ptolem. v. 18, 4).
Those who identify the Habor with the east-
ern tributary of the Tigris bearing that name
are apt, however, to identify Halali with the
province of Kahichene (Strabo xi. 8, 4 ;
Ptolem. vi. 1), on the eastern side of the
Tigris near Adiabene, north of Nineveh ou
the borders of Armenia.

Ha'lak [smooth, bare].

A mountain in the south of Palestine on
the way to mount Seir (Josh. xi. 17 ; xii. 7).
Its identity has not been established.

Hal'hul [perhaps, opening].

A village in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 58). The Arabs still call the vil-
lage Hulhul or Halhul. It is 3J miles north
of Hebron. It is a place of pilgrimage, being
regarded as the birthplace of the prophet Gad,

Ha'li [necklace, collar].

A village on the boundary line of Asher
(Josh. xix. 25). Guerin suggests Khurbet
'Alia, 13 miles northeast of Acre.

Hal-i-car-nas'sus.

A city of Caria, renowned as being the
birthplace of Herodotus and as containing
the mausoleum erected by Artemisia, which
was reckoned one of the seven wonders of
the world. Alexander captured and almo.st
totally destroyed the city in 334 b. c. It
continued to exist, but did not thrive. It
contained a colony of Jews (1 Mac. xv. 23 ;
Antiq. xiv. 10, 23).

Hall.

A building, or large room in a building, de-
voted to public use. In A. V. it denotes

1. The court of the high priest's palace
(Luke xxii. 55; in the R. V. court).

2. The official residence of the provincial
governor, with its court where he sat iu
judgment. It was called the prsetorium
(Mark xv. 16; also Mat. xxvii. 27; John
xviii. 28, 33; xix. 9; Acts xxiii. .35, where
E. V. has palace or prsEtorium). See Pr^-

TORIUM.

Hal-le-lu'jah, in A. V. of N. T. Alleluia,
in imitation of the Greek modification
[praise ye Jehovah].

A compound word used by the writers of
various psalms to invite all to join them in
praising Jehovah (R. V. margin of Ps. civ. 35 ;
cv. 45 ; cvi. 1, 48 ; cxi. 1 ; cxii. 1 ; cxiii. 1, 9 ; cxv.
18 ; cxvi. 19 ; cxvii. 2 ; cxxxv. 1, 21 ; first and
last vers, of cxlvi.-cl. ; cp. A. V. margin also).
From these psalms John borrowed the term
Alleluia (Rev. xix. 1, 3, 4, 6).

Hal-lo'hesh, in A. V. once Halohesh [the
enchanter, the wizard].

Father of a certain Shallum (Xeh. iii. 12).
With Nehemiah he or the representative of
his family sealed the covenant to worship
Jehovah (x. 24).

Ham, I. [meaning uncertain ; if Semitic,

possibly dark-skinned or, perhaps better,
hot].

The youngest son of Noah, born after the
latter's five hundredth year (Gen. v. 32 ;
vi. 10 ; ix. 24). At the time of the deluge he
was married, but apparently had no children
(Gen. vii. 7; 1 Pet. iii. 20). After that event
he behaved undutifully ou occasion of his
father's drunkenness, and incurred a curse to
descend upon such of his posterity as exhib-
ited like degraded character (Gen. ix. 22-27).
The peoples of southern Arabia, Ethiopia,
Egypt, and Canaan were largely descended
from Ham, and iu part were made his sons
by conquest and annexation (Gen. x. 6-14).

Ham, II. [Egyptian kam, black, so called
from the color of the alluvial mud of the
Nile].

Egypt. Used in the Bible only in poetry
(Ps. Ixxviii. 51 ; cv. 23, 27 ; cvi. 22).

Ham, III. [meaning unknown. The initial
Hebrew letter is difierent from that in I.
and II.].

A place between Ashteroth-karnaim in
Bashan and the Moabite country, where
Chedorlaomer defeated the Zuzim (Gen. xiv.
5 ; cp. Deut. ii. 10). The order of enumera-
tion makes it probable that Ham was north
of Kiriathaim and the Arnon ; but Schwartz,
followed by Tristram, would identify it with
the ruin called Hammat, 'Animah or Hamei-
tat, on the east side of the Roman road, 3
miles north of Rabbath Moab.

Ha'man [possibly, overthrower of all].

A high official at the court of the Persian
king Ahasuerus. He was the son of Ham-
medatha the Agagite (Esth. iii. 1), which,
though his father bore a Persian name, may
mean that he was of Amalekite descent and
of the royal family of that Arabian tribe. Ex-
alted by his despotic sovereign to high rank,
all time-servers paid him ostentations rever-
ence. But on account of his uni)riiKipled char-
acter, perhaps also for other reasons. Mordecai,
Esther's uncle, deliberately withheld from
him all courtesy. Haman planned revenge,
but he went beyond even the ample latitude
allowed to vindictiveness in the old Asiatic
empires when he plotted the destruction, not
of Mordecai alone, but of the whole national-
ity to which he belonged. How Esther,
prompted by Mordecai, thwarted his malig-
nant endeavors, and brought Haman to the
gallows and his ten sons to death, is told in
the article Esther.

Ha'math, in A. V. once Hemath (Amos vi.
14) and once AmatMs (1 Mac. xii. 25) [fortifi-
cation, citadel].

1. A city on the Orontes, north of Hermon
(Josh. xiii. 5), about 120 miles north of Da-
mascus. It was an early settlement of the
Canaanites (Gen. x. IK). Toi, its king, con-
gratulated David on his victory over Hadad-
ezer, their common enemy (2 Sam. viii. 9, 10;
1 Chron. xviii 3, 9, 10). 'Solom(m took Ha-
math, with the district subject to it, building

Hamathites

273

Hamuel

witliin the hitter store cities (2 Cbron. viii.
3, 4). It scH)U, however, reverted to its old
iuliabitants. Jeroboam II., king of Israel,
captured Damascus and Ilamath, which stood
in close relations to Judah, and kept them
for the ten tribes (2 Kin. xiv. 28). About
this time Amos (vi. 2) called the city Ha-
math the great. It was again for a short
time free, and relying upon Judah for aid ;
but it was conquered by the Assyrians (2 Kiu.
xviii. 34 ; xix. 13). After the capture of Sa-
maria by the Assyrians, it joined with the
remnant of the inhabitants of that city in
revolt, 720 B. c. But the upri.sing was quickly
suppressed by Sargon. Colonists from Ha-
math, who brought with them Ashima, their
god, were placed by the Assyrians in Sa-
maria (2 Kiu. xvii. 24, 30), w'hile some of the
exiles of Israel seem to have been located in
Hamath (Is. xi. 11). Afterwards its history
becomes merged in that of Syria, and it
seems to have become subordinate to Damas-
cus (Jer. xlix. 23). Ezekiel prophesied that
the restored land of Israel should still ex-
tend northward to Hamath (Ezek. xlvii. 16,
17, 20; xlviii. 1). Hamath was known as
Epiphania during the period of Grecian su-
premacy (Antiq. i. 6, 2), but is now called
Hama or Hamah.

2. Tlie district ruled by the city (1 Mac.
xii. 25). One of its towns was Eiblah (2 Kin.
xxiii. 33).

The entering in of Hamath, that is, to judge
from the similar phrase elsewhere (Gen. xiii.
10), the neighborhood of Hamath, was re-
garded as the northern border of Israel (Num.
xiii. 21 ; xxxiv. 8 ; 1 Kin. viii. 65). To people
on the south the term may have had special
meaning, and denoted the long valley of
Ccelesyria, between Lebanon and Anti-Leba-
non, through which the road to Hamath lay.
Porter considers that it was the pass between
Lebanon and the Xusairiyeh mountains,
about 60 miles north of Beirut, connecting
the inland region of Syria with the coast of
the Mediterranean.

Ha'math-ites.

The people of Hamath (Gen. x. 18).

Ha-matli-zo'bah.

The neighbor kingdoms of Hamath and
Zobah, or some small place called Hamath,
belonging to the Syrian kingdom Zobah. It
was captured by Solomon (2 Chron. viii. 3).

Ham'math, in A. Y. once Hemath (1 Chron.
ii. 55) [warmth, hot springs].

1. A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
35). Probably one with Hammoth-dor and
Hammon, which was a.ssigned to the Levites
(xxi. .32 ; 1 CTaron. vi. 76), and to be identified
with Emmaus. a village with warm baths at
a little distance from Tiberias (Antiq. xviii.
2. 3 ; War iv. 1, 3). It is now called Hum-
mam Ibrahim Basha, and is on the western
shore of the sea of Galilee, about H miles
south of Titierias. The water is sulphurous
and medicinal.
18

2. The founder of the house of Eechab, a
family of the Kenites (1 Chron. ii. 55). The
A. V. has here Hemath.

Ham-med'a-tha.

An Agagite, father of Hamau (Esth. iii. 1).

Ham'me-lech [the king].

Father of Jerahmeel (Jer. xxxvi. 26, A. V.
and margin of K. V.). The word suggests,
however, that Jerahmeel was of royal blood,
son of the king (K. V.).

Ham'mer.

A tool, called in Hebrew Patfish, and used
for smoothing metals and for breaking rocks
(Is. xli. 7; Jer. xxiii. 29). It serves as a
figure for any crushing power. Babylon was
the hammer of the whole earth (Jer. 1. 23).
God's word is like a hammer that breaketh
the rock in pieces (xxiii. 29). Other names
for an implement of the same class are mak-
kabah and makkebeth, used for driving the
tent pin (Judg. iv. 21). in building operations
(1 Kin. vi. 7), and in the manufacture of idols
(Is. xliv. 12; Jer. x. 4).

Ham-miph'kad. See Miphkad.

Ham-more-keth [the queen].

A ]\Ianassite, sister of Gilead (1 Chron. vii.
18). Several tribal families sprang from her.

Ham'mon [warm, sunny].

1. A frontier village of Asher (Josh. xix.
28). Perhaps 10 miles south of Tyre and
about a mile from the beach, at 'Ain HamM,
3 of a mile from Umm el-'Amud, where, as
Eenan has shown, Baal Hammon was wor-
shiped.

2. A town of Kaphtali. See Hammath.

Ham'moth-dor [warm springs of Dor]. See
Hammath.

Ham-mu'el, in A. Y. Hamuel [warmth of
God].

A Simeonite, son of Mishma, probably of
the family of Shaul (1 Chron. iv. 26).

Ham-o'nali [abundance, multitude].

The name to be given to the city near
which Gog is to be defeated (Ezek. xxxix.
16). Situation unknown.

Ha'mon-gog [multitude of Gog].

A name to be given to a certain valley
where the hosts which Gog brings with him
shall be slain and buried (Ezek. xxxix. 11,
15). Situation unknown.

Ha'mor, in A. Y. of N. T. Emmor, an imi-
tation of the Greek [an ass].

The prince of Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 20;
Josh. xxiv. 32 ; Judg. ix. 28) ; a Hivite, a
branch of the Amorites, and a prince of that
tribe, at least, in central Palestine (Gen.
xxxiv. 2; xlviii. 22). His son Shechem ruined
Dinah, and both father and son fell victims
to the vindictiveness of her brothers Simeon
and Levi (xxxiv. 1-31).

Ham'ran. See Hemdan.

Ha-mu'el. See Hammuel.

Hamul

274

Hanes

Ha'mul [pitied, spared].

Younger sou of Perez, and founder of a
tribal family of Judah (Gen. xlvi. 12 ; Num.
xxvi. 21 ; 1 Cliron. ii. 5).

Ha-mu'tal [akin to dew, refreshing Hke
dew].

Daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, wife of
king Josiah, and mother of the kings Je-
hoahaz and Zedekiah (2 Kin. xxiii. 31 ; xxiv.
18; Jer. lii. 1).

Han'a-mel, in A. V. Ha-nam'e-el [per-
haps, God hath pitied].

Son of Shallum, and cousin of the prophet
Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii. 7-15).

Ha'nan [gracious, merciful].

1. (juc of David's mighty men (1 Chron.
xi. 43).

2. A Benjamite, son of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 23).

3. A son of Azel, a descendant of Jonathan
(1 Chron. viii. 38; ix. 44).

4. A prophet, son of Igdaliah. His sons
had a chamber in the temple (Jer. xxxv. 4).

5. Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-
bers of which returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 46 ; Xeh. vii. 49).

6. A man, probably a Levite, whom Ezra
employed with others to make the people
understand the law (Neh. viii. 7). He seems
to have sealed the covenant (x. 10).

7 and 8. Two chiefs of the people, who also
sealed the covenant (22, 26).

9. A son of Zaccur, appointed assistant
treasurer by Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 13).

Han'a-nel, iri A. V. Ha-nan'e-el [God
hath been gracious].

A tower at Jerusalem (Jer. xxxi. 38 ; Zech.
xiv. 10), near the sheep-gate and the tower
of Meah (Neh. iii. 1 ; xii. 39) ; see Jerusa-
lem, II. 3.

Ha-na'ni [gracious].

1. A sou of Heman and head of the eight-
eenth of the twenty-four courses of musi-
cians appointed by David for the sanctuary
(1 Chrou. XXV. 4, 25).

2. Father of the prophet Jehu (1 Kin. xvi.
1) and himself a seer. He rebuked king
Asa, and was by his orders committed to
prison (2 Chron. xvi. 7).

3. A brother of Nehemiah who brought
him news regarding .Jerusalem (Neh. i. 2).
He aud the governor of the castle were after-
wards given charge of the city (vii. 2).

4. A priest, sou of Immer, induced by
Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x.
20).

5. A Levite who played an instrument at
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem by
Nehemiah (Neh. xii. 36).

Han-a-ni'ah [Jehovah hath been gra-
cious].

1. A Benjamite. son of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 24).

2. A son of Heman and head of the six-
teenth of the twenty-four courses of musi-

cians formed by David for the sanctuary (1
Chron. xxv. 4, 23).

3. One of king Uzziah's captains (2 Chron.
xxvi. 11).

4. Father of Jeremiah's contemporary, the
prince Zedekiah (Jer. xxxvi. 12).

5. Son of Azzur of Gibeon. In the fourth
year of Zedekiah's reign he prophesied a re-
turn of the captives after two years' captiv-
ity. Jeremiah had given forth a ditiereut
prediction. As a penalty, the false prophet
was doomed to death, his decease occurring
two months later (Jer. xxviii. 1-17).

6. Grandfather, or remoter ancestor, of
Irijah, the captain of the watch who arrested
Jeremiah on the charge of intending to desert
to the Chaldeans (Jer. xxxvii. 13-15).

7. The Hebrew name of the captive called
by the Chaldeans Shadrach (Dan. i. 6, 7 ; 1
Mac. ii. 59).

8. A sou of Zerubbabel, and father of
Pelatiah and Jeshaiah (1 Chron. iii. 19, 21) ;
perhaps the ancestor of Christ called, by
transposition of the constituent parts of the
name, Joanan (Luke iii. 27, E. V.).

9. A son of Bebai, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 28).

10. An apothecary who helped to rebuild
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 8).

11. A priest who blew a trumpet at the
dedication of the wall (Neh. xii. 41).

12. A chief of the people, who with Nehe-
miah sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 23).

13. The governor of the castle and joint
ruler with Hanani, Nehemiah's brother, over
Jerusalem (Neh. vii. 2).

14. A priest, head of the father's house of
Jeremiah; in the days of the high priest Joia-
kim, a generation after the exile (Neh. xii. 12).

Hand'breadth.

The breadth of the hand, a palm (Ex. xxv.
25) ; see Cubit. It is used by the psalmist
figuratively of human life, especially when
life closes prematurely (Ps. xxxix. 5).

Hand'broad.

Measuring a handbreadth (Ezek. xl. 43 ;
in R. V. handbreadth).

Hand'ker-chief.

A .small cloth used by the Romans for wip-
ing the hands and face. The Jews adopted
it in the Roman period. They bound it
about the head of their dead (John xi. 44 ;
XX. 7 ; in English version, napkin). Once
in Ephesus handkerchiefs were carried from
the body of the apostle Paul unto the sick,
and their diseases departed (Acts xix. 12).
The man who received one talent from his
lord hid it in such a cloth (Luke xix. 20 ; in
English version, napkin).

Ha'nes [hieroglyphic, Su-Chenen or Chenen-
su : Coptic, Hnes].

A city of Egypt (Is. xxx. 4) about 50 miles
south of Memphis, and still known as Ahnas.
In the Graeco-Roman period it was known as
Heracleopolis magna. It must not be con-
founded with Tahpanhes.

Hanging

275

Haran

Hang'ing.

A form of punishment in which, after the
criminal was put to death, his body was sus-
pended from a tree or post. It was in vogue
in Egyi>t (Gen. xl. lit, 2-Ji, among the Israel-
ites (Deut. xxi. •22 \ Josh. x. 2tj ; 2 Sam. iv.
12), and the Persians (Herod, iii. 125 ; ix. 78).
The hanging intensified the disgrace. Among
the Israelites, the elevation of the body on
the tree was a call to God to witness that the
guilty one had paid just and sufficient pen-
alty, and was a testimony of God's abhor-
rence of sin. But while it remained exposed,
it proclaimed that sin had been committed in
Israel. The body was therefore buried out
of sight at nightfall (Deut. xxi. 23; Josh,
viii. 29; cp. Gal. iii. 13). Suicide was some-
times committed by hanging which caused
strangulation (2 Sam. xvii. 23 ; Mat. xxvii.
5). See Gallows.

Han'i-el. See Hanxiel.

Han'nah [grace, compassion].

One of the two wives of Elkanah. She
was her husband's favorite, and was in con-
sequence subjected to petty annoyances by
the rival wife. She vowed that if she gave
birth to a man-child, she would devote him
to the service of Jehovah. Her wish was
gratified ; she became the mother of the
prophet Samuel, and carried out her vow (1
Sam. i. 1-28). Her song of triumph is highly
poetic, and was probably in the mind of the
Virgin Mary when she expressed her grati-
tude in similar poetic strains on learning
that she was to give birth to the Son of God
(ii. 1-10; Luke i. 26-55).

Han'na-thon [regarded with favor].

A frontier town of Zebulun (Josh. xix.
14). Conder identifies it with Kefr "Anan, 11
miles X. E. by X. of the ruins Rummaneh. that
is, liimmou 1 13 1. The place seems too remote.

Han'ni-el, in A. X. H^niel in 1 Chrou. vii.
39 [favor or grace of God].

1. Prince of the Manassites who, when the
Israelites were about to enter Canaan, was
appointed on the committee to divide the
land (Xum. xxxiv. 23).

2. An Asherite, son of Ulla (1 Chrou. vii.
39).

Ha'noch, in A. V. once Henocli il Chrou.
i. 33) [initiated, dedicated]. Exactly the same
Hebrew word as that rendered Enoch.

1. A son of Midian, and a descendant of
Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chron.
i. 33). The name is perhaps preserved in
tianakuya. a place three days' journey to the
north of Medina.

2. A son of Reuben, and founder of a tri-
bal family (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi. 14 ; Xum.
xxvi. 5; 1 Chron. v. 3).

Ha'nun [enjoying favor].

1. A king of the Ammonites, son and suc-
cessor of David's friend X'ahash. The He-
brew king therefore sent to condole with
him on his father's death, and congratulate

him on his own accession. Evil counselors
suggested that the real object of the emba.ssy
was to spy out the Ammonite capitiil, with
the view of afterwards attempting its capture.
Hanun, therefore, grossly ill-treated the am-
bassadors, shaving oti' half their beards and
cutting ofT their garments in the middle.
Knowing that the outrage would be resented,
he prepared for war. He ol)tained the Syr-
ians as his allies, but was defeated (2 Sam. x.
1-xi. 1; 1 Chron. xix. 1-xx. 3).

2 and 3. Two Jews who repaired portions
of the wall of Jeru.salem under Xehemiah
(Xeh. iii. 13. 30).

Haph-a-ra'im, in A. V. Haph'ra-im, an

error from which the original edition of A.
V. was free [two pits].

A frontier town of Is.sachar (Josh. xix. 19).
Jerome identified it with Afarea, 6 Roman
miles to the north of Legio. At this distance
northwest of Lejjun is the ruined site of Far-
riyeh ; while about 7 Roman miles east north-
east of Lejjun lies the village el-'Afule.

Hap-piz'zez, in A. V. Aphses [the di.sper-
sion].

A descendant of Aaron. His family be-
came the eighteenth of the twenty-four
courses into which David divided the priests
(1 Chron. xxiv. 15).

Ha'ra [mountainous region].

A place in Assyria to which captives from
the ten tribes were carried (1 Chron. v. 26).
Situation unknown. Some believe it to be a
designation of Media, namely the mountain,
or a corruption of "mountains" of Media.

Har'a-dah [terror].

An encampment of the Israelites in the
wilderness, after being turned back from
Rithmah (Xum. xxxiii. 24). Palmer and
Drake identified it with the present Jebel
'Aradeh, in the peninsula of Sinai, about 40
miles southwest of Elath. Both etymology
and situation are against the identification.

Ha'ran. I. [meaning unknown].

1. A son of Terah, and brother of Abra-
ham. He died early, in his native place. Ur
of the Chaldees: but left a son. Lot, and two
daughters, Milcah and Iscah ((ien. xi. 29).

2. A Gershonite Levite, son of Shimei (1
Chron. xxiii. 9).

Ha'ran, II., in A. V. of X'. T., Charran
[road, business].

1. A city of Mesopotamia, about 240 miles
west by north from Xineveh and 280 north-
northeast of Damascus. It was a commer-
cial center; and. like Ur of the Chaldees,
had the moon-god for its patron deitj'. Terah
and Abraham sojourned in it for a time, and
Terah died there (Gen. xi. 31, 32: xii. 4, 5i.
The family of Xahor settled there, and Jacob
for a time resided there (xxiv. 24 ; xxviii.
10; xxix. 5). The Assyrians hunted in its
vicinity as early as 1100 B. c. ; and they long
held sway over it. A capture of the city by
them is mentioned (2 Kin. xix. 12). The

Hararite

276

Harodite

Greeks called it Karrhai, and the Romans
Carrse. In 53 b. c. the Roman triumvir
Crassus, the colleague of Pompey and of
Julius Caesar, allowed himself to be out-
maneuvered and defeated near Harau by the
Parthian general Sureua, by whose repre-
sentatives he was soon afterwards barbarously
slain. It is now a small Arab village, still
retaining the name of Harran, situated in
upper Mesopotamia, on the Belik, a tribu-
tary of the Euphrates, about 240 miles west
' by north from Nineveh and 82 east from the
gulf of Scanderoon.

2. Son of Caleb and Ephah, of the family
of Hezron (1 Chrou. ii. 46).

Ha'ra-rite [inhabitant of a mountain].

Possibly it means a mountaineer, one from
the hill country of Judah or Ephraim (Si-
monis, Gesenius, Siegfried-Stade). But this
designation seems too geuei-al. Probably, to
judge from the context of 2 Sam. xxiii. 33,
it means an inhabitant of a hamlet called
Harar, mountain, from its location on some
peak, like Gibeah, hill, and its inhabitants
Gibeathites (2 Sam. xxiii. 11 ; 1 Chron. xi.
34, 35).

Har-too'na and Harbonah [Persian, per-
haps ass-driver].

A chamberlain of Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10;
vii. 9).

Hare.

An animal, in Hebrew 'Arnebeth, said to
chew the cud, but not to part the hoof, and
therefore unclean (Lev. xi. 6 ; Deut. xiv. 7).
The opinion of the Hebrews that the animal
chewed the cud was founded on a peculiar
movement of its mouth. Physiologically,
however, it is not a ruminating animal, but
a rodent, and is so arranged by modern nat-
uralists. The common hare of Palestine
{Lepus syriacus-) is two inches shorter than the
European hare (L. europieus), and has slightly
shorter ears. It frequents wooded aud culti-
vated places. The common hare of southern
Judsea and the Jordan valley {L. jiulese of
Gray) has very long ears and light tawny fur.
Tristram enumerates three other species of
the southern frontier : L. segyptiacns, the
Egyptian hare, in the southeastern part of
Judaea ; L. isabillinu^, in the sandy deserts of
southeastern Palestine ; and L. sinaiticus, with
fur of a reddish hue.

Ha'rel [the mount of God].

A portion of the altar described by Eze-
kiel (xliii. 15). In the text of tlie A. V. it is
rendered altar, and in that of the R. V. upper
altar.

Ha'reph [picking, plucking off].

A son of Caleb, and ancestor of the inhabi-
tants of Beth-gader (1 Chron. ii. 51).

Ha'reth. See Hereth.

Har-ha'iah.

Father of the goldsmith Uzziel (Neh. iii. 8).

Har'has.

An ancestor of Shallum, husband of Hul-

dah the prophetess (2 Kin. xxii. 14). Called
Hasrah in 2 Chron. xxxiv. 22. The two
names differ in Hebrew in the second H, and
not merely in transposition of letters.

Har'hur [inflammation, fever].

The founder of a family of Nethinim,
some of whom returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 51 ; Neh. vii. 53).

Ha'rim [flat-nosed, snub-nosed, or conse-
crated].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family
had grown to a father's house in the time of
David and constituted the third course when
David distributed the priests into divisions
(1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 8). Probably they were
members of this family who returned from
Babylon (Ezra ii. 39 ; Neh. vii. 42). A father's
house among the priests in the next genera-
tion after the exile bore this name (Neh. xii.
15) ; see Rehum. At a later period some of
this family were among those who had mar-
ried foreign wives (Ezra x. 21). And later
still a priest of this name, doubtless head of
a father's house, signed the covenant to ob-
serve the law of God and to endeavor to pre-
vent intermarriages with foreigners (Neh. x.
5).

2. Founder of a non-priestly family, mem-
bers of which returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 32 ; x. 31 ; Neh. iii. 11 ;
vii. 35).

Ha'ripli [autumnal rain].

Founder of a family, members of which
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel
(Neh. vii. 24). A prince of this name
sealed the covenant, doubtless as representa-
tive of the family (x. 19). The same as
Jorah (Ezra ii. 18), which also means au-
tumnal rain.

Har'lot.

A prostitute (Gen. xxxviii. 15 ; Lev. xxi.
7 ; Deut. xxiii. 18 ; Josh. ii. 1 ; Judg. xvi. 1).
To play the harlot' or to go a whoring after,
often means, in scriptural usage, to go with
or after a paramour ; in a figurative sense,
to depart from Jehovah and give the affec-
tions and worship to other gods (Jer. ii. 20 ;
iii. 1 ; Ezek. xvi. 15, 16; xxiii. 5).

Har-Mag'e-don. See Armageddon.

Har'ne-pher [perhaps, panting].

An Asherite, son of Zophah (1 Chron. vii.
36).

Ha'rod [fear, terror].

A well near which Gideon pitched while
his adversaries, the Midianites, were by the
hill of Moreh, in the valley (Judg. vii. 1).
It is commonly, but without certainty, iden-
tified with the fountain of Jalud, on the
northwestern side of mount Gilboa, about a
mile east by south of Jezreel. A village ap-
pears to have stood in the vicinity (2 Sam.
xxiii. 25).

Ha'rod-ite.

An inhabitant of the town of Harod (2
Sam. xxiii. 25).

Haroeh

277

Harvest

Har'o-eh. See Eeaiah.
Ha'ro-rite.

Kather Harodite (q. v.), as there is reason
to read this word (1 Chron. xi. 27; cp. 2 Sam.

xxiii. 25).

Ha-ro'sheth [carving, artificers' work iu
woo<l or stone].

A town more fully called Harosheth of the
gentiles or nations. Si.sera had his residence
there (Jndg. iv. 2, l.'J, Ki). Formerly the
site was sought somewhere west of the waters
of Merom. and not far from the northern
Hazor. Xow it is more commonly located at
el-Harathiyeh, a small village on the north-
ern bank of the Kishon, at the point where
the stream, hidden among oleander bushes,
passes through a narrow gorge to enter the
jilain of Acre. Thomson states that he has
no doubt as to its identification.

Harp.

Eendering of the Hebrew word Kinnor,
emitter of a tremulous sound ; and in the N.
T. of the Greek word Kithara, lyre, lute. It
was a stringed musical instrument of the
harp kind, small enough to be carried about
(Is. xxiii. 16), and was played with the fingers
(1 Sam. xvi. 23) or with a plectrum (Autiq.
vii. 12, 3). It was played by Jubal, an ante-

Ancient Egj-ptlan Harp.

diluviau, of the race of Cain (Gen. iv. 21),
was known to Laban (xxxi. 27), was the in-
strument with which David soothed Saul
during his tits of melancholy madness (1
Sam. xvi. 16). The prophets and others used it
for sacred purposes (1 Sam. x. 5; Ps. xliii. 4 ;
xlix. 4), and it was played in the temple orches-
tra (1 Chron. xxv. 1,3); see Music. It was em-
ployed also in festive entertainments (Job
xxi. 12). Even harlots sometimes carried it
about with them (Is. xxiii. 15, 16). It was
the instrument which the captive Jews hung
on the Babylonian willows (Ps. cxxxvii. 2).
Two kinds were in use in Egypt : a larger, of
the height of a man, and a smaller, which

was easily carried. The Hebrews were ac-
quainted with the harp, hut it is not certain
that the word khnior really means harp.
The Seventy regarded it rather as a lyre or
lute, than a harp, for they render the Hebrew
word by kithara.

Har'row.

An implement of agriculture, consisting
of a wooden frame armed with teeth of wood
or iron (2 Sam. xii. 31). It is drawn over
plowed land to level it and break the clods
preparatory to sowing the seed, and to cover
the seed when sown. It cannot be show'n,
however, that the Hebrew word in 2 Sam.
xii. 31 denotes such an instrument. The
Israelites broke the clods in some manner
(Job xxxix. 10; Is. xxviii. 24; Hos. x. 11),
but it is doubtful whether they used a har-
row. The modern inhabitants of Palestine
sometimes turn iu the cattle for this purpose.

Har'sha [artificer's work, enchantment].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, some
of whom returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 52 ; Neh. vii. 54).

Hart.

A stag, or male deer, five years old, and
which has developed its sur-royal or crown
antler. It is the rendering of the Hebrew
'Ayyal, deer, a wild, clean animal (Deut. xii.
15 ; xiv. 5 ; 1 Kin. iv. 23 ; Ps. xlii. 1 ; Song
viii. 14). See Deer.

Ha'rum [exalted, high].

A man of Judah, father of Aharhel (1 Chron.
iv. 8).

Ha-ru'maph [flat of nose].

Father of a certain Jedaiah (Xeh. iii. 10).

Har'u-phite.

The designation of Shephatiah, a Benja-
mite, who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron.
xii. 5). The Hebrew traditional reading is
Hariphite, a member of the family of Hariph
(cp. Neh. vii. 24-32, where Hariph is enume-
rated with Benjamites).

Ha'ruz [sedulous, industrious].
Father-in-law of king Manasseh (2 Kin.
xxi. 19).

Har'vest.

The period of harvest in ancient Palestine
may be divided into two portions : that of
barley and that of wheat harvest, the former
preceding the latter by about a fortnight
(Ruth ii. 23). Its beginning was consecrated
by the bringing of the sheaf of firstfruits
(Lev. xxiii. 10). It began in the lowlands
before the crops were ripe on the hills. In
the hot Jordan valley barley harvest com-
menced iu April, when the Jordan was full
(Josh. iii. 15 ; cp. v. 10), at the close of the
rainy season (1 Sam. xii. 17, 18; Prov. xxvi.
1). Wheat harvest lingered in the uplands to
the month of June. It was a hot time of the
year (Prov. xxv. 13 : Is. xviii. 4). When the
harvest was completed, and the produce gath-
ered in, there were great rejoicings (Is. ix. 3).

Hasadiah

278

Hassenuah

Harvest in Ancient Egypt.

Tile feasts of unleavened bread, of weeks or
harvest, and of ingathering, had all a rela-
tion to the season of reaping. See Ye.\k.

Has-a-dl'ah [Jehovah hath shown kind-
ness] .

A son of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 20).
Has-e-nu'ah. See Hassenuah.

Hash-a-bi'ah [Jehovah hath imputed or
devised].

1. A Merarite Levite, descended through
Amaziah, and an ancestor of Jeduthuu (1
Chron. vi. 45). Perhaps he is the descendant
of Bunni mentioned as ancestor of Shemaiah
(ix. 14; Neh. xi. 15).

2. A Merarite Levite, son of Jeduthuu and
head of the twelfth company of musicians
appointed by David for the sanctuary (1
Chron. xxv. 3, 19).

3. A Koliathite Levite of the family of
Hebron, and inspector for the country west
of Jordan (1 Chron. xxvi. 30; cp. xxiii. 12).

4. A Levite, son of Keniuel, prince of the
tribe of Levi in David's reign (1 Chron.
xxvii. 17).

5. A chief of the Levites during the reign
of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 9).

6. A Merarite Levite, who joined Ezra at
the river of Ahava, and was apparently one
of the twelve who were entrusted with the
treasure which was being conveyed to Jeru-
salem (Ezra viii. 19, 24). Probably it was he
who sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 11). and
who was a chief Levite and one of the tem-
ple musicians (Neh. xii. 24).

7. The ruler, in Nehemiah's time, of half
Keilah. He repaired part of the wall of Je-
rusalem (Neh. iii. 17).

8. A Levite, descended from Asaph (Neh.
xi. 22).

9. A priest, head of the father's house of
Hilkiah, in the time of Joiakim the high
priest (Neh. xii. 21).

Ha-shab'nah.

One of those who with Nehemiah sealed
the covenant (Neh. x. 25).
Hash-ab-ne'iah, in A. V. Hash-ab-ni'ah.

1. Father of a certain Hattush (Neh. iii.
10).

2. One of those Levites who by their ex-
hortations ])repared the' returned exiles for

sealing the covenant with Jehovah (Neh.
ix. 5).

Hash-bad'da-na, in A. V. Hash-bad'a-na.

One of those who stood beside Ezra when
he addressed the returned exiles (Neh. viii. 4).

Ha'shem [make astonished ! lay waste!].

A Gizonite, mentioned in the catalogue of
David's mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 34). See
Jashen.

Hash-mo'nah [place of fertility].

A camiiing ground of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 29, 30). Exact sit-
uatitju unknown.

Ha'shub. See Hasshub.

Ha-shu'bah [esteemed, purposed].

A son of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 20).

Ha'shum [rich, wealthy].

Founder of a family, members of which re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 19; X. 33; Neh. vii. 22). The representa-
tive of the faiuily, or a person of this name,
supported Ezra while the latter addressed the
people (Neh. viii. 4), and then sealed the cov-
enant (x. 18).

Ha-shu'pha. See Hasupha.

Ha-si-dse'ans, in A. V. Asideans and Assi-
deans [Greek 'Asidaioi, from Hebrew H"sidim,
the pious].

A party among the Jews who held stren-
uously to the old faith (1 Mac. ii. 42). They
joined Mattathias, and later cooj)cratcd with
Judas Maccabseus in most of his plans (ii.
42 ; 2 Mac. xiv. 6), although contrary to his
judgment thev sought peace from the Svrians
(1 Mac. vii. 13).

Has-mo-nse'an. See Asmon.ean.

Has'rah [jjcrhaps, want]. See Harhas.

Has-se-na'ah, and without the definite
article Senaah [])erliaps, thorny].

The sons of Hassenaah rebuilt the fish-
gate of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 3). Of the chil-
dren of Senaah, some three thousand return-
ed from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii.
35; Neh. vii. 38). Whether Senaah is a man
or a town is uucertaiu.

Has-se-nu'ah, in A. V. Hasenuah, and,
witliout the article, Senuah [perhaps, thorny].
1. A Benjamite, father of Hodaviah ' (1
Chron. ix. 7).

Hasshub

279

Hawoth-jair

•2. Piiront of a certain Judali (Neli. xi. 9).
Has'shub, in A. V. of Neberaiali Hashub
[thouglitful].

1. A son of P;ihath-moab. He repaired
part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 11).

2. A Jew who rejiaired juirt of the wall of
Jerusalem ojiposite to his house (Neh. iii. 23).
It was probably either he or No. 1 who signed
the covenant (x. 23).

3. A Merarite Levite, father of Shemaiah
(1 Chron. ix. 14 ; Neh. xi. 15).

Ha-su'pha, in A. V. once Hashupha [made
bare].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-
bers of which returned from captivity with
Zernbbabel (Ezra ii. 43; Neh. vii. 46).

Hat.

The rendering of the Aramaic word Kar-
bel. binding, wrap (Dan. iii. 21 ; in E. V.,
mantle). See Clothing.

Ha'tach.

A chamberlain of king Ahasuerus, whowas
appointed to attend Esther (Esth. iv. 5, 10).

Ha'thath [terror].

A son of Othniel (1 Chron. iv. 13).

Hafi-pha [captive].

One who founded a family of Nethinim,
members of which returned fi'om Babylon
M-ith Zernbbabel (Ezra ii. 54; Neh. vii. 56).

Hat'i-ta [engraving, exploration].

A porter who founded a family, members
of which retnrned from Babylon with Zerub-
babei (Ezra ii. 42 ; Neh. vii. 45).

Hat'til [tottering, vacillating].

One of .Solomon's servants, who founded a
family, the members of which returned from
Babylon with Zernbbabel (Ezra ii. 57 ; Neh.
\n. 59).

Hat'tush [congregated, gathered together].

1. A man of Judah, son of Shemaiah, and
family of Shecaniah (1 Chron. iii. 22).

2. A chief of the priests, who returned
with Zernbbabel from Babylon (Neh. xii.
2, 7).

3. Head of a father's house, of the sons of
David, who returned with Ezra to Jerusalem
(Ezra viii. 2).

4. A son of Hashabneiah. He repaired part
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 10).

5. A priest who with Nehemiah sealed the
covenant (Neh. x. 4).

Hau'ran [hollow land, so called because a
depression or because of the multitude of its
caverns].

A region south of Damascus and bordering
on Gilead (Ezek. xlvii. 16, 18). In the
Oreco-Roman period it designated a smaller
district. It was then known as Aurauitis,
and was one of four provinces, having Trach-
onitis on the north and Gaulonitis and ap-
liareutly Batanea toward the northwest (An-
tn\. xvii. 11. 4 ; xviii. 4, 6 ; War i. 20, 4 ; ii.
6, 3; 17, 4; iii. 3, 5). It thus probably con-
sisted of the plain lying between Gaulonitis

and the present Jebel Hauran, and perhaj)s
included the latter. About the year 23 B. c.
Auranitis with Trachonitis and Batanea was
bestowed on Herod the (Jreat by Augustus.
When Herod's kingdom was divided, these
districts constituted the major part of Philip's
tetrarchy (Luke iii. 1 ; Antiq. xvii. 11, 4). The
surface is flat, broken only by a few volcanic
mounds. The soil is so fertile that the Hau-
ran is the granary for the whole region round.
Many towns and villages, nuxstly deserted,
exist within its limits, some of them "the
giant cities of Bashan," as they have been
called, built of basalt, with doors of the same
material.

Hav'i-lah [perhaps, sandy].

A district of Arabia, peopled in part by a
body of Cushites and in part by a body of
Joktanites, a Semitic people (Gen. x. 7, 29; 1
Chron. i. 9, 23). The association of Havilah
with Hazarmaveth and other places points to
a locality in central or southern Arabia. To
Havilah belonged the river Pishon ; and the
region was rich in gold, aromatic gum, and
precious stones (Gen. ii. 11, 12). These pro-
ductions strongly indicate the mountainous
district to the north of Yemama ; and in this
neighborhood Havilah is best sought. How
far beyond these mountains the boundaries
of Havilah extended is not clear. From the
record of Saul's warfare with the Amalekites
it may be inferred that the Arabian desert
for several hundred miles north of the moun-
tains bore the name Havilah (1 Sam. xv. 7 ;
cp. Gen. XXV. 18). Migrations of the people
would also carry the name to distant local-
ities, as perhaps to the coast of Africa near
the straits of Bab el-Mandeb, where a gulf,
Aualites, and a people, Abalitai, are traceable.

Hav-voth-ja'ir, in A. Y.Havoth-jair [Jair's
circuit of villages or of nomad encamjiments] .

Unwalled towns in the northwestern part
of Bashan, in the region of the Argob, where
this tract approaches the country of the
Geshurites and Maacathites, and where the
boundaries between the rugged land, Gilead,
and the open, sandy land, Bashan, insen-
sibly merge into each other (Dent. iii. 4, 14).
They were captured by Jair, a Manassite.
Their number was liable to fluctuation, be-
cause they lay in a debatable land, and for
other reasons (1 Chron. ii. 23). They are to
be carefully distinguished from the sixty
walled cities in the heart of Bashan, and
likewise in the Argob (Dent. iii. 4, 5; 1 Kin.
iv. 13). Since the boundary between Gilead
and Bashan was not clearly defined by na-
ture, it never was conventionally, and places
on this undefined border are referred to as in
Gilead or in Bashan, according to the mo-
mentary point of view of the narrator. The
conquest of Bashan by the Israelites included
the capture of the unwalled towns in the
Argob on this invisible border ; and when
their capture by Jair is related in connection
with the conquest of Og's kingdom, which

Hawk

280

Hazeroth

was carried on from Edrei in Bashan as the
center, the Havvoth-jair are described as in
Bashan (Deut. iii. 14; Josh. xiii. 30). When,
however, the eastern country is before the
mind of a sojourner in the valley of the Jor-
dan or in Canaan west of the river, he nat-
urally speaks first of Gilead, and sometimes
even uses that designation broadly for the en-
tire highland east of the river, or he may
speak of a conquest of Gilead which was not
narrowly confined to the distinctively rugged
land. From this point of view, he is apt to
refer to the towns on the undefined border
of Gilead and Bashan as in Gilead (1 Chron.
ii. 21-23 ; indefinitely, Num. xxxii. 40 seq. ;
1 Kin. iv. 13). The Havvoth-jair were scat-
tered over this indefinite tract in the Argob ;
and hence, according to the shifting point of
view, even of one and the same narrator, are
mentioned as in Gilead or in Bashan. Some
of them were doubtless more evidently in
the open land, while others were more clearly
in the rugged land.

Hawk.

The rendering of the Hebrew Nes, flyer
(Job xxxix. 26). It was ceremonially unclean
(Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15), and included
more than one species of the smaller preda-
tory birds (ibid.). It comprehended the spar-
row hawk (Accipiter nisus) and the kestrel
(Falco tinnunculus). The former abounds in
Lebanon and the hilly parts of Galilee in
summer, and in Judaea and the Arabah in
winter; the latter, which is properly a fal-
con instead of a genuine hawk, is abundant
in every part of Palestine throughout the
year.

Haz'a-el [God hath seen].

A Syrian courtier whom Elijah was directed
by Jehovah to anoint king over Syria (1 Kin.
xix. 15, 17). Some years later, between 845
and 843 B. c, Benhadad II., who then reigned
over that country, with Damascus for his cap-
ital, hearing that Elisha was in the city, sent
Hazael to ask the prophet whether he should
recover of a serious illness from which he
then suffered. Elisha told Hazael that his
master would not recover, and that he him-
self would be king of Syria, and would per-
petrate great cruelties on the people of Israel.
He replied, "But what is thy servant, who
is but a dog, that he should do this great
thing?" Then, returning to his master, he
falsely told him that the prophet foretold his
recovery, and next day assassinated him and
reigned in his stead (2 Kin. viii. 7-15, R. V.).
In 842 the Assyrian king Shalmaneser war-
red against Hazael and exacted tribute. In
839 Shalmaneser again warred with him.
Toward the close of Jehu's reign over Israel,
about 820, Hazael smote the countrj' of the
Hebrews east of the Jordan (x. 32) ; and in
the succeeding reign, crossing the river, he
mightily oppressed the Israelites (xiii. 4-7),
invaded the country of the Philistines, took
Gath, and was only deterred from attacking

Jerusalem by a rich present consisting of the
dedicated treasures of the temple (xii. 17, 18).
He died shortly after. The house of Hazael
(Amos i. 4) is Damascus.

Ha-za'iah [Jehovah hath seen].

A man of Judah, family of Shelah (Neh.
xi. 5).

Ha-zar-ad'dar. See Addak.

Ha-zar-e'nan and Hazar-enon [village of
fountains].

A village on the northern boundary of
Palestine, near Damascus (Num. xxxiv. 9 ;
Ezek. xlvii. 17 ; xlviii. 1). Exact site un-
known.

Ha-zar-gad'dah [village of good fortune].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 27). Exact site unknown.

Ha-zar-hat'ti-con. See Hazee-hatticon.

Ha-zar-ma'veth [village of death].

A body of Joktauites who peopled a dis-
trict in Arabia (Gen. x. 26 ; 1 Chron. i. 20).
A region in Arabia Felix, in the south of the
peninsula, is still called by the Arabs Ha-
dramaut, which corresponds etymologically
to Hazarmaveth. The place is mentioned iu
the inscriptions of the ancient Sabaeans, the
people of Sheba.

Ha-zar-shu'al [fox village].

A town in the extreme south of Judah, as-
signed to the Simeonites (Josh. xv. 28; xix.
3; 1 Chron. iv. 28). It was occupied after
the captivity (Neh. xi. 27). Perhaps the ruin
eth-Tha'li, a word equivalent to Shual.

Ha-zar-su'sah, in plural Hazar-susim [vil-
lage of a mare or mares] .

A village belonging to the Simeonites (Josh.
xix. 5 ; 1 Chron. iv. 31). Tristram places it at
the ruin Susin, 10 miles south of Gaza, on
the caravan route to Egypt. Perhaps it is
Susiyeh, 2 miles east by north of Semua.

Haz-a-zon-ta'mar, in A. V. once Hazezon-
tamar (Gen. xiv. 7). See En-gedi.

Ha'zel.

The rendering in Gen. xxx. 37, A. V. of the
Hebrew Luz, which is almost certainly, as the
E. V. makes it, the almond tree.

Haz-e-lel-po'ni. See Hazzelelponi.

Ha-zer-hat'ti-con, in A. V. Hazar-hatti-
con [the middle Hazer or village].

A town on the border of the Hauran (Ezek.
xlvii. 16). Exact site unknown.

Ha-ze'rim [villages].

Habitations of the Avvim (Deut. ii. 23) ;
in the E. V. properly translated by villages.

Ha-ze'roth [encampments].

An encamping ground of the Israelites
in the wilderness beyond Kibroth-hattaavah
(Num. xi. 35) and on this side of Paran (xii.
16; xxxiii. 17; Deut. i. 1). It was there that
Miriam and Aaron murmured against Moses
(Num. xi. 35-xii. 16). 'Ain el-Hudera, about
36 miles northeast of mount Sinai, was sug-
gested by Burckhardt, and adopted bj- Eobin-

Hazezon-tamar

281

Heaven

son and others, as the site. The identifica-
tion rests, liowever, solely on the similarity
of the name, and is iineertain. Palmer found
at the sjiot many stone circles, which evi-
dently marked the site of an encampment
formed by a pastoral people.

Haz-e-zon-ta'mar. See Hazazon-tamar.

Ha'zi-el [vision of God].

A (iershouite Levite, son of Shimei (1 Chron.
xxiii. fi).

Ha'zo [perhaps, vision].

A sou of Nahor and Milcah (Gen. xxii. 22).
The name is probably preserved in the hilly
region Hazii, which Esarhaddoa traversed,
not remote from the Hauran.

Ha'zor [an enclosure].

1. The capital of the Canaanite kingdom
in the north of Palestine, ruled over in
Joshua's time by Jabin. According to Jo-
sephus, it was situated above the waters of
Merom (Antiq. v. 5, 1). The town was taken
by Joshua and burnt (Josh. xi. 1-13; xii. 19).
It was rebuilt, and was assigned to the tribe
of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 3(i). In the days of
Deborah and Barak it was ruled by another
king Jabin. On the defeat of his general,
Sisera, he attempted to continue the war
against the Israelites, but was ultimately
overcome and slain (Judg. iv. 1-24 ; 1 Sam.
xii. 9). It is doubtful whether this or some
other Hazor was the town fortified by Solo-
mon (1 Kin. ix. 15), but it was certainly the
place so named whose inhabitants were car-
ried into cajttivity to Assyria by Tiglath-
pileser (2 Kin. xv. 29). In the neighboring
plain Jonathan defeated Demetrius (1 Mac.
xi. 67; in A. V. Nasor ; Antiq. xiii. 5, 7).
Eobinson's identification of Hazor with Tell
Khureibeh, 3J miles west of the waters of
Merom, is the most probable yet proposed.
Conder locates it at Jebel Hadireh, about 2
miles farther west.

2. A town in the extreme south of Judah,
called also Kerioth-hezron (.Tosh. xv. 25, E.V.).
Exact site unknown. Robinson located it at
Kureitein, 12 miles south of Hebron. Hazor,
a tow'n of Judah near Kedesh, is mentioned
in ver. 23 ; see Hezron.

3. A village of Benjamin (Xeh. xi. 33).
Conder identifies it witli the ruin Ilazzur,
4 miles north-northwest of Jerusalem, and
directly west of Beit Haniua, perhaps Ana-
niah of ver. 32.

4. A region in the Arabian desert, eastward
of Palestine. Jeremiah prophesied its plun-
dering by Xebuchadnezzar (xlix. 28-33). Be-
rosus states that Nebuchadnezzar conquered
Arabia (con. Apion. i. 19). The name is prob-
ably a collective and refers to the settled vil-
lage life of thecommuuitj- in contrast to the
nomads. Exact situation unknown.

Ha-zor-ha-dat'tali, in A. V. punctuated as
two i>laces, Hazor, Hadattah [if the second
word is Aramaic, the name means new vil-
lage].

A town in the extreme south of Judah,
ai)i)arently near Hazor 2. Exact site un-
known (Josh. XV. 25).

Haz'ze-lel-po'ni, in A. V. Hazelelponi

[give shade, thou who turnest toward me].

A woman of Judah, daughter of the an-
cestor of the men of Etam (1 Chron. iv. 3).

He.

The fifth letter of the Hebrew ali)habet.
The English letter E has the same origin, but
is a vowel. Where he preserves its jxiwer as
a consonant in Hebrew names, and properly
at other times, it is represented by h in the
English form ; as in Abraham.

It stands at the head of the fifth section
of Ps. cxix., since each verse in the section
begins with this letter in the original.

Through some similarity of form combined
with careless writing and slight effacement
of the text, it was sometimes misread as
aleph on the one hand and tau on the other.

Head'band.

The rendering of the Hebrew Kishshnr,
encircle, band (Is. iii. 20, in E. V. a sash ;
Jer. ii. 32, in E. V. attire). It is an article
of female attire.

Hea'then [dweller in the heath]. The
word suggests the fact that the gospel first
rooted itself in towns, the inhabitants of
which became Christians, while the dwellers
on heaths remained worshipers of false di-
vinities. The word Pagan, from Latin
Pa(j(tnns, belonging to a village, rustic, has a
somewhat similar reference.

One of a people who do not worship the God
of the Bible, especially if they are addicted to
idolatry. It is a frequent rendering of the
Hebrew Goy and Greek Eiluios, each of which
means nation or people. R. V. employs the word
heathen only in O. T. and then only when
the character of the gentile nations is clearly
referred to ; as in speaking of the abomina-
tions of the heathen (2 Kin. xvi. 3; Ezek.
xxiii. 30), their filthincss (Ezra vi. 21), their
ignorance of the trutli, ojiposition to the true
religion, barbarous trampling upon it and
upon the people of God, and consequent ex-
posure to the righteous indignation of Je-
hovah (Ps. Ixxix. 1, 6, 10, biit not cxv. 2 ;
also in Jer. x. 25 ; Lam. i. 3, 10 ; Ezek.
xxxiv. 28, 29; xxxvi. 6, 7, 15).

Heav'en, often The Heavens [probably
originally, covering] .

1. The sky, the expanse around the earth.
It embraces all that is apart from the earth
(Gen. ii. 1) ; hence heaven and earth com-
prehend the universe (Gen. i. 1; xiv. 19;
xxiv. 3 ; Jer. xxiii. 24 ; Mat. v. 18). Beyond
the visible firmament was the primeval
watery mass (Gen. i. 7; Ps. cxlviii. 4) ; which
is not further referred to in the account of
creation, but out of which it is reasonable to
believe the heavenly bodies were formed.
These upper waters remained in Hebrew
thought along with other conceptions. In

Heber

282

Hebrews

the visible heavens are the stars and planets
(Gen. i, 14, 15, 17; Ezek. xxxii. 7, H). In
the part of it next the earth is the atmos-
phere, in which clouds float, through wliich
birds fly, and from which rain descends (Gen.
i. 20; vii. 11; viii. 2; xxvii. 28; 2 Sam. xxi.
10; Ps. cxlvii. 8; Lam. iv. 19) ; see Firma-
ment. The Hebrews, by a familiar idiom,
spoke of the heaven of heavens (Dent. x. 14 ;
1 Kin. viii. 27 ; P&. cxv. l(j), meaning the .
heavens in their widest extent. The later
Jews were fond of dividing the heavens into
seven diflerent strata. No fixed, definite
conception of these several regions prevailed ;
but fancy was allowed fullest freedom. The
higiiest was regarded as God's dwelling place.
Paul describes CUirist as ascending far above
all the heavens (Eph. iv. 10) ; and he relates
an experience, whether in vision or reality
he knew not, in which he was caught up into
the third heaven and into Paradise (2 Cor.
xii. 1-4).

2. The place where God's immediate pres-
ence is manifested (Gen. xxviii. 17 ; Ps.
Ixxx. 14 ; Is. Ixvi. 1 ; Mat. v. 12, 16, 45, 48 ;
xxiii. 9), where the angels are (Mat. xxiv.
3H; xxviii. 2 ; Mark xiii. 32 ; Luke xxii. 43),
and where the redeemed shall ultimatelv be
(Mat. V. 12 ; vi. 20 ; xviii. 10 ; Eph. iii. 15 ; 1
Pet. i. 4 ; Rev. xix. 1, 4). Christ descended
from heaven (John iii. 13), and ascended
thither again (Acts i. 11), where he niaketh
intercession for the saints and whence he
shall come to judge the quick and the dead
(Rom. viii. 33, 34 ; Heb. vi. 20 ; ix. 24 ; Mat.
xxiv. 30; 1 Thes. iv. 16).

3. The inhabit/ants of heaven (Luke xv.
18; Rev. xviii. 20).

He'ber [union, society, fellowship].

1. A son of Beriah, grandson of Asher,
and founder of a tribal family (Gen. xlvi. 17 ;
Num. xxvi. 45).

2. A Kenite, descendant of Moses' brother-
in-law or father-in-law Hobab, and the hus-
band of Jael, who slew Sisera (Judg. iv. 11-
24).

3. A man registered with Judah, de-
scended from Ezra, and ancestor of the men
of Socoh (1 Chron. iv. 18).

4. A Benjamite, descended from Shaha-
raim through Elpaal (1 Chron. viii. 17).

For two others bearing this name in A. V.,
see Eber.

He'brew [pertaining to the other side or to
Eber].

1. According to biblical history, the He-
brews were men from the other side of the
Euphrates (Gen. xiv. 13 with xii. 5 ; Josh,
xxiv. 2, 3 ; and see Euphrates). The name
may have denoted this, or it may have been
originally a patronymic formed from Eber,
and have designated all his descendants, in-
cluding the Israelites (Gen. x. 21), until the
increasing prominence of the Israelites led to
restricting its use to them ; see Eber. He-
brews in the plural was applied to the Is-

raelites (Gen. xl. 15; 1 Sam. iv. 6 ; xiii. 3 : 2
Cor. xi. 22). In N. T. times it was used spe-
cially of those Jews who spoke Hebrew or
rather Aramaic in distinction from the Hel-
lenists, their fellow-countrymen who spoke
Greek (Acts vi. 1). An Hebrew of the He-
Ijrews was a thorough Hebrew ; as, for ex-
ample, a person of Hebrew parentage both
on the father's and the mother's side (Phil,
iii. 5).

2. The language spoken bv the Hebrews
(2 Kin. xviii. 26, 28; Is. xxxvi. 11, 13). and
called, poetically, the language of Canaan
(Is. xix. 18). There is reason to believe that
Abraham found it in Canaan, instead of
bringing it with him from Chaldea ; and the
tablets from Tell el-Amarna and the Moabite
stone have shown that at least the Cauaanites
and the Moabites, if not even the adjacent
tribes, spoke a language not very different
from Hebrew. It belongs to the Semitic
group of languages. Like the rest of them,
it is read from right to left, not, like English,
from left to right. Its alphabet consists of
twenty-two consonants. Their names are
found in Ps. cxix., which is divided into
groups of eight verses. In each of these
groups a several letter of the alphabet domi-
nates, beginning each verse. Originally the
language was written without vowel-points,
these not being introduced earlier than the
sixth century A. D., or perha])s even a little
later. They were the work of certain Jewish
doctors called Masorites, whose headquarters
were at Tiberias. With the exception of por-
tions of the books of Daniel and Ezra and a
few verses elsewhere in Aramaic, the whole of
the O. T. was written originally in Hebrew.
Languages have their periods of growth,
comparative perfection, and then decay. Two
stages are traceable in Hebrew ; these are
generally called its golden and its silver age.
The first extended from the commencement
of the Helirew nation to the Babylonian cap-
tivity, the second from the captivity till the
language ceased to be spoken. During the
golden age, while the Jews w-ere generally
independent, their language remained com-
paratively pure. During the silver age it
was corrupted by a continually increasing in-
flux of Aramaic, till the latter tongue super-
seded it altogether. The Aramaic in the
time of our Lord had taken the ])lace of the
genuine Hebrew as the colloquial language
(Mark v. 41), and had usurped its name ; and
Aramaic is intended by the Hebrew lan-
guage, or the Hebrew tongue, or the Hebrew,
or simply Hebrew, in John v. 2 ; xix. 13, 17,
20 ; Acts xxi. 40 ; xxii. 2 ; xxvi. 14 ; Rev. ix.
11.

He'brews, E-pis'tle to the.

The fourteenth of the N. T. epistles as they
are arranged in the English Bible. That it
was addressed to Jewish Christians is clearly
shown by its contents. To no others would
its arguments be so appropriate. They were
in danger of returning to Judaism through

Hebrews

283

Hebrews

the pressure of outward trial and opposition
(ii. 1 ; iii. 1:2 ; iv. 1. 11 ; v. 12 ; vi. (J ; x. 23-
2."). 29). They had been early converts (v. 12)
and liad received tlie gospel from its first
preacliers (ii. o). Tliey had h)n<j; ago been
])ei-seeuted (x. 32-34) and had often minis-
tered to the siiints (vi. 10; x. 34). There is
no reference to gentile members in their
cluirclies, and their danger lay in a return
not so nnuh to the law as to tlie ritual.
Tliese allusions best suit the Hebrew Chris-
tians of I'alestine, and to them doubtless,
with jierhaps other Jewish believers of the
East, tlie e])istle was addressed.

Its authorship has always been disputed.
Even in the ancient church opinion was di-
vided, thougli the canonicity and authority
of the book were recognized. The early
eastern church received it as Pauline, though
it was felt to be unlike the rest of Paul's
epistles, and theories were advanced to ex-
jilain the ditl'erence. Clement of Alexandria.
<■. f/.. thought that i)erhaps I^uke translated it
from a Hebrew original. Li the early west-
ern churches its Pauline authorship was
doubted and denied, and Tertulliau attrib-
uted it to liarnabas. For a while indeed in
the Avestern churches its history becomes
obscure, so far as our information goes ; but
finally the eastern opinion became the uni-
versally acceiited one. The book is anon-
ymous. Chaj). ii. 3, however, seems to imjily
that the author w'as not an apostle. It certainly
implies that he was not one of the original
ajiostles, and it is unlike Paul to represent
himself as receiving the gospel from others
Icp. Gal. i. 11-24). From xiii. 18, 19 we
learn that the writer was well known to his
readers and was unhappily separated from
them. In xiii. 23 the reference to Timothy
is not sufficient to indicate the author, nor
does the exjiression "they of Italy " (xiii.
24 ; prove his locality, though the natural in-
ference is that he was in Italy. The evi-
dence of the contents and style also im-
presses different minds in diflerent ways. It
certainly is not a translation of a Hebrew'
original. Its doctrine has much in common
with Paul, though the truth is put in a
slightly diflerent way. Its language has a
large classic element in it, and its style has
seemed to most critics unlike the apostle's,
being smoother, often more elegant, and less
impetuous. The omis.sion of any address
also is unlike Paul's usage elsewhere ; and the
author seems to have used exclusively the
Greek translation of the O. T., while Paul
constantly .shows his familiarity with the He-
brew as well. There is still room, therefore,
for difference of ojiinion as to the author.
Various suggestions have been made by those
who deny that Paul wrote it. Lutherguessed
Apollos. The most plausible view, if Paul
he not the author, is that which attri))utes it
to Barnabas, who has at least some ancient
testimony in his favor, and who in The Acts
appears as the mediator between the Jewish

Christians and Paul, nnich as this e])istle
seeks to estal)lish its Hebrew readers in a
doctrine which is thoroughly Pauline. The
following analysis will exhibit the thought
of the e]>istle :

(1) The anthcn" begins by stating the supe-
riority of Christianity to all previous and
possible revelation l)ecause of the superigr
dignity of Christ to all i)revious and possible
organs of revelation (i.), a fact which
should warn us not to forsake the gospel (ii.
1-4). Nor should the humiliation of Christ
api)ear a difficulty, since just by it he be-
comes our Saviour and high priest (ii.).
Christ, therefore, is of su]ierior dignity even
to Moses (iii. 1-6). and the warnings against
unbelief in the older revelation which were
addressed to Israel, are doubly applicable
against unbelief in the final revelation of
the gospel (iii. 7-iv. 13).

(2) The epistle then unfolds the value of
Christ's high-])riestly office (iv. 14-l(j) : ex-
plaining its nature and showing that Christ
did, and that it was predicted he would,
exercise it (v.) ; and, after gently, yet
vigorously, rebuking them for their failure
to grasp the full truth of the gospel (vi.),
unfolding the sujieriority of Christ's priest-
hood, as typified in Melchizedek, to the
levitical, the consequent abrogaticm of the
latter with its ritual, and the all-sufficiency
of Christ's (vii.).

(3) Then the epistle shows that Christ's
priesthood must now be necessarily exercised
in heaven, so that his invisibility should be
no difficulty to them. In this heavenly min-
istry Christ fulfills the types, realizes the
]iromises and remedies the imperfections of
the earthly ritual (viii. 1-x. 18).

(4) The fourth section (x. 19-xii. 29) urges
them to live up to these truths by an endur-
ing faith. The writer exhorts to renewed
confidence in Christ and to the maintenance
of their Christian associations (x. 19-25) ; de-
picts the hopelessness which would follow
apostasy (x. 26-31) ; incites them by recall-
ing their former zeal (x. 32-39), the examples
of the Hebrew heroes of faith (xi.) and of
Christ himself (xii. 1-3) ; and bids them con-
sider their trials as but the chastening of the
Lord preparatory to a glorious salvation (xii.
4-29).

(5) In ch. xiii. are added some specific ex-
hortations.

This epistle is the only one in which the
title of priest is applied to Christ, though
of conr.se the substance of the doctrine is
elsewhere taught : it represents Christianity
as the completion and goal of the old dispen-
•sation : the clear announcement of that way
of .salvation previously taught by type and
ritual. It gives the argument, therefore,
most likely to establish Hebrews in the faith,
and without it the N. T. teaching Mould be
obviously incomplete. It was probably written
A. D. 65-68, while the temple was still stand-
ing (xiii. 10-14). G. T. p.

Hebron

284

Hebron

He'bron [union].

1. A Levite, son of Kohatb and founder
of a tribal family (Ex. vi. 18; 1 Chron. vi.
2) ; see Hebronit?:s.

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 48, 54), called originally Kirjath-
arba, meaning either city of four, because
consisting of four separate hamlets, or city
of the croucber (Gen. xxiii. 2 ; Josh. xx. 7) ;
see Arba. It was built seven years before
Zoan, in Egypt (Num. xiii. 22), and existed
at least as early as the days of Abraham,
who for a time resided in its vicinity, under
the oaks or terebinths of Mamre (Gen. xiii.
18 ; XXXV. 27). Sarah died there, and Abra-

utterly destroyed their cities. After this
first general campaign, however, the sur-
vivors of the old population gradually re-
turned from their hiding places and retreats,
and in the course of a few years rebuilt many
of the ruined towns. Among those who thus
returned were remnants of the three families
of Anakim who bad dwelt at Hebron. Here
they were found reestablished after the con-
quest of Canaan (xiv. 10, 12). Caleb claimed
that district as his own ; and when the tribe
of Judah took possession of its allotted terri-
tory after the death of Joshua, Caleb retook
Hebron (Judg. i. 10-15 ; and, apparently by
anticipation, Josh. xv. 13-19). Hebron had

Hebron and Sacred Enclosure over the Cave of Machpelah, viewed from the North.

ham bought the cave of Machpelah for a
sepulcher. He purchased it from the Hit-
tites who then occupied the town (xxiii. 2-
20). Isaac and Jacob for a time sojourned at
Hebron (Gen. xxxv. 27; xxxvii. 14). It was
visited by the si>ies, who found Anakim
among its inhabitants (Num. xiii. 22). Its
king, Hoham, was one of the four kings who
allied themselves with Adoni-zedek against
Joshua, but who wei'e defeated, captured,
and slain (Josh. x. 1-27). Hebron itself was
afterwards taken, and its inhabitants de-
stroyed (36-39). Thisaccountissupplemented
by xi. 21, 22, where it is recorded that at that
time .Joshua cutoff the Anakim from Hebron,
Debir, Anab, and all the hill country, and

dependent villages (Josh. xv. 54). was as-
signed to the priests, and was one of the
cities of refuge (Josh. xx. 7; xxi. 10-13; 1
Chron. vi. 54-57). David sent thither part
of the recaptured spoil of Ziklag (1 Sam.
XXX. 31), and iit'terwards reigned in it for
seven and a half years (2 Sam. ii. 1-3, 11, 32 ;
v. 1-5, 13 ; 1 Kin. ii. 11 ; 1 Chron. xxix. 27),
several of his sons being born there (2 Sam.
iii. 2-5 ; 1 Chron. iii. 1-4 ; xi. 1-3 : xii. 23-38).
Abner was buried there (2 Sam. iii. 32), and
the bead of Ish-bosbeth was placed in the
same grave (iv. 1-12). It was at Hebron that
Absalom raised the standard of relu'l lion (xv.
7-10). It was fortified Iiy Rehoboam (2
Chron. xi. 10). When, during the captivity,

Hebronites

285

Helem

the Eilomites occupied the south of Judah,
Hebron, among otlier places, fell into their
hands. It was recaptured from them by
Judas Maccal)a'us, having then a fortress
with towers and being the head of other
towns (1 Mac. v. 6.3). It is not mentioned in
the N. T. Hebron is now called el-Khulil
er-Kahman. It is one of the oldest towns in
the world which is still inhabited, instead of
being simjily a ruin. Hebron is situated in
a valley and on an adjacent slope, 3040 feet
above the level of the ocean. It is 19 miles
south-southwest of Jerusalem, and 13i south-
southwest of Bethlehem. It has no walls at
present, but possesses gates. The houses,
which are of stone, are well built, with flat
roofs, domed in the middle. It was formerly
divided into three quarters, but has so in-
creased since 187.3 as to have required six
more. The population is believed to be
about 10,000, most of them ISIussulmans, the
remainder chiefly Jews. There is a great
mosque, the preciuts of which are called el-
Haram (the enclosure). It has a quadrangle
197 feet long by 111 broad. The masonry is
like tliat of the Haram at Jerusalem. With-
in the enclosure is a cave, believed to be that
of Machpelah. The oak or terebinth of
Abraham has been shown at two places ; that
which now exists is a genuine oak (Quercus
pseiulucoccifera) ; see Mamre. There are
twenty-five springs of water and ten large
wells near Hebron, with vineyards and olive-
groves.

3. A town of Asher (Josh. xix. 28, A. V.),
but its Hebrew name is different from that
of Hebron in Judah ; see Ebron.

He'bron-ites.

The descendants of Hebron the Kohath-
ite (Num. iii. 27: 1 Chron. xxvi. 30, 31).

He'gai and He'ge.

One of the chamberlains of king Ahasue-
rus. He was the keeper of the women (Esth.
ii. 3, 8, 15).

Heifer.

A young cow (Gen. xv. 9 ; Deut. xxi. 3 ; 1
Sam.'xvi. 2) ; see Cow and Purification.

Heir.

Inheritance early became a custom. Abra-
ham was acquainted with it (Gen. xv. 3, 4).
Only sons of a legal wife, not those of a con-
cubine, had the right of inheritance. Ish-
mael, son of the bondwoman, might not. in-
herit with the son of the free woman (xxi.
10) ; and Abraham dismissed with presents
the sons whom he had begotten by concu-
bines (xxv. 5, 6). Still all of Jacob's sous
were accorded equal rights. Daughters some-
times inherited like sons (Job xlii. 1.3). By
the Mosaic law a man's property was divided
on his death among his sons, the eldest ob-
taining double the portion assigned to his
younger brothers (Deut. xxi. 15-17). When
there were no sons, the property went to the
daughters (Num. xxvii. 1-8), who, however,
were required to abstain from marrying out

of their own tribal family (Num. xxxvi. 1-
12 ; Tob. vi. 10-12). If circumstances de-
manded that a man of other family marry a
sole heiress, the children of such a marriage
appear to have taken the name of the mother's
father (1 Chron. ii. 34-41 ; Ezra ii. Gl). Fail-
ing both Sons and daughters, the inheritance
went to the father's brother, and after him
to the nearest of kin (Num. xxvii. 9-11).
Greek and Roman rule introduced new cus-
toms, and made testaments and testators
familiar to the Jews (Heb. ix. 16, 17). In a
figurative sense, believers are heirs of God
and joint heirs with Christ (Rom. viii. 17).

He'lall [scum, rust, verdigris].

One of the two wives of Ashhur, the ances-
tor of the men of Tekoa (1 Chron. iv. 5, 7).

He 'lam.

A place east of Jordan, where David de-
feated Hadarezer, king of Syria (2 Sam. x.
16-19). Ewald and others doubtfully iden-
tify it with Alamatha, a town mentioned by
Ptolemy as west of the Euphrates, near Nice-
phorium.

Hel'bali [fatness, a fertile region].

A city within the territory of Asher, from
which the Canaauites were not driven out
(Judg. i. 31). Site unknown.

Hel'bon [fat, fertile] .

A city of Syria, celebrated for its wines
(Ezek. xxvii. 18). It is commonly identified
with Helbun, 13 miles north of Damascus.
The village is situated in a narrow valley
shut in by steep, bare clifl's and long, shelving
banks 2000 to 3000 feet high. The bottom
of the glen is occupied by orchards, and far
up the mountain slopes are terraced vine-
yards. Along the terraces and in the valley
below are extensive ruins. Tlie wine was
celebrated in Assyria, Babylonia, and Per.sia
(Strabo xv. 735 ; Nebuchadnezzar 1 R. 65,
32).

Hel'dai [durable, transitoriness].

1. A Netophathite, descended from Othniel.
He was David's captain for the twelfth
mouth (1 Chron. xxvii. 15). Doubtless the
person called Heled in xi. 30.

2. An exile who returned from Babylon
(Zech. vi. 10), called also Helem (ver. 14).

He'leb [fatness].

The name given to Heled in 2 Sam. xxiii.
29. It may possibly be the original name,
but probably arose from the mistake of an
early copyist, which is quite intelligible and
common.

He'led [endurance, transitory life].

The son of Baanah, a Netophathite, and
one of David's mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 30).
See Heleb and Heldai.

He'lek [smoothness, portion, lot].

A son of Gilead, and founder of a tribal
family of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 30 ; Josh,
xvii. 2).

He'Iem, I. [blow, stroke].

An Asherite, brother of Shamer (1 Chron.

Helem

286

Hell

vii. 35), aud probably the person called
Hotham iu ver. 'S2.

He'lem, II. [dream, or, perhaps, mauly
vigor] .

The same as Heldai 2 (Zech. vi. 10 with 14).

He'leph [permutation, change, exchange].

A frontier town of Naphtali (Josh. xix. o3).
Van de Velde identified it with Beit Lif, in
the mountains of Galilee, midway between
Kadesh and Eas el-Abiad.

He'lez [perhaps, alertness].

1. A Paltite or Pelonite, David's captain for
the seventh month (1 Ciiron. xxvii. 10).

2. A man of Judah, descended from Hez-
rou {1 Chron. ii. 39).

He'li [Greek form of Eli, probably eleva-
tion].

The father of Mary, the mother of Jesus.
This belief is founded on the Greek text,
which represents Jesus as " being son (as was
supposed of Joseph) of Heli" (Luke iii. 23).

Hel'kai [smooth].

A priest, head of the father's house Merai-
oth (Neh. xii. !'■>).

Hel'kath [smoothness, a part (of a iield), a
field].

A town on the boundary line of Asher
(Josh. xix. 25), assigned, with its suburbs, to
the Gershonite Levites (xxi. 31). Called in
1 Chron. vi. 75 Hukok, which is probably a
corruption of the text. Van de Velde and
Robinson doubtfully identify it with Yerka,
8i miles east by north of Acre.

Hel-kath-haz'zu-rim [field of the sharp
knives].

A name given to the scene of the combat,
at the pool of (ptibeon, between twelve Benja-
mites of Ish-bosheth's party and the same
number of David's men (2 Sam. ii. 16).

Hell.

1. The place of the dead. It is one render-
ing of the Hebrew word Sh''ol and the Greek
'Aides (Ps. xvi. 10 with Acts ii. 27). R. V.
of O. T. places Sheol either in the text or on
the margin ; in the prophetical books, on the
margin with hell generally iu the text, and
in Dent, xxxii. 22; Ps. Iv. 15; Ixxxvi. 13, on
the margin, with pit in the text. In N. T.
it puts Hades iti the text. The two words
are also rendered grave (Gen. xxxvii. 35;
Is. xxxviii. 10, 18 ; Hos. xiii. 14 ; and A. V.
of 1 Cor. XV. 55, in R. V. death). The ety-
mology of the words is in doubt. Sheol
may mean the insatiable (cp. Prov. xxvii.
20, R. V. ; XXX. 15, 1(5). Hades, when pro-
nounced without the aspiration, means the
unseen. Both words denote the i)lace of
the dead. The evidence is not all in, but
it may be safely affirmed that for centuries
the Hebrews shared the common Semitic con-
ception of Sheol. This conception was vague
and undefined. There was consequently room
for the imagination to yday, and fancy was
fond of supplying all manner of details ; and
care must be taken not to confound fixncios

with faith The ancient Hebrews, like other
Semites, thought of Sheol as beneath the
earth (Num. xvi. 30, 33; Ezek. xxxi. 17;
Amos ix. 2). They pictured it as entered
through gates (Is. xxxviii. 10), a dark, gloomy
region, where the inhabitants pass a conscious,
but dull, inactive existence (2 Sam. xxii. 6 ;
Ps. vi. 5 ; Ecc. ix. 10). They regarded it as
the i)lace whither the souls of all men with-
out distinction go (Gen. xxxvii. 35; Ps. xxxi.
17 ; Is. xxxviii. 10), where punishments may
be sutl'ered and rewards enjoyed, and from
which a return to earth was not an impos-
sibility (1 Sam. xxviii. 8-19; Heb. xi. 19).
It is important to note, however, that in
authoritative Hebrew doctrine Sheol was
open and naked to God (Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov.
XV. 11), that God was even there (Ps. cxxxix.
8), ancl that the spirits of his people, and their
condition in that abode, were ever under his
watchful eye. This doctrine of God's knowl-
edge of his people after death, presence with
them, and unceasing love for them, involved
the blessedness of the righteous aud the woe
of the wicked after death, and two places of
abode for them, the righteous being with the
Lord and the wicked being banished from his
presence. This doctrine lay also at the basis
of the related teaching of the eventual resur-
rection of the body, and the life everlasting.
The doctrine of future glory, and even of
the resurrection of the body, was cherished
in O. T. times (Job xix. 25-27 ; Ps. xvi. 8-11 ;
xvii. 15 ; xlix. 14, 15 ; Ixxiii. 24 ; Dan. xii. 2. 3).
A foundation for it was early aflbrded by the
translation of Enoch and Elijah, and it was
fostered by centuries of intimate association
with the Egyptians, who had congruous teach-
ing regarding the future life and the relation
of morality in the present life to happiness
beyond the grave. But it remained for Christ
to bring immortality to full light, and, by re-
vealing the bliss of the saved soul even out
of the body in his presence, to dispel all gloom
fron^ the future abode of his saints (Luke
xxiii. 43; John xiv. 1-3 ; 2 Cor. v. 6-8; Phil,
i. 23). See Paradise.

2. The place of woe. In this sense it is
the rendering of the Greek Gehenna in Mat.
V. 22, 29, 30; x. 28; xviii. 9; xxiii. 15, 33;
Mark ix. 47 ; Luke xii. 5, and Jas. iii. 6. This
word is the Greek form of the Hebrew Ge-
hin)wm, valley of Hinnom, where children
were burnt to Molech. From the horrible
sins practiced in it, its pollution by Josiah,
and perhaps also because ofl'al was burnt in
it, the valley of Hinnom became a type of
sin and woe, aiid the name passed into use as
a designation for the place of eternal pun-
ishment (Mat. xviii. 8, 9 ; IMark ix. 43).
From the scenes witnessed in the valley
imagery was borrowed to describe the (tc-
henna of the lost (Mat. v. 22; cp. xiii. 42;
Mark ix. 48). In 2 Pet. ii. 4, " to cast down to
hell " is the rendering of the verb tartarod,
meaning "to cast down to Tartarus." The
Tartarus of the Romans, the Tartaros of the

Hellenist

287

Heresh

Greeks, \v:is tlieir ])laee of woe, situated as
far below Hades as Hades was below heaven.
Thoujjh the etymologies are dill'ereiit, Ge-
heuna and Tartarus are essentially the same
in meaning. Eaeh is the place of punish-
ment for the lost.

Hel'len-ist.

One, not of the Greek nation, who spoke
(ireek. The term is used s]>ecially of Jews, in
whatever part of the world they lived, who had
adojited the tireek tongue, and with it often
Greek practices and opinions (R. V., margin
of Acts vi. 1 and i.\. '29). The text calls them
Grecian Jews; the A. V. simply Grecians.

Hel'met. See Armor.

He'lon [perhaps, strong].

Father of Eliab, prince of Zebuluu (Num.
i. 9; ii. 7; vii. 24, 29; x. 16).

Hem.

The edge, border, or margin of a garment
(Ex. xxviii. 33, 34; xxxix. 24, 25, 2(), in the
I\. V. skirts; and Mat. ix. 20; xiv. 3(i. in the
R. V. bordei-s). The Jews attached a certain
sacrcdness to the hem, fringe, or border of
their garments.

He'mam. See Homam.

He'man [faithful].

1. A sage whose reputation for wisdom was
high in Solomon's reign (1 Kin. iv. 31). He
belonged to the tribe of Judah (1 C'hron. ii. 6).
He composed a meditative psalm (Ps. Ixxxviii.,
according to its second and doubtless original
title).

2. A singer in David's reign, a son of Joel,
a grandson of the i)rophet Samuel, of the
Levite family of Korah (1 Chron. vi. 33 ; xv.
IT). In addition to singing, he was appointed
to sound a brazen cymbal (19). He rose to a
prominent place among David's musicians
(xvi. 41, 42).

He'matb. See H.\math for Amos vi. 14,
A. v., and Hammatu for 1 C'hron. ii. 55, A. V.

Hem 'dan [pleasant, desirable].

A Horite, the eldest son of Dishon (Gen.
xxxvi. 26). In the parallel passage, 1 Chron.
i. 41, the Hebrew text and R. V. have Ham-
ran, which A. V. erroneously represents by
Amram. The two Hebrew words ditfer only
in the third consonant. The difference is un-
doubtedly due to a scribe Avho confounded
resh and daleth (q. v.). Whether Hemdan
or Hamran was the original form cannot be
determined at present.

Hemlock. See Gall 2 and Wormwood.

Hen, I. See Cock.

Hen, II. [grace, favor, kitidncss].

A son of Zephaniah (Zech. vi. 14). But on
the margin of R. V. Hen is translated, the
passage reading thus, "for the kindness of
the son of Zephaniah," in which case that
Son's name disappears.

He'na.

A city captured by the As.syrians (2 Kin.
xviii. .34 ; xix. 13 ; Is. xxxvii. iS). It is men-

tioned in connection with Sepharvaim. and
is accordingly sought for in thi' neighborhood
of Babylonia. Hena is commonly identilied
with the ancient town of Ana, at a ford over
the Euphrates, about 160 miles northwest of
Bagdad. Extensive ruins still exist at the
spot. The two names, however, are radically
diflerent. Another conjecture places it on
an island in the Eui)hrates, where the As-
syrian inscriptions locate a certain Anat.

Hen'a-dad [j.robably, favor of Hadad].

Fountlt r of a Levitical family, whose sons
supported Zerubbabel at the time the founda-
tions of the temple were being laid (Ezra iii.
9), and assisted in rebuilding the wall of Je-
rusalem (Nell. iii. 18).

Hen'na [Persian henna. Arabic hanxa].

The rendering of the Hebrew Kopher, cov-
ering, in the Septuagint and in R. V. of Song
i. 14 and iv. 13. It is translated in the A. V.
camphire. Henna is a plant of the Lytluariese
or loosestrife order (Lausovia alba or incrmis),
with opposite entire leaves, and fragrant, yel-
low and white flowers in corymbs or clusters
(Song i. 14). The Greeks called it kiipros,
from the island of Cyprus, where it grew. In
Palestine its special seat was the virtually-
tropical region of En-gedi (Song i. 14) and
Jericho (War iv. 8, 3). The leaves and young
twigs are made into a fine powder, converted
into paste with hot water, and used by ori-
ental women and wealthy men to dye the
finger and toe nails and the soles of the feet
a reddish orange color. Some Egyptian
mummies are found with these parts dyed
in the same manner.

He'noch. See Enoch for 1 Chron. i. 3, A.
v., and Haxoch for 1 Chron. i. 33, A. Y.

He'pher [pit, well].

1. A town, the king of which was con-
quered by Joshua (Josh. xii. 17). The name
was also attached to a district (1 Kin. iv. 10).
Situation unknown.

2. A son of Gilead, founder of a tribal fam-
ily of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 32; xxvii. 1;
Josh. xvii. 2).

3. A man of Judah, son of Ashhur of Tekoa
(1 Chron. iv. 6).

4. A Mecherathite, and one of David's
worthies (1 Chron. xi. 36). See, however,
remarks under Ur, II.

Heph'zi-bah [my delight is in her].

1. ^Mother of king IManasseh (2 Kin. xxi. 1).

2. A svmbolical name to be given to Zion
(Is. lxii.4).

He'res [sun].

1. An eminence in the district of Aijalon
(Judg. i. .35). The meaning and a comparison
with Josh. xix. 41, 42 render the opinion
probable that mount Heres is essentially
identical with the town Ir-shemesh, that is
Beth-shemesh.

2. An Egyptian city (Ls. xix. 18, margin).
See On.

He'resb [artificial work, artifice, silence].
A Levite (1 Chron. ix. 15).

Heresy

288

Hermon

Her'e-sy [Greek 'airesis, taking (especially
of a town) ; a sect (Acts v. 17 ; xv. 5)].

1. A party, sect, or faction ; strong party
spirit, even when this is not produced on one
side or the other by departure from sound
doctrine (1 Cor. xi. 19, on margin of E.V. sects,
factions ; Gal. v. 20, on margin of K. Y. par-
ties).

2. A doctrine or a sect consequent upon de-
parture from sound doctrine (2 Pet. ii. 1, mar-
gin of R. V. sects of perdition).

He'reth, in A. V. Hareth, the Hebrew paus-
al form.

A forest in Judah, in which David for a
time lurked while his life was being sought
by Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 5).

Her-mog'e-nes [sprung from Hermes].

An inhabitant of the Roman province of
Asia, who finally, with many others, turned
away from the apostle Paul (2 Tim. i. 15).

Her'mon [mountain peak or sacred moun-
tain].

A mountain called by the Sidonians Sirion,
a coat of mail, and by the Amorites Senir or
Shenir (Deut. iii. 8, 9). The last name be-
longed especially to a part of the mountain.
Another name for it was Sion, elevated (iv.
48). It constituted the northeastern limit
of the Israelite conquests under Moses and
Joshua (Deut. iii. 8, 9; Josh. xi. 3, 17; xii.
1, 5 ; xiii. 5, 11 ; 1 Chron. v. 2.3). It figures
in Hebrew poetry, being coupled with Tabor

Mount Hermon.

Her'mas.

A Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent his
salutations (Rom. xvi. 14).
Her'mes.

1. The Greek god corresponding to the Ro-
man Mercury (Acts xiv. 12, R. V. margin).
See Mercury.

2. A Christian (not the same as Hermas)
at Rome, to whom Paul sent his salutations
(Rom. xvi. 14).

(Ps. Ixxxix. 12), Zion (cxxxiii. 3), and Leba-
non (Song iv. 8), really, however, overtopping
them all. It constitutes the southern end of
the Anti-Lebanon chain, and rises to the ele-
vation of 91G6 feet above the sea. It may be
seen from many parts of Palestine. From the
plain of Tyre, the north peak seems higher
than the southern one, and tlie center more
depressed than either. Hence it is once
described as the Hermons (Ps. xlii. 6, R. V.) ;

Hermonites

289

Herod

or I'L-rhaps the word in this passajre is a com-
nutii noun and means jieaks of Palestine.
The sinniuit of the mountain is covered with
snow all the year round, wavy white fur-
rows descending from tlie crest in the lines
(if the several valleys. The proper source of
I he Jordan is in Hernum. Some one of its
Military recesses rather than the summit of
Tahor was jirobably the scene of our Lord's
transfiguration. Hermon is now called Jebel
.>li-Slieik.

Her'mon-ites.

Natives or inhabitants of mount Hermon
Ps. xlii. 6, A. V. ; in E. V., the Hermous).

Her'od.

The name of several rulers over Palestine
:uid the adjacent regions or portions of them.
Three are mentioned in the N. T. by the
name of Herod and one by the name of
Ai^rijipa.

1. Herod the Great. — He was the
sucoiul son of the Idumjeau Antipas, or
Anlipater, by his wife Cyprus, who was of
tlie same race (Autiq. xiv. 1, 3 ; 7, 3).
Thus, neither by the father's nor by the
mother's side was Herod a real Jew,
though the Idumwans. who had been
conquered 125 b. c. by John Hyrcanus,
and compelled to be circumcised and adopt
Judaism, had now become nominally Jews.

Antipater was made procurator of Judiea
by C'pesar in 47 B. C. (Autiq. xiv. 8, 3 and 5).
He had five children, Phasaelus, Herod,
Joseph, Pheroras, and a daughter Salome (7,
3).'" Phasaelus, the eldest son, was made gov-
ernor of Jerusalem and vicinity by his
father, and Galilee was committed to Herod,
who was then 2.5 years old (9, 2). After the
murder of Antipater, 43 B. c, Marc Antony
visited Syria and appointed the two brothers
tetrarchs, committing the public affairs of
the Jews to them (13, 1). They were after-
wards sorely pressed by Antigonus, last king
of the Maccabpean family, and the Parthians.
Phasaelus fell into their hands and committed
suicide to avoid being put to death by them
(13, 10). The Romans were now induced by

Antony to espouse the cause of Herod; and
war ensued with Antigonus and the Par-
thians, in the course of which Herod's brother
Joseph was slain in battle (15, 10), Jerusalem
was captured and Herod became king of
Judiea in 37 b. r.

The surviving children of Antipater were
now Herod, Pheroras, and Salome. Salome
nuirried her uncle Jose])h (Antiq. xv. 3, 5 ;
War i. 22, 4). After he had been put to death
for adultery. 34 B. c she married Costobarus,
an Idumtean of good family whom Herod
made goveruor of Idumtea and Gaza (Au-
tiq. XV. 7, 9: War i. 24, 6). She divorced
him (Antiq. xv. 7, 10), and against her will
was married to Alexas, a friend of Herod's
(War i. 28, 6). Duriug the whole of Herod's
reign, she engaged in intrigues against mem-
bers of his family ; but she was faithful to
him, and he bequeathed to her Jamnia, Ash-
dod, and Phasaelis near Jericho (Antiq.
xvii. 6, 1; 8, 1: 11, 5). She accompanied
Herod's son Archelaus to Eome, when he
went thither to obtain imperial sanction to
ascend the throne. Her ostensible purpose
was to assist him in prosecuting his claim,
but her real object was to thwart him (War
ii. 2, 1-4). She died about A. D. 10, when
Marcus Ambivius was procurator (Antiq.
xviii. 2, 2). Pheroras, the youngest of the
four sons of Antipater (Antiq. xiv. 15, 4),
lived nearly as long as Herod. He was part-
ner in the kingdom, had the title of tetrarch,
and enjoyed the revenue accruing from the
country east of the Jordan (War i. 24, 5).
He was more than once accused of plotting
the death of Herod, and matters came to a
crisis shortly before the latter's death ; but
Pheroras died without being brought to trial
(Antiq. xvii. .3. 3).

Herod the Great had ten wives from first
to last (Antiq. xvii. 1. 3 ; War i. xxviii. 4).
His first wife was Doris, a woman of an ob-
scure family in Jerusfilem. She bore him
one son, Antipater, who took an active part
in the events of Herod's reign, plotting
against his younger half-brothers to secure
the kingdom for himself. Herod, just be-

* Antipater.

I Procur.itor of Judxa,
47-4.'5 B. c.

Phasaelus.

Herod the Great.

I King of Judaea,
37 B. c.-A. D. 4.

I

Joseph.

Pheroras.

Salome.

III! I

Antipater. Alexander and Aristobulus. Herod. Archelaus and Herod Antipas. Herod and Philip.

Slain 5 B. c. Both slain aboui 7 I B. c. Ethnaich of Judtea, Tetrarch of Gali- Tetrarch of

I A. D. 4-6. lee, a. d. 4-39. country east

of Galilee,
A D. 4-33.

Herod.

Kino of Chalcis,
A. D. 41-48.

Herod Agrippa I.

I King of Judsa,
A. D. 41-44.

n

Herodias.

r

Herod Agrippi

King of Chafe

all.

Bernlce.

Drusilla.

19

A. D. 50-53.
Afterwards ruler of Philip's
former tetrarchy and adja-
cent regions. DiedA. D. 100.

Hernd the Great had seven
other children, two sons
and five daughters, but
they did not play a prom-
ineiit part in the history.

Herod

290

Herod

fore the capture of Jeriisaleni, by which lie
became kiiifr, nuirried his second wile, tlie
beautiful and chaste Miirianine, granddaugh-
ter of Jlyrcanus. Slie bore iiim three sons,
Alexander, Arislol)ulus, and the youngest sou
who died childless, and two daughters,
Cyprus and Salampsio. Marianuie was put
t<i death in -J!) H. c. (Anti(i. xv. 7, 4). About
21 H. c. he married .Mariannie. daughter of
Simon, whom he raised to the high-priesthood
(xv. 9, 3; xviii. 5, 4). Herod also took to
wife his two nieces, whose names are not
given and who died chihlless, Malthace a
Samaritan, Cleopatra of .Jerusalem, Pallas,
Phiedra, and Elpis. With the two unnamed
nieces and last three of known name history
is not specially concerned. The descendants
of the others are more imiiortant. Of Mari-
amne, Simon's daughter, Jh'rod was born ;
Malthace became motlier of Archelaus, Herod
Autipas, and a daughter Olympias ; and Cleo-
patra bore Herod and Philip.

The domestic troubles of Herod began
early in his reign in the hatred which he
incited in the beloved Mariamne toward
himself; and they culminated in the last dec-
ade of his reign, when his sons had reached
manhood. Tlie domestic history eventually
revolves about the eight young men, Antip-
ater, son of Doris ; Alexander and Aristo-
biilus, sons of Mariamne ; Herod, son of
Marianine, Simon's daughter ; Archelaus and
Antipas, sons of ^lalthace ; and Herod and
Philip, sons of Cleopatra. Alexander nuir-
ried Glyphyra, daughter of Archelaus, king
of Cappadocia. Two .sons were born to
them whose history is not important (Anticj.
xvi. 1, 2; War i. 24, 2). Aristobulus mar-
ried his first cousin, Bernice, daughter of
Herod's sister, Salome, and became tlie father
of five children, several of whom played an
important part later in the history. Of
these two young men. sons of the beloved
Mariamne, Anti])ater, the firstborn of Herod,
was Jealous. His jealousy was aroused
against his half-brothers by the evident in-
tention of his father to overlook his right as
firstborn in their favor (War i. 22, 1), and he
and his clique at court jjoisoncd the mind of
Herod against them. At length. al)out7(n'() is.
C, Herod had them luit to deatli. named An-
tipater his heir and apjiointed Herod, son of
Mariamne, Simon's daughter, next in succes-
sion (.\ntiq. xvi. 11, 7 ; xvii. :?, 2 ; War i. 29,
2). This order conformed to birth, his sons
Archelaus and .\ntipas, Herod and Pliilii),
being doubtless younger than Herod, son of
Mariamne. AntijKiter next accused Herod's
sister, .Salome, and his sons, Archelaus and
Philip, who were in Kome Iieiiig educated,
of plotting the murder of Herod ; but the
crime charged against Salome was lirought
home to himself. He and his uncle Phe-
roras, Herod's brother, w-ere accused of seek-
ing the king's life. Pheroras died, but
Antii)ater was cast into jjrison. Herod's sus-
picions were thereby aroused that Antipater

had falsely accused Alexander and Aristo-
bulus. who had already been executed, and
he altered his will, appointing Autipas to be
his successor, and passed over Archelaus, the
elder brother, and Philip, as he still held
them in susj)icion (War i. 32, 7). Soon after-
wards he ordered Antipater to be slain and
altered his will again, giving the kingdom to
Archelaus, making Autipas tetrareh of Gali-
lee and Perpea, and Philip tetrareh of
Batauea, Trachouitis, and Auranitis, and
bestowing several cities on his sister Salome
(Antiq. xvii. 8, 1 ; War i, 33, 7). Herod's
disposition of his afi'airs was observed at his
death, excejjt that Archelaus was finally con-
firmed by the emjieror Augustus not as king
but as ethuarch of Judsea (Autiq. xvii. 11, 4
and '•>}.

Herod, son of Simon's daughter, Mariamne,
married, or had married, Herodias, daughter
of his half-brother, the dead Aristobulus.
She, however, left him and married another
half-brother of his, Herod the tetrareh, and
her former husband disapj)ears from history.
So does Herod, son of Cleopatra and brother
of Philip, the tetrareh. See Hkkodias and
Philip. Aristobulus, as already mentioned,
had married his cousin, Bernice, daughter of
Salome, and had begotten five children
(War i. 28. 1). They were Herod, Agrippa,
Aristobulus, Herodias, and Mariamne. Herod
married Mariamne, daughter of Olynijiias,
daughter of Herod the Great and the Sama-
ritan Malthace ; Agrippa married Cyprus,
daughter of Salampsio and Phasaelus the
younger, son of Herod the Great's brother,
Phasaelus; Aristobulus married Jotape,
daughter of a king of Emesa ; Herodias
married two uncles in succession, as already
noted ; and Mariamne married Antijiater,
son of Doris (Antiq. xviii. 5, 4 ; War i. 28, 5;
cp. 4). Three of these children of Aristo-
bulus are persons of note — namely, Herod,
Agrijjpa, and Herodias. Herodias was the
woman who crowned her infamies by telling
her daughter to demand the head of John the
Baptist in a charger. Herod was made king of
Chalcis, and after his wife's death took his
niece, Bernice, Agrippa's daughter, to wife.
Agrii)pa became king Agrippa I. He mar-
ried, had one son and three daughters. Three
of these children are mentioned iu Scripture,
Agrippa II. and the two notorious women,
Bernice and Drusilla.

Besides this domestii' liistory of the rise of
the faniiiy to power and the intrigues among
its members, there is the political history of
Herod's reign. Soon after he had been made
rnler in Galilee, which was in 47 or 46 b. c,
he came in contact with the sanhedrin
through his summary execution of some
robbers without the sanhedrin's formal per-
mission. He was summoned for trial and
appeared with an armed body guard, intimi-
dating the council. He was acquitted for
lack of evidence. Herod sought to be, for
his own iuterest, on good terms with the sue-

Herod

291

Herod

cessive represcutatives of the warring fac-
tions into which the Roman people were then
divided. He obtained a generalship from
Sextus Csesar, president of Syria, a relative
of the great Julius Csesar ; and then, after a
time, gained the favor of Cassius, the most
malignant of the gi-eat dictator's assassins.
Then he cast in his lot with Marc An-
tony, one of the murdered man's chief
avengers ; nor was even this his last change
of sides. Ahout 41 B. C. Herod was made
tetrarcli'of Galilee by Antony, and having,
after fresh vicissitudes, gone to Rome in 40 B.
c, as a fugitive rather than a visitor, his
patron induced the Roman senate to appoint
him king of the Jews. It was not, however,
till 37 B. c. that, with the assistance of
Sosius, a general of Antony's, he succeeded
in taking Jerusalem, and commencing his
actual reign. By his marriage at this time
with Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus
and daughter of Alexander, son of Aristo-
bulus, he became allied with the royal As-
monsean family. He now endeavored to
further strengthen his position by the re-
moval of possible rivals. The principal mem-
bers of the party of Antigonus, forty-five in
number, were sought out and put to death.
Soon afterwards Mariamne's brother, Aristo-
bulus, a boy of seventeen, whom Herod had
just raised to the high-priesthood, was
drowned in a bath by Herod's orders, within
a year after his elevation to the pontificate ;
and about 31 b. C. her grandfather, although
eighty years old, was put to death (Antiq.
XV. 1, 2 ; 3, 3 ; 6, 2). Herod's attention was
called from these atrocities by the new crisis
which had arisen. His patron Antony was
totally defeated by Octavius in the sea fight
at Actium on September 2, 31 B. C. The po-
sition of Herod was now critical, but be
made a manly and judicious speech to the
victorious Octavius, and was forgiven for his
partisanship toward Antony. He was given
the friendship of the man he had oflfended,
and retained it through most of his life, be-
sides having his dominions increased (xv. 6,
5-7 ; 10, 3). The murder of a wife's brother
and her grandfather did not tend to increase
her attachment to her husband, and by and
by variance arose between Herod and Mari-
amne. It increased, till it culminated at
length in the queen's being falsely accused
and executed. Remorse followed in due
course, and almost, if not altogether, deprived
the king of reason (Antiq. xv. 7. 7 ; xvii. 6, 5 ;
War i. 22, 5 ; 33, 5). Partly to divert his
mind from gloomy remembrances, partly to
please Octavius, now the emperor Augustus,
he built theaters and exhibited games, both
of these acts being incon.sistent with Judaism.
He also rebuilt, enlarged, and beautified a
place named Strato's Tower, calling it, after
his imperial patron, Caesarea. It ultimately
became the Roman capital of Palestine (Antiq.
XV. 8, 5 ; 9, 6 ; cp. Acts xxiii. 23, 24). Then,
to conciliate the Jews, he, between 19 and

11 or 9 B. c, rebuilt and beautified the tem-
ple. The birth of Jesus Christ took place at
the close of Herod's life, after he had re-
moved his rivals from other families by vio-
lent deaths, and when his domestic troubles
were at their height. He had slain his sons
Alexander and Aristobulus, and more re-
cently Antipater, for plotting against his life ;
and now he was told that a child of David's
line had just been born to be king of the
Jews. The slaughter of the infants who
came into the world about the same time
and place was such a method of meeting the
dilBculty as would suggest itself to one with
Herod's propensity to bloodshed (Mat. ii. 1-
19). It was one of the last acts of his life.
Seized at length with loathsome and mortal
disease, he repaired to Callirhoe, the hot
sulphur springs of the Zerka, the water
from which runs into the eastern part of the
Dead Sea. They came to be called, in con-
sequence, by many, the baths of Herod ; but
they did not do the king much good (Antiq.
xvii. 6, 5). He felt that he was dying, and
that there would be rejoicing when he passed
away. He therefore told his sister Salome and
her husband Alexas to shut up the principal
Jews in the circus at Jericho, and put them to
death whenever he expired, that there might
be mourning at, though, of course, not for,
his death. Then, about 4 b. c, he passed
away, in the seventieth year of his age and
the thirty-fourth of his reign, counting from
the time when he actually obtained the king-
dom. '?\'hen news of his demise arrived, the
circus prisoners were set free, and the death
of the tyrant was welcomed as a relief in-
stead of being attended by mourning, lamen-
tation, and woe (Antiq. xvii. 6, 5 ; 8, 2).

2. Herod the Tetrarch.— A son of
Herod the Great by his Samaritan wife called
Malthace. He was, therefore, half Idumsean
and half Samaritan, perhaps without a single
drop of Jewish blood in his veins. He was
called indifl'erently Antipas and Herod
(Antiq. xvii. 1,3; xviii. 5, 1 : 6, 2 ; War ii.
9, 1), and it is customary to distinguish him
from the other Herods of the family as
Herod Antipas. He was the full brother of
Archelaus, and was A'ounger than Archelaus
(Antiq. xvii. 6, 1 ; War i. 32, 7 ; 33, 7). He was
educated with him and his half-brother Philip
at Rome (Antiq. xvii. 1, 3). By the second
testament of his father, the kingdom was
bequeathed to him (6, 1) ; but by his father's
final will he was appointed tetrarch of
Galilee and the kingdom was given to
Archelaus (8, 1). On his father's death he com-
peted with his brother for the kingdom, but
received only the tetrarchy of Galilee and
Persea (Antiq. xvii. 11, 4 ; Luke iii. 1). He
erected a wall around Sepphoris, and made
it his metropolis. Finding Bethsaida a vil-
lage, he advanced it to the dignity of a city,
and named it Julias, after Tiberius f'ffsar's
daughter Julia (Antiq. xviii. 2, 1). He also
built Tiberias (3). He married a daughter

Herod

292

Herod

of Aretas, king of the Nah;itl\a?an Arabs,
wliii.stM;ai)ital was Petra ; butaftorwards.wliile
ludniiij; at Kiiiiif with Herod Philij), liis half-
hiiitiuT, ill' iii(liilKi'<l a fiiiilty iiassioii for his
entertainer's wife, Herodias, and arranged
to divorce his hiwfnl consort and take
Herodias instead. Tliis innnoral transaction
was carried into effect. Herodias was a mas-
culine Woman, Herod ;i weak man ; she was
liis evil genius, and made a tool of him, as
Jezebel had done of Aliab. Aretixs resented
the injury inflicted ujion his daughter, and
lie commenced a war against Herod and
waged it successfully (5, 1). Herodias was
the ])rime mover in the murder of John the
IJaptist (Mat. xiv. 1-13 ; Autiq. xviii. 5, 2).
Because of his cunning, the tetrarch was
dt'scritn'd l)y our Lord as that fox (Lukexiii.
31.3:2). Rtit the tetrarch liad a following,
fiir mention is made of the leaven of Herod
(Mark viii. 15) : see Herodi.\ns. When the
fame of Jesus began to si)read abroad, the
nneasy conscience of Herod made him fear
that John had risen from the dead (Mat. xiv.
1. ".'i. He was )>resent at Jerusalem at the
time of the crucifixion, and Jesus was .sent
to him by Pilate. He thought that now he
WMuld have the oi)portunity of seeing a mir-
acle i)erformed, but he was disa])i)ointed, and
wilh his men of war set Jesus at naught.
The same day he was reconciled to Pilate,
whereas they had before been at variance
(Luke xxiii.Y-l-i, 15 ; Acts iv. 27). The ad-
vancement of Herodias' brother Agrippa to
be king, while her husband remained only
tetrarcli. aroused the envy of this proud
WoMian, and she ]n'evailed upon Herod to go
with her to Rome and ask for a crown.
Agrippa, however, sent letters after them to
the enijieror Caligula, accusing Herod of be-
ing secretly in league with the Parthians,
and Heiod was in conse(|uence banished to
]-yons in (iaul, A. D. 39, where he died
(.Vntiq. xviii. 7, 1, 2 ; War ii. 9, 6, Greek
text).

3. Hkrop the King.— Josephiis calls him
sim])ly Agrii)i)a. Both names are generally
eombined, and he isdesignated Herod Agrippa
L, to distinguish him from Herod Agrippa II.,
before whom Paul was tried. Agrippa I. was
the son of .Vristobulus, son of Herod the Great
and Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus.
He was educated in Rome with Drusus, son
of the emjR'ror Tiberius, and Claudius (.\ntiq.
xviii. (i, 1 and 1); but the death of Drusns
and lack of funds led to his return to Judjea
(2). In A. 1). .37 he made another jonrney to
Rome to bring accusati<ms against Herod the
tetrarch (Anti(i. xviii. 5, 3; War ii. 9, 5). He
dill not return when his business was tran.s-
acted, but remained in the metropolis, culti-
vating the ac(|uaintance of people who might
be of nse to him in the future. Among
others, he ingratiated himself with Cains, son
of German iciis, who shortly liecame the em-
peror Caligula (.\nti(|. xviii. (i. 4 ; War ii. 9,
5). For rash words spoken in favor of Cains,

Tiberius cast him into chains ; but six months
later Caius became emperor, and appointed
Agripj)a to be king of the tetrarchy which
his late uncle Philip had governed, and also
of the tetrarchy of Lysanias (Antiq. xviii. 6,
10). In A. D. 39 the emperor banished Herod
the tetrarch, and added his tetrarchy, which
was Galilee, to the kingdom of Agrippa (7,2).
Agri])i)a left his kingdom" for a time, and re-
sided at Rome (8, 7). During this sojourn at
the capital he prevailed npon the emperor to
desist from his determination to erect his
statue in the temple at Jerusalem (8, 7 and
8). When Caligula was assassinated, and
Claudius, against his own will, cho.sen in his
room, Agrippa, who was then at Rome, acted
as negotiator between the senate and the new
emperor, whom he persuaded to take office.
As a reward, Agrippa had Judjea and Sa-
maria added to his dominions, which now
equaled those of Herod the Great (Antiq.
xix. 3-5 ; War ii. 11, 1-5). He commenced
to build a wall about the northern suburb of
Jerusalem, so as to include it in the city, but
was ordered to abandon the work (Antiq. xix.

7, 2). He slew James, the l)rother of John,
with the sword (Acts xii. 1, 2), imprisoned
Peter (3-19), and at Cwsarea, immediately
after he had accepted divine honor, was mis-
erably eaten up of worms (20-23; Antiq. xix.

8, 2). He died a. d. 44, in the fifty-fourth
year of his age, leaving four children, of
whom three are mentioned in Scripture,
Agrippa, Bernice, and Drusilla (Warii. 11,6).

4. Agrippa, commonly known as Herod
Agrii)pa II. He was son of Herod Agrippa
I., and consequently great-grandson of Herod
the Great, and was the brother of the noto-
rious women Bernice and Drusilla (War ii.
11, 6). At the time of his father's death,
a. d. 44, he was 17 years old, and residing at
Rome, where he was being brought up in the
imperial household (Antiq. xix. 9, 1 and 2).
The emperor Claudius was dissuaded from ap-
pointing him to the throne of his fiither on
account of his youth, and Judiea was placed
under a procurator. Agrippa remained in
Rome. He successfully seconded the efforts
of the Jewish ambassadors to obtain the im-
perial permission to retain the official robes
of the high priest under their own control
(xx. 1, 1). When his uncle Herod, king of
Chalcis, died about a. d. 48, Claudius pres-
ently bestowed his small realm on the west-
ern slope of Anti-Lebanon on Agrippa (5, 2 ;
War ii. 12, 1 ; 14, 4 ; cp. i. 9. 2). so that he be-
came king Agrippa. He esjiou.sed the cause
of the Jewish commissioners who had come
to Rome to appear against the procurator
Cumanus and the Samaritans, and he pre-
vailed upon the emperor to grant them an
audience (Antiq. xx. G, 3 ; War ii. 12, 7). In
A, I). 52 Claudius transferred him fnnn the
kingdom of Chalcis to a larger realm formed
of the tetrarchy of Philip, which contained
Batanea, Trachonitis, and Gaulonitis. the
tetrarchy of Lysanias, and the province of

Herod, Palace of

293

Herodias

Abilene (Aiitiq. xx. 7, 1 ; War ii. 12, 8). His
constant eoniiianii)nslii|) witli liis sister Bei'-
niee about this time befjan to create seandal
(Antiq. xx. 7, 3). In A. D. 54 or 55 Nero
added the cities of Tiberias and Tarichepe in
Galilee and Julias in Persea with its depend-
ent towns to his dominion (8, 4). When P\'lix
had been succeeded l)y Festus as procurator
of Judiva. Agrijtjia went to Ca>sarea to salute
him, accompanied by Bernice. Paul was
then in confinement. Festus laid his case
before the king, and on the morrow the apos-
tle was permitted to jilead his cause before
the procurator, the king, and Bernice. He
was entirely successful in clearing himself
(Acts xxY. 13-xxvi. 32). Soon afterwards
Agrippa built an addition to the palace of the
Asmonjeans at Jerusalem (Antiq. xx. 8, 11).
Later still he enlarged and beautified L'sesarea
Philippi, and established theatrical exhibi-
tions at Berytus (9, 4). When the troubles
which culminated in the Jewish war began,
Agrippa endeavored to dissuade the Jews
from making armed resistance to Fadus the
procurator and the Eomaus (War ii. 16, 2-5;
17, 4 ; 18, 9 : 19, 3). When the war broke in
its fury, he fought by the side of Vespasian,
and was wounded at the siege of Gamala (iii.
9, 7 and 8 ; 10, 10; iv. 1, 3). After the cap-
ture of Jerusalem he removed with Bernice
to Eome, where he was invested with the dig-
nity of pr*tor. He died A. d. 100.

Her'od, Pal 'ace of.

A palace-fortress erected by Herod the
Great about the year 24 or 23 b. c. (Antiq.
XV. 9, 1 and 3). It stood at the northwest
corner of the upper city, adjoined the tow-
ers of Hijijiicus, Phasaclus, and ^lariamne
on their south, and formed with them a
stronghold which excited the admiration of
even the Romans (War v. 4, 4 ; 5, 8 ; vi. 8, 1 ;
9, 1). Its site is the modern citadel by the
Jaffa gate. The three towers were built of
white stone. Hippicus was scjuare, with sides
25 cubits in length. To the height of 30 cubits
it consisted of .solid masonry ; over this was
a reservoir, 20 cubits deep; and over this
again a two-story house, 25 cubits in height,
surmounted by battlements 2 cubits high
with turrets 3 cubits higher. The entire al-
titude of the tower was 80 cubits. Phasaelns
was larger. Its stock was a cube of solid
masonry measuring 40 cubits iu each direc-
tion, surmounted by a cloister, and that in
turn by a palatial tower. Its entire height
was about 90 cubits. It was completed about
the year 10 B. c. (Antiq. xvi.5. 2). Mariamne
had half the dimensions of Phasaelus, save
that it was 50 cubits high. It was magnifi-
cently adorned by Herod as befitted a tower
named iu honor of his wife. The palace
proper on the south of these towers was en-
tirely walled about to the height of 30 cubits,
and was further protected by turrets which
surmounted the wall and stood at equal dis-
tances from each other. Within were open

courts with groves of trees, and numerous
apartments, among which two were consjiic-
uous for size and beauty, and were called
Cffsareum and Agrippium, aftir Herod"s
friends (Antiq. xv. 9, 3 ; 10, 3 ; War i. 21. 1 ; v.
4, 4). The palace was occupied by Sabinus, the
procurator of Svria (Antiq. xvii. 10, 2 and 3 ;
War ii. 3, 2 and" 3). In it Pilate irected gold-
en shields in honor of the emiicror Tiberius ;
and it is expressly called the house of the pro-
curators (Philo, de legal, ad Caium, xxxviii.
and xxxix.). The procurator Floras took up
his quarters in this building, erected his tri-
bunal before it, and sentenced men to scourg-
ing and crucifixion (War ii. 14, 8 and 9). It
was burned by the seditious Jews at the be-
ginning of the war with the Romans. The
three mighty towers, however, withstood the
flames, and were allowed by the comiueror to
stand as a witness to the kind of city the Ro-
mans had overthrown (War ii. 17, 8 ; vii. 1, 1).

He-ro'di-ans.

A Jewish party in the time of our Lord,
who were evidently partisans of the Herod
family. The Herods were not of projjer Jew-
ish descent, and they had supplanted a royal
family not merely Jewish, but of jiriestly
blood and rank. They also supported their
authority by trj'ing to please their Roman
patrons. If the Herodians took the jiart of
the Herods in these two respects, then they
were iu direct antagonism to the Pharisees,
with whom, however, they combined at Jeru-
salem to entangle our Lord by the ensnaring
question about paying tribute to Cfesar (Mat.
xxii. 16 ; Mark xii. 13) ; and earlier in Galilee
had joined in plotting against his life (Mark
iii. 6; cp. Mark viii. 15). Another view is
that, condoning the Herods' Idumsean de-
scent, the Herodians supported them mere-
ly as the representatives of national against
foreign rule, in which case their union with
the Pharisees would be quite natural.

He-ro'di-as.

Daughter of Aristobulus, and half-sister of
Herod Agrippa I. She was married to Herod,
the son of Herod the (ireat by Mariamne, the
high priest Simon's daughter. This husband
is called Philip in the N. T., but is not en-
titled a tetrarch (Mat. xiv. 3; Mark vi. 17).
He was a different ])erson from Philip the
tetrarch. It is customary to sjieak of him as
Herod Philip, which was ])robably his full
name. See Philip 4. His half-brother, Herod
the tetrarch, indulged a guilty passion for her,
and divorcing his wife, a daughter of king
Aretas of Arabia, married Herodias while her
first husband was still alive (Anti(i. xviii. 5, 1,
4 ; 6, 2 ; 7, 2 : War ii. 9. 6). John the Baptist
reproved the guilty pair, on which Herodias
plotted his death, and when her daughter
Salome had gained Herod's favor by dancing
before him at a gathering of the dignitarii s
of his tetrarchy, extorted from him a jironii c
to give her the head of John the Baptist. Tl e
king was sorrj\ but, for his oath's s;ike, com-

Herodion

294

Hezekiah

plied with her wishes (Mat. xiv. 3-12 ; Mark
vi. 17--2y; Luke iii. 19, 20; cp. Prov. vi. 26).
Oil the iKuii.sliiiieut of the tetrarch, Herodias
went with liim into e.\ile (Autiq. xviii. 7, 2 ;
War. ii. !), if).

Herodias' daiifjhter Sakinie married Philip
the tetrarch, son of Herod the Great. After
Jii.s death she married her first cousin, Aris-
tobulus, son of king Agrippa's brother Herod
and great-Kreat-graudson of Herod the Great
(.\nti(i. xviii. 5, 4).

He-ro'di-on.

A Christian at Rome whom Paul called his
kinsman, and to whom he sent a salutation
(Koin. xvi. 11).

Her'on.

The rendering of the Hebrew '"naphah
(Lev. xi. 19, on margin of K. V. ibis; Deut.
xiv. 18). The bird .so designated was held to
be typical of a family, for it is followed by
the words "after its kind." The heron fam-
ily {Ardeidx), is placed under the Grallatores or
Waders. The birds which it includes are
generally of large size. They have a long
bill, long bare legs adapted for wading, a
large hind toe, and large wings, their flight,
however, being comparatively slow. Their
food is principally lish and reptiles. The
family contains the herons, the egrets, etc.
The bufl-backed herou {Ardea bubtdcus), often
ealled the W'hite ibis, is the most abundant.
These birds live and breed in vast numbers
in the swamps of lake Huleh, and they asso-
ciate with cattle in the pastures, where sev-
eral puri)le ibises may usually be seen with
them. The common heron (Ardea cinerea)
occurs on the Jordan and its lakes, on the
Kishon, and on the seacoast of Palestine.
Willi it are found also the purple heron {Ardea
piirimreii) and several egrets.

He'sed [pity, mercy].

Father of one of Solomon's purveyors (1
Kin. iv. 10).

Hesb'bon [reason, intelligence].

The city of Sihoii, the Amorite king, but
ajiparently taken originally from the Moabites
(Num. xxi. 25-30, 34). It was assigned by
Moses to the Reubenites, and after the con-
(juest was rebuilt by the men of that tribe
(xxxii. 37; Josh. xiii. 17). Rut it stood on the
boundary line lietween Reuben and Gad ( Jo.sh.
xiii. 26), came to be possessed by the latter,
and was assigned as a town of Gad to the
Levites (.To.sh. xxi. 39; 1 Chron. vi. 81). The
Moabites held it in Isaiah's and Jeremiah's
times (Is. xv. 4 ; xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 2, 33,
34). Later still it was in the possession of
Alexander Janna^us and Herod the Great
( Autici. xiii. 1.5, 4 ; xv. 8. 5). It is still known
as Hesbaii, a ruined city standing on an iso-
lated hill, with the remains of a wall, an
archway, and a temjile. The sides of the val-
ley which commences just west of the hill
are honeycomlx'd with caves and sejiuh-hers.
A great reservoir, a little eastward from the
ruins of Heshbon, is probably one of the pools

which were outside the tovAm walls (Song
vii. 4).

Hesh'mon [fatness, fertile soil].
A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 27).

Heth. See Ohetii and Hittites.

Heth'lon [perhaps, a hiding place].

A jilace on the northern boundary of Pales-
tine, as prophesied by Ezekiel, near the en-
tering in of Hamath (Ezek. xlvii. 15 ; xlviii.
1 ; cp. Num. xxxiv. 8). Not identified.

Hez'e-ki [my strength or a strong support

is (God)].

A Beujamite, sou of Elpaal (1 Chron. viii.

17).

Hez-e-ki'ah, in A. V. once Hizkiah (Zeph.
i. 1), once Hlzkijah (Neh. x. 17), in A. V. of
N. T. Ezekias, the Greek form [strength or
a strong support is Jehovah ; or, in the longer
Hebrew form in 2 Chron. xxviii. 27 ; Hos. i. 1,
etc., Jehovah doth strengthen].

1. Son of Ahaz, king of Judah. He was
associated with his father in the government
in 728 B. c. From the fact that Ahaz was not
buried in the royal sepulcher, Neteler has
argued that he had been smitten with some
disease which was regarded as a divine judg-
ment on his sin. Being incapacitated for ac-
tive participation in the affairs of state, Heze-
kiah was made active ruler. Hezekiah is
said to have begun to reign at the age of 25,
but the number seems to be corrupt. He was
a devoted servantof Jehovah, and commenced
his reign by repairing and cleansing the tem-
ple, reorganizing its religious services and its
officers, and celebrating a great passover, to
which he invited not merelj' the two tribes,
but the ten (2 Chron. xxix. 1-xxx. 13). He
removed the high places, cast down the images,
and broke in pieces the brazen serpent which
Moses had made, but which had become an
object of idolatrous worship. He gained a
victory over the Philistines, and in other
ways became great and prosperous. In his
fourth regnal year, 724 b. c, Shalmaneser
commenced, and in 722 B. c. Sargon com-
lileted, the siege of Samaria, carrying the ten
tribes into captivity (2 Kin. xviii. !), 10). In
714 B. c, according to the method of reckon-
ing already employed by the Hebrew annalist,
began the series of Assyrian invasions which
formed a marked feature of Hezekiah's reign
and terminated disastrously for Assyria. The
biblical account of these events is presented
as a connected nai-rative. It falls into three
sections : the beginning of the invasions about
714 (2 Kin. xviii. 13 ; Is. xxxvi. 1 ; ])robably 2
Chron. xxxii. 1-8 ; cp. invasion of Philistiaiu
711, Is. XX. 1) ; the main campaign of 701, in
its first stage (2 Kin. xviii. 14-16), and in its
final stage (17-xix. 35 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 9-21 ;
Is. xxxvi. 2-xxxvii. 36) ; and the end of the
troubler in 681 (2 Kin. xix. 36, 37 ; Is. xxxvii.
37, 38). Sargon was still on the throne of .

Hezekiah

295

Hezron

Assyria iu 714 ; but he had placed his son Sen-
nacherib in high military position before that
date, and Sennacherib may have led the
troops of his father which iu 720 or 715 and
the beginning of 714, probably at the latter
date, "subjugated Judah " according to the
Assyrian account, when the main army of
Assyria was waging war to the north and east
of Assyria. Apparently immediately after
the beginning of these invasions, in 714,
Hezekiah was sick, probably from a carbun-
cle, and nigh unto death ; but was granted a
new lease of life for fifteen years (2 Kin. xx.
1-11 ; Is. xxxviii.). To inquire into the sign
which Hezekiah received at this time was
the ostensible object of an embassy from
Merodach-baladan, king of Babylon. The
real object was to persuade Judah's king to
join the great confederacy which was being
secretly formed against the Assyrian power.
Hezekiah was quite elated by the coming of
the Babylonian ambassadors, and displayed
to them his financial resources ; but the
prophet Isaiah warned him that the peo-
ple of Judah would be carried captive to
that same place from which the ambassa-
dors had come (2 Kin. xx. 12-19; 2 Chron.
xxxii. .31 ; Is. xxxix. 1-8). Hezekiah joined
the confederacy. Sargon, who was an able
general, broke iu upon the allies before their
plans were matured. His expedition against
Ashdod, conducted by his tartan (Is. xx. 1),
took place in 711. and was occasioned by the
refusal of Philistia. Judah, Edom. and Moab
to pay tribute. In 710 he dethroned Mero-
dach-baladan and made himself king of Baby-
lonia. In 705 Sargon was murdered, and his
son Sennacheribascended the Assyrian throne.
This change of rulers was the signal for new
uprisings. To quell revolt in the west, Sen-
nacherib advanced as far as the country of
the Philistines in 701, conquering Phoenicia
on the way and receiving envoys from Ash-
dod. Amnion, Moab, and Edom suing for
peace. Many towns still held out, and Sen-
nacherib proceeded against Joppa, Beth-
dagon, Ashkelon, and other places. Turning
eastward, he captured Lachish, pitching his
camp there, and receiving tribute from the
terrified Hezekiah. This tribute consisted
of thirty talents of gold, three hundred, or,
according to the Assyrian scribe who perhaps
computes by a lighter standard, eight hun-
dred talents of silver. Besides this, accord-
ing to the Assyrian report, were precious
stones, costly woods, articles of ivory, daugh-
ters of Hezekiah, women of the palace, and
others. To obtain the precious metals, Heze-
kiah stripped the doors and pillars of the
temple of their plating. Xews, however,
reached Sennacherib while still at Lachish
of an alliance between the Philistine towns
and Egypt and Ethiopia (2 Kin. xviii. 21,
24), and, unwilling to have so strong a for-
tress as Jerusalem in his rear, he sent a de-
tachment from his army to garrison the city.
Hezekiah had heard of the advance of the

southern army, and of the sturdy resistance
of Ekron to the As.syrians. His faith iu
Jehovah also revived under the exhorta-
tions of Isiiiah, and he refused to admit
the Assyrian troops into the city. In the
meantime the Assyrian king had broken
camp at Lachish and fallen back on Libnah
(2 Kin. xix. J^). Hearing of Hezekiahs new
attitude of defiance, he dispatched messen-
gers with threatening letters to him, vowing
future vengeance; and, not daring to meet
the Egj-ptians and Ethioi)ians while Ekron
and Jerusalem were iu his rear, he retreated
to Eltekeh. There the battle took place. The
Egj-ptians were repulsed, but the spoils of
victory were inconsiderable. Sennacherib
now turned his attention to the hostile towns
in the vicinity. His devastation and his ad-
vance toAvard Jeru.salem were only terminated
by the sudden plague which smote his army,
whereby in one night 185,000 of his warriors
perished (2 Kin. xix. 35, 36). See Skxx.\-
CHEEiB. Besides Isaiah, Hosea and Micah
were contemporaries of Hezekiah (Hos. i. 1 ;
Mic. i. 1). The king died about 698, leaving
his son Manasseh to ascend the throne (2 Kin.
XX. 21 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 33).

2. An ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah
(Zeph. i. 1 : in A. V. Hizkiah).

3. A son of Neariah, akin to the roval fam-
ily of Judah (1 Chron. iii. 23).

4. A man of whose descendants through
Ater some returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 16 ; Neh. vii. 21). Probably it was the rep-
resentative of his family who signed the cov-
enant under Nehemiah's rule (Neh. x. 17 ; in
A. Y. Hizkijah).

He'zi-on [vision].

Father of Tabrimmon and grandfather of
Benhadad, king of Syria (1 Kin. xv. 18),

He'zir [a swine, a pig].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of David
and became the seventeenth course of the
priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 15).

2. A chief of the people who with Nehemiah
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 20).

Hez'rai [enclosed].

A Carmelite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 35). In 1 Chron. xi. 37 called
Hezro, a difference doubtless due to an an-
cient scribe's confusion of jod and vau. See
Vau.

Hez'ro. See Hezr.\i.

Hez'ron, in A. V. of N. T. Esrom (Mat. 1.
3). in imitation of the Greek modification of
the name [shut in, surrounded].

1. A jdace on the southern boundary line
of Judah, not far from Zin and Kadesh-barnea
(Josh. XV. 3) ; perhaps the town Hazor (ver.
23). It was near enough Addar to be coupled
with it in the form Hazar-addar (Num. xxxiv,
4). For Kerioth-hezron (Josh. xv. 25, R. V.),
see Hazoe 2.

Hiddai

296

Higli Places

2. A soil of Renl)cn, aiul founder of the
Hczronite fiimily ((n-u. xlvi. 9; Ex. vi. 14;
Num. xxvi. (j ; 1 C'lirou. v. 3).

3. Sou of Perez, of the tribe of Judah, and
founder of a tril)al family (Gen. xlvi. 12;
Num. xxvi. 21 ; Ruth iv. 18; 1 Chrou. ii. 5).

Hid'dai [Joyful].

A uiau froiu the brooks of Gaash. He was
one of David'.s heroes (2 .Sam. xxiii. 30). Called
in 1 Chrou. xi. 32, Ilurai.

Hid'de-kel [a Persian word for arrow has
been lieanl hi the name, giving rise to an an-
cient interpretation " swift as an arrow." The
original form of the name should be sought
in the language of Babylonia. I-digna is at-
tested, and Friedrich Delitzsch interprets it
as meaning " river with high banks," or sim-
ply "the stream "].

The river Tigris, which goeth in front of
Assyria (Gen. ii. 14. R. V. ; Dan. x. 4). It is
still" called Hiddekel by a large portion of the
people living near its banks. Its principal
sources in central Armenia sp^-ing from the
southern slope of Anti-Taurus. The western
flows by Diarbekr.winding for above 150 miles.
The two eastern, known as BitlisChaiandBoh-
tan Chai, rise south of lake Van, and are about
100 miles long. After the junction of these
streams the river proceeds nearly east-south-
east, through the Kurdistan mountains, grad-
ually increased liy various attlueuts, especially
the greater and lesser Zab and the Diyalah
from the eastern, with smaller feeders from
the western side, finally joining the Euphra-
tes. In antiquity, it emptied through its
own luoiith into the Persian Gulf. In its
course it passes the ruins of Nineveh, which
lie on the left or eastern bank, nearly op-
posite Mosul on its right side. Lower down
it se])arates Bagdad into two portions; and
afterwards iiasses the ruins. fir.st of Ctesiphon,
the Parthian capital, and then those of Heleu-
cia, which, under the Greek dynasty, became
the rival of Babylon. The whole course of
the Tigris to its junction with the Euphrates
is 114() miles, only a little more than half the
leugth of the sister stream.

Hi'el [i)robably, God loveth].

A native of Bethel, who, in Ahab's reign,
fortified Jericho, bringing down on himself
the fulfillment of Joshua's imprecation. His
eldest son, Abiram, died wIumi the founda-
tion of the city was laid, and his youngest
son, Segul), when the gates were set up (1
Kin. xvi. 34 witli Josii. vi. 2f)).

Hi-e-rap'o-lis [sacred city].

A city in Asia Minor, in the valley of the
Lycos near the coufiuence with the Meander.
Not far distant were Colo.ssa; and Laodicea
(Col. iv. 13). It was a seat of worship of the
Syrian goddess Atargatis, and was celebrated
for its warm baths. It is now called Pambuk-
Kalah-si.

Hig-ga'ion [a deep sound ; meditation].

A musical term occurring in Ps. ix. 16. The
word is used elsewhere in the sense of solemn

sound, meditation (Ps. xix. 14 ; xcii. 3 ; Lam.
iii. 63).

High' Pla-ces.

Elevated sjjots selected as shrines for the
worship of God or of false divinities, or the
shrines themselves. The Cauaanites possessed
them, and the Israelites were directed to de-
stroy them when they gained the power to
do so by entering Canaan (Num. xxxiii. 52 ;
Dent, xxxiii. 29). The Moabites also had
high places (Num. xsi. 28; Is. xv. 2; Jer.
xlviii. 35). Immorality seems to have been
common on the way to those shrines (Jer. iii.
2; cp. 2 Chron. xxi. 11). Sometimes high
places were used by the Israelites for the
worship of Jehovah ; but this was forbidden
by law, which insisted upon one altar for all
Israel. The purpose of this law was to foster
the national spirit and guard against schism,
to prevent the people from worshiping at
idolatrous shrines, and to secure the support
of a national sanctuary which would enable
the worship of Jehovah to be conducted on a
scale of magnificence commensurate with his
glory, and equal, if not superior, to the pomp
displayed at the heathen temples. They were
legitimate only during the time that the na-
tional sanctuary had temporarily ceased, dur-
ing the period when Jehovah had foi'sakea
Shiloh and the temple was not vet erected (Ps.
Ixxviii. 60, 61, 67-69; 1 Kin. in. 2, 4). Thej',
or at least sacrifices elsewhere than at Jerusa-
lem, were also legitimate in the northern
kingdom when the pious were precluded from
attendance at Jerusalem, and could not wor-
ship Jehovah at all, unless according to the
primitive law (1 Kin. xviii. 30-32) ; see Altar.
Solomon, sinfully complj-ing with the wishes
of his heathen wives, erected high places in
the mount of Corruption for Ashtoreth, Che-
mosh, and Milcom or Molech (2 Kin. xxiii.
13). Jeroboam, to counteract the influence
of the national sanctuary at Jerusalem, made
a house of high places at Bethel and or-
dained priests (1 Kin. xii. 31, .32; xiii. 33),
purposing the adoration of Jehovah, but by
idolatroiis symbols (xii. 28-33 ; xiii. 2). The.se
places were denounced by the prophets (xiii.
1, 2; Hos. X. 8). Not merely at Bethel, but
at other cities in Samaria, did .schismatic
high places exist (1 Kin. xiii. 32 ; 2 Kin.
xvii. 32; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 3). The action of
Asa and Jehoshaphat in the kingdom of
Judah with regard to high places was in-
effective (1 Kin. XV. 14 with 2 Chron. xiv. 3;
XV. 17; 1 Kin. xxii. 43 with 2 Chron. xvii. 6).
Jehoram, .Tehoshaphat'sson, made high i)laces
in the mountains of .Judah (2 Chron. xxi. 11).
So did Ahaz, and that too for the worship of
false divinities, where he sacrificed and burnt
incense (xxviii. 4. 25). Hezekiah broke them
down (2 Kin. xviii. 4, 22), but they were re-
erected by Manasseh (2 Chron. xxxiii. 3), and
again removed by Josiah (2 Kin. xxiii. 13).
Th(^ high places were denounced by th&
prophets (Ezek. vi. 3).

High Priest

297

High Priest

High' Priest.

Tlif siipic'uie pontiff aud the representa-
tive of the nation before Jehovah. Aaron
was appointed to tliis ottice after the estab-
lishment of the covenant at Sinai and after
the erection of the tabernacle had been au-
thorized (Ex. xxvii. "il ; xxviii.). The refer-
ence in Ex. xvi. 33, 34, where Moses bids
Aaron lay up a pot of manna before the Lord,
is not an anticipation of this call ; for the
command was probably issued by Moses at a
later time, at least it was obeyed by Aaron at
a later time, and is recorded here because the
entire story of the manna is related here
(31-35). The first hint that it was important
for the sons of Aaron to be admitted to the
privilege enjoyed by the elders of Israel was
given after the covenant had been proclaimed
(Ex. xxiv. 1, 9). The distinction accorded
them, however, did not suggest the national
priesthood to them. Aaron was not the priest
of the nation at this time. He was the prophet
of Moses. The addition of his sons to the
commission appointed to witness a manifesta-
tion of God's glory might suggest that Aaron's
present office was to be inherited by his sons.
At any rate it foreshadowed their call to
future work. The legal head of the house
of Aaron held the office of high priest ; and
the succession was probably determined by
primogeniture, unless legal disabilities inter-
fered (Lev. xxi. 16-23). Political considera-
tions, also, not infrequently played a part in
his selection (1 Kin. ii. 26, 27, 35). His age
when he might assume office was twenty, ac-
cording to tradition. Aristobulus, however,
officiated when he was seventeen (Antiq. xv.
3, 3). He must govern his conduct by special
laws (Lev. xxi. 1-15). His duties were the
oversight of the sanctuary, its service, and its
treasure (2 Kin. xii. 7 seq. ; xxii. 4) ; the per-
formance of the service on the day of atone-
ment, when he was obliged to enter the holy
of holies, and the consultation of God by Urim
and Thummim. Besides these distinguishing
duties, he was qualified to discharge any
priestly function ; and it was customary for
him to ofler the sacrifices on Sabbaths, new
moons, aud annual festivals (War v. 5, 7). He
presided also over the sanhedrin when relig-
ious questions were before that l)ody (Mat.
xxvi. 57: Acts v. 21). His official garments,
besides the raiment of white linen which he
wore in common with other priests (q. v.)
were— 1. Breastplate : square, made of gold,
and blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twisted
linen, set with four rows of precious stones,
three in a row, each inscribed with the name
of a tribe. Within the breastplate were the
Urim and Thummim (q. v.). 2. Ephod : an em-
broidered vestment of the same rich materials
as the breastplate. It was intended for the
front and back of the bodj-, and was made in
two parts clasped together at the shoulder
by onyx stones. Each stone bore the names
of six tribes. The ephod carried on its front
the breastplate, and was bound about the

waist by a girdle of gold, blue, purple, scarlet,
and fine twisted linen. 3. Kobe of the epiiod :
which was longer than the ephod, and worn

High Priest.
Drawn from the biblical description.

underneath it, entirely blue, sleeveless, and
adorned below with a fringe of alternate pome-
granatesand golden bells ; see Bell. 4. Miter :
a cap or turban, made of linen aud surmounted,
in later times at least, by another of blue,
and this in turn by a triple crown of gold.
A gold iilate, bearing the inscription Holiness
to Jehovah, was fastened to the front by a
blue ribbon (Ex. xxviii. ; Ecclus. xlv. 8-13;
Antiq. iii. 7, 1-6 ; cp. 1 Mac. x. 20). The high
priest wore this official garb when discharg-
ing his peculiar duties, except that on the
day of atonement he laid it aside while he
entered the holy of holies to make atonement
for the priesthood and the sanctuary. The
mode of consecration is described in Ex. xxix.
Among other ceremonies the sacred oil was
poured upon his head (7 ; Lev. viii. 12 ; Ps.
cxxxiii. 2), and hence by way of distinction
he is designated the anointed priest (Lev. iv.
3, 5, 16; xxi. 10 ; Num. xxxv. 25). The com-
mon priests seem to have been consecrated by
having the oil sprinkled on their garments
only (Ex. xxix. 21 ; Lev. viii. .30) ; but rab-
binical tradition makes the diflTerencc consist
in the quantity of oil used. It was poured
abundantly on the head of the high priest
and sparingly upon the heads of the ordinary
priests. At first the high-priesthood was for
life, but Herod, aud afterwards the Romans,
jealous of the power which a life tenure of
the office gave to the high ])riest, made and
unmade the pontifls at will. Jesus is the
High Priest of our profes.sinn, of whom the
Jewish dignitarv of the same designation was
only the tvpe (Heb. iii. 1-3; viii. 1-6; ix. 24-
28). For the chief priests of the N. T., see
Priests, end of the article.

High Priest

298

High Priest

The Line of the High Priests.

I. Prom the Estahliahment of the Aaronic Priesthood to the Exile.— The biblical catalogues are two
(1 Chron. vi. 1-15; Ezra vii. 1-5), each of which omits links of the genealogy, as is quite usual in
Hebrew genealogical tables.

Levi.

I

Gershon.

Kohath.

Merari.

Amram.

Izhar.

I
Hebron.

Uzziel.

Nadab.

I
Abihu.

I
Aaron.

I

I

Eleazar.

I

Phinehas.

I

Abisbua.

I

Bukki.

I I

Moses (1 Chron. xxiii. 13). Miriam.

Uzzi.

Zerahiah.

Meraioth.

Ithamar.

Eli, succeeded Abisliua or Uzzi (Antiq. viii. 1,3: v.
I H, 5).

I I
Hophni. Pbinebas, officiated during the lifetime of
I Ills father, who by reason of age
resigned the office to him (An-
I tiq. V. 11. 2).

Ark in the countrj' of the Philistines seven
niontlis (1 Sam. vi. 1); then in Kirjath-
jearim twenty'years (1 Sam.vii.2), until
tlie second battle of Ebenezer, and for
years afterwards, until David removed it.

I

Ahitub.

Ichabod.

Abijab, in Shiloh wearing
ephod (1 Sam. xiv.
3, 18). Ark or ephod
(LXX. ; cp. ver. 19)
taken temporarily
to Gibeah.

Abimelech (i Sam. xxii. 9, n, i2).

Priest at Nob, showbread
and ephod mentioned (1
Sam. xxi. 1, 2, 4, G, 9).
Slain with 85 others (1
Sam. xxii. 11-18), Nob
put to tlie sword (1 Sam.
xxii. 19).

Aniariah.

Ahitub.

In default of a son of Abim-
elech in Saul's reign to take
charge of the tabernacle, the
duty devolved upon the head
(if the other priestly line.

Zadok, perhaps 1 Chron. xii. 27, 28. Abia!tbar, escaped and fled to David (1 Sam. xxii.

20) ; with an ephod (xxxiii. 6, 9 ; xsx. 7).
Ark removed from Kirjath-jearim and de-
posited in the house of Obed-edoin (2 Sam.
vi. 1-11 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 13, 14). Transferred
to the city of David (2 Sam. vi. 12 seq.).
Zadok and Abiathar tlie priests assist (1
Chron. xv. 11, 12). Ark placed in a tent
and an altar erected (2 Sam. vi. 12, 17 ; cp.
vii 2). Zadok and Abimelech, son of Abia-
tliar, are named as the priests during a cer-
tain period of David's reign (2 Sam. viii. 17;
1 Chron. xviii. 16). Tlie date is uncertain;
it is not improbably after Absalom's revolt.
ZadOK, and the Levites bearing the ark,

in liis flight (2 Sam. »v. 24 seq.). Zadok and
Aliiathar are called the priests (2 Sam. xv.
3.') ; xvii. 1.5 ; xix. 11 ; xx. 25). Their sons
who serve as messengers are Ahiniaaz and
Jonathan respectively (2 Sam. xv. 27, 36). In
tlie attempt to debar Solomon from tlie suc-
ce.ssion and advance Adonijah,
Zadok is loyal to David (1 Kin. i. 8). Abiathar favors Adonijah (1 Kin. i. 7).

Zadok and Abimelech, son of Abiathar,
superintend the division of the priests into
courses (1 Chron. xxiv. 3, 6, 31). They do
this as the active heads of their respective
fathers' houses. In consequence of a second
conspiracy in favor of Adonijah, made after
_ , , . Solomon had ascended the tlirone,

Zadok u put into the room of Abiathar (1 Kin. ii. 26, 35).

and Abiathar follow David

High Priest 299 High Priest

By the depositiun of Aliiatliar, the house
of Kli falls (1 Kin. ii. 27), and
Zadok is sole high priest.
Abimaaz.
Azariah.

Amariah, chief priest in the reign of Jehoshiiphat, about 8S3 B, c. (2 Chron. xix. 11).
Jehoiada, in the reigns of Athaliah and .loasli, dying in the reign of Joash at the age of '30

years (- Kin. xi. 4-19; xii. 2; 2 Chron. xxii. 10 setj. ; xxiv. 15).
Zecbariall, son of Jehoiada, perhaps high priest, slain by Joash between 819 andSOoB. c. (2 Chron.

xxiv. 20, 22).

Johanan.

Azariall, who officiated in the temple at Jerusalem about 750 b. c, in the reign of Uzziah (1 Chron. vi. 10;
2 Chron. xxvi. 17).

Urijah, about 732 b. c, in the reign of Aliaz (2 Kiu. xvi. 10).

Azariah, about 727 b. c, in the reign of Ilezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 10, 13).
Amariah.
Ahltub.

MeraiOth (l Chron. ix. 11 ; Neh. xi. 11).

Zadok.

Sliallxmi or MeshuUam (l Chron. vi. 12; ix. 11).

Hilkiall, in the eighteenth year of the reign of Josiah, 622 b. c. (1 Chron. ix. 11 ; 2 Chrou. xxxiv. 8, 9).

Azariah.

Seraiab.

J'illOzadak, who was carried captive to Babylonia by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 b. c. (1 Chron. vi. 15).
.Interval of fifty years during the exile.

II. Fi-om the Exile to the Maccabxan Priests.

Jeshua, sou of Jehozadak, who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel, and was high priest from at least

538 to 520 B. c. (Ezra ii. 2 ; iii. 2 ; Neh. xii. 10 ; Zech. i. 7 ; iii. 1 ; vi. 11).
JOiaklm (Neh. xii. 10, 12), in the days of [Arta]xerxes (Antiq. xi. 5, 1).
Ellashib, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, 446 b. c, and still in office after 433 b. c. (Neh. iii. 20; xii. 10;

xiii. 4, 6).
Joiada.
Jonathan (Neh. xii. ll), or rather Johanan (22, 2.3), in Greek John, high priest in the reign of Artaxerxes

[Mnemon] (Antiq. xi. 7, 1 ; cp. 5, 4), who occupied the throne from 4(l5 to 302 B. c.
Jaddua, high priest when Alexander the Great visited Jerusalem, 332 B. c, and died about the same time as

Alexander, 323 B. c. (Neh. xii. 11 ; Antiq. xi. 8, 4 and 5 and 7).
Onlas, in Hebrew perhaps Coniah, contemporary of Arius, who was king of Sparta from about 309 to 205 b. C.

(1 Mac. xii. 7, 20 ; Antiq. xi. 8, 7).
Simon the Just, son of Onias.

Eleazar, son of Unias and brother of Simon, in the time of Ptolemv Philadelphus, who reigned from 285 to

247 (Antiq. xii. 2, 5).
Manasseh, uncle of Eleazar (Antiq. xii. 4, 1).
Onias II., son of Simon the Just, in the time of Ptolemy Euergetes, who reigned from 247 to 222 (Antiq. xii.

4,1).
Simon II., son of Onias II. (.\utiq. xii. 4, 10).
Onias III., son of .Simon II., in the time of Seleucus IV., called Philopator, who reigned from 187 to 175 B. C.

(2 Mac. iii.; Antiq. xii. 4, 10).
Joshua, in Creek JeSUS, son of Simon II., who assimied the name JasOU, induced Antiochus Epiphanes,

who reigned from 175 to 164 B. c, to depose Onias (2 Mac. iv. 7, 20-35). After

holding office about three years, .Tason was supplanted, about 171 B. c, by
Menelaus, called also Onias, son of Simon II. (Antiq. xii. 5, 1 ; xv. 3, 1). According to 2 Mac. iv. 23, he was

the brother of Simon the Benjamite. Menelaus held office ten years (Antiq. xii. 9,

7 I, and was put to death in the time of Judas Maccabanis (2 Mac. xiii. 3-8).
Jakim, with the Greek name of Alcimus, who was not of the high-priestly line, although of the stock of

Aaron, put in office bv Demetrius, 161 B. c, and retained office three years (I Mac.

vii. .5-9, 12-25; ix. 1, "54-56 ; Antiq. xii. 9, 7; xx. 10, 1).
Vacancy of seven years (Antiq. xx. 10, 1).

III. The Maccabsean P)iest-kings.

Jonathan, of the priestly family of Joarib (I Mac. iii. 1 ; 1 Chron. xxiv. 7), made high priest in 152 b. c. by
Alexander Balas, who was contending for the Syrian throne (1 Mac. x. 18-21), and
held office for seven years in round numbers (Antiq. xx. 10, 1).

Simon, lu-^ bnither, for eight years.

John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, for thirty years.

AristOhulus, -^"n of Hyrcanus, for one year.

Alexander JannseUS, son of Hyrcanus, for twenty-seven years.

Hyrcanus, sun of Alexander, fornine years.

AriStOhulUS, sou of Alexander, for three years three months.

Hyrcanus, a second time, for twenty-four years, from 63 B. c.

Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, for three years, three months, until Herod the Great took possession of Jeini-
salem in 37 B. c. (Antiq. xiv. 16, 4; xx. 10, 1).

IV. Prom the Accession of Herod the Great until Jerusalem was taken by Titus.— During this period there
were twenty-eight high priests (Antiq. xx. 10, 1), one being generally removed to make way for his
successor.

Appointed by Herod the Great, king from 37 to 4 B. c. :

Hananel, in Latinized Greek AnanelUS (--Vntiq. xv. 2, 4).

Aristobulus, grandson of Hyrcanus, for one year, about 35 B. C. (Antiq. XV. 3, 1 and 3).

Hananel, a second time (Antiq. xv. 3, 3).

Jesus, son of Phabes (Antiq. xv. 9, 3).

Hilen

300

Hinnom, Valley of

Simon, son of Hoothiis (Aiitiq. XT. 9, 3), from about 24 to 5 B. C.

Matthias, son of TUeophilns iiiid son-in-law of Boethus (Antiq. xvii. 4,2).

Joazar, «"" of Boethus (.\nti(| xvii. 0, 4; i:!, 1).
Appointed l>v Areliebuis, who ruled from 4 B. c. to A. D. C:

Eleazar, son of Hoetlms, who did not abide long in office (Autiq. xvii. li, I).

Jesus, son of Sic (.Vntiq. xvii. i:i, I).
Appointed bv Qiiiriiiius, president of Syria: , , „ . „ , x i, *v ^ u;

Annas oi- Ananus, b.h of Seth, who obtained the office in A. D. 6 or 7, Joazar, whom the m\ilti-
' tilde ha'd niiidc liiKh priest, being put di>\vn (Autiq. xviii. 2, 1 ; cp. 1, 1).

Appointed hv Valerius liratus, procurator of Judtea a. d. 14-25:

Ismael, -on of I'habi, wlio held office but a short time (Antiq. xviii. 2, 2).

Eleazar, son of Annas, for one year (Antiq. xviii. 2, 2).

Simon, si.n of Camitluis, for one year (Antiq. xviii. 2, 2).

Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law to Annas, fiom about a. d. 18 to 30 (John xviii. 13; Antiq. xviu. 4, .^).
Appointed bv VitoUius, |>resident of Syria: , . ,„ • ^ . o -v

Jonathan, son of Annas, in A. P. 3(5 (Antiq. xvju. 4, 2 and 3; cp. xix. 6, 4; xx. 8, n).

TheophilUS. son of Annas, in a. d. 37 (Antiq. xviii. 5, 3).
Appointed by kintr Herod Agrippa I., who reigned from A. D. 41 to 44 :

Simon Cantheras, son of Boethus (Antiq. xix. G, 2).

Matthias, s.>ii ot Annas (Antiq. xix. ('., 4).

EliOnseUS, son of Cantheras (Autiq. xix. 8, 1).
Appointed bv llemd, king of Chaleis.who died in A. D. 48:

Joseph, son of Cainydus (Antiq. XX. 1, 3).

Ananias son of Nedeb.vus (Antiq. xx, 5, 2), sent in bonds to Rome during the procuratorship o»
' Cnnianr.s, but acquitted and still in office in A. D. 57, two years before Felix was suc-
ceeded by Festus (Acts xxiii. 2; xxiv. 1, 27).
Appointed by king Agrippa II. : ,,.,.,

Ismael, son or riiabl (Antiq. XX. 8, 8), about A. D. 59, who went to Rome and was detained there as
hostage (XX. 8, 11).

Joseph, called Cabl, son of the former high priest Simon (Antiq. xx. 8, U).

Annas, son of Annas, for three months in A. D. 62 (Antiq. xx. 9, 1).

Jesus, son of Damnaeus (Antiq. xx. 9, 1).

Jesus, son of Gamaliel (Antiq. xx. 9, 4 ; cp. War iv. 5, 2).

Matthias, son of Theopliilus, appointed about A. D. 64 (Antiq. xx. 9, 7).
Made high priest by the people during the war:

Phanas, or Phanni^as, sou of Samuel (Antiq. XX. 10; War iv. 3, 8).

Hi'len. See Holon 1.

Hil-ki'ah [portion of Jehovah (cp. Job
xxxi. 2), or Jehovah is the portion (cp. Ps.
xvi. 5)].

1. A Levite. son of Amzi, descended from
Merari (1 Chron. vi. 45. 46).

2. Another Merarite Levite, son of Hosah
(1 Chron. xxvi. 11).

3. Father of Eliakim, who was over the
household in Hezekiah's reign (2 Kin. xviii.
18, 26; Is. xxii. 20; xxxvi. :{).

4. A priest, father of Jeremiah (Jer. i. 1).

5. Father of Jeremiah's contemporary Gem-
ariah (Jer. xxix. 3).

6. The liigh priest contemporary with Jo-
siah, who aided the kin*; in his reformation
of religion, and found the book of the law
(2 Kin. xxii. 4-14 ; xxiii. 4 ; 1 Chron. vi. 13;
2 Chron. xxxiv. 9-22). See JosiAil.

7. A diief of the priests who returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel (\eh. xii. 7). In
the next generation a father's house bore this
name (ver. 21).

8. One of those who stood by Ezra when
he read the Uxw to the people (Neh. viii. 4).

Hill.

A consi)icuous natural elevation of land.
The name is generally ajiplied to a natural
eminence smaller than a mountain and larger
than a mound ; but the terms are relative,
the same height being sometimes known by
both names (Is. xxxi. 4), or called a moun-
tain in one locality and a hill in another
(Kev. xvii. 9). Hill is chiefly the rendering
of the Hebrew Gih'ah and the Greek Bnunos.
Not infrequently it is also employed in the

A. v., and much less frequently in the R. V.
(Ps. ii. 6; iii. 4 ; xv. 1 ; xxiv. 3; xlii. 6; Mat.
v. 14 ; Luke iv. 29), to translate Hebrew Har
and Greek ' Oros, which are usually rendered
mountain.

Hil'lel [he hath praised].

Father of Abdou the judge (Judg. xii. 13,
15).

Hin.

A Hebrew liquid measure, containing about
one gallon and three pints, V. S. wine meas-
ure (Ex. xxix. 40 ; Antiq. iii. 8, 3). See
Measure.

Hind.

A female stag, in Hebrew 'Ayyalah (Gen.
xlix. 21 ; Job xxxix. 1 ; Ps. xviii. 33 ; Prov. V.
19; Song ii. 7; Jer. xiv. 5). See Hart.

Hinge.

In ancient times in the East heavy doors
turned on pivots, which were constructed on
the upper and lower corners of one side and
inserted in sockets. The socket is probably
more especially referred to in 1 Kin. vii. 50.
See also Prov. xxvi. 14.

Hin'nom, Val'ley of; known also as the
valley of the son of Hinnom or of the chil-
dren of Hinnom.

A valley at Jerusalem, near the gate of
potsherds (Jer. xix. 2; not east gate as in
A. v.). The boundary between Judah and
Benjamin passed from En-rogel by the val-
ley of the son of Hinnom to the southern
side of Jerusalem, and thence to the top of
the mountain which faces the valley of Hin-
nom from the west, and is at the outermost

Hippopotamus

301

History

part of the vale of Rephaim (Josh. xv. 8;
xviii. Ifi). If the term " shoulder of the Jebu-
site (the same is Jerusalem) " includes the
hill on the west of the Tyrojxpon valley, and
not merely the temple hill ; in other words,
if the term denotes the plateau which juts
out southward between the great encircling
wadies. and which was not only crowned by
the citadel of the Jebusites, but also occupied
by their dwellings without the walls and by
their fields, then the description in the Book
of Joshua identifies the valley of Hinnom
with at least the lower part of the valley
which bounds Jerusalem on the south, and
is now known as the wady er-Eababeh, near
its junction with the ravine of the Kidron.
At the high place of Tophet, in the valley of
Hinnom, parents made their children pass
through the fire to Molech. Ahaz and Ma-
nasseh were guilty of this abomination (2
Chron. xxviii. 3; xxxiii. 6). Jeremiah fore-
told that God would visit this awful wicked-
ness with sore judgment, and would cause
such a destruction of the people that the val-
ley would become known as the valley of
slaughter (vii. 31-34; xix. 2, G; xxxii. 35).
Josiah defiled the high place to render it un-
fit for even idolatrous rites, and thus to stop
the sacrifices (2 Kin. xxiii. 10). From the
horrors of its fires, and from its pollution by
Josiah, perhaps also because oflal was burnt
there, the valley became a type of sin and
woe, and the name Ge-hinnom, corrupted into
Gehenna, passed into use as a designation for
the place of eternal punishment.

Hip-po-pot'a-mus [Greek 'ippopotamos,
river horse]. See Behemoth.

Hi'rah [nobility].

An Adullamite, a friend of Judah (Gen.
xxxviii. 1, 12).

Hi'ram ; in Chronicles Hu'ram, except in
the Hebrew text of 2 Chron. iv. ll*"; ix. 10
[probably consecration] . In Hebrew the name
is also written Hirom (1 Kin. v. 10, 18 ; vii. 40,
E. V. margin).

1. A king of Tyre. According to the cita-
tion which Josephus makes from the Phoeni-
cian historian Dios. and from the Tyrian an-
nals which Menander translated, Hiram suc-
ceeded his father Abibaal, reigned thirty-four
years, and died at the age of 53 (Antiq. viii.
5, 3 ; con. Apion. i. 17, 18). He enlarged the
city of Tyre by constructing an embankment
ou the eastern side, built a causeway to con-
nect the city with the island on which the
temple of Jupiter or Baal-samem stood, dedi-
cated a golden pillar in this temple, rebuilt
old sanctuaries, roofing them with cedars cut
on Lebanon, and erected temples to Hercules
and Astarte. He was a friend of both David
and Solomon (1 Kin. v. 1 ; 2 Cliron. ii. 3).
Some time after David had captured the
stronghold of Zion, Hiram sent an embassy
to him ; and, when David desired a palace,
Hiram furnished the cedar timber and the
masons and carpenters (2 Sam. v. 11). This

was evidently before the birth of Solomon
(2 Sam. vii. 2, 12 ; xi. 2). When Solomon as-
cended the throne, Hiram sent congratula-
tions. For a consideration he furnislud cedar
and fir for building the temple, and skilled
workmen to assist in preparing the timber
and stone (1 Kin. v. 1-12; 2 Chron. ii. .3-l()).
He also advanced 120 talents of gold (1 Kin.
ix. 14), and joined Solomon in sending to
Ophir for the precious metal (1 Kin. ix. 2(j-28 ;
2 Chron. ix. 21). In partial payment for his
contributions, he was oflered twenty towns in
Galilee, which however he refused (1 Kin.
ix. 10-12 ; 2 Chron. viii. 1, 2) ; see C.\BrL. The
chronological statements of Josephus and the
Bible have never been reconciled. Josephus'
statement tliat the temple was begun in Hi-
ram's eleventh year (Antiq. viii. 3, 1) or
twelfth (con. Apion. i. 18) need not receive
serious consideration ; for it is probably a
calculation of his own, and not a citation
from the archives. Either the thirty-four
years assigned as the duration of Hiram's
reign or the text of 1 Kin. ix. 9-12 may be
corrupt. The passage in Kings is parallel to
2 Chron. viii. 1, and this latter passage does
not require the assunii)tion that Hiram lived
to the end of the twenty years wherein the
temple and the royal palace were built.

2. An artificer, whose father was a Tyrian
and his mother a widow of Naphtali (1 Kin.
vii. 13, 14), but by birth a woman of Dan (2
Chron. ii. 14). He executed the bronze or
copper work in connection with Solomon's
temple, as the pillars, the laver, the basins,
the shovels (1 Kin. vii. 13-46; 2 Chron. ii.
13, 14). The title father (2 Chron. ii. 13 ; iv.
16) probably denotes a master workman or a
counselor.

History.

Biblical history is the record of that series
of events which form the basis for the re-
ligion of the Bible (cp. ISIark x. 2-9; Eom.
XV. 4 ; 1 Cor. x. 11). It may be divided into
four periods : 1. An account of the creation
of the universe, showing God's relation to
the world, and introducing human history.
2. A sketch of human history, showing God's
relation to the human race, and introducing
the history of the chosen people. 3. The his-
tory of the chosen people, showing God's
dealing with them and the preparation for
the advent of Christ. 4. The history of
the establishment of the Christian church,
which is to reach all nations. Iiiter-biblical
histt)ry falls between sections 3 and 4.

1 . Ax Account of the Creation of the
Universe, showing God's relation to the
world, and introducing human history (Gen.
i. l-ii.3). See Cre.\tion and Sabbath. The
great doctrine is that God is the creator and
lord of all things. It denies materialism and
atheism. In implying that God is personal
and omnipotent, it makes reasonable his super-
natural manifestation in human history.

2. A Sketch of Human Hlstorv, show-

History

302

History

ing God's relation to the human race and in-
troducinfi the history of the chosen people
(Gen. ii. 4-xi. 2()). The events of this period
fell almost entirely under human observa-
tion, and were capable of transmission by
human testimony. The period is divided
into two parts by the flood. The narrative
is symmetrical; ten generations before the
flood, from Adam to Noah inclusive, and ten
generations after the flood, from 8hem to
Abraham inclu.sivo (v. ; xi. 10-26). The post-
diluvian period is divided into two parts at
Peleg, in whose days the earth was divided.
Fmm Shem to Peleg inclusive are five gen-
erations, and from Ken to Abraham inclusive
are live. In the antediluvian period are de-
feiiled the covenant with Adam, its failure
through man's disobedience, the downward
course of man in sin, his punishment by a
flood, and the deliverance of Noah. In the
postdiluvian period are related the new and
unconditioned covenant with Noah, the new
command laid upon man, the increasing popu-
lation, the growing independence of men
from God, their punishment by confusion of
speech and dispersion. The genealogy of the
Sethitic-Semitic line to Abraham is recorded,
and at the same time its common origin with
the other families of the earth is made plain.
The locality where the -recorded events oc-
curred was the basin of the Tigris and Eu-
phrates rivers ; at least, every definite geo-
graphical reference is to this region (ii. 14;
viii. 4 ; x. 10 ; xi. 2, 28). From this center
the people spread on all sides, especially
toward the west and southwest, where the
course of migration was not blocked by great
mountains (x.). By the close of the period
the inhabited world, so far as it was within
the sphere of history, extended from the Cas-
pian Sea, the mountains of Elam and the
Persian Gulf on the east, westward to the
isles of Greece and the opposite shore of
Africa, and from the neighborhood of the
Black Sea on the north to the Arabian Sea
on the south. The length of the period from
Adam to Abraham was at the lowest calcula-
tion 194(} years, but it may have been much
longer ; see Chronology. This period, longer
than the time that has elapsed since the
birth of Christ, was remarkably barren in
miracles, in the scriptural meaning of that
word ; see Miracle. With the personal his-
tory of man began those theophanies, rare
indeed though thej' were (Gen. iii. 8 seq.),
which are important in the history of revela-
tion. During this period man made progress
iu civilization. He had been created with
capacity, and was commanded to subdue na-
ture. He advanced from the unclothed state,
passing beyond rude garments of leaves and
afterwards of skins (ii. 25 ; iii. 7, 21) to woven
clothing ; from a food of fruits that grew of
itself to food obtained by agriculture and
herding (i. 29; iv. 2) ; from uncertain abodes
to movable tents, settled habitations (iv. 17,
20), and large cities built of brick (xi. 3, 4) ;

from the family to the tribe and the king-
dom (x. 10) ; from no implements to tools of
metal and instruments of music (iv. 21, 22).
In this period also simple speech became di-
versified dialects and languages (x. 5 ; xi. 1,
6, 9). Man recognized the duty of walking
before God in holiness of life (iii. 2, 3, 10 ; iv.
7 ; V. 22 ; vi. 9) ; distinguished between clean
and unclean animals (vii. 2 ; viii. 20) ; erected
altars and worshiped God by bloody and
bloodless offerings (iv. 3, 4 ; viii. 20) ; and
prayed to God in his character of Jehovah
(iv. 26). Religion, however, suffered deca-
dence (vi. 2, 5), and idolatry became wide-
spread (Josh. xxiv. 2). See especially Gen-
esis, Eden, Adam, Satan, Serpent, Abel,
Cain, Enoch, Flood, Noah, Babel.

3. The History of the Chosen People,
showing God's dealing with them, and the
preparation for the advent of Christ. This
period difl'ers from the preceding iu the shift-
ing of the central locality from the valley of
the Tigris and Euphrates to Palestine. Canaan
becomes the center of the history. The dura-
tion of the period, regarded as having begun
with Abraham's birth, was reckoned by Usher
at 1996 years, and so stands on the margin of
many editions of the English version. There
are certainly errors iu this calculation ; but
whether they equalize themselves, or whether
the total length should be several centuries
more or less, cannot be determined as yet
from the biblical and other data. At the be-
ginning of this period, and on several occa-
sions later, besides the ordinary ways in
which God reveals himself to man and to the
prophets, he appeared in theophanies. This
period also embraces three of the four great
miracle epochs ; namely, at the deliverance
of the people from Egypt and their establish-
ment in Canaan under Moses and Joshua,
during the mortal sti'uggle between the wor-
ship of Jehovah and Baal worship in the
time of Elijah and Elisha, and during the
Babylonian captivity. These miracle epochs
were separated from each other by centuries
during which there were, with extremely
rare exceptions, no miracles. This period
may conveniently be divided into sections
according to the progressive stages in the
outward development of the people of God.

I. An independent tribe in Canaan under
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The patriarch
was the priest and responsible ruler of the
tribe. The history is reviewed in the arti-
cles on Abraham, Dreams, Visions, The-
ophany, Melchizkdek, Isaac, Jacob.

II. A folk of twelve tribex for a long time in
Egyptian bondage. See Egypt, Joseph, Pha-
raoh, Miracle, Exodus, Marah, Manna,
Quail, Rephidim.

III. A nation, constituted at Sinai, and inde-
pendent. Led to Sinai the people became a
nation by accepting the covenant which God
proposed, and which was contained in ten
commandments, and formed the constitution
of the nation. Jehovah is king, who hence-

History

303

History

forth dwells in the tabernacle in the midst
of Lis i)e()ple, reveals his will to proi^het
and priest, and exercises the legislative, ju-
dicial, and executive offices through laws
which he reveals, judgments which he pro-
nounces, and officials whom he raises up.
The nation was

III. 1. ^1 brotherhood of twelve tribes under a
religious coustitittio)!, and with a common sanc-
tuary [Ex. xix.-l Sam. vii.). The high priest
was the chief representative, and was aided
by prophets and occasional leaders, like Moses.
See Sinai, Theocr.\cy, Text of Meeting,
Tabeknacle, Leviticus, Camp.

Leaving Sinai the Israelites journeyed to
Kadesh. On account of their lack of faith,
they were turned back into the wilderness,
where they sojourned thirty-eight years; see
Numbers, Wilderness of the Wander-
ing, KoRAH. At length they encompassed
the land of Edom, and found a crossing at
the head of the Arnon valley. The conquest
of the country east of the Jordan followed ;
see SiHON, Og. The camp was then pitched
in the Jordan valley ; see Shittim, Balaam,
Baal-peor. Midian, Deuteronomy. On
the death of Moses, the Jordan was crossed
and Canaan conquered and possessed ; see
Joshua, Canaan, Shiloh. After the set-
tlement of the Israelites in Canaan, Joshua
died, and was succeeded at intervals by other
persons of ability and influence, fifteen in
number, who led the people against their
enemies and exercised governmental func-
tions ; see Judges, Samuel. Unifying forces
were at work during the times of the judges,
and a national feeling existed and sometimes
manifested its strength ; but still the people
too often allowed natural barriers and petty
jealousies and local interests to separate them.
There are bright examples of godliness and
filial piety, but along with these is the specta-
cle of a people easily .seduced to idolatry ; see
Judges. During this entire period the weak-
nesses and defects of the human parties to the
covenant were disclosed. At the very be-
ginning of the period lack of faith in God
was shown at Kadesh, the existence of tribal
jealousy was manifested in the rebellion of
Korah and his companj' against the high-
priesthood of Aaron and the political su-
premacy of Moses, and the readiness of the
people to lapse into idolatry became apx>arent
in the afiair of the golden calf, and in their
ensnarement by the seductions of Baal-peor.
The great political blunders of the period
were the league made by Joshua with the
Gibeonites, and the failure of Israel to oc-
cupy Jerusalem. These defects and blunders
were of far-reaching consequence in the his-
tory of Israel.

III. 2. A monarchy of twelve tribes. The
people had failed to fo.ster the centralizing
influences which their religion designedly
provided, allowed senseless tribal jealousies
to sunder them, and accustomed themselves
to turn from God to idols. The threatening

attitude of neighboring nations made them
realize the need of organization, a strong
government, and a military leader. Samuel
was old. They turned away from the good
provision which God had made, but which
they had neglected, and demanded an earthly
king. By the side of the high priest and the
proi)het there was now a permanent earthly
ruler, with supreme political power, instead
of the judges whom God was wont to raise
up. Saul was the first king, but on account
of his overestimate of his position, his fail-
ure to recognize the superior functions of the
high priest and prophet, he was denied the
privilege of founding a dynasty ; and finally
his willful transgression of God's explicit
command led to the rejection of him from
being king, to the withdrawal of God and
God's prophet from him, and the choice of
David ; see Samuel. Books of, Saul, David.
Under David the twelve tribes were reunited
after seven years of civil war, Jerusalem was
taken from the Jebusites and made the po-
litical and religious capital, the borders of
the kingdom were extended by conquest far
to the northeast of Damascus, and the ac-
quired country was laid under tribute. Depu-
ties were placed in Edom also. See Jerusa-
lem. David was succeeded by Solomon, under
whom the temple was erected, Jerusalem
greatly embellished and its fortifications ex-
tended, and the fame of Israel enhanced.
But his exactions made the people discon-
tented, and on his death the failure of his
son to discern the gravity of the situation
incited ten tribes to revolt from the house
of David. See Solomon, Eehoboam, Israel.
III. 3. ,-1 monarchy consisting chiefly of the
tribe of Jiidah, ten tribes having revolted and
formed a rival schismatic apostate kingdom.
The causes which led to this revolt were long
standing and many ; see Israel. The king-
dom of Judah possessed the greater strength.
It had material strength ; the stronger natural
position, the capital, the organized govern-
ment, and the worship to which the people
were accustomed. It had moral strength ;
the consciousness of adhering to the legiti-
mate line of kings, which has ever been a
mighty force in history, the true religion
with its elevating influence, the sense of loy-
alty to Jehovah, and a line of godlier kings.
It had the providential care of God, who was
preserving the knowledge and worship of
himself among men, and was preparing the
way for his Messiah. The religious history
of Judah during this period was marked by
a decline in the days of Kehoboam (1 Kin.
xiv. 22), and again in the daj's of his son
Abijam (xv. 3), and yet again in the days of
Jehoram and Ahazia'h (2 Kin. viii. 27). The
cause of this religious declension was the cor-
ruption introduced by Solomon and intermar-
riage with idolaters. Rehoboam's mother was
an Ammonitess, for whom Solomon had built
a high place to Milcom. and who had sacrificed
to this abomination of her people. Jehoram

History 304

•was son-in-law of Aha)) and Jezebel. Each
of these periods of religious decaj' was fol-
lowed by ref(jrination, the first under king
Asa and the second under .Tehoash, but Jeho-
ash himself afterwards turned away from the
Lord, and another religious revival became
necessary, only to be followed by the domi-
nance of idolatry later under the pernicious
intluence of Ahaz. The encroachments of the
Assyrians on the Hebrew people began in this
period. The divided nation, largely degen-
erate in religion, was not in condition to offer
etfective resistance ; and by slow but steady
advance, which began in the days of Ahab,
the Assyrians pushed their conquest until
they had overthrown the northern kingdom.
See" Israel, Samaria, Sargon.

III. 4. The monarchy of Jiulah sole survivor.
The southern kingdom was now exposed to
the attacks of the Assyrians, and later of
their successors, the Babylonians ; see Heze-
KiAH, Sennacherib, Manasseh, Nebu-
chadnezz.\r. The religious condition also
of the people was not good, although great
prophets, like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Micah
were laboring to advance the truth. Its
kings, with the exception of Hezekiah and
Josiah, did not render true and steadfast
allegiance to Jehovah, and the people were
like-minded. There was an idolatrous party
in the state which had been triumphant in
the reign of Ahaz. Idolatry was deep-rooted
among the people, and the reforms of any
king affected tlie nation only su])erflcially.
Foreign idolatei's were also in the land. The
nation drifted to destruction. The army of
Nebuchadnezzar visited .Jerusalem at brief
intervals during the course of two decades,
several deportations of Jews to Babylonia took
place, and the city was taken and burned in
587 B. c. The Hebrew people had failed to
conserve the elements of national strength,
and to abide under the shadow of the Al-
mighty, and they fell. See Judah.

IV. A subject people. — 1. Judah in the Baby-
lonian exile. See Captivity.

IV. 2. Judah 171 Palestine. In the first year
of his reign over Babylon, 5.38 b. c, Cyrus
issued an edict which permitted the Jews to
return to Palestine and rebuild the temple.
Forty-three thousand embraced the oppor-
tunity and returned under Zerubbabel. This
colony was

{a) A province of the Persian empire, subor-
dinated to the province Beyond-the-river. It re-
mained such for two hundred years. Twice
it enjoyed local governors of its own, ap-
pointed by tiie Persian monarch ; see Zerub-
babel and Nehemiah. But for the greater
part of the time its civil affairs were subject
to the jurisdiction of the Persian satrap be-
yond the river. He had authority to ap-
point a dei)Uty for Judah, and to call on the
Jews for men or money. But the local ad-
ministration was left to the high priest, and
he gradually came to be regarded as the po-
litical as well as the religious head of the

History

nation. Immediately on the return of the
exiles from Babylon the foundations of the
temi)le were laid. The ■work was pushed on
under the exhortations of the prophets Hag-
gai and Zechariah despite interruptions and
opposition, and the building was completed in
515 b. C. The walls were erected under the
sujjervision of Nehemiah by authority of
Artaxerxes in 445 B. c. ; see Jerusalem.
At this time also Ezra the priest was in the
city, zealous for the law of God, and success-
fully laboring for the purity of religion ; see
Ezra and Canon. About 365 b. c. there was
a dispute between two brothers about the
high-priesthood, which ended by one killing
the other within the precincts of the temple.
In connection with this affair Bagoses, general
of the army of Artaxerxes Mnemon, entered
the temple (Antiq. xi. 7, 1). In March or
April, 334 B. c. Alexander of Macedon crossed
the Hellespont, defeated the Persian satraps,
then marched on, and the next year gained
a victory over the Persian monarch Darius
Codomannus at Issus, a defile near the north-
eastern angle of the Mediterranean Sea, laid
Syria at his feet, and entered Jerusalem.
After an almost uninterrupted career of con-
quest, extending eastward as far as the Pun-
jab, Alexander died at Babylon in June, 323
b. c. See Alexander.

(b) Judtea subject to Egypt. Ptolemy Soter
wrested Palestine from Syria, to which it had
fallen after Alexander's death, in 320 b. c,
and the Ptolemies retained it, except for oc-
casional brief periods, until 198 B. c, when
the cruelty of Ptolemy Philopator drove the
Jews to seek the protection of Antiochus the
Great ; see Ptolemy. During these 122 years
the Jews were governed by their high jiriest
subject to the king of Egypt. At this time the
Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek
at Alexandria in Egypt. See Versions.

(c) Jndsea subject to Syria. Antiochus the
Great wrested Palestine from Egypt in 198
B. c. by his victory over Ptolemy Philopator
at Paneas. The Syrians not only supported
the Grecian party among the Jews which at-
tempted to hellenize the nation, but they also
endeavored by force to impose idolatry upon
the Jews. The sacrilegious tyranny of the
Syrians became intolerable to the pious por-
tion of the nation, and led to the Maccabseau
revolt in 16G B. c. See Gymnasium, Jason,
Antiochus.

A period of independence under the Mac-
caba?n priest-kings followed ; see Maccabees.
It lasted from KiO B. c. until Pompey took Je-
rusalem in 63 B. c. ; but the Maccabees were
allowed to hold the throne until 40 B. c, when
Herod the Great was appointed king of Judsea
by the Eoman senate. He began his actual
reign by the capture of Jerusalem in 37 B. c.
During this period the Pharisees and Saddu-
cees became recognized parties, exerting great
political and religious influence. See Phari-
sees. Sapducees, Coitncil.

(d) I'nder the Romans. During this period

History

305

Hittites

the affairs of Judaea were administered by
appointees of the Romans ; first by Herod the
Great, then by Archelaus, and afterwards
by procurators, except from A. D. 41-44, when
Herod Agrippa I. reigned as king ; see Judj^a,
Herod, Pkocvrator. The maladministra-
tion of these officials exasperated the people
and drove them to revolt. Obstinate war
raged from A. n. W! until the fall of Jerusa-
lem in A. D. 70. The remnant of the Jewish
people who remained in Palestine were de-
nied access to their capital, and had no longer
national existence. While the Jews .still con-
stituted a nation under the Romans, in the
days of Herod the king, Jesus of Nazareth
was born and a new period of biblical his-
tory began.

4. The History of the Establishment
OF THE Christian Church, which is to reach
all nations. — I. Christ's preparation for the es-
tablishment of his Church, by example, teach-
ing, and redemption. See Jesus, Gospel,
Apostles.

II. The Church among the Jews. The church
was founded by the risen Christ. Ten days
later, at Pentecost, the promised Spirit was
given, and the church's work was initiated
by Peter's sermon, increase of believers, and
baptism ; see Pentecost, Holy Spirit,
Tongues, Baptism, Church. During the
next few years, six perhaps, the church ex-
perienced the difficulties incident to the im-
perfections of believers and to persecution ;
but it grew steadily in purity and numbers.
See An.\.nias, Deacons, Stephen. The per-
secution which arose on the death of Stephen
scattered the brethren abroad, and the evan-
gelization of the Jews in Palestine and Syria
began. The gospel was carried to Samaria
and to the cities on the seacoast from Gaza to
Csesarea. See Philip. For the purpose of
persecuting the believers who were now found
in the Jewish colony in Damascus, Saul went
thither, and was converted, and was told that
he was to be a teacher of the gentiles. The
vision of Peter at Jop])a, and its complement
in the conversion of Cornelius and his bap-
tism with the Holy Spirit, opened the eyes
of the church to the truth, already theoreti-
cally known, that the Holy Spirit is for all
believers, Jew and gentile. See Cornelius.
At Antioch Jewish believers from the West,
who had been driven from Jerusalem by the
persecution which had arisen on the death
of Stephen, began to preach Jesus to the
Greeks also (Acts xi. 20, R. V.), and now the
followers of Jesus began to be called Chris-
tians, no longer being identified with the
Jews. The church was now ready to under-
take the evangelization of the gentiles; the
truth of the equality of all believers was
known, a man had been raised up to work
among the gentiles, and the first beginnings
had been made.

III. The Church among Jews anrl gentiles. Paul
and Barnabas, called by the Holy Ghost, be-
gan the evangelization of Jews and gentiles in

20

Asia Minor. The question about the obliga-
tions of gentile converts arose. The council
at Jerusalem took a firm stand for Christian
liberty, refused to impose circumcision and
the observance of the Mosaic law upon gen-
tile converts, and only insisted upon certain
moral duties and certain matters of expe-
diency which it was neces.sary to enijihasize
on account of the state of ])ublic oi)inion.
The rights of gentile Christians were now
.secure. On a second missionary journey,
Paul, under the direction of the Spirit, came
to Troa, asnd was called by a vision to extend
his labors to Europe, and the evangelization
of Europe from Philippi to Rome ensued. See
Paul, John, Peter.

Hit'tites.

A people, known also as children of Heth,
and connected by blood or conquest with
Canaan (Gen. x. 15; xxiii. 'S). For centuries
they occupied the region extending from
northern Palestine to the Euphrates, and
numbered Kadesh on the Orontes, Hamath
and Carchemish among their important cities
(Josh. i. 4 ; 1 Kin. x. 29). As early as the
time of Abraham, bodies of them had taken
up their abode in Canaan proper, and appar-
ently had adopted the language of Canaan.
Abraham met with them at Hebron, and it
was from a Hittite that he purchased the cave
of Machpelah (Gen. xxiii. 1-20; xxv. 9). Esau
married two Hittite wives (xxvi. 34, 35 ; xxxvi.
2). The spies sent out by Moses found the
Hittites occupying the mountains (Num. xiii.
29). They took part in the war against the in-
vading Hebrews under Joshua (Josh. ix. 1, 2).
They were also among the tribes which aided
Jabin, king of Hazor, in the great battle in
which he was so signally defeated by Joshua
at the waters of Merom (xi. 3). The man who
betraved Luz, or Bethel, built a second Luz
in the land of the Hittites (Judg. i. 26). After
the conquest of Canaan by Joshua, Hittites
still remained in the country, intermarriages
taking place between them and the Israelites
(iii. 5, 6). One of David's followers was Ahim-
elech the Hittite (1 Sam. xxvi. 6). Uriah,
against whom David sinned so deeply, was
of the same race (2 Sam. xi. 3, 17, 21). In the
reign of Solomon the Hittites and other tribes
who remained in the land had levied on them
a tribute of bond-service (1 Kin. ix. 20, 21 ; 2
Chron. viii. 7, 8). Hittite women were in
Solomon's harem (1 Kin. xi. 1). The Hit-
tites were the Kheta, or Khita, of the Egyp-
tian monuments, the Hatti of the Assyrian
inscriptions, and the Keteioi of Homer (Odys-
sey xi. 521). From Egyptian and Assyrian
sources and Hittite remains we leam that
when the power of the Hittites was at its
height, their sway or their influence was para-
mount from the Archipelago to the Euphrates,
their northern or northeastern capital being
Carchemish, on that river, and their southern
or southwestern one Kadesh, on the Orontes.
For five hundred years they carried on a strug-

Hivites

306

Hoham

gle, with intervals of peace, with the Egyp-
tians, tifihting great battles witli Thothmes
III., in tlie sixteenth ccntnry k. t\, and with
Seti I. and Hamses XL The siege of Kadesh
by the latter Egyptian monarch was cele-
brated in au epic by the poet Pentaiir. For
four hundred years, beginning 1100 B. C, they
carried on a contest with the Assyrians, gen-
erally holding their own against that great
power, till, in 717 B. C, Sargon, the Assyrian
king, cai)tured Carchemish, and terminated
their eni]>irc. Sculptures, doubtless Hittite,
with hieroglyphics not yet satisfactorily read,
have been found at Carchemish, at Haraath,
and throughout a great part of Asia Minor.
The Hittites were a sturdy race of men. They
are generally represented as beardless. They
wore pointed hats and loose tunics. Their
shoes were tilted up at the tips, and fastened
by a large bandage round the foot and ankle.
They are like the shoes still worn by the
peasantry of Asia Minor, and are the best
preservative for the feet when the country
is covered with snow. The Hittites also wore
long gloves, covering the forearm, with one
compartment for the thumb and another for
the four fingers. These are believed to be a
survival of the time when the Hittites lived
among the snowclad range of Taurus and the
Armenian mountains.

Hi'vites.

One of the races of Canaan before the con-
quest of the country by the Hebrews (Gen.
X. 17 ; Ex. iii. 17 ; Josh. ix. 1). They scattered
into several communities. A body of them
dwelt at Shechem in the time of Jacob (Gen.
xxxiii. 18 with xxxiv. 2), and their descend-
ants still had influence in the city several
generations after the conquest (Judg. ix. 28).
A body of them also dwelt in Gibeon and its
vicinity. They obtained a treaty of peace from
Josliua by stratagem, but on their deceit being
discovered, they were made hewers of wood
and drawers of water (.Tosh. ix.). They had
also an extensive settlement, probably their
principal one, at the foot of Tjebanon, from
mount Hcrmon to the entering in of Hamath
(Josh. xi. 3; Judg. iii. 3). In these northern
mountain regions they had villages of their
own as late as the time of David (2 Sam. xxiv.
7). Those of Palestine proper were, with the
other Canaanites who remained in the land,
required to render bond-service to Solomon
in connection with his extensive building
o]KTati()ns (1 Kin. ix. 20-22).

Hiz-ki'ah. See Hezekiah 2.

Hiz-ki'jah. See Hezekiah 4.

Ho'bab [lover].

The father-in-law of Moses, according to
the traditional vowel points of the Hebrew
text (Judg. iv. 11). Hut the father-in-law of
Moses was Reuel, or, to call him by what ap-
pears to have been his honorary title, Jethro,
his excellency. Hobab is definitely stated to
have been the son of Reuel (Num. x. 29), and
if the traditional vocalization is ignored, and

regard paid to the Hebrew text only, the
Hebrew words may equally well be translated
" Hobab the brother-in-law of Moses" (Judg.
i. IH; iv. 11, R. v.). Moses' father-in-law
Reuel, or Jethro, visited Moses in the camp
at Rephidim and returned to his own land
(Ex. xviii. 1, 5, 27). A year later, when the
Israelites were about to advance from Sinai,
Moses urged Hobab, the son of Reuel, to ac-
company them and aid them with his knowl-
edge of the desert. Hobab finally consented
(Num. X. 29 ; Judg. i. 16 ; iv. 11). After the
conquest of Canaan, his family settled in
Judah, south of Arad, and were still there ♦
in the time of Saul and David (Judg. i. 16;
1 Sam. XV. 6 ; xxvii. 10 ; xxx. 29). Hobab be-
longed to the Kenites (Judg. i. 16 ; iv. 11), a
family of the Midiauites.

Ho'bali.

A town on the left, that is to the north, of
Damascus. Hobah was the extreme limit to
which Abraham pursued the defeated eastern
kings (Gen. xiv. 15). Wetzsteiu mentions a
place of this name between Tadmor and
Homs.

Hod [majesty].

An Asherite, son of Zophah (1 Chron. vii.
37).

Hod-a-vi'ah, in A. V. once Ho-da'iah (1
Chron. iii. 24) [Jehovah is his praise, or h©
hath praised Jehovah].

1. A son of Elioenai, descended through
Shecaniah from David (1 Chron. iii. 24).

2. One of the heads of the half-tribe of Ma-
nasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chron. v. 24).

3. A Benjamite (1 Chron. ix. 7).

4. A Levite, founder of a family, some
members of which returned from Babylon
(Ezra ii. 40). He is called Judah (iii. 9), vir-
tually a synonymous name, and through a
slight corruption of the Hebrew text, Hode-
vah, or, as traditionally read, Hodeiah (Neh.
vii. 43 and R. V. margin).

Ho-de'iah. See Hodaviah 4.
Ho'desh [new moon].
A wife of Shaharaim (1 Chron. viii. 9).
Ho-de'vah. See Hodaviah 4.

Ho-di'ah, in A. V. of Nehcniiah Ho-di'jah.
[splendor of Jehovah].

1. A man who was reckoned as belonging
to the tribe of Judah, perhajis because of his
marriage with the sister of Naham (1 Chron.
iv. 19, R. v.). A. V. does not give a correct
rendering of the Hebrew text.

2. One of the Levites employed by Ezra to
explain the law to the people (Neh. viii. 7),
and to assist on the day of penitence and
prayer (ix. 5). He was proV>ably one of the
two Levite Hodiahs who sealed the covenant
(x. 10 or 1.3).

Hog'lah [a partridge].

A daughter of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi. 33).

Ho 'ham.

A king of Hebron, who entered into a

Holm Tree

307

Honey

league against Joshua, and was defeated, cap-
tured, and executed (Josh. x. 1-27).

Holm Tree.

Tlie evergreen oak (Qnercus ilex), the ren-
dering of the Hebrew Tirzah, hard tree, in
the only iiassage where it occurs (Is. xliv. 14 ;
in A. V. cypress). The two Greek translators,
Aquila and Theodotiou, render it by wild
oak, and the Vulgate by ilex.

Ho'lon [probably sandy].

1. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 51), given, with its suburbs, to the
priests (xxi. 15). Called also Hilen (1 Chron.
vi. 58). Not identified.

2. A Moabite town (Jer. xlviii. 21), perhaps
Horon.

Ho'ly.

The ordinary Hebrew word for holy is
Kadosh, separated. It is represented in the
N. T. by the Greek word 'Agios. It is used
for what is set apart from a common to a
sacred use, as the utensils and ministers of
the sanctuary, and certain days (Ex. xx. 8;
XXX. 31 ; xxxi. 10 ; Lev. xxi. 7 ; Num. v. 17 ;
Neb. viii. 9 ; Zech. xiv. 21) ; for what is sep-
arated from ceremonial defilement (Ex. xxii.
31 ; Lev. xx. 26) or immorality (2 Cor. vii.
1 ; 1 Thes. iv. 7), including false worship and
heathen practices (Lev. xx. 6, 7; xxi. 6). In
a larger sense God is holy, for he is separated
from all other beings by his infinite perfec-
tions, by his being, wisdom, power, holiness,
justice, goodness, and truth, the glory of
which fills the earth (Is. vi. 3). Even holy
angels ascribe holiness to him (Is. vi. 3 ; Eev.
iv. 8 ; xvi. 5).

Ho-ly Ghost'.

The Spirit of God, the Holy Spirit. The
word spirit now more correctly expresses the
idea than does the term ghost, which has nar-
rowed its meaning, and commonly denotes a
disembodied spirit wandering on earth. The
name Holv Spirit is used three times only in
the O. T. (Ps. li. 11 ; Is. Ixiii. 10, 11), but there
are numerous references to his work. The
Spirit of God is the divine principle of ac-
tivity everywhere at work in the world, ex-
ecuting the will of God. The Spirit is sent
forth bv God (Ps. civ. 29, 30) and given by
God (Num. xi. 29; Is. xlii. 1. 5). The Spirit
brooded over chaotic matter in the beginning
and is everywhere present (Gen. i. 2; Ps.
cxxxix. 7), and is thus immanent and the
energy in cosmical processes (Job. xxvi. 13 ;
Is. lix. 19) : is the source of physical, intel-
lectual, and moral life (Gen. vi. 3 ; Job xxxii.
8 ; xxxiii. 4 ; xxxiv. 14 ; Ps. xxvii. 3 : civ. 30 ;
cp. Is. xlii. 5) ; is able to produce supernatural
effects (1 Kin. xviii. 12: 2 Kin. ii. 16). He
abides with the people of God (Is. Ixiii. 11;
Hag. ii. 5), and bestows varied powers for the
work of the kingdom, strength (Judg. iii. 10;
vi. 34: xi. 29; xiii. 25: xiv. 6, 19; xv. 14; 1
Sam. xi. 6; xvi. 13; 1 Chron. xii. 18), skill
(Ex. xxxi. 3), wisdom (Num. xi. 17, 25;
xxvii. 18), in short, everything needful for

the work of the kingdom (Is. xi. 2; Zech.
iv. 6). He instructed the peojjle of God (Neh.
ix. 20) by insjiiring the prophets (Num. xxiv.
2 ; 1 Sam. x. 6 ; Hos. ix. 7 ; Mic. iii. 8 ; Zech.
vii. 12). He works upon the heart of the
individual child of God. It was foretold that
this work would be especially powerful and
widespread in the Messianic period, when the
Spirit shall be poured out on the people of
God (Is. xliv. 3), will give to them a new
heart and a new spirit (Ezek. xxxvi. 26),
produce sorrow for sin (Zech. xii. 10) ; yea,
be poured out on all flesh (Joel ii. 28). The
Spirit is grieved when men resist his holy
work (Is. Ixiii. 10; cp. Ps. cvi; 33). The N.
T. treats of Messianic times and the disj>en-
sation of the Spirit, and it follows that in the
N. T. the Spirit is mentioned much more fre-
quently than in the O. T. All the attributes
of the Spirit revealed in the 0. T. are dis-
closed in the N. T. in exercise. The doctrine
of the Spirit advances beyond the teach-
ing of the O. T. chiefly in becoming more
definite in respect to his personality. Though
the word spirit is neuter in Greek and femi-
nine in Hebrew, yet the Spirit is sometimes
called who, not which (Eph. i. 13 : cp. cau-
tiously John xvi. 13). The Spirit further
speaks in the first person, using the pronouns
I and me (Acts x. 19, 20 ; xiii. 2) ; is associated
with the Father and the Son in the baptismal
formula and the apostolic benediction (Mat.
xxviii. 19; 2 Cor. xiii. 14): can be grieved
(Eph. iv. 30; cp. Eom. viii. 26). Especially
memorable acts of the Spirit at the beginning
of the Christian dispensation are the mirac-
ulous conception of Jesus by the Holy Ghost
(Mat. i. 18-20) ; the descent of the Spirit u])on
Jesus at his baptism, in the form of a dove
visible to him and to John the Bapti.st (Mat.
iii. 16 ; Mark i. 10 ; John i. 32), and the effu-
sion of the Holy Ghost in the likeness of
tongues of fire on the day of Pentecost, and
the accompanying gift of languages (Acts ii.
4). Sec God, Inspiration, Pentecost.

Ho'ly Place. See Tabern.\cle. Temple.

Ho-ly Spir'it. See Holy Ghost.

Ho'mam [possibly destroyer].

Son of Lotan, and grandson of Seir (1
Chron. i. 39). The name ajipears in Gen.
xxxvi. 22 as Hemam. The difference in He-
brew is trifling, and is doubtless due to a mis-
reading. The latter name has jod where the
former has van (q. v.).

Ho'mer [a heap].

A measure for dry substances and licjuids.
It contained ten baths or ephahs (Ezek. xiv.
11, 14) and one hundred omers (Ex. xvi. 36).
It held about thirty-six pecks, U. S. measure.
See Ephah, Measure.

Hon'ey.

A sweet, thick fluid collected by bees from
flowers and fruit and deposited in the cells
of a comb (Judg. xiv. 8 ; Ps. xix. 10) ; much
esteemed as an article of food (Gen. xliii. 11 ;
2 Sam. xvii. 29), and eaten as found in the

Hook

308

Hor

comb or as prepared in various ways (Ex.
xvi. :U ; 1 Sam. xiv. 26). Wild honey was de-
posited l)y bees in rocks, trees, and other
places (Dent, xxxii. 13; Judg. xiv. 8; 1 Sam.
xiv. 25: Mat. iii. 4). Because it acts like a
leaven, producing fermentation, honey might
nut be used in oUeriugs made by tire unto
the Lord (Lev. ii. 11). An artificial honey
or svrup was prepared from dates (War iv.

Canaan was described as flowing with milk
and honey (Ex. iii. b, 17).

Hook.

The Hebrews and contemporary peojiles
used hooks of various kinds :

1. Curtains were hung by means of hooks,
those employed about the taberuacle being
made of gold and silver (Ex. xxvi. 32, 37;
xxvii. 10).

2. By means of flesh hooks meat was lifted
from tlie pot (Ex. xxvii. 3; 1 Sam. ii. 13, 14),
ami on firmly flxed hooks slain animals were
hung up (Ezek. xl. 43, but the meaning of
the word rendered hook in this passage is
disputed).

3. Hooks resembling thorns, and sometimes
called so in Hebrew (Amos iv. 2), were used
in fishing (Job xli. 1 ; Hab. i. 15). See Fish-
ing.

5. Pruning hooks were used by vinedress-
ers (Is. ii. 4 ; xviii. 5).

Hoph'ni [pertaining to the fist].

A sou of Eli. He and his brother Phinehas
discharged the priest's oflice in the old age
of Eli, but showed themselves unworthy of
the sacred office by .scandalous behavior. Eli
mildly remonstrated when summary proceed-
ings were required ; and, in consequence, the
divine j udgment was pronounced against him
and his house. When it was resolved that
the ark of God should be taken to the battle-
field, Hophni and Phinehas, who as officiating
priests were its custodians, accompanied it,
and were both slain in the disastrous battle
which followed (1 Sam. ii. 22-iv. 22).

Hor [mountain].

1. A mountain on the border of the Edomite
country, where Aaron died and was buried
(Num. XX. 22-29 ; xxxiii. 37-39, 41 ; Deut.
xxxii. 50). Josephus says that it was one of
the mountains surrounding Petra (Antiq. iv.
4, 7). Tradition has .settled on Jebel Harun,
meaning Aaron's mountain, a great two-top-
ped eminence about 4800 feet high, on the
eastern side of the Arabah, nearly midway
between the southern extremity of the Dead
Sea and the northern end of the gulf of
Akaba. It is the highest and wildest of the

Mount Ilor of Tradition.

4. A large hook was thrust through the
mouth of a fish or other a(iuatic animal, and
attacheil by a cord to a stake, when it was de-
sired to keep it alive (.Job xli. 2; Ezek. xxix.
4). A similar hook was used for leading about
lions and other beast.s (2 Kin. xix. 28 ; Ezek.
xix. 4, in A. V. chains; cp. xxxviii. 4), and
for a like purpose were inserted in the lips
of captives (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11, K. V. mar-
gin). See illustration under Blindnkss.

whole Edomite range of mountains. It is
close to Petra in the west, but the ruined city
is not visible from its summit. On its sum-
mit stands a tomb, nominally that of Aaron ;
but the upper part of it, at least, is only a
modern Mohammedan mosque. The tradi-
tion, however, is open to serious question. It
appears to rest on the false identification of
Kadesh with Petra. Jebel Harfin is in the
midst of Edom, and not on its border, as was

Horam

309

Horn

Hor. If Edom extended to the gulf of Aka-
ba (Dent. ii. a), the Israelites could not reach
tlie traditional mountain without crossing
Edoni, which they were forbidden to do.
Jebel Madara, about 15 miles northeast of
Kadesh, has been suggested, and satisfies the
conditions. Still, if Madara is really writ-
ten in Arabic with the letter dal (Seetzen), it
is doubtful whether the name echoes Moserah
(Num. xxxiii. 37 with Deut. x. (i).

2. A mountain on the northern boundary
of Palestine, between the Mediterranean Sea
and the entering in of Hamath (Num. xxxiv.
7, S). It was jjrobably a prominent peak of
Lebanon.

Ho'ram [elevation].

A king of Gezer, defeated and slain by
Joshua (Josh. x. 33).

Ho'reto [dry, desert].

The mount of God in the peninsula of
Sinai (Ex. iii. 1 ; xviii. 5), where the law was
given to Israel (Deut. iv. 10-1.5 ; v. 2 ; 1 Kin.
viii. 9 ; xix. 8). The names Horeb and Sinai
are used almost interchangeably. This phe-
nomenon has been variouslj' explained. It
has been held that the two terms did not
denote exactly the same thing. Horeb has
been regarded as the name of the I'ange, and
Sinai as a prominent peak (Hengstenberg,
Eobiuson) ; or Horeb is thought of as a lower
part or peak of mount Sinai (Gesenius) ; or
Horeb was the northern and lower portion
of the range, while Sinai was the southern
portion, especially its highest point. On the
other hand, the two terms have been held to
denote the same object. Ewald believed Sinai
to be the older name of the mountain after-
wards called Horeb (cp. Judg. v. 5).

Ho'rem [enclosed, sacred].

A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38).
Not identified. There is no reason to think
of Hura or Kurah, 3i miles west by north of
Yarun, nor of Harah, 6i miles north by east
of Yarun.

Ho'resh [a dense wood or thicket].

A locality, probably at the time overgrown
w'ith bush, where David lurked (1 Sam. xxiii.
16, E. V. margin). In the text the word is
rendered wood.

Hor-hag-gid'gad, in A. V. Hor-hagidgad
[mountain or cavern of Gidgad, (. e. perhaps,
thunder].

An encampment of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 32). The same as
Gudgodah (Deut. x. 6, 7 ; cp. Num. xxxiii.
31-33). Site unknown. It must not be iden-
tified with wady Ghudaghid, for the names
are entirely different in etymology.

Ho'ri [cave-dweller].

1. A Horite tribe descended from Lotan,
and called by the general name of the stock
to which it belonged (Gen. xxxvi. 22).

2. Father of Shaphat the spy (Num. xiii. 5).
Ho'rite, in A. Y. of Deut. Ho'rims.
Cave-dwellers, the aborigines of mount

Seir, and hence called the children of Seir
(Gen. xxxvi. 20). They were defeated by
Chedorlaonier and his allies (Gen. xiv. 6).
They were governed l)y chieftains (xxxvi. 29,
30). They were subsequenllj- destroj-ed by
the posterity of Esau (Deut. ii. 12, 22).

Hor'mali [a devoted place, destruction].

1. A region to the south of Canaan, in Seir,
north of both Kadesh and mount Hor. When
the Israelites after their loss of faith jiresumed
to advance from Kadesh toward Canaan, the
Amalekites and Canaanites came down, smote
them, and drove them as far as " the desola-
tion," as the district was called from its dev-
astation some thirty-eight years later (Num.
xiv. 45; Deut. i. 44). On the second depar-
ture of the Israelites from Kadesh, after the
lapse of these thirty-eight years, while they
were encamped at mount Hor, the Canaanites
under the king of Arad again attacked them
and made some captives. Israel vowed their
destruction if Jehovah would aid, devastated
their cities, and called the wasted region
Hormah, desolation (Num. xxi. 1-3).

2. The town Zephath, called Hormah after
its devotion. It was situated in the south
country, toward the border of Edom, near
Ziklag, and was allotted to Judah, but was
afterwards transferred to Simeon (Josh. xv.
30 ; xix. 4). After tlie death of Joshua, Ju-
dah assisted Simeon to take the town. It
was inhabited by Canaanites; and had either
escaped destruction when the region was first
devastated in fulfillment of the vow (Num.
xxi. 2), or it had been rebuilt by fugitives
who returned. At any rate, it was still in-
cluded in the old vow ; and it was now de-
voted to destruction.' man and beast were
slain, and the town was henceforth called
Hormah (Judg. i. 17). Joshua had already
defeated its king (called proleptically king
of Hormah), who, it may be judged, was ab-
sent from his city, assisting men of his own
race at Hebron at the time of his defeat, as
the king of Jerusalem and the king of Gezer
were away from their cities when Joshua
smote them (Josh. xii. 14 ; cp. x. 10, 33). After
the town had been devoted, it was inhabited
by Simeonites (1 Chron. iv. 30). It was hos-
pitable to David when he lived as an outcast,
and to his friends there David sent of the
spoils of Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. 30).

Horn.

Part of Palestine, especially its southern
portion, being a pastoral country, the Israel-
ites were exceedingly familiar with the horns
of animals. In early times they converted
them into trumpets (Josh. vi. 13), or into
flasks for such substances as oil (1 Sam. xvi.
1,13; 1 Kin. i. 39). When (iod exalts the
horn of an individual, the meaning is that
he confers great power and prosperity (1 Sam.
ii. 10: Ps. Ixxxix. 24) ; but when one exalts
or lifts up the horn, it means that he indulges
in arrogance and insolence (Ps. Ixxv. 4, 5).
Horn denotes political power, the image being

Hornet

310

Hosea

dniwu from bulls which push with their horns
(Ps. cxxsii. 17; Jer. xlviii. 2.")), ami in pro-
phetic language signifies a kingdom (Dan.
vii. 8, 11, -21; Zech. i. 18, 19) or kings (Rev.
xvii. 12, Ki).

Horns of the altar were projections resem-
bling horns placed at the corners of the altar
of burnt ottering (War v. 5, G). They were
smeared with the blood of the sacrifice (Ex.
xxix. 12; Lev. iv. 7), and the bodies of the
victims offered in sacrifice appear to have
been bound to them (Ps. cxviii. 27), and
oHenders clung to them for safetj' from pun-
ish iiieut (1 Kin. ii. 28).

Horn was also used to denote a peak (Is. v.
1, II. v. margin). The horns of Hattin are
the traditional mount of Beatitudes.

Hor'net.

Till- renderiag of the Hebrew word Sir'ah,
according to the ancient versions. The hornet
{Ve^pa crabro) is of the same genus as the
was]), but larger and more formidable. Either
the common hornet or a closely allied species
is common iu Palestine. Hornets were to be
sent to drive out the Cauaanite nations be-
fore the Israelites (Ex. xxiii. 28: Deut. vii.
20 : ,Tosh. xxiv. 12; Wisd. xii. 8). It is doubt-
ful whetiier hornet is here used in a literal
or a figurative sense. In fuvor of the former
it may be alleged that ^lian relates that the
Phaselites were driven from their territory
by hornets, and in favor of the latter that we
have no detailed account of the Cauaanites
being thus expelled. If used figuratively,
the sting of the hornet would stand for the
terror produced in Canaanite minds by the
approach of the irresistible Israelite armies.

Hor-o-na'im [two caverns or ravines].

A Moaliite city at the foot of a declivity,
and apparently not far from Zoar (Is. xv. 5 ;
Jer. xlviii. 3, 5, 31 ; Moabite Stone 31 ). Doubt-
less the town Oronie which Alexander Jan-
najus took from the Arabians, and his sou
Hyrcanus i-estored to Aretas (Antiq. xiii. 15,
4: xiv. 1.4). Situation unknown.

Hor'o-nite.

A native or inhabitant of Horonaim or,
more probably, of Beth-horon (Neh. ii. 10, 19).

Horse.

The horse was early subdued by man. Men-
tion is made of its rider in the time of Jacob
(Gen. xlix. 17). Mountainous Palestine was
not well adapted for its use, and in early
times it was priiu'i])ally eni])loyed in the
iiiaritiine i)lain and in the valley of Jezreel.
There were many horses in Egypt (xlvii. 17;
Ex. ix. 3). When the exodus took place
Pharaoh's pursuing army was equipped with
chariots and horses (xiv. 9; xv. 19i. They
existed also in the force of the uortlicrn Ca-
naanites led by Sisera, Jabin's commauder-
jn chief (Judg. iv. 15; v. 22). In Deut. xvii.
It), the king who was to be elected when
monarchy was estaldished among the Israel-
ites was forl)idden to multiply horses, not-
withstanding whicli prohibition Solomon im-

ported them in great numbers from Egypt,
paying for each animal 150 shekels of silver
(a little more than .$97). He afterwards ex-
ported them to the kings of the Hittites and
those of the Syrians (1 Kin. x. 28, 29 ; 2
Chrou. i. l(j, 17; ix. 28). Horses afterwards
became common in Israel and Judah (2 Kin.
ix. 18; Is. ii. 7), and were used in battle (1
Kin. xxii. 4 ; 2 Kin. iii. 7; ix. 33). Foreign
kings rode on horseback (Esth. vi. 8), while
it was considered lowly in a sovereign to sit
upon an ass (Zech. ix. 9), and accorded with
the simple manners of the early Hebrew
patriarchs, judges, and kings (Gen. xxii. 3;
Judg. X. 4; xii. 14; 1 Kin. i. 33). Horses
were sometimes dedicated to the sun (2 Kin.
xxiii. 11). They are frequently mentioned
in the prophecies of Zechariah (Zech. i. 8 ; vi.
2, 3 ; X. 5 ; xiv. 20), and in the book of Reve-
lation (Rev. vi. 2, 4, 5, 8; xix. 11, etc.).

Horseleech.

A large leecli (Hiemopsis sanguisuga), com-
mon iu Palestine. The leech was known to
the Hebrews by the name '"Inl-ah, to the Ara-
maeans '"luka, to the Arabs 'alakat, from its
adhering to the flesh (Prov. xxx. 15). It is
noted for its insatiable appetite for blood. In
the proverb it is used figuratively. Its two
insatiable daughters are perhaps named in the
first line of ver. 16. The margin of the R. V.
substitutes vampire. The blood-sucking vam-
pires (Desmodidw), which are confined to the
warmer i)arts of South America, are not
meant ; but certain female specters, which
are superstitiously believed to haunt graves
and suck human blood. The ground for this
interpretation is that iu Arabic 'aulak is the
name of a demon, and 'aluk is equivalent to
ghoul.

Ho'sah [fleeing for refuge].

1. A porter in the time of David (1 Chron.
xvi. 38; xxvi. 10).

2. A frontier village of Asher, not far from
Tyre, and apparently south of that city (Josh,
xix. 29). Not identified. Conder suggests the
ruin 'Ezziyat el-Foka, about 7 miles south by
east of Tyre, and 2^ inland from the Medi-
terranean. The names, however, are quite
dissimilar.

Ho-san'na [save, we pray].

A short jirayer to Jehovah for deliverance,
taken from Ps. cxviii. 25. It was an acclama-
tion of the people when they marched around
the altar at the feast of tabernacles, and most
of the prayers used at that festival began with
it. It was taken up by the multitude of the
di.sciples at the triumphal entry of Jesus into
Jerusalem, when they hailed him as the son
of David (Mat. xxi. 9, 15; with Ps. cxviii.
25, 2(3).

Ho-se'a, in A. V. of N. T. Osee, in imita-
tion of the Greek form [save]. Identically
the same word as Oshea or Hoshea (Num.
xiii. 8, 16), the first name of Joshua, and as
Hoshea, king of Israel (2 Kin. xv. 30).

A prophet, son of Beeri, whose predic-

Hosea

311

Hoshea

tions were uttered in the reigns of Uzziah,
Jotham. Ahaz. and Hezekiah. kings of Ju-
dah. and Jeroboam II., king of Israel (Hos.
i. 1 1, a period of some thirty odd years.
He was a contemporary of Isaiah, who proph-
esied in the reigns of the same kings of
Judah : but he began his prophetic activity
in the reign of Jeroboam, doubtless some
years before Isaiah, and he ceased much
earlier than did Isaiah. He was a prophet
of the northern kingdom, while Isaiah la-
bored in Judah. Hosea was also a contem-
porary of Amos in the northern kingdom,
and of Micah who prophesied in Judah. Hosea
denied the right of the northern kiugdom to
maintain a separate existence from Judah
(iii. 5 : viii. 4 : cp. i. 1 1. Regarding his mar-
riage with an unchaste woman, opinion has
been divided from ancient times. It was in-
tended to be symbolical of Jehovah's relation
to his erring people, but was it itself an alle-
gory or a fact ? It is argued that it was alle-
gorical and not real, because — 1. It is impos-
sible that God would have commanded a
prophet to enter into such a revolting alli-
ance, and one which was apt to lessen his
influence with the better part of the people.
2. The law of Moses forbade a priest to marry
an unchaste woman tLev. xxi. 7) ; and as the
prophets were also a sacred class, although
not bound by the strict priestly laws. God
would scarcely direct them to enter into wed-
lock with the unclean. 3. The action of the
first chapter, if real, would require years
for its performance, involving not only the
prophets marriage, but also the birth of sev-
eral children : and the symbolic lesson would
be lost. On the other hand, the command
recorded in i. 2 is regarded as directing the
prophet to "take a wife of adulteries," a
woman whom Hosea had married, but who
had proved unfaithful to her marriage vows
and been divorced. By God's direction, the
prophet took her back from her life of shame
and restored her to her former position ; and
thus typified God's readiness to restore apos-
tate, idolatrous, sinful Israel to favor.

The book of Hosea is the first of the minor
prophets, not only in the order of arrange-
ment, but probably also in the order of time.
It consists of two portions, chapters i.-iii. and
iv.-xiv., written at different periods of the
prophet's life. The first chapter belongs to
the reign of Jeroboam, before the destruction
of the house of Jehu (i. 4). The first three
chapters furnish the key to the whole book,
in which the unfaithfulness of Israel to Je-
hovah during the entire national history is
pressed home on the conscience (iv. i.-v. 7;
vi. 4-vii. 16 : viii.-xi.), the necessity of chas-
tisement is shown, and the unquenchable love
of Jehovah for his erring people is earnestly
taught (vi. 1-3; xii.-xiv.). The contents of
the book do not consist of clearly defined
discourses, but appear to be a summary of
the prophet's teaching, which he drew up and
committed to writing toward the close of his

life ; and yet, contrary to the older belief, a
chronological arrangement may possibly be
discerned in the light of the details of an-
cient history which until recently were un-
known.

Ho-sha'iah [Jehovah hath saved].

1. Father of Jezaniah and Azariah fJer.
xlii. 1 : xUii. 2i.

2. A man. doubtless a prince of Judah. who
walked immediately behind the chorus of
those who gave thanks in the procession at
the dedication of the second temple (Xeh.
xii. 32).

Hosh'a-ma [probably. Jehovah hath heard].
One of the family or descendants of king
Jeconiah d Chron. iii. IS).

Ho-she'a, in A. V. of Num. xiii. 8, 16
Oshea [save],

1. The earlier name of Joshua, the son of
Xuu, which was changed by Moses into
Joshua (Num. xiii. S. 16 1.

2. Son of Azaziah and prince of Ephraim
in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii. 20).

3. A son of Elah. With the connivance
of Tiglath-pileser. king of Assyria, he con-
spired against Pekah. king of Israel, slew
him, and ascended the throne (2 Kin. xv.
30). His reign lasted about nine years, from
about 730 to 722 b. c. He did evil in the
sight of Jehovah, but still was better than
the average of the preceding kings. Shal-
maneser. king of Assyria, made an expedi-
tion against him. which he could not repel
by force. He therefore consented to become
tributary to the invader, and sent him pres-
ents ixvii. 3i. But he soon sought an alliance
with Egypt and revolted from Assyria (4).
Of course the yoke was galling, and as the
powerful kingdom of Egypt looked with con-
siderable jealousy on the approach of the As-
syrians to its frontiers, it was quite natural
that Hoshea should secretly ask assistance
from Egypt. Trusting that it would be forth-
coming, he withheld the annual tribute. Shal-
maneser again invaded the Israelite territory,
took Hoshea captive, and laid siege to .Samaria.
See Shalmaxesek. The city was reduced to
great straits, but it held out three years. At
the end of the three years Shalmaneser was
killed or died, and was succeeded by Sargon,
who claims the honor of capturing the city.
He carried the leading inhabitants into cap-
tivity, and placed them in Halah and in
Habor. by the river of Gozan. and in the
cities of the Medes (.5, 6). This event is
known as the captivity of the ten tribe* It
was not any special wickedness on the part
of Hoshea that brought it on. The cup of
Israel's iniquity had been filling for centuries,
and Hoshea's iniquities only added the last
drop which made the cup full to overflowing
(7-23). See Samakia, Sargox, Isbael.

4. One of those who sealed the covenant
(Neh. X. 23).

5. The Hebrew name of the prophet Hosea.
See Hosea.

Host

312

House

Host.

A imiltitude, especially when organized ;
au iiriny (Ueu. xxi. 22 ; Jiulg. iv. 2) or the
division of an army (Ex. vii. 4, in A. V. ar-
mies ; xii. 41 ; Num. ii. 3, in A. V. armies; 1
Kin. ii. .">) ; the angels, constituting a heav-
enly ho.st (1 Kin. xxii. 19; Ps. cxlviii. 2;
Luke ii. 13); and the stars (Deut. iv. 19; 2
Kin. xxiii. 5). The Semites comprehended
heaven and all its forces and beings, heaven
and all that is therein, in the phrase host of
heaven ; and in the i)hrase host of the earth,
they included the earth and all that is there-
in, the forces of nature like wind, lightning,
heat and cold, and things animate and inani-
mate (({en. ii. 1 ; Ps. xxxiii. 6 ; and see Anshar
and Kisliar in (,'keation).

The title Lord of hosts has sometimes been
explained as meaning that Jehovah is the
God of the armies of Israel. In proof David's
words to Goliath are cited : " Thou comest to
me with a sword and with a si)ear, but I
come to thee in the name of the Lord of
hosts, the God of the armies of Israel " (1 Sam.
xvii. 45). The prophet Isaiah is also quoted,
who says: "The Lord of hosts shall come
down to fight upon mount Zion " (Is. xxxi.
4). But this is too narrow a generalization.
Jehovah did fight for his people ; he was in-
deed " the Lord strong and mighty, the Lord
mighty in battle." But the Lord of hosts was
more than the war God of Israel. The Greek
translators grasped the true meaning of the
title, and rendered it Pantokrator, the Al-
mighty. The word hosts which is used in the
title refers to the armies of the universe. The
designation pictures the universe, in its
spiritual and material aspects, as forming a
vast army, in numerous divisions, of various
kinds of troops, in orderly array under the
command of Jehovah. One division con.sists
of the angels. It was the Lord, the God of
hosts, who appeared to Jacob at Bethel when
he beheld the ladder and the angels of God
ascending and descending (Gen. xxviii. 12,
13; Hos. xii. 4, 5). "Who in the skies can
be compared unto the Lord? Who among
the sons of the mighty is like unto the Lord,
a God very terrible in the council of the holy
ones, aTid to be feared above all them that are
round about him ? O Lord God of ho.sts, who
is a mighty one like unto thee, O Jehovah?"
(P.s. Ixxxix. 6-8 ; cp. R. V.). Another ho.st con-
sists of the stars, in their beautiful order and
wonderful array. Jehovah is their command-
er. Isaiah bids those who would know God
to go forth, and lift up their eyes on high and
see. "Who hath created these ?" lie asks. He
wliobriiigethout [into tlu livid like a general]
their host by number, he who calleth them all
by name, and upon them laveth commands
(Is. xl. 26; xlv. 12). Yet another host con-
sists of all the forces of nature ; they stand
at the bidding of Jehovah, worshiping and
serving him (Neh. ix. 6; P.s. ciii. 21). The
Lord of hosts sendeth sword, famine, and
pestilence (Jer. xxix. 17). " The Lord, which

giveth the sun for a light by day and the
ordinances of the moon and of the stars for
a light by night, which stirreth up the sea
that the waves thereof roar, the Lord of hosts
is his name" (Jer. xxxi. 35, R. V.). The
Greeks, looking at the heavens above them,
and at the earth around them, called what
they saw cosmos, the beauty of harmony.
The Romans, discovering the same harmo-
nious relations and movements, named the
entirety of creation a univei'se, combined as
one. To the poetic imagination of the He-
brews, with their knowledge of the omnijio-
tent reigning God, the regularity and order
everywhere apparent suggested an army in
vast, numerous, and varied divisions, acting
under the command of one will. The Lord
of hosts, he is the king who alone commands.

Ho'tham [seal, signet ring].

1. An Asherite. son of Heber, family of
Beriah (1 Chron. vii. 32).

2. An Aroerite, two of whose sons were
among David's mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 44).
The mi.sprint of Hothan for Hotham in A. V.
has been corrected in R. V.

Ho'than See Hotham 2.

Ho'thir.

A sou of Heman, David's seer and singer
(1 Chron. xxv. 4).

Hour. See Day and Night.

House.

In Palestine and other parts of the East
the houses of the common people, constitut-
ing more than three-fourths of the whole,
have only one story, and sometimes only one
room. The interior is frequently divided

14^"

Eastern House, showing Outer Staircase.

into two portions, one several feet higher
than the other. The door from the outside
leads into the lower portion, which is occu-
pied by the cattle. Troughs for their feed are
arranged along the side of the platform where
the family dwell. This higher floor is reached

House

313

Hunter

by a short flight of steps. Sometimes there
is' a loft above the stable for guests. These
several apartmeuts are uot walled off from
each other. The walls of the house are ofteu
of mud or sun-dried brick, even when, as in
Palestine, stoue is procurable (cp. Job xsiv.
16 ; Ezek. xiii. 10-lG). The roofs are made
of branches of trees, canes, palm leaves, etc.,
covered with a thick stratum of earth. Ma-
terials so flimsy cannot long resist the heavy
rains which at certain seasons fall in warm
countries. There would be no difliculty in
temporarily creating an aperture in the
flimsy roof, and letting down a man on a
bed, as was done at Capernaum in the case
of the paralytic healed by our Lord (Mark ii.
1-12 ; Luke v. 18-26) ; only a shower of dust
would descend.

The houses of the better class are generally
built, as of old, in a quadrangle, around a
central courtyard, which in certain cases
may contain a fountain, or even a well (2
Sam. xvii. 18). The upper chamber is an
important room in the second story, some-

17; Mark xiii. 15). The windows are gen-
erally narrow, and mostly open into the
courtyard instead of facing the street.

The Arabs call the lower story the winter
house or simply the house, and the u))per one
the summer house. Or if both are on the
same floor, the summer house is the outer
and the winter house the inner room or rooms
(Jer. xxxvi. 22; Amos iii. 1.5).

Huk'kok [hewn in, decreed].

A town on the boundary line of Naphtali
(Josh. xix. 34). Yakuk, about 6 miles west
by north of Tell Hum, is too far north.

Hu'kok. See Helkath.

Hul [circle, circuit].

The second son of Aram (Gen. x. 23; 1
Chron. i. 17). Huleh, the region immediately
north of the waters of Merom, may possibly
preserve the name.

Hul'dah [weasel].

A projihetess, who lived in the second
quarter of Jerusalem (2 Kin. xxii. 14, E. V.),
She was the wife of Sballum, keeper of the

Court of a House m Damascus.

times constituting all there is of a second
story, being built above the general level of
the roof (Judg. iii. 20, E. Y. margin ; 1 Kin.
xvii. 19 ; 2 Kin. iv. 10 ; Mark xiv. 15 ; Acts i.
13 ; ix. 37). The roofs of all houses are flat.
They are generally, and should always be, sur-
rounded by battlements (Deut. xxii. 8). They
are well adapted for storing and drying agri-
cultural produce (Josh. ii. 6), for walking to
and fro (2 Sam. xi. 2), for conversation (1 Sam.
ix. 25, 26), for idolatrous worship (2 Kin. xxiii.
12), or for religious meditation and prayer
(Acts X. 9). There is a staircase outside the
house, by which the roof can be reached
without entering the building (cp. Mat. xxiv.

wardrobe, and was held in the highest es-
teem. She lived during the reign of Josiah,
and prophesied the destruction of Jerusalem,
but added that on account of his piety toward
Jehovah, the king should die before the com-
ing of the catastrophe (2 Kin. xxii. 12-20 ; 2
Chron. xxxiv. 20-28).

Hunt'er and Hunt'ing.

Hunting was a favorite pastime of ancient
kings (Gen. x. 9). The Babylonian and As-
syrian monarchs delighted in it, and were
proud of their achievements, recording their
succe-ss in inscriptions, and depicting their
deeds in sculpture to adorn the walls of their

Humtah

314

Husk

palaces. In Palestine jramc existed during
the entire biblieal period in certain localities,
as in the wilderness of Judah, the thickets
of liie Jordan, tlie more notable forests, and
the south country (Gen. xxv. 27; Antiq. xvi.
10, :J). Many of the animals recognized as
clean and fit for food were wild, and could
only be obtained by hunting. When the ani-
mal" was slain, its blood was poured out upon
tlie earth and not eaten (Deut. xii. 15, 16, 22).
Hunting was practiced in order to extermi-
nate noxious beasts (Ex. xxiii. 29 ; 1 Kin. xiii.
21), to secure food (Gen. xxvii. 3; Ecclus.
xxxvi. 19), and as sport (War i. 21, 13). People
hunted alone or in companies (Jer. xvi. 16),
on foot or on horseback (War i. 21, 13), and
on the great ])lains in chariots. The hunter
used bow and arrows (Is. vii. 24) and the
spear (Antiq. xvi. 10, 3). Decoys were em-
ployed (Jer. V. 26, 27), and nets and traps
(Job xviii. 10; Ecclus. xxvii. 20) and pits (2
Sam. xxiii. 20; Ezek. xix. 4, 8). Babylonians,
Assyrians, and Persians kept dogs trained for
the chase.

Hum'tah [place of lizards or, perhaps, for-
tress] .

A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh.
XV. 54). Site unknown.

Hu'pham.

A son or remoter descendant of Benjamin,
and founder of a tribal family (Num. xxvi.
39). Called Huppim (Gen. xlvi. 21; cp. 1
Chron. vii. 12, 15), and perhaps Huram (1
Chron. viii. 5). Huram would seem to be de-
scended from Bela or Gera. Huppim is not
registered with either Bela, Becher, or Jediael
in 1 Chron. vii. 12, unless he is descended
from Bela through Ir or Iri (ver. 7).

Hup'pah [a covering].

A descendant of Aaron. His family be-
came the thirteenth course of the priests (1
Chron. xxiv. 13).

Hup'pim. See Hupham.

Hur [whiteness, splendor].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 18, 19). He was the
grandfather of Bezaleel (20; Ex. xxxi. 1, 2).
With Aaron, he supported the arms of Moses
during the light with the Amalekites (Ex.
xvii. 10-12). He was associated with Aaron
in the government of the Israelites while
Moses was absent in mount Sinai (xxiv. 14).
Josci)hus, writing many centuries after the
event, calls Hur the husband of Miriam,
Moses' sister (Antiq. iii. 2, 4). The O. T. is
silent on the subject.

2. One of five kings of Midian slain by
Moses (Num. xxxi. H ; Josh. xiii. 21).

3. Father of Solomon's purveyor in mount
Ei)hraim (1 Kin. iv. 8).

4. Father of a certain Rcphaiah (Neh.
iii. 9).

Hu'rai [perhaps, a linen weaver].

One of David's mighty men from the brooks
of (}aash (1 Chron. xi. 32). Called Hiddai in
2 Sam. xxiii. 30.

Hu'ram [noble, ingenuous].

1. A king of Tyre (2 Chron. ii. 3). See
Hiram.

2. A Tyrian artificer (2 Chron. iv. 11, 16).
See Hiram.

3. A Benjamite, perhaps a son of Bela (1
Chron. viii. 5). See Hupham.

Hu'ri [perhaps, a linen weaver].

A (iadite (1 Chron. v. l^J).

Hu'shah [haste, emotion].

A town of Judah, to judge from 1 Chron.
iv. 4, aud xxvii. 11.

Hu'shai [hasty, hastening].

An Archite, one of David's two leading
counselors. He remained faithful to his
sovereign during Absalom's rebellion, and
eflfectually defeated the counsel of Ahithophel
(2 Sam. XV. 32-37; xvii. 5-16). See Ahith-
ophel.

Hu'sham [haste, passion].

A man of the laud of the Temanites, who
succeeded Jobab as king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 34, 35; 1 Chron. i. 45, 46).

Hu'shath-ite.

An inhabitant of Hushah (2 Sam. xxi. 18 ;
xxiii. 27).

Hu'sMm [not impossibly, opulent, rich in
children].

1. The son of Dan (Gen. xlvi. 23). Called
in Num. xxvi. 42 Shuham. The difference
is due to a transposition of the consonants.

2. A Benjamite family, sons of Aher (1
Chron. vii. 12).

3. One of the three wives of the Benjamite
Shaharaim (1 Chron. viii. 8, 11).

Husk.

A kind of food eaten by swine, and which
the prodigal son, when in poverty and de-

Pod and Branch of Carob Tree.

serted by his fair-weather friends, was glad
to share (Luke xv. 16). It is the pod of the
carob tree {Ccratonia siliqna), and is also called

Huz

315

Hyssop

locust beau and St. John's bread. The tree
is a handsome evergreen, attaining a height
of 30 feet, thornless, and with leaves like the
ash. The legumesare borne in great profusion,
and are often a foot long. When green they
are used for cattle and swine and in times of
great famine are eaten by people. A syrup is
made of the pulp of the pods.

Huz. See Uz.

Huz'zab.

Apjiarently a poetic term for Nineveh (Nah.
ii. 7). The Targum understands it to mean
the queen. But in the margin of the A. V.
it is rendered " that which was established "
or " there was a stand made," and in that of
the R. V. '• and it is decreed." Both of these
renderings make Huzzab simply a part of
the Hebrew verb yasab, to place or estab-
lish.

Hy'a-cinth, or in modified form Ja'cinth.

1. The name of a color (Rev. ix. 17).

2. A precious stone, constituting the elev-
enth foundation of the New Jerusalem (Rev.
xxi. 20). It is supposed to be the .sapphire (R.
y. margin). In modern usage the name is
given to the mineral zircon.

Hy-e'na.

An animal which feeds on offal, but is
often driven from it by the dogs (Ecclus.
xiii. 18). The striped hyena {Hysena striata)
is common in every part of Palestine, living
in caves and tombs, coming forth after dark
to rifle graves or otherwise seek after prey.
The valley of Zeboim in 1 Sam. xiii. 18
means the valley of hyenas.

Hy-me-nae'us [pertaining to Hymen, the
god of marriage].

One who made shipwreck of his faith,
blasphemed, and was excommunicated by
Paul (1 Tim. i. 20). He declared that the
resurrection was already past. Philetus was
associated with him in this error (2 Tim. ii.
17, 18).

Hymn.

A spiritual meditation designed, or at least
suitable, for singing or chanting in the wor-
ship of God. The Book of Rsalms is the
earliest hymn book in existence. Other mag-
nificent Hebrew religious odes are the songs
of Moses (Ex. xv. 1-19; Dent, xxxii. 1-43),
Deborah (Judg. v.), Hannah (1 Sam. ii. 1-10),
Mary (Lukei. 46-55), and Zacharias (68-79).
The last two are known as the Magnificat
and the Benedictus respectively, from the
first word of the Latin translation. The
Hebrew psalms were often sung to the ac-
companiment of music (2 Chron. xxix. 27,
28: cp. R. Y. of 1 Chron. xvi. 42). In the
N. T. three terms are used for Christian
songs : psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs or
odes (Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16). Josephus uses
two of these words, namely hymns and odes,
in reference to the psalms of David (Antiq.
vii. 12, 3). The hymn which Christ and his
disciples sang after supper on the night of

the betrayal (Mat. xxvi. 30) was doubtless
part of Ps. cxv.-cxviii., which were sung by
the Jews on the niglit of the passover after
supper. The early Christians sang hymns in
public worship and privately as a means of
worshiping God aiul of edification and com-
fort (Acts xvi. 25 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 26 ; Ejih. v.
19; Col. iii. 16). Fragments of early Chris-
tian hymns, known as such from the meter
in the Greek text, are preserved in 1 Tim.
iii. 16 ; Eph. v. 14 ; cp. Rev. xv. 3, 4. At the
beginning of the second century, in the reign
of Trajan, the Christians of Bithynia were
reported by Pliny as singing songs to Christ
as God (Epis. x. 96).

Hys'sop.

A plant of Egypt and Palestine (Ex. xii.
22), in Hebrew 'Ezoh. in Greek 'Ussdjws,
which springs out of walls, and was of so
small a size that it stood at one end of the
scale of magnitude which had the cedar of
Lebanon at the other (1 Kin. iv. 33). It was
aromatic, and was largely used, under the
law, often in bunches, with cedar wood and
wool, for ceremonial purification (Lev. xiv.
4, 6, 49, 51, 52; Xum. xix. 6, 18; Ps. Ii. 7;
Heb. ix. 19). A sponge filled with vinegar
was put upon hyssop and raised to the lips
of Jesus when he was on the cross (John
xix. 29). The common hyssop (Hyssopus

Common Hyssop.

officinalis) is a sweet-smelling plant, belong-
ing to the order Labiatw, or Mints. It is a
small bushy herb which grows to a height of
12 or 13 inches, and has small, hairy, lance-
olate leaves. But Tristram states that its
area is the south of Europe, the Danubian
province, and Siberia. Moreover, the state-
ment of two of the evangelists (Mat. xxvii.
48 ; Mark xv. 36) that the sponge of vinegar
offered to Jesus was put upon kalamos, a reed

Ibhar

316

Iddo

which the common hyssop does not produce,
has led sonic interin-ctcrs to think that a dif-
ferent plant from the common hyssop is in-
tended, perliaps the caper phmt (Cappaiis
spinosa), sometimes called by the Arabs 'amf.
It is common in Palestine and the adjacent
regions, grows out of walls, and could fur-
nish a reedy stem three or four feet long, to
which a si)()nge might be affixed. Rabbinical
tradition identifies the Hebrew 'ezoh with the
Arabic m'tar, commonly held to be Origanum,
marjory. This plant is common in Palestine,
growing on walls and rocks. Its thick, hairy
leaves and hairy l)ranches can be made into
a bunch, and would hold liquids for sprink-
ling. It is a small herb, however, and could
not furnish a rod ; but the bunch of hyssop
used in sprinkling was attached, it is argued,
to a rod of cedar, and such a sprinkler was
seized as the most available means at hand
of reaching the sponge to the lips of the
crucified Jesus.

I.

Ib'liar [(God) doth choose].

One of king David's sons born at Jerusalem
(2 Sam. V. 15; 1 Chron. xiv. 5).

I'bis.

A bird (Lev. xi. 19, E. V. margin), allied
to the herons and storks. It was formerly
venerated by the Egyptians. See Heron.

Ib'le-am [the people faileth].

One of the cities within the territory of
Issachar which belonged to the tribe of
Manasseh. The Manassites, however, did
not drive out the Canaanite inhabitants
(Josh. xvii. 11, 12 ; Judg. i. 27). It was near
Ibleamthat Ahaziah, kiugof Judah, wasmor-
tally wounded by the followers of Jehu (2 Kin.
ix. 27). It is generally identified with the
town Bileam, which belonged to Manasseh,
but was assigned to the Levites (1 Chron. vi.
70) ; perhaps Bel'amch, a ruin and well one
mile south of Jenin (cp. Judith iv. 4; vii. 3).

Ib-ne'iali [Jehovah doth build].

A Benjamite, son of Jeroham and head of
a father's house (1 Chron. ix. 8).

Ib-ni'jah [Jehovah doth build].

A Benjamite, father of Keuel (1 Chron.
ix. 8).

Ib'ri [a Hebrew].

A son of Jaaziah (1 Chron. xsiv. 27).

Ib'sam, in A. V. Jibsam [fragrant].

A man of Issachar, family of Tola (1 Chron.
vii. 2).

Ib'zan [active].

A judge who ruled over Israel, or part of
it, for seven years. He was a native of Beth-
lehem, apparently that in Zebulun, was bur-
ied in his native place, and was succeeded by
a Zebulunite. He had thirty sons and thirty
daughters, doubtless by a plurality of wives
(Judg. xii. 8-10).

Ich'a-bod [the glory is not].

Sun of Phinehas and grandson of Eli. The
name commemorated the fact that the glory
had departed from Israel, for the ark of God
was taken (1 Sam. iv. 19-22).

I-co'ni-uin.

A city of Asia Minor, which is described by
Xenophon as the last city in Phrygia to one
traveling eastward (Anabasis i. 2, 19). Un-
der the Eoman and the Greek empires Iconium
was considered the capital of Lycaonia. It
was situated in a fertile plain. Barnabas and
Paul visited it on the first missionary journej--
both going and returning (Acts xiii. 51, 52 ;
xiv. 1-6, 19-22 ; cp. xvi. 2 ; 2 Tim. iii. 11).
It has had an unbroken history and the same
name until the present time, being now
known as Koniah. It is the capital of the
pashalic of Karamau ; and is a large city
surrounded by a wall built of the materials
derived from older structures.

Id'a-lah.

A border town of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 15).
Site unknown.

Id'bash [perhaps honey-sweet].

A man of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 3).

Id'do, I. [hap, happy].

The chief at Casiphia through whom Ezra,
when conducting a company of exiles from
Babylonia to Jerusalem, obtained the con-
tingent, which was lacking, of Levites and
Nethinim for the service of the temple (Ezra
viii. 17-20).

Id'do, II. [loving, affectionate].

1. Son of Zechariah, and a chief in David's
reign of the half-tribe of Manasseh east of
the Jordan (1 Chron. xxvii. 21).

2. A man induced by Ezra to put away his
foreign wife (Ezra x. 43). In A. V. the name
is written Jadau, a mongrel word arising
from the translators' pronouncing the conso-
nants of the text with the vowels of the mar-
gin. The real alternative to Iddo is Jaddai,
as in the margin of R. V.

Id'do, III. [decked, adorned].

1. A Levite, a descendant of Gershom (1
Chron. vi. 21). Apparently called Adaiah
synonymously (41).

2. Father of Ahinadab, Solomon's purveyor
at Mahanaim (1 Kin. iv. 14).

3. A seer who wrote a book of visions con-
cerning Jeroboam and in which events of
Solomon's reign were related (2 Chron. ix.
29), a book on genealogies, in which deeds of
Rehoboam were recorded (xii. 15), and a his-
tory which treated of king Abijah's acts (xiii.
22).

4. Grandfather of the prophet Zechariah
(Zech. i. 1,7; cp. Ezra v. 1 ; vi. 14). He is
not unreasonably believed to be identical
with Iddo, a chief of the priests who re-
turned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem and
whose name is that of a father's house in the
next generation. Tlie head of thishouse at the
time mentioned is a priest named Zechariah

Idol

317

Igal

(Neh. xii. 4, 16). The difference in spelling
the name Idilo in these two verses of Nehe-
niiah in the Hebrew is merely the difference
between jod and vau (q. v.).

I'dol [a mental or material image].

An image, a sculpture, or other represen-
tation of any person or being, intended as an
object of worship, or as the embodiment and
efficient presence of a deity (Ex. xx. 4, 5,
23 ; Judg. xvii. 3 ; 1 Sam. v. 3, 4 ; Eom. i.
23). They were made of silver, of gold (Ps.
cxv. 4 : cxxxv. 15), of wood, or other material
(Is. xliv. 13-17). When metallic, they were
fashioned by running melted metal into a
mold, in which case they M'cre called mol-
ten images; or they consisted of plates of
metal over a wooden frame or over a molten
body, and were termed graven images. When
of wood or stone, they were made by graving
tools or other instruments, and were also called
graven images. The process of manufacture
is described in Isaiah and Jeremiah (Is. xl.
19, 20; xliv. 9-20; Jer. x. 9). Some were
small, especially those designed as house-
hold gods or teraphim (Gen. xxxi. 34 ; xxxv.
1-4) ; some were as large as a human being
(1 Sam. xix. 16) ; some, such as that erected
by Nebuchadnezzar in the plain of Dura, were
colossal (Dan. iii. 1). Various epithets are
applied to idols, which express the com-
mingled loathing and contempt with which
they were regarded by the enlightened serv-
ant of Jehovah. One of the most notable
is vanity.

I-dol'a-try.

Iihjlatry was practiced at a comparatively
early period of man's history. The immedi-
ate ancestors of Abraham worshiped other
gods (Josh. xxiv. 2), in addition to Jehovah,
it may be believed, and doubtless by means
of idols. Laban had images, which Eachel
was too justly accused of stealing (Gen. xxxi.
30, 32-35). The Egyptians made figures of
the gods to serve as objects of worship, and
in the innermost sanctuary of their temples
lay the symbol of a god and a sacred animal
(Herod, ii. 63, 13b). The Cauaanite nations had
idols, which the Israelites, on succeeding to
the land, were ordered to destroy (Ex. xxiii.
24j; xxxiv. 13 ; Lev. xix. 4 ; Num. xxxiii. 52 ;
Deut. vii. 5 ; xxix. 17). The second com-
mandment was directed against idolatry (Ex.
XX. 4, 5; Deut. v. 8, 9), forbidding man to
bow down to images, sculptures, statues, and
pictures. And the teachers of Israel followed
up this injunction by pointing out and ridi-
culing the impotency of idols (Ps. cxv. ; Is.
ii. 8, 18, 20, 21; xl. 19, 20; xliv. 9-20; Jer.
X. 3-5). Their helplessness was discovered
when the ark of the Lord was in the temple
of Dagon (1 Sam. v. 3-5). The apocryiihal
book of Bel and the Dragon treats of the de-
ceitful practices of the priests in the idol
temples. Of the nations with whom the
Israelites were brought into contact during
Scripture times, all but the Persians were idol-

aters ; and the divinities whom their images
represented were other gods than Jehovah.
When the Israelites borrowed idolatrous
practices from the neighboring nations, two
well-marked stages were traceable in the
progress of error. At first they attempted to
worship Jehovah l)y means of images ; see
Jekoboam. Then they entirely departed
from Jehovah, and the idols they made were
designed to represent other divinities ; see
Baal. In N. T. times directions had to be
given as to the precautions which church
members who lived in heathen comnuinilies
were required to take to avoid compromising
themselves with idolatry. The council of
Jerusalem enjoined that they should abstain
from meats oflered to idols (Acts xv. 29).
Paul gave the same injunction, but explained
that in the case of those who had no faith in
idols, abstinence was designed to avoid cast-
ing a stumbling-block in the path of the
weaker brethren (1 Cor. viii. 4-13). If re-
ceiving hospitality at any house, and meat
which might pos.sibly have been offered to an
idol was set on the table, the Christian guest
was not required to ask any questions for con-
science' sake ; but if he was expressly told
that the food had been offered to an idol,
then he was to abstain. The same rule was
to be carried out with regard to food pur-
chased for the household in the ordinary
market (x. 18-33). About a. d. 300 images
were introduced into some Christian churches
for instruction and ornament only. In 736
the eastern emperor Leo issued edicts against
them. In 780 the empress Irene introduced
image worship into the eastern church, and
in 787 the second council of Nice gave them
ecclesiastical sanction.

Id-u-mse'a, in A. V. of O. T. and Apocry-
pha Idumea [pertaining to Edom].

The name used by Greeks and Eomans in
slightly different si)elling, for the country of
Edom (Mark iii. 8 ; and in A. V. only, Is.
xxxiv. 5, 6 ; Ezek. xxxv. 15 ; xxxvi. 5). After
the fall of Jerusalem, in 587 B. c, the Edom-
ites began to press northward (Ezek. xxxvi.
5). They themselves were driven from Petra
westward by the Nabathfeans about 300 B. C,
and before the middle of the second century
B. c. they were occupying, not only southern
Judah, l)utalso Hebron and the country to its
north as far as Bethzur (1 Mac. iv. 29 ; v. 65).
Judas Maccabreus warred against them suc-
cessfully ; and John Hyrcanus, about 126
B. c, completely subjugated them and placed
them under a Jewish governor (Antiq. xiii.
9,1).

I-e'zer. See Abiezek.

I-e'zer-ite. See Abiezerite.

I'gal, in A. V. once Igeal (1 Chron. iii. 22)
[he will vindicate].

1. The spy sent forth by the tribe of Issa-
char to search out the land of Canaan (Num.
xiii. 7).

2. One of David's mighty men, the son of

Igdaliah

518

Immanuel

Nathan (2 Sam. xxiii. 36). He occupies the
same position in the catalogue as does Joel
in 1 Cliron. xi. 38, and it is natural to identify
the two. But the relation of the two lists at
this point is ditljcult to determine; and as
Igal and Joel are differently described, they
may be different persons, nephew and uncle.

3. A son of Shemaiah, a de.-.ceudant of king
Jeconiah (1 C'hron. iii. 22).

Ig-da-li'ah [great is Jehovah].

Father of the prophet Hauan (Jer. xxxv. 4).

I'ge-al. See Igal.

I'im [ruins].

1. A town east of the Jordan (Num. xxxiii.
45). See Iye-ab.\rim.

2. A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XY. 29). Site unknown.

I-je-ab'a-rim. See Iye-abarim.

I'jon [a ruin].

A fortified city of Naphtali, one of those
captured by Benhadad, king of Syria, at the
instigation of Asa (1 Kin. xv. 20; 2 Chron.
xvi. 4). Its inhabitants were subsequently
carried into captivity by Tiglath-pileser (2
Kin. XV. 29). Eobinson located it, probably
correctly, on Tell Dibbin, a hill 110 feet high,
on the eastern border of Merj 'Ayun, meadow
of springs, which seems to preserve a trace
of the old name. The site is about 8 miles
north-northwest of Bauias.

Ik'kesh [perverse].

Father of David's captain and mighty man
Ira (2 Sam. xxiii. 26 ; 1 Chron. xi. 28).

I'lai [supreme].

One of David's mighty men (1 Chron. si.
29), called Zalmon in 2 Sam. xxiii. 28.

Il-lyr'i-cum.

A country bounded on the north by Pan-
nonia, on the south by Epirus, on the east by
Macedonia, and, when it included Dalmatia,
on the west by the Adriatic Sea. It is trav-
ersed from northwest to southeast by the
Noric, Carnic, and Julian Alps, constituting
the most easterly portion of the great Al-
pine chain. Along the coast are excellent
harbors and numerous islands. The Illyrian
race inhabiting the region were wild moun-
taineers, who were a thorn in the side of
their neighbors, the Macedonians ; and, when
they descended to the seacoast, they so prac-
ticed piracy as to bring them into collision
with the Romans, who, in 229 B. c, began to
conquer them, and finally made IlljTicum,
or lUyria, a province of the empire. The
apostle Paul preached the gospel from Jeru-
sjilem and round al)out even to Illyricum
(Rom. XV. 19). Iti the later years of the Ro-
man empire the name Illyricum gained a
nuich wider meaning. A great part of Illyr-
icum in the more limited sense constitutes
Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro.

Im'age. See Idol.

Im'la or Imlah [he, /. r. God, doth fill].

Father of the iintphet Micaiah (1 Kin. xxii.
8, 9 ; 2 Chron. xviii. 7, 8).

Im-man'u-el, in A. V. of N. T. Emmanuel,
the Greek pronunciation [God with us].

A son whom " the maiden " should bear (Is.
vii. 14, R. V. margin). Before the son is born,
or at the time of his birth, historical events will
justify naming him " God with us ;" before he
attains to years of moral determination, the
land of northern Israel and Damascus will be
forsaken of its kings, and unexampled punish-
ment will be inflicted on Judah (ver. 16, 17) ;
and during the years of his moral maturity,
he shall eat the products of a land that has
been w;isted by the nations (ver. 15, 18 seq.).
Isaiali had in mind that worthy Son of David
about whom prophecy had begun to cluster :
for 1. He foretells the birth of a son, not sim-
ply of a child. 2. He utters this prophecy to
the house of David in view of God's rejec-
tion of the faithless successor of David who
then occupied the throne. 3. On the natural
interpretation of viii. 8, which observes the
previous use of Immanuel as the name of
the son, does justice to the pronoun of th©
second person in the clause preceding Im-
manuel, and affords an easy transition to the
succeeding verse, Immanuel is a person ; and
if so, he is a native of Judah, and sufficiently
great to be singled out as a representative,
for Judah is spoken of as the land of Im-
manuel ; and he is a powerful personage, for
because of him the rage of the nations is
vain (ver. 9 seq.). 4. The Messiah is definitely
before the prophet's mind in ix. 6, 7 and xi.
1 ; and violence is required to separate these
prophecies from that of chap. vii. The Mes-
sianic hope was awake at this period of his-
tory. 5. The use of the article with maiden
is adequately explained. Isaiah uses it to
designate the young woman, unknown by
name, yet definite, who is to be the mother
of Messiah (cp. Mic. v. 3). 6. Looking back,
this meaning seems to have been the mind
of the Spirit (Mat. i. 22, 23).

The prophet is, therefore, thinking of
David's son, who might appear at any time.
But he is not predicting the birth of Heze-
kiah and expecting him to be the Messiah ;
for 1. Hezekiah was already born. This
prophecy was delivered in 734 B. c, and
Hezekiah was on the throne, a vigorous
ruler in 727 b. c. 2. After the lapse
of a year and when Hezekiah was a youth,
the prophet still continues to look forward
to the future for the going forth of the
shoot out of the root of Jesse. 3. Heze-
kiah did not eat curds and honey; the pro-
cesses which issued in the spoliation and sub-
jection of the land had only begun in Heze-
kiah's time. If ver. 18-25 of Is. vii. are in-
cluded in the prophecy, the fly of Egypt did
not come upon Judah in Hezekiah's day.
Even ver. 17 presents a picture which belongs
to the remoter future ; days such as had not
been wfere not brought upon Ahaz and his
people, only the beginning of the process
which resulted in the predicted calamity was
seen.

Immanuel

319

Imnah

Imiuauuel was a sifin. But Ahaz did uot
live until auy child born that year reached
the a^je of moral selt'-deterniination, for
Ahaz died before the fall of Samaria in 722.
He did not live to see the land forsaken (16).
Immanuel was not a sign to compel faith in
Ahaz, but one that called for faith. Like
many other signs of the O. T., it called for
present faith and occurred only when the
prophecy was fulfilled (Ex. iii. 12).

The birth, infancy, and youth of Messiah
are described as actually jiassing before the
prophet's sight; but the prophet himself did
uot understand that the Jlessiah was neces-
sarily to be born immediately, for when the
Messiah did uot appear within a year, Isaiah
shows no signs of disappointment, loses no
faith in the prophetic revelation, continues
his activity, makes still greater disclosures re-
garding Immanuel, and enjoys the continued
confidence of his fellow countrymen. Isaiah
would inquire what and what manner of time
the Spirit which was in him did signify.

The promise of immediate deliverance
from the advancing enemy (Is. vii. 3-11) is
confirmed by an appeal to an event which
might occur sooner or later. But whether
occurring at once or long subsecjuently, it is
confirmatory, because it implies the deliver-
ance promised to Ahaz. The assurance,
already given by God (2 Sam. vii. 11-17),
that the Messiah should be born of the royal
family of David was a sign to the house of
David, including Ahaz, that the purpose of
Eezin and Pekah to destroy the kingdom and
place a new king over the people should not
stand (Is. vii. 13, 14). And the remoter the
sign, that is the remoter the birth of Messiah,
the stronger was the guarantee of the long
continuance of the royal family of Judah.

The birth and infancy of Immanuel meas-
ure the progress of the predicted events. " I
see his birth, who is God's guarantee of the
continued existence and deliverance of
Judah, as though it is already at hand. I do
uot know the times and the seasons, but it is
revealed to me as a sign to you, and as though
about to occur. As such it contains a meas-
ure of time for the immediate future. Be-
fore the child comes to the years when one
choo.ses between right and wrong, the north-
ern laud shall be forsaken. At the time of
life when one's moral faculties have matured,
he, the scion of the royal house of Judah,
will dwell in a wasted land." Any child would
serve for measuring the time ; but the child
chosen is Messiah because the prophecy of
deliverance rested upon the promises which
centered in the Messiah.

Now let us measure the period. 1. Before
Christ attained the age when man's moral
faculties are mature the northern kingdom
was desolate. In fact before a child, born in
the year of this meeting between Isaiah and
Ahaz, could have reached moral maturity the
land of the north was desolate. The meet-
ing is known to have taken place iu 734 B. c.

lu 722 Damascus and the district governed
by it had been ravaged by the Assyrians, the
two and a half tribes of Israel east of the
Jordan had Ijcen carried off, Samaria had
fallen and a large body of its inhabitants had
been deported. Ahaz saw the beginnings of
this, but died before its accomplishment. The
house of David saw the complete fulfillment.
The process thus begun continued. In 65
years Ephraim had ceased to be a people. At
Christ's appearance, this was still true. The
ten tribes uo longer existed as a nation, and
no longer occupied the land of their fathers.
2. At a time when a child's moral facuitii'S
w'ould be mature, Ahaz himself had gone to
Damascus, had done homage to the As.syriaQ
king, and had acknowledged that Judah was
a tributary state to Assyria. The land itself
was not actually devastated, but it had bowed
itself down to the foreign yoke. From this
time onward, with the exception of short iu- .
tervals, it was in a sense sulyect to the domi-
nant world-power, and it was looked upon by
the great empire of each period as a depen-
dency, aud whenever Judah claimed inde-
pendence it was visited sooner or later by
the imperial power which claimed sov-
ereignty and was punished and wasted. Its
nationality was not blotted out aud the
royal family was uot destroyed nor over-
looked ; but Judah was, generally speaking,
a dependency. When Christ actually ap-
peared, Judah was still acknowledging a for-
eign sovereign. In other words, all the pro-
cesses foretold by Isaiah began in the life-
time of Ahaz, and their results were iu full
force when the Messiah actually appeared.

Im'mer [talkative].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
become a father's house in the time of David,
and was made the sixteenth course of priests
(1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 14). The ruler of the
house of God iu the days of Jeremiah, aud
an antagonist of the prophet, apparently be-
longed to this house (Jer. xx. 1), and doubt-
less they were members of this family who re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 37 ; Neh. xi. 13). Two priests of this house
were among those who about a century after
the return were guilty of marrying foreign
wives (Ezra x. 20). A little later another son
of Immer took part iu the honorable work
of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem (Neh.
iii. 29).

2. A person or a place in Babylonia whence
exiles returned. He or they failed, however,
to prove their genealogy (Ezra ii. 59 ; Neh.
vii. 61).

probably God, doth re-

Im'na [he, i.
strain].

An Asherite. :
vii. 35).

Im'nab, in A.
Jlmnah (Gen. xlvi. 17
allotteth].

1. Son of Asher and founder of a tribal

son of Helem (1 Chron.

V. once Jimna and once
Num. xxvi. 44) [he

Imrah

320

Inspiration

family (Num. xxvi. 44 ; 1 Chron. vii. 30 ; Gen.
xlvi. 17).

2. A Levite, father of Kore, in Hezekiah's
reign (2 Chron. xxxi. 14).

Im'rah [stubborn, refractory].

An Asherite, son of Zophah (1 Chron. vii.
36).

Im'ri [eloquent].

1. A man of Judah, son of Bani, and a de-
scendant of Perez (1 Chron. ix. 4).

2. Father of that Zaccur, who rebuilt part
of the wall of Jerusalem after the captivity
(Neh. iii. 2).

In'cense.

Fragrant substances designed to be burnt,
especially in religious worship. Sweet in-
cense was largely used as an clement in the
Israelite ritual (Ex. xxv. 6 ; xxxv. 8, 28 ;
xxxvii. 29). The ingredients were stacte or
opobalsamum, onycha, galbanum, and jiure
frankincense in equal proportions, tempered
with salt. It was not allowed to be made for
ordinary purposes (Ex. xxx. 34-38; Lev. x.
1-7). An altar of incense was fashioned of
acacia wood overlaid with pure gold, and was
placed in the holy place, j ust outside the veil
which concealed the holy of holies ; and each
morning, when the high priest dressed the
lamps, he burned incense on it (Ex. xxx. 1-9 ;
Luke i. 10) ; .see Altae. Once a year on the
great day of atonement, he brought the in-
cense within the veil, and, burning it on a
fire in a censer in the most holy place, envel-
oped the mercy seat in a cloud of the odorifer-
ous smoke which it sent forth (Lev. xvi. 12,
1.'}). When the altar was dedicated, each of
the princes brought a gift of incense carried
in a spoon (Num. vii. 14, 20, etc.). Where so
many animal sacrifices were offered as there
were in the courts, both of the tabernacle
and the temple, the smell of blood must have
polluted the atmosphere, and the burning of
incense exerted a good sanitary influence.
But it had also a symbolic reference. It
availed to make atonement (Num. xvi. 46,
47), for it was typical of the intercession of
the appointed high priest. The psalmist re-
quested that his prayer might be set forth
before Jehovah as incense (Ps. cxli. 2) ; the
worshipers prayed outside the temple while
Zacharias offered incense within its walls
(Luke i. 10) ; and in an apocalyptic vision an
angel liurnt incense on the golden altar, the
smoke ascending with the prayers of saints
(Rev. viii. 'i-5). The worshipers of false di-
vinities, no less than those who adored the
true God, burnt incense (2 Chron. xxxiv. 25;
Jer. xlviii. .35).

In'di-a [in Hebrew 7/o(?», through Persian
Iliilliu, iVoni Hindu, the river Indus].

A district on the lower Indus, conquered
by Darius the Great and incorporated with
the Persian empire (Herod, iii. 94 ; iv. 44 ;
Persei)olis inscri]>tion). It formed the eastern
limit of the Persian emjiire (Esth. i. 1 ; viii.
9; cp. Herod, iv. 40). Alexander the Great

crossed the Indus on his career of conquest.
The occurrence of the name in 1 Mac. viii.
8 is suspicious. Luther substituted Ionia. At
any rate Judas Maccabseus was misinformed
if he was told that the Romans had taken
India from Antiochus.

In'gatb-er-ing, Feast of. See Taber-
nacles, Feast of.

In-her'it-ance. See Heie.

Ink'horn.

A horn or anything similar for holding
ink. It was carried at the side (Ezek. ix. 2).
The inkhorn is still in use in the East. It
consists of a case of wood, horn, or metal,
with a head at one end for holding the ink,
and a long shaft in which the reeds for
writing are kept. The case is worn stuck in
the girdle.

Inn.

An oriental inn bears little resemblance to
an occidental hotel. The inn was not so nec-
essary in primitive times. Travelers readily
found reception in the houses of the hospita-
ble (Ex. ii. 20 ; Judg. xix. 15-21 ; 2 Kin. iv.
8 ; Acts xxviii. 7; Heb. xiii. 2). The public
inn was a mere place of shelter for man and
beast. Like the modern khans, it was prob-
ably a large, quadrangular court, with a well
in the center and around the sides rooms for
travelers, chambers for goods, and stalls for
cattle. The rooms were destitute of furni-
ture. The traveler spread his mat on the
floor, if he had one to spread ; if not, then
his shawl-like mantle sufficed for mattress
and covering. He also provided food for
himself and fodder for his cattle. Free lodg-
ing places of this sort were erected by liberal
wealthy men for the benefit of wayfarers
(cp. Jer. xli. 17). Rarely was there a host
from whom food could be purchased (Luke
X. 34, 35).

In-spi-ra'tion.

The terms inspiration and inspired are
u.sed in English with .great latitude of mean-
ing, and this latitude is reflected to some ex-
tent in their usage in the English Bible.
They occur, however, only twice in the
English Bible, and in both cases in a reli-
gious sense (Job xxxii. 8; 2 Tim. iii. 16).
In the former passage the word is used
loosely to give expression to the broad fact that
men are not independent of God as intellec-
tual beings, but that for small and great, old
and young alike, it is "the breath [or inspi-
ration] of the Almighty [that] gi veth them un-
derstanding." In the latter passage the word
inspired is used in its more proper and spe-
cific sense as a direct predicate of the written
Scriptures, attirming that quality of divinity
in them by virtue of which they are " profita-
ble " for the great ends for which they are
given. The Scriptures which the apostle
had particularly in mind in this passage were
the sacred books of the Jews, what we call
the O. T. ; hut the affirmation he makes will

^i

Inspiration

321

Ir-nahash

■naturally hold good of all writings which
riiihtly share the high title of Scripture with
tlieni. The quality which he thus makes
the fundamental characteristic of Scripture
is expressed in the original Greek, not by
the simple word inspired, but by a com-
pound word, God-inspired, possibly of his
own coinage, by which the divine source
of the inspiration is emphasized. He ad-
duces this fundamental quality of Scrip-
ture as the ground on which the unique
value of the Scriptures rests: "All scrip-
ture," he says, "is given by inspiration of
God, and is [therefore] profitable, etc." (A.
v.), or, ■' Every Scripture, [seeing that it is]
inspired of God, is also profitable, etc." (R.
v.). Inspiration, according to the apostle,
is, therefore, the fundamental quality of
the written Scriptures, by virtue of which
they are the word of God, and are clothed
with all the characteristics which properly
belong to the word of God. In accordance
with the teaching of this classical passage,
Scripture is uniformly recognized, through-
out the N. T., as the very word of God, and
is treated as possessing all the qualities which
would naturally flow from its divine origin.
Thus it is currently cited by the exclusive
titles Scripture, the Scriptures, the Oracles
of God (Rom. iii. 2) or the Living Oracles
(Acts vii. 38, R. V.), and its words are
ordinarily adduced by the authoritative
formula, " It is written." Its divine charac-
ter is explicitly expressed in the constant
ascri])tion of the words cursorily quoted from
it to God as their author (Acts xiii. 34 ; 1 Cor.
vi. 16 ; Mat. i. 22 ; ii. 1.5 ; Rom. i. 2), or more
specificallv to the Holv Spirit (Heb. iii. 7 ; ix.
8 ; X. 15 ; Actsi. 16 ; iv. 25, R. V. ; xxviii. 25) ;
and that, even when they are not ascribed to
God in the original passages, but are spoken
of or even addressed to him, and can be
thought his only because they are part of
the Scripture text (Acts iv. 24, 25 ; xiii. 34,
35 ; Mat. xix. 5 ; Heb. i. 6, 7, 8, 10 ; iv. 4, 7 ;
vii. 21 ; X. 30). While on the other hand the
human writers of Scripture are said to have
spoken " in " the Holy Spirit (Mark xii. 36 ;
Mat. xxii. 43, both R. V.), and are treated as
merely the media through whom God the Holy
Ghost speaks (Mat. i. 22 ; ii. 15 ; Acts i. 16 ; iv.
25; xxviii. 25; Rom. i. 2). Accordingly, the
very words of Scripture are accounted
authoritative and "not to be broken" (Mat.
xxii. 43; John x. 34, 35; Gal. iii. 16); its
prophecies sure (2 Pet. i. 20 ; John xix. 36,
37 ; x.x. 9 ; Acts i. 16 ; cp. Ezra i. 1 ; Dan. ix.
2) ; and its whole contents, historical as well
as doctrinal and ethical, not only entirely
trustworthy, but designedly framed for the
spiritual profit of all ages (2 Tim. iii. 16 ;
Rom. XV. 4 ; 1 Gor. x. 11 ; Rom. iv. 23 ; ix.
17 ; 1 Cor. ix. 10 ; Gal. iii. 8. 22 ; iv. 30 ; 1
Pet. ii. 6 ; cp. 2 Chron. xvii. 9 ; Neh. viii. 1).
That the books of the N. T. are given to the
church as equally Scripture with tho.se of the
O. T., and share with them in all their di-
21

vine qualities, is shown by the equal claim
to authority which is made for them (1 Cor.
vii. 40; xiv. 37; 2 Thes. iii. 4, 14; Gal. i.
S) ; the similar representation of their
authors as the organs of God (1 Thes. ii. 13;
iv. 2 ; 1 Cor. ii. 13, 16 ; vii. 40) ; and the inclu-
sion of N. T. books along with tho.se of the
O. T. under the common sacred title of
Scripture (2 Pet. iii. 16 ; 1 Tim. v. 18).

B. B. W.

In'stant and In'stant-ly.

As an adjective or adverb, in the obsolete
sense of earnest or steadfast (Luke vii. 4;
Acts xxvi. 7 ; Rom. xii. 12, A. V. ; 2 Tim. iv. 2.)

I'ob, in A. V. Job. See Jashub.

Iph-de'iah, in A. V. Iph-e-de'iah [Jehovah
doth deliver].

A Benjamite, son of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 25).

Iph'tah. in A. V. Jiphtah [he openeth or
setteth free].

A town of Judah (Josh. xv. 43). Site un-
known.

Iph'tah-el, in A. V. JipMhah-el [God
doth open or set free] .

A valley on the boundary line between
Zebulun and Asher (Josh. xix. 14, 27). The
name is perhaps found in Jotopata, the mod-
ern Tell Jefat, 9 miles north by west of Naz-
areth.

Ir. See Iri.

I'ra [watchful].

1. A Jairite who was priest or chief minis-
ter to David (2 Sam. xx. 26).

2. One of David's mighty men, a Tekoite,
son of Ikkesh (2 Sam. xxiii. 26 ; 1 Chron,
xi. 28).

3. An Ithrite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 38 ; 1 Chron. xi. 40).

I'rad.

A descendant of Cain (Gen. iv. 18).

I'ram [perhaps, pertaining to a city, or
watchful] .

A chieftain of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 43 ; 1
Chron. i. 54).

I'ri and probably Ir [pertaining to a city,
or watchful].

A Benjamite, familj' of Bela (1 Chron. vii.
7, 12).

I-ri'jah [Jehovah doth see or provide].

Acai)tain of the guard. During the tem-
porary departure of the Chaldeans from the
siege of Jerusalem, he arrested Jeremiah,
who was going out at the gate of Benjamin,
on the charge of attempting to fall away to
the enemy (Jer. xxxvii. 13).

Ir-na'bash [city of Nahash or of a ser-
pent].

A town of which a man of Judah was the
leading citizen (1 Chron. iv. 12). The mar-
gin renders city of Nahash. The chronicler
may intend the town of Abigail's father (2
Sam. xvii. 25).

Iron

322

Isaac

I'ron, I.

A metal, in Hebrew Barzel, in Greek
Sideros. Tubal-cain, of the race of Cain,
worked in brass and iron (Gen. iv. 22). As
early as the Mosaic period, there were axes
and other instruments of iron (Num. xxxv.
Ki ; Dfiit. xix. o, margin). Og, king of
Bashan, had a bedstead of iron (iii. 11). In
the time of Joshua, vessels were made of the
metal (Josh. vi. 19, 24) ; and chariots of iron
for war iiurposes were in use (Josh. xvii. 16),
continuing through the period of the judges,
and on to later times (Judg. i. 19 ; iv. 3, 13).
Of iron were made armor and weapons, as
spearheads and breastplates (1 Sam. xvii. 7;
Eev. ix. 9) ; agricultural implements, as har-
rows and threshing instruments (2 Sam. xii.
31 ; Amos i. 3) ; builder's tools and nails (1
Kin. vi. 7; 1 Chron. xxii. 3) ; graving tools
(Job xix. 24 ; Jer. xvii. 1) ; barbed irons for
fishing (Job xli. 7) ; gates, bars, fetters (Ps.
cv. 18; cvii. 10, 16 ; cxlix. 8 ; Is. xlv. 2 ; Acts
xii. 10) ; idols (Dan. v. 4). Iron was imported
from Tarshish, Greece, and the north, doubt-
less from the vicinity of the Black Sea (Jer.
XV. 12 ; Ezek. xxvii. 12, 19). It was obtain-
able in Palestine (Deut. viii. 9), being abun-
dant on the Lebanon mountains. The ore
was reduced in furnaces (Deut. iv. 20; 1 Kin.
viii. 51) which, to judge from those in use in
Lebanon, were built of stone, about ten feet
in height and three in diameter. Charcoal
was used in them, and the fire was blown by
bellows (Ezek. xxii. 20; cp. Jer. vi. 29). The
process was laborious and involved enormous
waste. See Smith.

I'ron, II. [timidity, reverence, or rather,
possessing a view, conspicuous].

A fortified city of Xaphtali (Josh. xix. 38) ;
probably the present village of Yarun, 10
miles west from the waters of Merom.

Ir'pe-el [God healeth].

A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 27). Con-
der thinks it probably the village Rafat, 6V
miles north by west of Jerusalem, the an-
cient and modern names having the same
meaning.

Ir-she'mesh [city of the sun].
A town of Dan (Josh. xix. 41), probably the
same as Beth-shcmesh.

I'ru [pertaining to a city, or watchful].
A son of the celebrated Caleb (1 Chron.
iv. 15).

I'saac [he laugheth, or laughing one].

The son of Abraham, by Sarah his wife, born
when his father was 100 years old and his moth-
er about 90 (Gen. xxi. .5; cp. xvii. 17). When
the promise was made to Abraham that Sarah
should bear him a son, he laughed question-
ingly (xvii. 17-19). Later when Sarah heard
the promise from the mouth of the stranger
stopping at the camp, she laughed incredu-
lously (xviii. 9-lt>) ; and when the child was
born she joyfully confessed that God had
prepared laughter for her and her friends

(xxi. 6). To commemorate these events and
the faithfulness of God, Abraham called the
boy's name Isaac, one laugheth. He was cir-
cumcised on the eighth day, and being the
child of promise had from the first higher
privileges than were accorded to Ishmael,
Abraham's son by the Egyptian maid Hagar
(xxi. 1-12). To exhibit and develop Abra-
ham's faith, God commanded him to oti'er
Isaac as a burnt offering. Isaac was then
a youth (xxii. H), perhaps 25 years old, as
Josephus says ; but he filially acquiesced in
the purpose of his father. When Abraham
had laid him upon the altar, and thus
shown his readiness to give all that he pos-
sessed to God, the angel of the Lord for-
bade the sacrifice and accepted a ram instead,
thus testifying against the idolatrous prac-
tices of the Canaanites, and many other idol-
atrous peoples, and teaching to all men that
human sacrifices are an abomination to the
Lord (xxii. 1-18). The temperament of Isaac
fitted him for a retired and contemplative,
rather than an active life. He had, moreover,
an affectionate heart, and when the death
of his mother occurred he felt it deeply and
was not again happy till Rebekah was brought
from Mesopotamia to be his wife (xxiii. 1. 2;
xxiv. 1-67). He was then about 40 years old.
Twenty years later Rebekah gave birth to
twins, Esau and Jacob. Esau was the elder
and the favorite of Isaac ; but God had de-
clared that the elder should serve the younger.
Jacob was Rebekah's favorite (xxv. 19-28).
The conseq uences of this partiality were harm-
ful to all the parties concerned. When Isaac
was about 137 years old. Rebekah took ad-
vantage of his age and of the blindness and
the bluntness of feeling which it produced, to
pass Jacob oil' for Esau, and obtain the spe-
cial blessing which the father had intended
for his favorite son. Then Jacob had to be
sent out of the country, to escajie the threat-
ened vengeance of the brother whom he had
cheated ; and as he was away twenty years,
Rebekah apparently never saw him more
(xxvii. -xxxiii.). Isaac had grown up in the
south country ; and after the death of his
mother he dwelt there for a long time, chiefly
at Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv. 62 ; xxv. 11) and Beer-
sheba (xxvi. 17-33 ; xxviii. 10). But on one
occasion, during famine, he for a considerable
time sojourned near Gerar, in the Philistine
country, where, like Abraham on a siujilar
occasion, he denied his wife (xxvi. 1-33) ; and
he was residing at Mamre, near Hebron, when
Jacob returned from Paddan-aram (xxxv. 27).
Isaac had inherited the wealth of Abraham
(xxv. .5). He died at the age of 180, and was
buried by Esau and .Jacob (xxxv. 28, 29) in
the cave of Machpelah, where already the
mortal remains of his parents and of his wife
had been laid (xlix. 31). The N. T. alludes
to Isaac as a child of promise (Gal. iv. 22, 23),
and instances his tent life and his blessing
Esau and Jacob as evidences of his faith
(Heb. xi. 9, 20).

Isaiah

323

Isaiah

I-sa'iali, in A. V. of N. T. Esaias, the Greek
moditicatiou [Jehovah hath saved].

A prophet of Judah in the reitjns of Uzziah,
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah
(Is. i. 1 ; cp. vi. 1 ; vii. 3 ; xiv. 2b ; xx. 1, 2 ;
xxxvi.-xxxix.). He was the .son of Amoz,
who must not be confounded with the prophet
Amos. He lived in Jerusalem, and prophesied
concerning Judah and Jerusalem ; his jiroph-
ecies concerning Samaria, Damascus, Philis-
tia and other nations being subordinate to
those which directly concerned Jerusalem,
and being introduced because of their rela-
tion to Zion and the people of God. It is dis-
puted whether the vision which he saw in
the year that king Uzziah died (vi.) marked
his call to the prophetic office, or was in-
tended to deepen his spirituality. Other
prophets experienced .similar renewed quick-
ening. Ezekiel's inaugural call was by a
vision ; and long afterwards, when he was
a distinguished prophet, his call to the
prophetic office was confirmed, and he was
warned, like Isaiah, of the indifference with
which the people would receive his message
(Ezek. xxxiii. 21-33). Peter, after several
years of service as a disciple of Christ and
in the apostolic office, had his insight into
Christ's teaching deepened and was intro-
duced into a wider work by a vision (Acts
X.). Paul, long after he had been called to
labor among the gentiles, was summoned by
a vision to work in a new field, Europe
(Acts xvi. 9, 10). So God may have pur-
posed an increase and a deepening of the
spiritual life of Isaiah, in sending him this
vision. From the time that Isaiah began
his prophetic ministry, he was the adviser of
the successive kings, conveying them mes-
sages from Jehovah and, in some cases at
least, inducing them to act on the advice
which he olfered. In 734 B. c, when Syria
and Israel in alliance sought to capture Jeru-
salem, and put a creature of their own upon
the throne, he declared Jehovah's purpose
that the attempt should fail, and he vainly
endeavored to persuade Ahaz to rely on Je-
hovah and not put confidence in heathen
princes (vii.). At this time Isaiah was a mar-
ried man (viii. 3), with a son Shear-jashub (vii.
3). A second son was afterwards born to him,
and was called by the divine direction Maher-
shalal-hash-baz, which means spoil speedeth,
* prey hasteth, both names enshrining proph-
ecies. Isaiah's wife is called a prophetess
(viii. 3), probably merely as being the wife
of a prophet. Though the extreme peril into
which Jerusalem was brought in Ahaz' reign
was from the confederacy between Israel and
Syria, the more permanent danger was from
another quarter, namely, from Assyria, which
was anxious to possess itself of Palestine, to
open a way for the conquest of Egypt, which
was its great rival. Isaiah's counsel was to
avoid entangling alliances with any of the gen-
tile nations, and simply to trust in Jehovah
(viii. 12, etc.). Ahaz unwisely rejected this

advice, called in Tiglath-juleser, king of As-
syria, and became his vassal ^2 Kin. xvi. 7,
8, 10) ; see Tiglath-pileser. Under Heze-
kiah the prophet's counsel was treated with
more respect. The Assyrians invaded Judah
in Hezekiah's fourteenth year. about 714 B.C.
(2 Kin. xviii. 13 ; Is. xxxvi. 1). Shortly after-
wards, in the same year, Hezekiah fell dan-
gerou.sly sick, and Isaiah foretold his recovery
(2 Kin. XX. 1-11). Then followed the embassy
of Merodach-baladan, 712 or 711 B. c. (Is.
xxxix.), the conquest of Ashdod by Sargon's
army, 711 b. c. (xx.\ and the unsuccessful
siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib, 701 B. C.
(2 Kin. xviii. 14). During the last-named
crisis, Isaiah's prophecies and encouraging
words were important factors in producing
the successful resistance to the besieging
army. Hezekiah died in 69!S or G97 B. c.
The murder of Sennacherib and accession of
Esarhaddon, which occurred in 681 and 660,
are recorded (Is. xxxvii. 38). Doubtful Jew-
ish tradition affirms that Isaiah was martyred
by Manasseh, having been sawn asunder,
and some have supposed that Heb. xi. 37
alludes to the manner of his death. The date
involved is not impossible, for Isaiah may
have begun his ministry after 740 B. c, proph-
esied in the reigns of the four kings, Uzziah,
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. survived Heze-
kiah, and written his acts first and last (2
Chron. xxxii. 32), heard of the murder of
Sennacherib, and have suffered martyrdom in
or after the eighteenth year of Manasseh, at
the age of not more than 80 years. Isaiah
wrote a history of the reign of Uzziah (2
Chron. xxvi. 22), probably using records and
other authoritative sources for the earlier
part of the reign.

The Book of the Prophet Isaiah is divisible
as follows: I. Introduction (i.). II. A proph-
ecy against Jerusalem (ii.-iv.), with a con-
tinuation or closely related prophecy (v.).
The denunciation culminates in iv. with the
effect of the judgment and a picture of the
glory of Messianic times. This prophecy may
have been delivered during the prosperous
times of the joint reign of Uzziah and Jo-
tham. III. The vision of chap, vi., which,
as every one admits, stands in close relation
to the Rook of Immanuel (vii.-xii.). IV.
Ten burdens on the nations (xiii.-xxiii.), di-
vided by chap, xx., which is of international
import, into two series of five burdens each,
and culminating in judgment upon the whole
world (xxiv. ). V. Historical section (xxxvi.-
xxxix.), describing the initiatory operations
of the Assyro-Babylonian power in Judah,
and serving as an introduction to the Book
of Consolation, which was offered in view of
the sore judgment upon Judah (xl.-lxvi.). It
treats of the relation of the church of Israel
to Jehovah (xl.-xlviii.), the relation of the
church to the nations (xlix.-Ivii.), the abro-
gation of national distinctions, and the glo-
rious future of the church (Iviii.-lxvi.). The
prominent figure in these chapters is the serv-

Isaiah

324

Isaiah

ant of the Lord. The view most widely enter-
tained by modern commentators is that the
servant of tlie Lord is Israel, the eye of the
prophet being fixed sometimes on the nation
as a whole, sometimes on the godly portion,
sometimes on tiiat perfect representative of
Israel, that Israelite indeed, Christ. Against
other views there may be urged : 1. The serv-
ant of chap. liii. is interpreted by the Jewish
Targums as Messiah. 2. The prophet Zecha-
riah apparently identifies the Branch, a fa-
miliar designation of Messiah, with the serv-
ant whereby the iniquity of the land is taken
away (Zech. iii. 8-10; cp. Jer. xxiii. 5-8). 3.
The description of the snffering servant of
chap. liii. actually finds its counterpart in
Christ.

The genuineness of chapter 1. was called in
question by Koppe in 1797. Soon afterwards
Di'Jderlein assigned the composition of the
last twenty-seven chapters to the time of the
exile. This theory, enlarged to include xiii-
xiv. 23 ; xxi. 1-10 ; xxiii. -xxvii. ; xxxiv. ;
XXXV., has found innumerable advocates.
The arguments advanced in its support are
all comprehended in three. 1. The language
is late and the style is peculiar. 2. The
allusions to the condition of Jews and gen-
tiles reveal the time of the exile. 3. The
statements concerning the condition of the
pcojile agree with the historical facts, but
those which relate to the future have fallen
short of fulfillment.

To these arguments the answer, which
must unfortunately be stated summarily, is
rendered : 1. There has not been shown a
single word of known late date, nor a single
foreign element which there is any reason to
believe was not current in Jeru.salem in the
days of Isaiah. Every word, phrase, and
form is found in earlier Hebrew literature or
may be explained by the history of the times.
As to the style being peculiar, change of
style is consistent with unity of authorship.
The style of Shakespere changed. His liter-
ary activity lasted but twenty-five years, yet
four distinct periods are discernible in his
plays, marked by difl'erences of style. The
literary activity of Isaiah was continued
through at least forty years and perhaps
sixty. And is the style so peculiar after all ?
Tho.se wlio deny the Isaianic authorship find
it incumlient upon them to explain the simi-
larity of style. Augusti accounts for the
ascription of these chapters to Isaiah in the
first instance by the fact that "they were
composed .so entirely in the spirit and man-
ner of Isaiah." Gesenius and De Wette
ascribe tlie similarity of style to imitation or
the work of a conforming hand. Umbreit
calls the unknown author of the chapters in
dispute, " Isaiah risen again " as from the
dead. 2. To the argument that the allusions,
which are made in the.se chapters to the con-
dition of Jews and gentiles, reveal the time
of the exile, it is replied : «. The prophets
frequently transport themselves to the future

and describe what they are predicting as
already past ; for instance, although Zebulun
and Naphtali had been ravaged and their in-
habitants carried into captivity, the acknowl-
edged Isaiah says of them : " The people
that walked in darkness have seen a great
light" (ix. 2). b. The explicit references to
Babylon, the exile, and the restoration are
few. c. The acknowledged Isaiah and his
contemporary prophets were already living
in anticipation of the Babylonian exile.
There is scarcely an event connected with
the exile, to which the author refers, but was
known to the Israelites in the time of Isaiah.
The prophets of the time predicted the de-
struction of Jerusalem and the temple (Amos
ii. 5; Micah iii. 12; Is. iii. 8; vi. 11), the
desolation of the land of Judah (Hos. viii.
14; Amos ix. 11, 14; Is. iii. 25, 26; vi. 11,
12 ; xxxii. 13), the captivity of the people of
Judah (Is. xi. 12; cp. Mic. i. 14-16). This
captivity was to be in Babj'lou {Mic. iv. 10 ;
Is. xi. 11 ; xxxix. 6, 7). There should be a
return from exile (Joel iii. 1 ; Is. xi. 11), and
Jerusalem and the temple should be rebuilt
(Mic. iv. 2 ; although the destruction of
Jerusalem had been foretold, iii. 12 ; cp. Joel
iii. 16, 17, 20). d. The spiritual condition of
the people, as exhibited in these chapters, is
that of the time of Isaiah ; idolatry under
every green tree (Ivii. 5 and i. 29; 2 Kin.
xvi. 4) and among the oaks (Ivii. 5 and i. 29 ;
Hos. iv. 13) and in gardens (Ixv. 3 ; Ixvi. 17
and i. 29) ; the slaying of children in the
valleys (Ivii. 5 and 2 Chron. xxviii. 3;
xxxiii. 6 ; 2 Kin. xxiii. 10) ; ascending a
high mountain to ofter sacrifice (Ivii. 7 and 2
Chron. xxviii. 4 ; Hos. iv. 13 ; cp. Ezek. vi.
13) ; hypocrisy (Iviii. 2-4 and xxix. 13) : Sab-
bath-breaking (Iviii. 13 and Amos viii. 5 ;
Jer. xvii. 19-27) ; blood,shed and violence (lix.
3, 7 and i. 15; Mic. vii. 2) ; falsehood, injus-
tice, and oppression (lix. 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 and v.
7. 23; X. 1, 2; Mic. ii. 1, 2 ; vii. 3) ; neglect
of the temple worship (xliii. 23, 24 and 2
Chron. xxviii. 24 ; xxix. 27 ; 2 Kin. xv. 4 : 2
Chron. xxvii. 2 ; 2 Kin. xv. 35 ; 2 Chron.
xxxiii. 10). Burning incense upon bricks
(Ixv. 3) was appropriate to a worshij) derived
from either Egy])t, Assyria, or Babylonia,
and was practiced in Jerusalem before the
exile (2 Kin. xxiii. 12 ; Jer. xix. 13). Swine's
fiesh was offered and eaten (Ixv. 4) by the
Egyptians on the festival of Selene and Dio-
nysus (Herod, ii. 47, 48) and commonly
enough by the Babylonians. 3. To the argu-
ment that the statements concerning the
condition of the people agree with the his-
torical facts, whereas those which relate to
the future have fallen far short of fulfill-
ment, it is replied that the assertion applies
with equal force to the acknowledged writings
of the prophet Isaiah. He foretold the de-
struction of the cities, the utter desolation
of the land, and the removal of the inhabi-
tants far hence (vi. 11, 12). This was ful-
filled to the letter. But he prophesied also

Iscah

325

Ishma

the flocking of the gentiles to the standard
of Jesse's son, the return of the ea])tive peo-
ple of tiod from all parts of the world, the
drying up of rivers which were obstacles in
the coui'se of the march, a highway from
Assyria for the remnant of the jieople, the
wolf dwelling in peace with the lamb (xi. 6-
8, 10-12, If), IG). Tliese are the same pre-
dictions as those which in the latter portion
of the book are pointed to as the extravagant
utterances of an enthusiast and as having
fallen short of fulfillment. The acknowl-
edged Isaiah, living two centuries before the
fall of Babylon and the hopes which that
event are supposed to have awakened, wrote
in precisely the same manner as the author
of the last section.

The real ground on which the denial of
the genuineness of the last twenty-seven
chaptei's rests is the mention of Cyrus by
name (xliv. 2S; xlv. 1). So also Josiah was
foretold by name (1 Kin. xiii. 2). If pre-
dictive prophecy is possible, if it was ever
uttered by holy men taught by the Holy
Ghost, then these words could have been
penned by Isaiah. Otherwise they were not
uttered until nearly two hundred years after
Isaiah. The church has always believed in
predictive prophecy and in the inspiration of
Isaiah.

Is'cah [perhaps, discerning or expectant].

A daughter of Haran and sister of Milcah
(Gen. xi. 29), and consequently sister of Lot
(27). Iscah has been regarded as another
name of Sarai (Antiq. i. (i, 5; Targum Jona-
than) ; but in that case Sarai would have
been Abraham's niece and not his half-sister
(Gen. XX. 12).

Is-car'i-ot [probably, man of Kerioth],

A designation of Judas the traitor (Mat. x.
4 ; Luke vi. 16), which belonged to his father
Simon before him (John vi. 71, R. V.). It
was used to distinguish him from the other
apostle called Judas (Luke vi. 16 ; Acts i. 13,
16). It seems to mean that Judas was a
native of Kerioth in the south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 25). In the codex Bezse the word
is written apo Kaiuotou everywhere in the
Fourth Gospel, and is so written in John vi. 71
in the codex Sinaiticus. Accordingly Judas was
a Judpean ; and perhaps he was the only apos-
tle from Judjea, and the rest were Galilseans.

Ish'bali [he praiseth or praising one].

A man of Judah, ancestor or head of the
inhabitants of Eshtemoa (1 Chron. iv. 17).

Ish'bak [perhaps, he leaveth or relinquish-
ing one].

A son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv.
2), founder of an Arab tribe.

Ish-bi-be'nob [mv dwelling place is on a
height].

A Philistine giant who was on the point of
killing David, but was himself slain by
Abishai (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17).

Ish-bo'sheth [man of shame].

One of Saul's younger sons, originally

called Eshbaal, the Lord's man, which was
changed to Ish-bosheth, man of sluniie, cither
during his lifetime when the glory of his
house dei)arte(l, or in later times when the
name Baal fell into disrepute through its
idolatrous associations (2 Sam. ii. 8 with 1
Chron. viii. 33; is. 39). He was not ]>rescnt
at the battle of (lilboa ; or, if present, he es-
caped the slaughter on that disastrous day.
When, on the death of Saul, David obtained
the sovereignty over Judah, the other eleven
tribes wei-e unwilling to otter liini allegiance ;
and when Abner, taking Ish-bosheth to
Mahanaim, proclaimed him king, they gave
him supi)ort, as considering him the legiti-
mate and hereditary successor of his royal
father. He was then aged about 40, and
reigned two troubled years (2 Sam. ii. 8-10).
His army was defeated by Joab in the neigh-
borhood of Gibeon (12-31). In other battles
his followers were also unsuccessful (iii. 1).
He also brought a serious charge against
Abner, who, taking offense, transferred his
services to David. With the aid of Abner,
David compelled Ish-bosheth to deliver up
Michal, the wife whom David had obtained
from Saul (6-21). Ab)ier was presently mur-
dered at Hebron, and when Ish-bosheth heard
thereof, he lost heart (27; iv. 1). He was
soon afterwards treacherously murdered, and
with his death the dynasty of Saul came to
an end. The severed head of Ish-bosheth
was interred in the tomb of Abner at
Hebron, and the murderers, who had boasted
to David of what they had done, were by his
orders compelled to su flier the penalty of
their crime (iv. 5-12).

Isti'liod, in A. V. Ishod [man of splendor].
A Manassite whose mother was Hammole-
keth (1 Chron. vii. 18).

Ish'i, I. [my husband].

A name by which the Israelites call Jeho-
vah, when they return to their allegiance. It
supersedes the synonymous one Baali, my
master, because the word Baal had come into
ill repute through its association with idol-
atry (Hos. ii. 16, 17).

Ish'i, II. [saving, salutary].

1. A man of Judah, son of Ai)paim, house
of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 31).

2. A man of Judah, father of Zoheth (1
Chron. iv. 20).

3. A Simeonite whose sons led a band which
overcame the Amalekites of mount Seir,
and seized on their settlements (1 Chron.
iv. 42).

4. Head of a father's house of the half-
tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan (1
Chron. V. 24).

I-sM'ah. See Isshiah.

I-sM'jah. See Is.shijah.

Ish'ma [desolation or, perhaps, distinction].
A man of Judah, descended from Hur (1
Chron. iv. 3, 4).

leliniael

326

Ishuah

Isb'ma-el [God liearetli].

1. Tlio st.n of Abiahain by Hagar the
Egyptian maid ; boru wlien Abraham was
eighty-six years old, after be liad been ten
full years iu Canaan (Gen. xvi. 3, 15 ; cp. xii.
4). He was the child of worldly wisdom,
not of faith ; he was born of parents who, iu
the face of God's promise, were blinded by
seeming impossil)iliti<'s, and soughtby earthly •
means to enable God to fiillill his engage-
ments. When the rite of circumcision was
instituted for the family of Abraham, Ishmael,
then thirteen years of age, was circumcised
(xvii. 2.")i. The next year Isaac was born,
when his mother was past age, the child of
promise, a rebuke to unbelief (xxi. 5). At
liis weaning, the customary feast was made,
when Ishmael was seen to be mocking. This
was tiic first occasion iu the family of Abra-
ham that those born after the flesh in doubt
of (iod's way mocked at the heirs of promise ;
and Paul seizes upon the allegory in the inci-
dent (Gal. iv. 2:^-31). This misbehavior of
Ishmael led to the expulsion of him and his
motlier. They wandered in the wilderness
of Beer-sheba till both were nearly perishing
Avith thirst. The angel of the Lord directed
Hagar to some water among the shrubs, and
the life of herself and her son was preserved.
Ishmael grew up in the wilderness of Parau,
south of Canaan, where he lived by his how.
Eventually he married a wife from Egypt,
his mother's ancestral home (Gen. xxi. 3-21).
In fulfillment of a promise made by God to
Abraham, Ishmael became the progenitor of
twelve princes (xvii. 20 ; xxv. 12-16) ; see
IsHMAELiTES. He had also a daughter, who
was married to Esau (xxviii. 9 ; xxxvi. 10).
Ishmael took part with Isaac in hurying their
father Abraham (xxv. 9). He himself died at
tlie age of 137 (xxv. 17).

2. A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron. viii.
38; ix. 41).

3. A man of Judah, father of the high ju-
dicial functionary Zebediah (2 Chron. xix. 11).

4. A son of Jehohanan. He took part in
the successful conspiracy against Athaliah
(2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

5. A son of Nethaniah, who belonged to
the seed royal of Judah. When Nebuchad-
nezzar departed from Palestine, after the cap-
ture of Jerusalem, he left behind him as gov-
ernor of Judah a certain Jew called Gedaliah,
who ))romised protection to any of the con-
quered people who jilaced themselves under
liis rule. Among others Ishmael came, but
with hostile intent. Instigated by the king
of th(^ Anunonites, he assassinated Gedaliah,
massacring at the same time the people with
him. After further murders he carried off
cai>tives, including the king's daughters, and
finally attemiited to make his way to the Am-
monite country. Johanan, son of Kareah,
and others went forth to fight M'ith him.
They found him at (iibeon. His captives
turned to .lolKiiian, liut he himself succeeded
in escaping with eight men to the king of

Ammou. who had instigated his crimes (2
Kin. xxv. 25 ; Jer. xl. 7-l(i ; xli. 1-lS).

6. A son of Pashhur, who was induced
by Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra
X. 22). ' ■

Ish'ma-el-ite, in A. Y. often Ishmeelite,
an orthography true to the Hebrew word, but
English literature has adopted the former
spelling.

A descendant of Ishmael. The Ishmael-
ites had Egyptian blood, as well as the blood
of Abraham, in their veins. Twelve princes
sprang from Ishmael (Gen. xvii. 20; xxv. 12-
16). He may have had more sons, and pos-
sibly some of those enumerated were grand-
sons. Twelve was an approved number.
Twelve was carefully preserved as the num-
ber of the tribes of Israel, and twelve was
the recognized number of the kings of the
Hittites in their confederacy. The Ishmael-
ites in their twelvefold division dwelt in set-
tlements and in movable camps in the desert
of northern Arabia, in the region included
between Havilah, Egypt, and the Euphrates
(xxv. 18 ; Antiq. i. 12, 4). Occasionally one
of their tribes acquired permanent residence
and civilization, as the Nabathseans ; but they
mostly possessed the character of their an-
cestor and dwelt like the untamable ass of
the desert (Gen. xvi. 12). Like Ishmael, too,
they were celebrated for their skill with the
bow (Is. xxi. 17). To Ishmaelites traveling
as carriers between Gilead and Egypt, or,
more definitely, to "certain Midianites, mer-
chants," in the caravan, Joseph was sold by
his brethren (Gen. xxxvii. 25-28). In Ps.
Ixxxiii. 6 they are mentioned with Edomites,
Moabites, and Hagarenes.

In a wider sense, the nomadic tribes of
northern Arabia generally ; either because
the Ishmaelites were the chief people of the
desert, and their name came to be used as
a synonym for any nomad of the region, or
because an Ishmaelite confederacy had been
formed which included tribes of other blood
(Judg. viii. 24 ; cp. vii. 25 ; viii. 22, 26 ; Judith
ii. 23). All the Arabs, after the example of
Mohammed, claim descent from Ishmael.

Ish-ma'iah, in A. V. once Ismaiah (1 Chron.
xii. 4) [Jehovah heareth].

1. A Gibeonite who joined David at Ziklag
(1 Chron. xii. 4).

2. Son of Obadiah and head in David's
reign of the Zebulunites (1 Chron. xxvii. 19).

Ish'me-el-ite. See Ishmaelite.
Ish'me-rai [probably, Jehovah keepeth].
A Benjamite,sonof Elpaal (1 Chron. viii. 18).
I'shod. See Ishhod.
Ish'pali, in A. Y. Ispah [perhaps, bald].
A lien jamite, son of Beriah (1 Chron. viii. 16).
Ish'pan.

A l'>enjamite. son of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 22).

Ish'tob [men of Tob]. See Tob.
Ish'u-ah. See Ishvah.

Ishuai

327

Israel

Ish'u-ai and Ishm. See Ishvi.

Ish'vali, in A. V. Ishuah and Isuaii [per-
haps, equality].

The second son of Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17; 1
Clirou. vii. 30). He probably died childless;
or. if he had descendants, they did not con-
stitute a tribal family or perpetuate his name
(cp. Num. xxvi. 44).

Ish'vi, in A. V. Ishuai, Ishui, Isui, and
Jesui [jierhaps, equal].

1. The third son of Asher, and founder of
a tribal faniilviGeu. xlvi. 17; Num. xxvi.
44 ; 1 Chron. vii. 30).

2. A son of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 49).
Isle, Is 'land.

The rendering of the Hebrew '/.meaning
1. Habitable land, as opposed to water (Is.
xlii. 15). '2. An island in the ordinary sense
of the word (Jer. xlvii. 4). 3. A maritime
■country, even when constituting part of a
continent : the coast land of Pale.stine and
Phoenicia (Is. xx. 6, in R. V. coast land ; cp.
xxiii. 2, 6). and the coasts and islands of Asia
Minor and Greece (Gen. x. 5). 4. The re-
motest regions of the earth and their inhab-
itants (Is. sli. 5; Zeph. ii. 11). This employ-
ment of the term may have arisen: (o) By
synecdoche, the isles of the ^lediterranean
being remote and scarcely known. (6) From
the current belief that the world was sur-
rounded with water, so that the most distant
region was the coast land of the world-ocean.

Is-ma-cM'ah [Jehovah supporteth].

An overseer connected with the temple in
Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron. xxxi. 13).

Is-ma'iah. See Ishmaiah.

Is'pah. See I.*hpah.

Is'ra-el [he striveth with God, or God
striveth].

1. The name given to Jacob when he was
Teturning from Mesopotamia and just about
to cross the brook Jabbok, where he expected
to meet Esau (Gen. xxxii. 22-32) ; see Jacob.

2. The whole body of the descendants of
Jacob at any one time. This use of the word
began in his own lifetime (Gen. xxxiv. 7). It
was common during the wilderness wander-
ings (Ex. xxxii. 4; Deut. iv. 1; xxvii. 9),
though the designation children of Israel was
yet more frequent both during this and the
former period. Down to the death of Saul,
Israel and the children of Israel, when used
as a national designation, comprehended the
Hebrews generally, without distinction of
tribes. There were, however, geographical
and other causes already at work which
tended to separate Judah from the rest of
Israel ; and the distinction had come to be
recognized before the actual division of the
people into two kingdoms took place (1 Sam.
xi. 8 ; xvii. .52 ; xviii. 16) ; see Judah. It was
used also under the united monarchy (1 Kin.
xi. 42). In the parallelism of Hebrew poetry
it often corresponds in the second line of the
couplet to Jacob in the first (Num. xxiii. 7,

10, 21 : xxiv. 5 ; Ps. xiv. 7). After the exile
the reference is frequently to the people of
the various tribes who returned to Jerusalem
(Ezra ix. 1 ; x. .5: Neh. ix. 2; xi. 3).

3. The tribes which acted independently of
Judah. Thesplitof the Hebrew peojtle into two
kingdoms occurred on the death of Saul. The
northern and eastern tribes recognized Saul's
son Ish-bosheth as king, and the tribe of
Judah followed David. From this time on-
ward Israel is frequently used to denote the
ten tribes. Ish-bosheth reigned two years
and was assassinated, but seven years elapsed
before the breach was healed and David was
anointed king of all Israel (2 Sam. ii. 10, 11).
The jealousies, however, remained, and on
the death of Solomon the rupture became
final. Ten tribes followed Jerolioam and one
clave to the house of David. The ten tribes
which were rent from the house of David
were Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh east
of the Jordan, and west of the river half
Manasseh, Ephraim. Issachar. Zelnilun, Naph-
tali, Asher, Dan, and lastly Benjamin, which
belonged in part to the northern kingdom,
Bethel, Gilgal, and Jericho, chief places in
the tribe of Benjamin, being within the
bounds of the northern kingdom.

The cau.ses which led to the schism were :
1. The isolation of Judah caused by nature
and augmented by Jo.shua's blunder. 2. The
ancient jealousy between the two powerful
tribes of Ephraim and Judah. It had caused
a temporary disruption of the kingdom after
Saul's deatli : it liroke out again after the de-
feat of Absalom because Judah was the first
to welcome the king back (2 Sam. xix. 15,
40-43). It had been freshly provoked by
Solomon's lavish adornment of Jerusalem on
the borders of Judah, and at his death re-
sulted in permanent separation. 3. Discon-
tent caused by the excessive luxury of the
throne. The people were groaning under op-
pressive burdens. Solomon's love of siden-
dor had led to taxation to support his enor-
mous household and maintain his display,
and to enforcement of labor to carrv out his
great works (1 Kin. iv. 22. 23, 26 ; v. 13-16).
The reasonable request of the people for re-
lief was perversely refused by Rehoboani. 4.
Idolatry, fostered by foreign marriages (1 Kin.
xi. 1-11 ). A subtle corruption spread through
all ranks owing to the encouragement given
to false religions, attachment to the worship
of Jehovah was weakened, and one great
unifying force was destroyed. 5. The folly
of Rehoboam in refusing the request of the
people for relief intensified the disintegrating
forces and precii>itated the catastrophe (1
Kin. xii. 3-."). 12-16).

As compared with .Tudah in respect to
strength the northern kingdom had ten
tribes, twice the population, and nearly three
times the extent of territory. But it was
more exposed to war and less easy of defense
than Judah. It was the apostate nation, and
defection from God is weakness and inevita-

Israel

328

Issachar

bly undermines the stability of a state. It
had an inferior religion with its lower moral
tone, and many of its best spirits forsook it ;
the priests and Levites migrated into Judah
(2 Chrou. xi. 13. 14).

The capital of the northern kingdom was
at Shechem at first. It was soon removed to
Tirzah, and then Omri founded Samaria and
transferred the seat of government to the
new city ( 1 Kin. xii. 25 ; xiv. 17 ; xv. 21 ;
xvi. 23, 24).

Jeroboam, the first king, was afraid that
if his people visited Jerusalem for wor-
ship, they would be won over to their old
allegiance ; he therefore established two
shrines, one at Dan in the extreme north,
and the other at Bethel, in the south of the
kingdom. At each of these places he erected
a golden calf, which he designed as an aid to
the worship of Jehovah ; see Calf. Judg-
ment was threatened against him and his
race for this partial apostasy, and after his
son, Nadab, had reigned two years, the
dynasty was swept away. Nineteen kings in
ail sat upon the throne. See Chronology.
Their united reigns covered a period of about
210 years ; seven of them reigned but two
years or less ; eight wete slain or committed
suicide and the throne was transferred to
another family, and in only two instances
was the royal power held by as many as four
members of the same family in succession.
None of the kings removed the calves from
Bethel and Dan ; indeed, under Ahab, who
was influenced by his wicked heathen wife,
Jezebel, the apostasy was rendered complete
by the introduction of the worship of Baal
instead of Jehovah. But God raised up
prophets who contended steadfastly for the
worship of Jehovah, at whatever risk to
themselves. The most notable were Elijah
and Elisha (q.v.). After the suppression of
Baal worship, other prophets, especially
Hosea and Amos, labored for the reformation
of the moral life of the nation.

The northern Israelites were frequently at
war with Judah. Indeed, the two kingdoms
were in hearty alliance only while the house
of Omri held the throne of Israel, when the
royal families of Israel and Judah were
united by intermarriage. When the Syrian
kindom of Damascus rose to power it neces-
sarily affected the politics of the adjacent
kingdom of Israel. Often the two were at
war. They united, however, in making com-
mon cause against the Assyrians in the days
of Ahab ; and 120 years later they were again
in alliance, their common object being the
caiiture of Jerusalem. It was this danger
that led Ahaz, king of Judah, terrified for
his throne and life, and having no faitli in
Jehovah, to act contrary to the exhortations
of Isaiah and to call in Tiglath-pileser, king
of Assyria, at the price of independence.
Judah became tributary to A.ssyria, and its
king did homage to the Assyrian monarch at
Damascus (2 Kin. xvi. 8-10). Tiglath-pileser

relieved Judah of the invaders, ravaged
northern Israel, struck a blow at the Phi-
listines, besieged and ultimately captured
Damascus and slew Eezin, deported the Is-
raelites from the country east of the Jordan,
connived at the death of Pekah or actually
ordered it, and placed Hoshea on the throne
about 730 B. c. Hoshea rebelled against As-
syria after Tiglath-pileser's death. The
Assyrian armies returned, in 722 Samaria
fell and a large number of the inhabitants
were carried off to Assyria. See Captivity
and Saegon. The place of the deported Is-
raelites was supplied by colonists from five
districts in the Assyrian empire, who, ming-
ling with the remaining Israelite population
of central Palestine, laid the foundations of
what afterwards became the Samaritan nation.
The captivity of Israel was a punishment
because the people had sinned against the
Lord their God and had feared other gods,
walking in the statutes of the nations and
of the kings of Israel (2 Kin. xvii. 7, 8).
They were apostate. They had broken the
covenant (15; cp. Ex. xx.-xxii. ; Hos. vi.
7 ; viii. 1), rejecting the statutes of the Lord.
Tlieir apostasy had manifested itself in two
directions : they walked in the statutes of
the nations whom the Lord cast out {2 Kin.
xvii. 8, 15, 17 ; cp. Hos. ii. 13 ; iv. 2, 11, 15 ;
Amos ii. 6-9), and they walked in the stat-
utes of the kings of Israel, especially in the
matter of the calf worship and its attendant
ceremonies and ordinances, and in the gen-
eral idolatry that followed in its train (2
Kin. xvii. 8, 16 ; Hos. viii. 4-6 ; x. 5, 8 ; xiii.
2-4). They had sinned despite the fact that
the Lord had testified unto them by prophets
and by providences (2 Kin. xvii. 13 ; Hos.
xii. 10 ; Amos ii. 9-11 ; iv. 6-13). Their sin
issued in separation and degradation and
paved the way for puni.shment. They sepa-
rated from Judah, and thus weakened were
overthrown. Their idolatry, drunkenness,
and licentiousness weakened the manhood of
the nation, deprived it of sturdiness, and
made its soldiery no better in character and
moral purpose than the warriors of Egypt,
Assyria, and Babylonia.

Is'ra-el-ite.

A descendant of Israel, ?'. e., of Jacob (Ex.
ix. 7) ; and consequently, by implication, the
possessor of true religious knowledge, a
faithful servant of Jehovah, and an heir of
the promises (John i. 47 ; Rom. ix. 4 ; xi. 1 ;
2 Cor. xi. 22).

Is'sa-char [there is hire].

1. The ninth son of Jacob, the fifth by
Leah (Gen. xxx. 17, 18; xxxv. 23). His .sons
were Tola, Phuvah or Pua, Job or Jashub,
and Shimron (xlvi. 13 ; Num. xxvi. 23, 24 ; 1
Chron. vii. 1). With them he went down
with Jacob into Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 13; Ex. i.
3). Jacob, shortly before death, with keen
and prophetic insight into character, de-
scribed Issachar and his children as a strong

Issachar

329

Ithamar

ass, couching down between the sheep folds,
who submits to the burdens imposed by for-
eign masters, provided they permit him to
remain in his pleasant land (Gen. xlix. 14, 15).

The de.scendants of Issachar formed a tribe,
consisting of five great tribal families, the
posterity of his five sons (Num. xxvi. 23,24).
Its prince in the early period of the wander-
ings was Nethaneel, sou of Zuar (Num. i. 8;
ii. 5 ; vii. 18 ; x. 1.^). and at a later period
Paltiel, son of Azzan (xxxiv. 26). At the
first census in the wilderness it numbered
54,400 fighting men (i. 28, 29) ; at the second
64,300 (xxvi. 25) ; while in David's reign it
reached 87,000 (1 Chron. vii. 5). Igal, son
of Joseph, was the spy from the tribe (Num.
xiii. 7). The men of Issachar were among
those who stood on mount Gerizim to bless
the people (Deut. xxvii. 12). Moses, in pre-
dicting the future of the tribes, foretold Is-
sachar's joyous and quiet life (xxxiii. 18).
One of the judges. Tola, belonged to the
tribe of Issachar (Judg. x. 1) ; so did king
Baasha (1 Kin. xv. 27). The princes of Is-
sachar had the political insight to discern
the fit moment for turning from Saul's fam-
ily and accepting David as the king of all
Israel (1 Chron. xii. 32). About that time
Omri, son of Michael, was head of the tribe
(xxvii. 18). Many men of Issachar, although
they belonged to the northern kingdom, at-
tended Hezckiah's passover (2 Chron. xxx.
18). In the apocalyptic vision 12,000 of the
tribe of Issachar were sealed (Rev. vii. 7),
this being the normal number.

When the land of Canaan was distributed
by lot, the fourth lot taken after the ark was
removed to Shiloli came forth for the tribe
of Issachar. Its territory was bounded on
the north by Zebulun and Naphtali, on the
east by the Jordan, on the south and west by
Manasseh and probably Asher. Among the
places through or near which its boundary
line ran were Jezreel, Shunem, En-gannim,
En-haddah. mount Tabor, and Beth-shemesh
(Josh. xix. 17-23). though towns within it were
held by Manasseh (xvii. 10, 11) and others by
the Gershonite Levites (xxi. 6, 28, 29 ; 1
Chron. vi. 62-72). The tribe of Issachar oc-
cupied the greater part of the plain of Jezreel,
or Esdraelon, constituting the low, level, and
fertile plain of the Kishon. The character
of their territory combined with the trilial
traits explains why the people of Issachar,
in accordance with Jacob's prophecy, were so
ready to submit to servitude. They had
much to lose, and lived on ground well
adapted for the action of the war chariots of
their enemies, while the tribes located among
the mountains could not so readily l)e at-
tacked in this manner. That the peo]ile of
Issachar were not exceptionally cowardly is
plain from their conduct in the battle with
Sisera, which elicited the commendation of
Deborah (Judg. v. 15).

2. A Levite, appointed doorkeeper in Da-
vid's reign (1 Chron. xxvi. 5).

Is-sWah, in A. V. once Ishiall (1 Chron.
vii. 3) and twice Jesiah (1 Chron xii. 6; xxiii.
20) [Jehovah lendeth or Jehovah forgetteth
(cp. Jer. xxiii. 39)].

1. A man of Issachar, family of Tola (1
Chron. vii. 3).

2. One of those who came to David at Zik-
lag (1 Chron. xii. 6).

3. A Levite, descended from Moses, and
head of the house of Kehabiah (1 Chron.
xxiv. 21 ; cp. xxiii. 14-17).

4. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Uzziel (1 Chron. xxiii. 20; xxiv. 25).

Is-sM'jah, in A. V. Ishijah [Jehovah lend-
eth or forgetteth].

A son of Harim, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 31).

Is'sue.

A man's disease, probably blennorrhea or
perhaps gonorrhea (Lev. xv. 2-15; cp. War
V. 5, 6 ; vi. 9, 3). An issue of blood is a fe-
male complaint (Lev. xv. 25-30; Mat. ix. 20).

Is'u-ab. See Ishvah.

Is'u-i. See Ishvi.

It'a-ly.

A geographical name which, in the fifth
century B. c, meant only a small district in
the extreme south of what is now called
Italy ; but which gradually extended its sig-
nification, till in the first century of the Chris-
tian era it began to be used in the same sense
that we now attach to the word. In the days
of the apostles Italy, and, indeed, the greater
part of the civilized world, was ruled from
Eome(q.v.). The centurion Cornelius who was
instructed to send for Peter belonged to the
Italian band, that is, a regiment recruited in
Italy, and consisting mainly of Italians (Acts
X. 1). Aquila and Priscilla, though of Jew-
ish descent, resided for a time in Italy (xviii.
2). Paul's appeal to Cfesar necessarily in-
volved his sailing into Italy (xxvii. 1, 6). The
ship in which he finally reached the penin-
sula, after landing at Syracuse in Sicily,
coasted along the mainland by Rhegium ta
Puteoli (xxviii. 13-16). Tlie salutation in the
Epistle to the Hebrews, " They of Italy salute
you" (Heb. xiii. 24), indicates the ])rogress
of Christianity, not only in Rome itself, but
in other towns of the country (cp. Acts xxviii.
14). During the Roman inij)erial period, the
state of the country in comparison with the
capital was wretched.

I'tbai. See Ittai.

Ith'a-mar [palm-coast].

The youngest son of Aaron (Ex. vi. 23; 1
Chron. Vi. 3; xxiv. 1). With his father and
his three elder brothers he was consecrated
to the priestly oflJce (Ex. xxviii. 1 ; 1 Chron.
xxiv. 2). Upon him devolved the duty of
enumerating the materials gathered for the
tabernacle (Ex. xxxviii. 21). The Gershonites
and the Merarites acted under his superin-
tendence (Num. iv. 21-33). He founded a
priestly family (1 Chron. xxiv. 4, 5, 6), which

Ithiel

330

Izhar

contimiod after the captivity (Ezra viii. 2).
To this family belonged Eli and his descend-
ants, who held the otUce of high priest for
several generations. See High Prip;st.

Ith'i-el [God is with iae, or, possibly, there
is a God].

1. One of the two persons to whom Agur
addressed his prophecy (Prov. xxx. 1); but
see li. V. margin for another po.ssibility.

•2. A Benjamite, son of Jesaiah (Neh. xi. 7).

Ith'lah, in A. V. Jethlah [a hanging or
lofty i)lace].

a' town of Dan (Jo.sh. xix. 42). Site un-
known.

Ith'mah [bereavement].

A iMoal>ite, one of the valiant men of Da-
vid's army (1 Chron. xi. 46).

Itb'naii [perhaps, perennial].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 23). Situation unknown.

Ith'ra [abundance, excellence].

An Israelite, or rather Ishmaelite, who mar-
ried Abigail, David's sister, and became the
father of Amasa (2 Sam. xvii. 25; 1 Kin. ii.
5, 32 ; 1 Chron. ii. 17). In the last three pas-
sages he is called Jether, M'hich is the Hebrew
form of the name.

Ith'ran [abundance, excellence].

1. A Horite, son of Dishon (Gen. xxxvi.
2H; 1 Chron. i. 41).

2. An Asherite, son of Zophah (1 Chron.
vii. 37) ; apparently the same as Jether (38).

Ith 're-am [alnmdance of people].

The sixth son born to David at Hebron.
His mother was Eglah (2 Sam. iii. 5 ; 1 Chron.
iii. 3).

Ith'rite.

A family who dwelt at Kirjath-jearim (1
Chron. ii. 53). Two of David's mighty men
were Ithrites (2 Sam. xxiii. 38; 1 Chron.
xi. 40).

It-tah-ka'zin. See Eth-kazin.
It'tai [perhai)s, plowman].

1. A son of Ribai, from Gibeah of Benja-
min. He was one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 29). Called in 1 Chron. "xi. 31,
Ithai.

2. An inhabitant of Gath, the commander
of 600 men, who followed David from that
Philistine city. He was faithful to the king
through all vicissitudes, and led a third part
of the royal army in the battle which re-
sulted in the death of Absalom (2 Sam. xv.
18-22; xviii. 2, 5).

It-u-rse'a [pertaining to Jetur].

A region occupied by a peojile called Jetur,
who were descended from Islimael (Gen. xxv.
15 ; 1 Chron. i. 31). The tribe of Jetur was at
war with the Israelitish tribes east of the
Jordan (v. 19). In Asmoui^an times Aristo-
bulus conquered a i)ortion of Itura-a, and an-
nexing itto Juda\'i, c(mipelled the vanquished
inhabitants to adopt the rite of circumcision
(Antiq. xiii. 11, 3j. It was a mountainous

country, including part of Anti-Lebanon. Its
prince, Ptolemy Meunseus, possessed territory
in Ccelesyria, with Chalcis as stronghold, and
proved a bad neighbor to Damascus (Strabo
xvi. 2, 18, 20; Antiq. xiii. 16, 3j. In 66 B. c.
he purchased immunity from Pompey (xiv.
3, 2). His son Lysanias was put to death by
Antony (xv. 4, 1), and the country was
farmed to Zenodorus (xv. 10, 1 ; for Zeno-
dorus' domain cp. also 2 and 3). Part of
Itursea and Trachonitis constituted the tet-
rarchy of Philip (Luke iii. 1). Josephus
enumerates the constituent parts of Philip's
tetrarchy difi'erently, and he is not careful
always to enumerate in one and the same
way (Antiq. xvii. 8, 1 ; 11, 4, where part of
the house of Zenodorus is included ; xviii. 4,
6; War ii. 6, 3). The name Itursea or Jetur
is radically different from Jedur, the i)reseut
designation of a district southwest of Da-
mascus.

I'vah. See Ivvah.

I'vo-ry.

A substance derived from the tusk of the
elephant, hippopotamus, walrus, and other
animals. In Hebrew it is called She)i, tooth,
or Shenhabhim, a compound word in Avhich
habbim probably denotes some animal. It is
first mentioned in the Bible as having been
brought from abroad by Solomon's ships (1
Kin. X. 22 ; 2 Chron. ix. 21). It seems to
have come from India, and was made into a
throne for the king (1 Kin. x. 18). After-
wards, when luxury had established itself to
a larger extent in Jerusalem, beds (Amos vi.
4). and even houses were made or overlaid
with the precious material (1 Kin. xxii. 39 ;
Amos iii. 15 ; Ps. xlv. 8). The Tyrians in-
laid benches for rowers with it (Ezek. xxvii.
6). Ethiopia also supplied ivory to the an-
cient world (Herod, iii. 97, 114).

Iv'vah, in A. V. Ivah.

A city which the representative of Seu-
nacheril) could boast that the Assyrians had
captured (2 Kin. xviii. 34; xix. 13; Is.
xxxvii. 13). It is doubtless the same as
Avva (q. v.).

I-ye-ab'a-rim, in A. V. Ije-abarim [ruins
of the district of Abarim].

A halting xilace of the Israelites in the
wilderness, on the border of Moab (Num.
xxi. 11 ; xxxiii. 44). In ver. 45 the place is
called simply lyim, in A. V. lim ; because
the context sufficiently defined the locality
to be in Abarim.

I'yim. See preceding article.

Iz'har, I., in A. V. once Iz'e-har (Num. iii.
19) and once Jezoar (1 Chron. iv. 7) [bright,
oil, especially olive oil].

A Levite, son of Kohath, and founder
of a tribal family (Ex. vi. 18, 19 ; Num. iii.
19, 27; 1 Chron. Vi. 18, 38). From him de-
scended the rebel Korah (Num. xvi. 1).

Iz'har, II. [whiteness].

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, son

Izliah

331

Jabbok

of Ashhur il Chrou. iv. 5-7). Another read-
ing is Zobar.

Iz-li'ali, iu A. V. Jezllah [perhaps, deliv-
erdiice].

A Benjamite, sou of Elpaal and descended
from Shaharaim (1 Chron. viii. 18).

Iz-ra-hi'ah [Jehovah doth arise (cp. Is.
Ix. 2)].

A man of Issachar, family of Tola, and son
of I'zzi (1 Chron. vii. 3).

Iz'ra-hite.

A member of the family, or an inhabitant
of the town, of Izrah (1 Chron. xxvii. 8),
perhaps the same as Ezrahite.

Iz'ri [fashioning, creative].

A Levite. son of Jeduthun, and head of
the fourth course for the musical service of
the sanctuary (1 Chron. xxv. 11). Called in
ver. 3 Zeri (q. v.).

Iz-zi'ah, iu A. V. Jeziah [perhaps, Jehovah
exulteth],

A son of Parosh. He was induced by
Ezi-a to put away his foreign wife (Ezra
X. 25).

J.

Ja'a-kan, in A. V. of 1 Chron. i. 42 Jakan.
Written Akan in Gen. xsxvi. 27 [Horite
name of uncertain meaning].

A descendant or prominent branch of the
Horites of mount Seir, who were eventually
dispossessed bv the Edomites (Gen. xxxvi. 20,
21, 27; 1 Chron. i. 38. 42; Deut. ii. 12). At
the time of the exodus sons of Jaakan con-
stituted a tribe which occupied a district on
the borders of Edom near mount Hor, where
Aaron died. The Israelites encamped at cer-
tain of their wells (Deut. x. 6; Num. xx. 21-
23 ; xxxiii. 31).

Ja-a-ko'bah [supplanting].

A Simt-ouite iirince (1 Chron. iv. 36).

Ja'a-lah, or Jaala [doe, female ibex].

The founder uf a family, ranked among
the children of Solomon's servants (Ezra ii.
56 ; Xeh. vii. ')S).

Ja'a-lam. See Jalam.

Ja'a-nai, in E. V. Janai [perhaps, vora-
cious or. possibly, Jehovah answers].

A Gadite chief (1 Chron. v. 12).

Ja'ar [a forest].

A proper name occurring in the margin of
Psalm cxxxii. 6. R. V. It is believed to be
the same as Kirjath-jearim.

Ja-a-re-or'e-gim. See Jair II.

Ja-ar-e-shi'ah, in A. V. Jaresiah [Jeho-
vah doth nourish or plant].

A Benjamite, son of Jeroham (1 Chron.
viii. 27'.

Ja'a-sai and Ja'a-sau. See Jaasu.

Ja-a'si-el, in A. V. once Jasiel (1 Chron.
xi. 47) [God maketh].

1. A Mesobaite, one of David's mighty
men (1 Chron. xi. 47).

2. A son of Abner (1 Chron. xxvii. 21).

Ja'a-su, in A. V. Jaasau, in R. V. margin
Jaasai [possibly, Jehovah maketh].

A son of Bani. He was induced by Ezra
to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 37).

Ja-az-a-ni'ah [Jehovah doth hearken].

1. Sou of a Maacathite (2 Kin. xxv. 23).
See Jezaxi.\h.

2. A Rechabite, son of a certain Jeremiah,
not the prophet of that name (Jer. xxxv. 3).

3. A son of Shaphan. He was a leader of
idolatry in Ezekiel's time (Ezek. viii. 11).

4. A son of Azzur and prince of Judah,
■who was seen by Ezekiel in vision (Ezek. xi.
1 ; cp. viii. 1, 3 ; xi. 24).

Ja'a-zer. See Jazer.

Ja-a-zi'ah [Jehovah consoleth].

A Levite, registered as head of a father's
house with the family of Merari (1 Chron.
xxiv. 26, 27), and perhaps called his son or
descendant (Beno). No hint is elsewhere
given of Merari having a third son. Can
Jaaziah represent the house of the dead
Eleazar (28 ; cp. xxiii. 22), or is the passage
26'', 27 an interpolation ?

Ja-a'zi-el or Aziel [God consoleth].

A Levite of the second rank, one of the
musicians who played on the psaltery at the
removal of the ark from the house of Obed-
edom, and afterwards as a regular duty in
the tent at Jerusalem (1 Chron. xv. 18, 20 ;
and probably xvi. 5). In the last passage the
form Jeiel is probably a copyist's error.

Ja'bal [in Hebrew a stream, a river].

Son of the Cainite Lamech, by his wife
Adah. He was the father of such as dwell
in tents and have cattle (Gen. iv. 20).

Jab'bok [effusion].

An eastern tributary of the Jordan. Jacob
forded it on his way back from Mesopotamia
(Gen. xxxii. 22). Rising near Rabbath Am-
mon, it flows for 12 miles from that town
toward the northeast and then sweeps around
toward the northwest. After holding this
course for about 15 miles it turns westward,
and for 17 miles flows through a valley which
cleaves mount Gilead in twain. On emerging
into the valley of the Jordan it bends toward
the southwest and enters the Jordan at a
point about 43 miles south of the sea of
Galilee and 23 miles north of the Dead Sea.
The lower part of its course is now called the
wady es-Zerka. The Jabbok was a recog-
nized frontier. It formed the western boun-
dary of the Ammonites, and separated them
from the Amorite kingdom of Sihon and
later from the tribe of Gad. It divided
mount Gilead into two parts, of which the
southern was held by Sihon before the Israel-
ite conquest, and afterwards was assigned to

Jabesh

332

Jachin

The Biook Jabbok.

Gad, while the northern was possessed by
Ojj and passed from him to the half tribe of
>Ianasseh (Num. xxi. 24; Dent. ii. 36, 37;
iii. 1:2, 13, 16; Josh. xii. 2-6).

Ja'besb [dry].

1. A town. See Jabesh-gilead.

2. Father of king Shallum (2 Kin. xv. 10).

Ja-besh-gil'e-ad [Jabesh of Gilcad].

A town oF (jilead. It is believed to have
stood at ed-Deir, 9J miles southeast and in
full view of Beth-shean on the other side of
the river. It is on a brook, wady el-Yabis,
which seems to preserve the old name .Jabesh.
In the great war waged against Benjamin in
the days of the judges on account of the
matter of the Levite and his concubine, none
of the men of Jabesh-gilead took part. For
this indifference to a national sin, they were
condemned to utter destruction. Only 400
nnniarried girls were saved alive and given
for wives to 400 of the remaining men of
Benjamin (Judg. xxi. S-l.'j). The place
was soon reoccupied. Shortly after Saul
had l)een chosen king, Nahash, king of the
Ammonites, besieged Jabesh-gilead. The
town was sore pressed ; and the Ammonite
king doomed every man to the loss of the
right eye on the surrender of the town. This
was intended as an insult to the whole
Israelite nation. Saul raised the siege by
defeating the besi(>ging army (1 Sam. xi. 1-
11). The men of the town remembered their
deliverer with gratitude, and when, after the
battle of (Jilboa, liis headless body, with
those of his sons, was fastened to the wall
of Beth-shean. they crossed the .Jordan, car-
ried off the corpses, burnt them and buried
the bones in the vicinity of Jabesh-gilead
(xxxi. 11-13 ; 1 Chron. x. 11, 12) from which
they were ultimately removed to the sepul-
cher of Kish (2 Sam. xxi. 12-14). David

sent the men of Jabesh his personal
thanks for what they had done (ii. 4-7).

Ja'bez [he makes sorrow] .

1. A man of Judah, whose mother
gave him the name Jabez, because she
bore him in sorrow. He was more hon-
orable than his brethren. He prayed
that God would enlarge the boundary
of his possessions, besides keeping him
from evil. God granted his request (1
Chron. iv. 9, 10).

2. A place, doubtless in Judah, where
families of scribes dwelt (1 Ghron. ii. 55).

Ja'bin [he discerneth, intelligent].

1. A Canaanite, king of Hazor in Gal-
ilee and its dependent towns and the
head of the confederacy of northern and
central kings whom Joshua defeated at
the waters of Merom. After the battle
the Israelites took and burned Hazor and
slew its king (Josh. xi. 1-14).

2. Another king of Canaan who reigned
at Hazor, probably a lineal descendant
of the first (Judg. iv. 2). He, too, had

kings fighting under him (v. 19). He op-
pressed the Israelites twenty years ; but at
length his commander-in-chief Sisera was de-
feated by Barak at the river Kishon and afterr
wards murdered. Jabin continued the war,
but was ultimately destroyed (iv. 2-24).
Jab'ne-el [God doth cause to be built].

1. A town on the northern border of Judah
(Josh. XV. 5, 11). It is the same place as the
Philistine city of Jabneh, the wall of which
was broken down by Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi.
6) ; and it was known later as Jamnia (1 Mac.
iv. 15 ; v. 58 ; 2 Mac. xii. 8, 9). It is rei)resented
by the village of Yebnah, about 4 miles in-
land from the Mediterranean, and 9 north-
east by north of Ashdod.

2. A frontier town of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
33). Conder identifies it with the ruin
Yemma, about 7 miles south by west of
Tiberias. More commonly it is identified
with Jamnia or Jamnith, a village of upper
Galilee, built on a rocky height and fortified
by Josephus (Life 37 ;' War. ii. 20, 6) ; and
whose site is sought in the neighborhood of
the plain of Huleh and Banias (War ii. 6, 3;
but text is uncertain).

Jab'neh [he causes to be built]. See

J.\BXEEL.

Ja'can, in A. V. Jachan [troublous].
A (iadite, ]irobalily head of a father's
liouse (1 Chron. v. 13).
Ja'cMn [he doth establish].

1. A son of Simeon, and founder of a
tribal family (Gen. xlvi. 10 ; Ex. vi. 15 ; Num.
xxvi. 12). Called Jarib in 1 Chron. iv. 24,
which is doubtless due to an erroneous read-
ing of the text by a copyist.

2. A descendant of Aaron. In the time of
David, his fiimily was made the twenty-first
of the courses into which the .sacerdotal body
was divided (1 Chron. xxiv. 17). It dwelt at

Jacinth

333

Jacob

Jerusiilem, according to the probable mean-
ing of ix. 10 ; but it is not at all certain that
the jn-iest Jachin, who was resident at Jeru-
salem after the captivity, was of this family
(Neh. xi. 10).

3. The right-hand pillar of two set up in
the porch of Solomon's temple (1 Kin. vii. 15-
22). See BoAZ.

Ja'cinth. See Hyacinth.

Jack'al.

The rendering in the E. V. of the Hebrew
plurals Taniiim and Tannoth, which in the
A. V. are regularly translated by dragon
(q. v.). The creature intended is a mammal
(Lam. iv. 3, in A. V. sea monsters) and
dwells in the wilderness (Is. xxxv. 7 ; xliii. 20)
and in deserted places (xxxiv. 13, 14 ; Jer.
xlix. 33; li. 37).

The jackal (Canis aureus) is, it will be seen,
placed in the dog genus Canis. It differs
from the dog in its long and pointed muzzle.
The name aureus, golden, refers to the color
of the under fur, which is brownish yellow,
mottled with black, gray, and brown hairs.
Its length is about thirty inches, and its height
at the shoulder seventeen. It hunts in packs,
and feeds chiefly on carrion, though it carries
off and devours children when opportunity
arises. It has been called the lion's provider,
the opinion being entertained that when its
voice is heard, the lion, following on, tries to
claim his share of the prey. It raises the
most unearthly yell of all of its compeers.
It is found in Africa and soufhern Asia, and
is diflused throughout Palestine, especially
frequenting ruins. See also Fox.

Ja'cob [he supplantcth, supplanter].

A son of Isaac and Eebekah, a twin with
Esau, but born a short time after him, and
therefore considered the younger brother
(Gen. XXV. 21-26). He was born when his
father was sixty years old {26). As he grew
he became a quiet, inoffensive man, dwelling
in tents (27). He was his mother's favorite,
while the father preferred Esau (28). As Esau
came in from hunting, faint with hunger,
Jacob chanced to have pottage of lentils ready
boiled, but selfishly forbore to relieve his
brother's necessities till he had compelled
him first to surrender tlie privilege of his
birthright (29-34). Positive fraud followed.
When I.saac was about 1.37 years old and
nearly blind, Rebekah induced Jacob to dress
himself in Esau's raiment, make his neck
and hands artificially hairy, and passing him-
self off as Esau, obtain from Isaac, who
thought himself near death, the blessing be-
longing to the birthright. Esau recalled the
first wrong when this second one was perpe-
trated, and resolved that when his father
died, he would kill his brother (xxvii. 1-41).
Rebekah heard the threat, and to give time
for Esau's wrath to cool, sent Jacob away to
her relatives in Haran, on the pretext of
seeking a wife. While on this journey he
liad the night vision in w-hich a ladder con-

nected earth and heaven, angels ascended
and descended, and God standing above
assured him of the covenant blessing (xxvii.
42-4(i ; xxviii. 1-22). Jacob sojourned in
Paddan-aram twenty years, all of which time
he was in Laban's emjjloy, serving him four-
teen years for his two daughters, Ix'ah and
Rachel, and six for a payment in cattle. Dur-
ing this period in Haran there were born to
him eleven sons : by Leah six, Reuben,
Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun,
besidesa daughter, Dinah ; by Bilhah, Rachel's
maid, two, Dan and Naplitali ; by Zilpah,
Leah's maid, two. Gad and Asher ; and by
Rachel one, Joseph (xxix., xxx.). The last
was born when Jacob was ninety or ninety-
one years of age (cp. xlvii. 9 with xli. 46, 47,
54 ; xlv. 11). Six years later, perceiving that
Laban and his sons, envying his i>rosi)erity,
were turning against him, he became alarmed.
While pasturing his flocks, probably three
days from Haran (xxx. 36 ; xxxi. 22) on the
Euphrates, he sent for his wives (xxxi. 4),
crossed the river, and fled with his
family and possessions toward Canaan
(21). Three days later Laban was in-
formed of Jacob's flight. He was busy
shearing his sheep ; but he presently gath-
ered his male relatives, stai'ted in pursuit of
the fugitives, and after a week's journey by
forced marches overtook them on mount
Gilead, apparently between the Yarmuk and
the Jabbok, scant300 miles from the Euphra-
tes, at least ten days after Jacob's depar-
ture and probably longer, for Laban wasbusj'
shearing sheep when he received information
of the flight and was unprepared for the
journey. God shielded Jacob from injury,
and a reconciliation and a treaty of amity
between the alienated parties took place.
A heap of stones was erected and a covenant
meal eaten to establish the agreement that
neither party should pass that point to at-
tack the other (xxxi.). Jacob had mani-
festations of the divine favor at JIahanaim
and on the Jabbok, where a man wrestled
with him until break of day, showed his
superiority to Jacob by disabling him by a
touch, and before dejiarting blessed him, say-
ing : "Thy name shall be called no more
Jacob, but Israel ; for thou hast striven with
God and with men. and hast prevailed."
And Jacob called the name of that place
Peniel, face of God, for he said: "I have
seen God face to face, and my life is pre-
served " (xxxii, 22-32 ; cp. the name xxxiii.
20 ; Hosca xii. 4). This event proved a crisis
in the life of Jacob. Heretofore he had been
trusting to his own strength and shrewdness
for success. He now learns that his own
strength is of no avail in wrestling with
God and that he must resort to prayer for
the blessing which he cannot do without.
Henceforth the record of his worshiping be-
comes frequent. Before he crossed the Jor-
dan, he met Esau, and obtained forgiveness
for the wrongs which had so long made him

Jacob

334

Jacob

an exile. Then the brothers parted, Esau
returiiiufi to mount Seir and Jacob going to
Canaan (xxxiii. 1-lS). Jacob sojourned in
Canaan at Shechem, where he bouglit a par-
cel of ground from the chief of Shechem, on
which he pitched his camp and erected an
altar (xxxiii. 18-20). While here his daugh-
ter Dinah was illtreated by the chief's son.
The deed was avenged by two of Jacob's sons,
Simeon and Levi, and the other sons joined
in spoiling the town. Jacob feared the con-
sequences of this act; but since his sous had
ca[iturcd the place, slain the males, appro-
priated the wealth, and made captive the
women and children, he recognized the con-
quest of the town and the consequent owner-
ship of it by his tribe (xlviii. 22 ; cp. xxxvii.
12). From Shechem Jacob removed to Bethel.
There Deborah died and was buried (xxxv.
6-8) ; see Deborah. There also, where God
had appeared to him as he went to Paddan-
aram, God appeared to him again when he
came back from Paddan-aram (xxxv. 9 ;
xxviii. 10-22), emphasizing the change of
name (but, of course, not finding it necessary
to tell why the new name had been given)
and confirming the blessing of the Abrahamic
covenant to him. As be was approaching
Bethlehem on his way to Hebron, his twelfth
and last son, Benjamin, was born, and his
beloved Rachel died (9-20). At length Jacob
came to his father Isaac at Mamre (27).
Isaac died ahout twenty-three
years later, and was buried by
Esau and Jacob (28, 29). Jacob
seems to have dwelt at Mamre
during the next thirty-three
years ; for he was at Hebron
about ten years after his re-
turn (xxxvii. 14; cp. 2), and
he was evidently still there
when he was summoned to go
down to Egj'pt (xlvi. 1). Jacob
was 130 years old when he went
to Egj'pt (xlvii. 9), and he lived
there seventeen years. He gave
a special blessing, first to Jo-
seph's children and then to his
own, after which he died at
the age of 147 (xlvii. 28 ; xlviii. :
xlix. ). His body was embalm-
ed, taken to Canaan with much
pomp, and interred in the cave
of Machpelah (1. 1-14). Jacob
had glaring faults of character.
For his sins he sufl'ered se-
verely, and in his old age he
was sorely chastened by the
lo.ss of Joseph. In his later
life lie acknowledged, at least
tacitly, the sinfulness of his
earlier career and his failure
to walk before God, and he
spoke only of God's grace (xlviii. 15, Ifi). He
was animated also in his latter days by un-
wavering faith in God (21 ; Heb. xi'. 21)'.
The Hebrew nation, as descended from

Jacob, is often called in Scripture the chil-
dren of Israel (Ex. xiv. 16, 29; xv. 1, etc.).
The prophets often use Jacob and Israel as
parallel names in their poetic couplets (Deut.

Outer Openmg of Jacob's Well.

xliv. 1). See

Is.

1, 22

xxxiii. 10;
Israel.

Jacob's well, beside or on the edge of which
Jesus sat when conversing with the woman

Subterranean Vault over Mouth of Jacob's Well.

of Samaria, was at Sychar, near to the parcel
of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph.
" Jacob," the woman of Samaria said, " drank
thereof himself, and his sons, and his cattle"

Jada

335

Jahaziel

(John iv. 5, 6. 12 : cp. Gen. xxxiii. 18-20 ;
xxxvii. 12). A tradition, going back as far
as the time of tlie Bordeaux pilgrim a. d.,
333, and accepted by Jews, Samaritans,
Christians, and Mohammedans, identities
Jacob's well with the Bir Ya'kub. It is
situated in the eastern part of the valley be-
tween mount Ebal on the north and mount
(ieri/.im on the south, abt»ut 2 miles east-
southeast from Nablus, the modern She-
chem. and a third of a mile south from
'Askar, believed by many to be Sychar.
Maundrell, generally very accurate, made its
diameter 9 feet and its depth lu.j. Dr. John
Wilson, measuring a line with which a boy
was let down into it with a light in 1843, de-
termined it to be 75 feet deep. Conder
reported its depth in 1875 as 75 feet. It is
less now than it once was, owing to the num-
ber of stones thrown into it by visitors. It
is lined with masonry in the upper part. The
lower part is cut through soft limestone.
There is generally little water in it, and that
which is there is not easy to reach (John iv.
11). A low subterranean vault, 20 feet long
from east to west and 10 broad, probably the
crypt of a Christian church, is built over the
well, the mouth of which is contracted and
covered with one or more large stones. There
is a tine fountain a little to the west, and
many others in the valley. The well, how-
ever, was dug. perhaps, because the fountains
were appropriated. It is in the vicinity of
what from the fourth century has been pop-
ularly considered to be Joseph's tomb.

Ja'da [wise].

A son of Guam, a man of Judah, family of
Hezron, house of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 28,
32).

Ja'dau. See Iddo II.

Jad-du'a [known].

1. One of the chiefs of the people who,
with Nehemiah, sealed the covenant (Neh. x.
21).

2. A high priest, son of Jonathan and the
fifth in descent from the high priest Jeshua,
who returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon
(Xeh. xii. 11, 22). He was probably a youth
in the reign of Darius Xothus, and sur-
vived Darius Codomannus, the Persian sover-
eign defeated by Alexander the Great at
Arbela in 331 b. c. See High Priest.

Ja'don [he ruleth. judgeth, or abideth].

A Meronothite, who repaired part of the
wall of Jerusalem after the captivity (Neh.
iii. 7).

Ja'el [wild goat, ibex].

The wife of Heber the Kenite (Judg. iv.
17). Sisera. Jabin's general, trusting to the
peace subsisting between his royal master
and Heber, fled to her tent after he was de-
feated by Barak. On his approach .Tael went
out. invited him to enter, and gave him milk
to relieve his thirst. But as he lay sleeping
in the tent, she took a hammer and drove
a tent pin through his temples, tixing his

head to the ground. When the victorious
Barak passed, she called him in to see what
she had done (Judg. iv. 11 22). Deborah
highly commended the deed of Jael (v. 24-
27), though it was cruel and treacherous. It
reveals a rudeness of manners and a hard-
ness of character which found frequent ex-
emplification in those early times.

In V. tj a judge named Jael may be referred
to, who is not elscuhere mentitmed. A simpler
explanation is that Deborah means that al-
though the heroic woman Jael was then liv-
ing, yet no one ventured to undertake the
deliverance of Israel until Deborah arose.

Ja'gur [a lodging, an inn].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 21). Site unknown.

Jail.

A form of Jehovah occurring in poetry
(Ps. Ixviii. 4 : E. V. of Ixxxix. 81. In various
other places Jab, or. rather. Yah in Hebrew
is rendered Lord in the A. V. and E. V.

In the Hebrew sometimes Jah and Jehovah
stand together, Jah first (Is. xii. 2 and xxvi.
4, margin of E. V.).

Ja'hath [perhaps, grasping; cp. Mahath].

1. A man of Judah. family of Hezron, de-
scended through Shobal (1 Chron. iv. 2 ; cp.
ii. 19, 50).

2. A son of Libni, a Levite, family of Ger-
shom (1 Chron. vi. 20, and perhaps 43). The
reference in ver. 43 may belong to the suc-
ceeding.

3. A Levite, family of Gershom and head
of a subdivision of the house of Shimei
(1 Chron. xxiii. 10).

4. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar (1 Chron. xxiv. 22).

5. A Merarite Levite, an overseer of the
workmen engaged in repairing the temple
during Josiah's reign (2 Chron. xxxiv. 12).

Ja'haz and Jahzah, in A. V. once Jaliaza
(Josh. xiii. 18), and twice Jahazah (Josh.
xxi. 36 ; Jer. xlviii. 21) [a place trodden
under foot, an open space].

A place in the plain of Moab (Jer. xlviii.
21) where Sihon, king of the Amorites, was
defeated by the Israelites (Num. xxi. 23;
Dent. ii. 32': Judg. xi. 20). It was assigned
to the Eeubenites (Josh. xiii. 18), and set
apart for the Merarite Levites (Josh. xxi. 36;.
1 Chron. vi. 78). It was taken from Israel
bv Mesha, king of Moab (Moabite Stone, 18-
26). and it was held by Moab in the time of
Isaiah and Jeremiah (Is. xv. 4 ; Jer. xlviii.
21, 34). Its site is unknown.

Ja-ha-zi'ah. See Jahzexah.

Ja-ha'zi-el [God seeth].

1. A Levite. family of Kohath. house of
Hebron (1 Chron. xxiii. 19).

2. One of the Benjamite warriors who
joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 4).

3. A priest in David's reign who was em-
ployed to sound a trumpet in the sanctuary
(1 Chron. xvi. 6).

Jahdai

336

Jambri

4. A Levite, son of Zechariah of the Asaph
family, who jji-opbesied iu the time of Jehosh-
apliat ('2 Chron. xx. 14).

5. Palher of a chief of the people who re-
turned from Babylon (Ezra viii. 5).

Jah'dal [i)erhaps, he directeth or direc-
tive].

A man of Judah, enrolled with Caleb's
posterity (1 Chron ii. 47).

Jah'di-el [God maketh glad] .

A leading man in the half tribe of Manas-
seh east of the Jordan (1 Chron. v. 24).

Jab'do [union].

A Gadite, son of Buz (1 Chron. v. 14).

Jah'le-el [God doth grievously afflict],

A son of Zebulun, and founder of a tribal
faniily (Gen. xlvi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 26).

Jah'mai [perhaps, lusty].

.\ prince of Issachar, of the familj' of Tola
(1 Cliron. vii. 2).

Jah'zah. See Jah.\z.

Jah'ze-el and Jahziel [God distributeth].

A sou of Naphtali, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 24: Num. xxvi. 48; 1
Chron. vii. 13).

Jah-ze'iah, in A. Y. Jahaziah [Jehovah
seeth].

A son of Tikvah who opposed the proposi-
tion that the Jews put away their foreign
wives (Ezra x. 15, K. V.).

Jah'ze-rah [may he lead back].

A priest descended from Immer (1 Chron.
ix. 12).

Jah'zi-el. See Jahzeel.

Ja'ir, I. [he enlighteneth].

1. A son of Segub and grandson of Hezron,
of the tribe of Judah, and his. wife, who was
of the family of Machir, of the tribe of Ma-
nasseh (1 Chron. ii. 21, 22). He was reckoned
with the tribe of Manasseh (v. 23 ; Num.
xx.sii. 41 ; Deut. iii. 14). At the time of the
coiiquest by the Israelites under Moses of the
country east of the Jordan, he took villages
in the Argob, on the border of Bashau and
Gilead, and called them Havvoth-jair (q. v.).

2. A Gileadite who judged Israel twenty-
two years, succeeding or surviving Tola in
othce. Each of his thirty sons had an ass for
riding purpo.ses, which in that age was an
indication of standing in the community.
They also had thirty cities, called Havvotii-
jair. He may have belonged to the family
of the earlier Jair (cp. perhaps J.\irite), and
have inherited prerogatives connected with
the Havvoth-jair, or have used his influence
to ])lace his sens over these encampments
(Judg. X. 3-r,).

3. A Benjamite, Moi'decai's father (Esth.
ii. 5).

Ja'ir, II. [he arouseth].

Father of Elhanan (1 Chron. xx. 5) ; called
in 2 Sam. xxi. 19, Jaare-orcgim, where oregim
has gotten into the text by error from the
line below.

Ja'ir-ite.

A descendant of some Jair or other, whose
name was written as is that of Jair, I. (2 Sam.
XX. 26).

Ja-i'rus [Greek form of Jair].

One of the rulers of the synagogue at
Capernaum, who besought Jesus to come to-
his house and heal his little daughter, twelve
years of age. On the way thither thej- were
informed that the child was dead. Jesus,
not heeding the word spoken, said, " Fear
not, only believe." Entering the house and
finding it full of noisy professional mourners,
he rebuked them, saying : " The damsel is
not dead, but sleepeth." He used the word
as he did afterwards iu the case of Lazarus
(John xi. 11-14), but the mourners laughed
him to scorn. However, taking the three
disciples, Peter, James, and John, and the
parents, he entered the chamber where the
corpse was laid out, took the child by the
hand, and said in the language of the people,
T4itha' kiimi ; Maid, arise. And the maid
arose. He commanded that something should
be given her to eat, and enjoined the parents
not to tell what had taken place. Such a
miracle could not, however, be concealed,
and it was soon everywhere blazoned abroad
(Mat. ix. 18-26 ; Mark v. 22-43 ; Luke viii.
41-56).

Ja'kan. See Jaakan.

Ja'keh [pious].

The father of that Agur whose words are
recorded in Prov. xxx. In the Hebrew Bible
his name is followed by the words Ham-
massa', translated in the A. V. the prophecy,
and in the E. V. the oracle. The margin
of the R. V. translates the title Jakeh of
Massa, and refers to Gen. xxv. 14, where
Massa figures as a son of Ishmael.

Ja'kim [he raises up].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family
grew to a father's house and was made the
twelfth of the twenty-four cour.ses into
which David divided the priests (1 Chron.
xxiv. 12).

2. A Benjamite (1 Chron. viii. 19).
Ja'lam, in A. V. Jaalam [perhaps, hidden

or pertaining to a wild goat].

A son of Esau by his wife Oholibamah.
He became a chieftain of Edom (Gen. xxxvi.
5, 18; 1 Chron. i. 35).

Ja'lon [perhaps, obstinate].

A son of Ezrah, registered with the tribe
of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 17).

Jam'bres [])erhaps, opposer].

One of two Egyptian magicians who
attempted to counterwork Moses (2 Tim. iii.
8). See Jannes.

Jam'bri.

Founder of a familv which dweltat ^ledeba
(1 Mac. ix. 36, 37 ; Antiq. xiii. 1, 2). The or-
thography is uncertain. It may represent
the Hebrew name Omri or Imri ; and even
Amorite has been conjectured.

James

337

James

James [a form of the name Jacob].

1. James the sou of Zebedee (Mat. iv. 21 ;
X. 2 ; Mark i. 19 ; iii. 17), and brother of
the apostU' Johu (Mat. xvii. 1 ; Mark iii. 17;
V. 37 ; Acts xii. 2). oue of the earliest dis-
ciples (Mat. iv. 21 : Mark i. 19, 29 ; cp. Johu
1.40, 41) aud most trusted apostles (Mat. xvii.
1 ; Mark v. 37 ; ix. 2 ; xiii. 3 ; xiv. 33 ; Luke
viii. 51 ; ix. 2t!) of our Lord. Of his birth-
place or early home we are told uothing.
His occupation as a fisherman on the sea of
(.Talilee, in partnership with Peter and
Andrew (Luke v. 10), might seem to suggest
a contiguous locality. But the fishery of the
sea of Galilee was expressly kept free for
every Israelite, aud a social ditference between
the sons of Zebedee and the sous of Jonas
may be implied in the facts that the foi'mer
kept hired servants (Mark i. 20), and that
John at least was known to the high priest
(John xviii. Iti) aud may have had a house
in Jerusalem (xix. 27). His father, Zebedee,
appears only once in the pages of the gospels
{Mat. iv. 21 ; Mark i. 19), where he raises no
obstacle to his sons' following Jesus. From
Mat. xxvii. oti, compared with Mark xv. 40 ;
xvi. 1 and with John xix. 25, it seems rea-
sonable to infer that his mother was named
Salome and was sister to the mother of Jesus :
in which case James would be a near kins-
man of Jesus, and like him of Davidic de-
scent. His name occui-s only in the .synoptic
gospels and the book of The Acts, although he
is alluded to twice in the Gospel of John (i. 40,
41 ; xxi. 2). It never occurs apart from that of
John, which it ordinarily precedes (Mat. iv.
21 ; X. 2 ; xvii. 1 ; Mark "i. 19. 29 ; iii. 17 ; v.
37 ; ix. 2 ; x. 3,5, 41 : xiii. 3 ; xiv. 33 ; Luke
v. 10; vi. 14; ix. .54), while John is desig-
nated as the brother of James (Mat. iv. 21 ;
X. 2 : xvii. 1 ; Mark i. 19 ; iii. 17 ; v. 37). From
this it has been inferred that he was the older
brother ; while the occasional reverse usage
in Luke (viii. 51. E. V. ; ix. 28) and Acts
(i. 13, R. V. ; xii. 2 only) is supposed to arise
from John's greater prominence in the apos-
tolical circle. Along with John, he received
from Hirist the surname Boanerges or son
of thunder (]Mark iii. 17), aud along with
him earned his ^Master's rebuke for the fierce-
ness of his anger against the Samaritan vil-
lage which would not receive Jesus (Luke ix.
55), and the indignation of his fellow apos-
tles for his ambitious self-seeking (Mark x.
41). After the crucifixion we find him with
the other apostles in Galilee (John xxi. 2),
and in Jerusalem (Acts i. 13), and his record
closes with his death by the sword at the
hands of Herod Agrippa I., probably a. d.
44 (xii. 2). He was the first of the apostolic
band to seal his testimony with his blood.

2. James the son of Alpha?us and one of
the apostles of our Lord (Mat. x. 3 : Mark
iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 15 : Acts i. 13). Nothing
further is certainly known of him. It is
natural, however, as it has been usual, to
assume that the James of Mat. xxvii. 56 ;

22

Mark xv. 40 ; xvi. 1 ; Luke xxiv. 10 is this
James : in which case we may learn that he
bore the surname of '■ the little" (E. V., "the
less"), possibly with reference to his stature
(Mark xv. 40) ; that his mother was called
Mary, and was one of the women who
accompanied Christ ; and that he had a
brother named Joses. Levi, or Matthew, who,
according to Mark ii. 14, was son of Alphseus,
may be another brother : and it is jiossible to
fill in the ellipsis of Luke vi. l(j ; Acts i. 13
so as to make the apostle Judas another
brother. It is possible further to identify
the Mary of Clopas of John xix. 25 with
Mary the mother of James ; and it is then
possible, though scarcely natural, to read
John xix. 25 as declaring that Mary of Clopas
was Jesus' mother's sister. By this combina-
tion, James, the son of Alphieus, would be
made out to be the cousin-germau of our
Lord. It is common, on this assumption, to
take still another step, and, on the ground
of the similarity between the names of the
Lord's brethren and those of the sous of
Alphfeus, so obtained, to su])pose that this
near relative of our Lord's is intended by
"James the Lord's brother." The whole con-
struction is, however, very insecure, and does
not seem to satisfy the biblical facts.

3. James, the Lord's brother (Mat. xiii. 55;
Mark vi. 3; Gal. i. 19), and the head of the
church at Jerusalem in the apostolic age
(Acts xii. 17 ; xv. 13 ; xxi. 18 ; Gal. i. 19 ; ii.
9. 12). This James is mentioned by name
only twice in the gospels (Mat. xiii. 55 ; Mark
vi. 3), but the outlines of his life maj^ be
traced by means of the notices of the "breth-
ren of the Lord," who constituted a distinct
class, both during our Lord's life, when they
did not believe on him (John vii. 5), and after
his resurrection, when they are found among
his followers (Acts i. 14). The exact relation-
ship which these " brethren " bore to our Lord
has always been a matter of dispute. Some,
identifying them with the sons of Alphwus,
represent them as his cousins. Others think
of them as his half-brothers, children of
Joseph by a former marriage. As they
always appear with Mary, living and jour-
neying with her and holding just such rela-
tions with her as would naturally be borne
by her children (JIat. xii. 46, 47; Luke viii.
19; Johu ii. 12), there is no reason to ques-
tion the natural implication that they were
Jesus' own brothers. As James' name stands
first in the lists (Mat. xiii. .55 ; Mark vi. 3), it
is probable that he was the oldest of our
Lord's brothers. He doubtless shared their
unbelief (.John vii. 5), and doubtless also their
natural anxieties in his behalf (JIark iii. 31,
seq.). When or how the change was wrought
in him by which he became a servant of
Christ (Acts i. 14 ; Jas. i. 1) we are not told :
possibly, as in the case of Paul, his conversion
was due to a special ajjpearance of the risen
' Lord (1 Cor. xv. 7). From the very first or-
I ganization of the church in Jerusalem,

James, Epistle of

338

James, Epistle of

James appears as its head (Acts xii. 17 ; xv.
13 ;• xxi. 18 ; Gal. i. 19 ; ii. 9, 12). As early
as A. D. 40, when Paul first visited Jerusalem
after his couversion, James' position was
such that Paul felt it necessary to name him
along with Peter as having been seen by him
(Gal. i. 19). The reference of Acts xii. 17
(a. d. 44), where James is clearly the official
head of "the brethren," as well as that of
xxi. 18 (a. d. 58), where he seems to stand at
the head of the elders of the church (cp.
XV. 6), enable us to estimate wherein his
preeminence consisted. As he was not an
apo.stle (the K. V. margin gives the correct
translation of Gal. i. 19), we cannot be far
wrong in assuming that he was the head of
the board of elders of the church at Jerusalem ;
that is, what we should call the " pastor "
of that church. See Elder. As such, his
name stands for the church of Jerusalem
(Gal. ii. 12), of which he was the natural
representative (Acts xii. 17 ; xv. 13 ; xxi. 18) ;
and visitors to the church made themselves
known in the first instance to him and laid
their errand before him (xii. 17; xxi. 18;
Gal. i. 19 ; ii. 9). In his position, James' life-
work was naturally to smooth the passage of
Jews over to Christianity. That he stood on the
same platform of faith with Paul is apparent
not only from Paul's assertion in Gal. ii. 9,
but also from .James' remarks recorded in
Acts XV. 13 ; xxi. 20. But on both occa-
sions he speaks also in behalf of the Jewish-
Christian conscience, and it is equally appar-
ent that, as Paul became as all men to all
men because he was sent to all, James be-
came as a Jew to Jews because he was sent
to Jews. The use of his name by intense
Judaizers (Gal. ii. 12, and the later Clemen-
tine literature) is thus explical)le, as also the
admiration which is said to have been con-
ceived for him by the Jews themselves, who
are reported to have given him the surname
of "the just" (Eusebius, H. E. ii. 23). After
Acts .xxi. 18 (a. d. 58) we meet no further
reference to .Tames in the N. T. Secular his-
tory tells us, however, that he was martyred
in a ])oi)uIar outbreak of the Jews in the in-
terregnum between the death of the procura-
tor Festus and the appointment of his suc-
cessor, i. €., A. D. 62 (Antiq. xx. 9, 1 ; Euse-
bius, H. E. ii. 23).

4. James, the father or brother of the apos-
tle Judas (Luke vi. 16 ; Acts i. 13). Nothing
further is known of him. B. B. W.

James, E-pis'tle of.

This letter does not announce itself as the
production of an apostle, but describes its
author sim]»ly as James, a boTid-servant of
(rod and of the Lord Jesiis Christ (i. 1, R.
V. margin). It is most natural to think of
James, the Lord's brother, as meant, and
all the characteristics of the letter agree
with this attribution. The letter bears a dis-
tinct fiavor of i>rimitivenoss : the Christian
place of worship is still spoken of as a syna-

gogue (ii. 2) ; Christians are not sharply
discriminated from Jews (i. 1) ; the sins re-
buked and errors corrected are such as would
naturally spring up in a Jewish soil; while
there is not a trace of the controversies
which already in the sixth decade of the
first Christian century were distracting the
whole church. It is, therefore, usually dated
about A. D. 45, and considered the earliest of
the N. T. writings. It is addressed to the
twelve tribes which are of the Dispersion (i. 1,
E. v.), that is, not to the dispersed Jews, nor
yet to the whole Christian church, consid-
ered as the spiritual Israel, but, probably, to
the Christians (ii. 1, 5, 7 ; v. 7) among the
Jewish Dispersion, as the Jews dwelling out-
side the Holy Land were technically called
(John vii. 35 ; cp. 2 Mac. i. 27). The object
of its writing was to reform and correct those
sins and errors to which its lately Christian-
ized Jewish readers continued to be liable,
and to encourage them in the sore trials to
which they were exposed.

After the address (i. 1), James first consoles
his readers in their tiials and exhorts them
to steadfastness, pointing out at the same
time the source of the temptation to apos-
tasy (i. 2-21). He proceeds then to warn
them against mere word-service, explaining
what is meant by true faith (i. 22-27), what
will be the eflTect of true faith on the preva-
lent sin of respect of persons (ii. 1-13), and
how a true faith evinces itself (ii. 14-26).
Exhortations against hasty assumption and
misuse of the functions of religious teachers
and exposure of their root in a jealous heart
follow (iii. 1-18) ; and then reproofs of con-
tentiousness (iv. 1-12) and self-sufficiency
(iv. 13-v. 6). The epistle closes w-ith exhor-
tations to patience in suffering (v. 7-12) and
to prayer as the sufficient resource of the
Christian in every need (13-18), along with a
final declaration of the joy of Christian prop-
agandism (19-20).

The linguistic and rhetorical character of
the epistle is very high. It is written in
Greek which is surpassed in purity )\v that
of no N. T. writings except those of Luke,
and in a strikingly elevated and picturesque
style resembling that of the Hebrew pro])hets.
It contains more imagery drawn from na-
ture than all the epistles of Paul, in this re-
calling the manner of our Lord's synoptic
speeches, to which it presents numerous
parallels. The tone and matter of its teach-
ing are appropriate to its early date and the
recent emergence of its readers from Juda-
ism. The section on faith and works (ii. 14-
26) has often been misapjirehended as a
polemic against Paul's doctrine of justifica-
tion by faitli. or at least as a corrective of
perversions of that doctrine. It is really a
rebuke of a- prevalent Jewish notion — that
mere intellectual assent to divine teaching is
all that is necessary for salvation. James as
pointedly as Paul makes faith the instru-
ment of salvation (ii. 22, 23), and Paul as

Jamin

339

Jarib

firmly as James insists that the only saviug
faith is the taith that works (Gal. v. 6).

There is clear evideuce of the use of this
epistle by the church from the very earliest
times. Orifieii, however, writing early iu the
third century, is the tii'st writer to quote it
exj)licitly by name: and there was a period
during which the Latin writers seem to have
used it little. Luther, not fully seeing its
harmony with Paul, permitted himself to
speak unguardedly about it. It is historically
indicated as an integral portion of the sacred
canon. B. B. w.

Ja'min [the right hand, prosperity].

1. A son of Simeon and founder ofia tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 10 ; Ex. vi. 15; Num. xxvi.
12).

2. A man of Judah, family of Jerahmeel
(1 Chron. ii. 27).

3. One of the Levites who. under the di-
rection of Ezra, read the law of God to the
people and caused them to understand it
(Xeh. viii. 7, 8).

Jam'lech [let him constitute a king].

A Simeonite prince (1 Chron. iv. 34).

Jam'ni-a. See J.\bneel.

Ja'nai. See Jaanai.

Ja'nim, in A. V. Janum [sleep].

A village in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 53) : doubtless to the west or
southwest of Hebron.

Jan'na.

The father of Melchi in the ancestry of
Christ (Luke iii. 24).

Jan'nes.

One of two Egj-ptian magicians who at-
tempted to counterwork Hoses, Jambres being
the other (2 Tim. iii. 8). The reference is to
the occurrences described in Ex. vii. 11, 12,
22; viii. 7, 18, 19: and ix. 11, where, how-
ever, the names of the magicians are not
given nor tlieir number. They were known
to late Jewish tradition, being found in the
Targum of the pseudo-Jonathan. The Talmud
mentions Johana and INIamre. Jambres is
believed to be the Greek form of Jamreh,
opposer. Mamre, from the same root, is used
in the Talmud for one who resists the de-
cisions of the sanhedrin. Jannes is perhaps
a corru]ition of Johanan (cp. Jannseus), but
in sound suggests the Hebrew Yani', he hin-
ders or dissuades.

Ja-no'ah, and Ja-no'hah in A. V. of Joshua
[rest, quiet].

1. A town of Naphtali, captured by Tig-
lath-pileser (2 Kin. xv. 29). Not identified.
Yanuh. 6i miles east by .south of Tyre, is not
in the district described.

2. A town on the boundary line of Ephraim
(■Tosh. xvi. 6, 7). It has been fixed at Yaniin,
7 miles S. E. of Shechem.

Ja'num. See Janim.

Ja'pheth [beauty, or let him enlarge].

A son of Noah, and doubtless one of the

two elder sons (Gen. x. 21 ; c]>. ix. 24), born
about Noah's five hundredtli year (v. 32; vi.
10) ; see Noah. At the time of the deluge
he was married, but had no cliiklrcn with
him in the ark (vii. 7; 1 Pet. iii. 20). On
1 the occasion of Noah's drunkenness, Japheth
! acted to him in a dutiful manner, and in
I consequence received a blessing, the essential
part of which was that he should receive
j large territory and enjoy free action and that
he should occupy the tents of Shem, not in
the sense of conquering the Semites, hut of
dwelling with them in peace and sharing
their privileges (Gen. ix. 20-27). " The lan-
guage of the N. T. is the speech of Japheth
! entered into the tents of Shem, the gospel is
j the proclamation of salvation translated out
I of Semitic into Japhetic, and the converted
I heathen are for the most part .lajihetic peo))le
I dwelling in the tents of Shem " (Delitzsch).
i Japheth was the progenitor of the people
who inliabited, or jjerhaps in some cases con-
quered and annexed, Gomer, Magog, Madai,
Javan, Tubal. Meshech, and Tiras (Gen. x. 2).
Ja-phi'a [shining, gleaming],

1. A king of Lachish, defeated, captured,
and executed by Joshua (Josh. x. .3-27).

2. A son of David, born at Jerusalem
(2 Sam. V. 15).

3. A border town of Zebulun (Josh. xix.
12). It is by many identified with Yafa, a
little less than 2 miles southwest of Nazareth.

Japh'let [may he deliver].

An Asherite, family of Heber (1 Chron.
vii. 32).

Japh'le-tite, in A. V. Japhleti.

The descendants of a certain Jaiihlet, a])par-
ently not the same as the Asherite of that
name. Their location was on the liorder of
Ephraim, near Beth-horon (Josh. xvi. 3).

Ja'pho. See Joppa.

Ja'rah [honey].

A descendant of king Saul (1 Chron. ix.
42). Called Jehoaddah in viii. 36.

Ja'reb [contentious or let him contend].

A king of Assyria whose name has not
been identified (Hos. v. 13; x. 6), or else
Jareb is not a proper name at all, but a de-
scriptive term, and the Hebrew is to be ren-
dered, as on the margin of E. Y., a king that
should contend.

Ja'red, in A. Y. once Jered (1 Chron. i. 2)
[perhaps descent].

Son of Mahalaleel and father of En(jch
(Gen. V. 16-20; 1 Chron. i. 2; Luke iii. 37).
See Chronology.

Jar-e-si'ah. See Jaareshiah.

Jar'ha.

An Egyptian servant of a man of Judah
called Sheshan. The master gave his daugh-
ter in marriage to Jarha (1 Chron. ii. 34, 35).

Ja'rib [an adversary, or he doth contend].
1. A son of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 24) ; see
Jachin.

Jarmuth

340

Javan

2. A chief man who was with Ezra the
priest at the river of Ahava (Ezra viii. 16).

3. A priest who \vas induced to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 18).

Jar'niuth [a height].

1. A town in tlie hjwlaud, whose king was
defeated, captured, aud slaiu by Joshua (Josh.
X. 3-27; xii. 11). It was assigned to Judah
(xv. 35), and was inhabited after the captivity
(Xeh. xi. 29). Eusebius identified it with a
village known in his day as Jermochos, in
Latin Jerinucha, 10 Roman miles from Eleu-
theropolis on the road to Jerusalem. The
site is marked by the ruined village of
Yarmuk.

2. A town of Issachar, assigned to the
Gershonite Levites (Josli. xxi. 28, 29). It is
called Ramoth (1 Chron. vi. 73) and Remeth
(Josh. xix. 21), synonyms of Jarmuth. Not
identified. The village of er-Rameh, 5i
miles north by west of the city of Samaria,
does not lie within the bounds of Issachar.
Nothing but altitude recommends el-Mezar
or Wezar, on one of the highest points of
mount Gilboa.

Ja-ro'ah.

A Gadite, descended through Buz (1 Chron.
V. 14j.

Ja'shar, in A. V. Jasher [righteous, up-
right].

The Book of Jasliar is quoted in Josh. x. 13 ;
2 Sam. i. 18 ; and in Septuagint of 1 Kin.
viii. 53. From these citations, the book was
evidently a collection of poems which were
apparently accompanied by introductory, and
perhaps also concluding, explanatory remarlvs
in prose. It resembled in this respect tiie
psalms with prose introductions, such as Ps.
xviii. and li., or the book of Job witli its
prose introduction (i.-iii. 1) and conclusion
(xlii.7-17). In 1751 there appeared a volume
which professed to be an English translation
of the Book of Jashar, alleged to liave been
found, but the production was an impudent
forgery.

Ja'shen [sleei)ing].

A name in the catalogue of David's mighty
men (2 Sam. xxiii. .'J2) occupying the place
of Hashem in 1 Chron. xi. 34. Perhaps the
preceding letters Bni, rendered "sons of" in
the English versions, form ])art of tlie name;
or they may have been rejieated from the
])receding word, Shaalbonite, which termi-
nates with them.

Ja'slier. See Jashar.

Ja-sho'be-am [let the people return (to
God)].

1. A man of the family of Ilachmoni and
chief of Daviil's mighty tucm (1 Chron. xi.
11). He is reasonably identified with the
son of Zabdiel. of the children of Perez, and
consequently of the tribe of Judah, wlio was
made military captain over the course for the
first month (1 Chron. xxvii. 2. 3). Called in
2 Sam. xxiii. 8 Josheb-basshebeth (q. v.).

2. A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag.
He belonged to the family of the Korahites,
probably the Levitical family of that name
who kept the doors of tlie tabernacle (1 Chron.
xii. 1, 2, 6).

Ja'shub [he returns].

1. A son of Issachar, aud founder of a
tribal family (Num. xxvi. 24; 1 Chron. vii.
1). Called Job in Gen. xlvi. 13, probably
through a copyist's omission of the Hebrew
letter sh.

2. A son of Bani whom Ezra induced to
put away liis foreign wife (Ezra x. 29).

Jash-u-toi-le'heni [perhaps, bread returns].

Probably a man, and not a locality ; a
member of the family of Shelah, tribe of
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 22).

Ja'si-el. See Jaasiel.

Ja'son [healing].

1. One of the two envoys sent by Judas
Maccabseus to Rome to invoke aid against the
Syrians (1 Mac. viii. 17). It was perhaps his
son who was sent to renew this alliance
(xii. 16).

2. A high priest, son of Simon II., who
held office from about 174-171 B. c, and used
his influence to hellenize the Jews (2 Mac.iv.
7-26) ; see High Peiest.

3. A man of Cyrene and author of a history
of the Jewish war for freedom, 175-160 B. c.
(2 Mac. ii. 23) ; see Apocrypha 14.

4. A Christian, a relative of Paul (Rom.
xvi. 21). He was probably the Thessalonian
Jason in wliose house Paul and Silas lodged
wliile they were in Thessalonica, and who
had to stand trial for liaving given them
countenance and support (Acts xvii. 5-9).

Jas'per.

The rendering of the Hebrew Yashpeh (cp.
Arabic Yasb) and the Greek laspis, a precious
stone (Ex. xxviii. 20 ; Ezek. xxviii. 13 ; Rev.
iv. 3). Jasper is a variety of quartz, of a
red, brown, yellow, green, or gray color, and
opaque. Among the ancients tlie term was
of broader meaning. It included, according
to Pliny, a transparent or translucent green
varietj' (cp. Rev. xxi. 11), and hence denoted
a kind of chalcedony or agate. The Septua-
gint renders the Hebrew word by onyx.

Jath'ni-el [God bestoweth gifts].

A Korhite doorkeeper, son of Meshelemiah
(1 Chron. xxvi. 2).

Jat'tir [excellence].

A town in the hill country of Judah as-
signed to the priests (Josh. xv. 48; xxi. 14;
1 Sam. XXX. 27; 1 Chron. vi. 57). Robinson
identified it with the ruin of ' Attir, on a hill
about 13 miles south-southwest of Hebron.
The two names are, however, radically dif-
ferent.

Ja'van.

1. A region settled by descendants of
Japheth (Gen. x. 2). The name corresponds
etymologically with Ionia, and denotes the
Greeks; see Greece. Javan was synon-

Javelin

341

Jedaiah

ynious with the farthest west, where Jeho-
vah's fame had not been heard (Is. Isvi. 19).

2. A town or people of Yemen in Arabia,
whence cassia and calamus were exported
(Ezek. xxvii. W).

Javelin.

A sHuilliT kind of spear, which was in-
tended to be thrown (Job xli. 29), was borne
suspended between the shoulders (1 Sam.
xvii. 6), and could be stretched out in the
hand (Josh. viii. 18). The Hebrew name for
it was kidon. The A. V. never translates this
word by javelin, but renders it by spear in
Josh. viii. 18, 26 ; Job xli. 29 : Jer. vi. 23 ;
by lance in Jer. 1. 42 ; and by shield or tar-
get in 1 Sam. xvii. 6, 45 ; Job xxxix. 23.
Wherever javelin occurs in A. V. the Re-
visers have properly substituted spear.

Ja'zer, in A. V. twice Jaazer [helpful].

A city east of the Jordan in Gilead (2
Sam. xxiv. 5: 1 Chron. xxvi. 31). The
Israelites captured it and drove out the
Amorite inhabitants (Num. xxi. 32). It stood
in a region well fitted for pasturage (xxxii.
1, 3). It was assigned to the tribe of Gad
(.Tosh. xiii. 25), who rebuilt the city (Num.
xxxii. 34, 35 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 5) ; and it was
appointed to the Merarite Levites for resi-
dence (Josh. xxi. 39 ; 1 Chron. vi. 81). It
passed into Moabite hands (Is. xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer.
xlviii. 32) ; was taken by Judas Maccabeus
from the Ammonites (1 Mac. v. 8). Accord-
ing to Eusebius, Jazer was situated 10 Roman
miles to the west of Rabbath Ammon, and
15 from Heshbon : and a considerable tribu-
tary of the Jordan took its rise near the
town. Jerome mentions a village called
Azor, 8 Roman miles to the west of Rabbath
Ammon. The.se various places are commonly
identified with wady Sir, an upper branch
of wady Kefren, and the ruins Sir and
Sar, on opposite sides of the valley. The
distance from Rabbath Ammon approxi-
mately corresponds, but the names are radi-
cally different from .Jazer and Azor. Beit
Zer'ah, about 11 miles south by west of Rab-
bath Ammon, is preferred by Conder, but
has no claims.

Ja'ziz [he moves about].

The overseer of David's flocks (1 Chron.
xxvii. 31).

Je'a-rim [forests].

A mountain crossed by the boundary line
of Judah (Josh. xv. 10), and which, to judge
from its connection with Chesalon (q. v.), was
at that point 2 miles south of Kirjath-
jearim.

Je-ath'e-rai, in A. V. Jeaterai. See
Ethxi.

Je-ber'e-cM'ah [Jehovah doth bless].

Father of Isaiah's contemporary Zechariah
(Is. viii. 2).

Je'bus [a place trodden under foot (as a
threshing-floor)].

The name borne by Jerusalem while the

city was in the i)ossession of the Jebusites
(Josh. XV. y.3 ; Judg. xix. 10; 1 Chron. xi. 4).
The area included within Jebus was, of
course, small comjiari'd with the dimensions
of Jerusalem in the time of Solomon. Its
citadel was the stronghold of Zion (2 Sam. v.
7; 1 Chrou, xi. 5).

Jeb'u-site, in A. Y. twice Jebusi (Josh,
xviii. 1(), 28), the Hebrew word being trans-
literated instead of being translated.

A tribe of Canaan before the conquest of
the country by the Hebrews (Gen. x. 16; xv.
21; Ex. iii. 8). At the date of the exodus
they were one of the mountain tribes (Num.
xiii. 29; Josh. xi. 3). They are known only
as dwelling at Jebus, i. e. Jerusalem. Their
king was .slain by Joshua (x. 23-26), their
territory was assigned to Benjamin (xviii.
28), and later their city w'as taken by the
men of Judah, on the border of which tribe
it stood, and set on fire (Judg. i. 8 ; Josh. xv.
8) ; but the Jebusites either never lost the
citadel (Antiq. v. 2, 2), or recovered the city
in whole or in part. They dwelt with the
children of Judah and Benjamin as strangers
(Josh. XV. 63; Judg. i. 21: xix. 11). They
still held the stronghold of Zion at the begin-
ning of David's reign (2 Sam. v. 6, 7) ; and
even after he had captured it the old in-
habitants were not wholly expelled, for
Araunah, who had a threshing-floor on the
site afterwards occupied by Solomon's tem-
ple, was a Jebusite by birth (2 Sam. xxiv. 16,
18; 2 Chron. iii. 1). Solomon subjected the
remnant of the Jebusites to bond service (1
Kin. ix. 20).

Jec-a-mi'ah. See Jekamiah.

Jech-i-li'ah and Jech-o-li'ali. See Jeco-

LIAH.

Jech-o-ni'ah and Jech-o-ni'as. See Jeco-

NIAH.

Jec-o-li'ah and JecMliali, in A. V. once
Jecholiah (2 Kin. xv. 2) [Jehovah has pre-
vailed].

The mother of king Uzziah (2 Kin. xv. 2 ;
2 Chron. xxvi. 3).

Jec-0-ni'ah, in R. Y. of N. T. Jechoniali,
in A. Y. of N. T. Jechonias [Jehovah doth es-
tablish].

An une.ssential variant of the name of
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, a cognate root be-
ing used and the constituent parts transposed
(1 Chron. iii. 16, etc.).

Je-da'iah, I. [Jehovah has cast or shown].

1. A Simeonite (1 Chron. iv. 37).

2. A son of Harumaph, who repaired part
of the wall of Jeru.salem opposite to his house
(Neh. iii. 10).

Je-da'iali, 11. [Jehovah knoweth].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His Aimily
had grown to a father's house in the time
of David, and was numbered the second
course when David distributed the priests
into divisions (1 Chron. xxiv. 1. 6. 7). Jlera-
bers of the family returned from Babylon

Jediael

342

Jehoahaz

(Ezra ii. 36 ; Neh. vii. 39) ; cp. the two fol-
lowing.

2. A chief of the priests who returned from
Babylon with Zenibbabel (Neh. xii. 6, 7). In
the next generation a father's house bore this
name (ver. 19).

3. Another chief priest with the same his-
tory (Neh. xii. 7, 21).

4. One of those who came from the cap-
tivity bringing gifts for the temple in the
day.s of the high priest Joshua (Zech. vi.
10," 14).

Je-di'a-el [known of God].

1. A son of Benjamin, and founder of a
family (1 Chron. vii. 6, 10, 11). The older in-
terpreters regarded Jediael as another name
of Ashbel (Num. xxvi. 38). Perliaps he was
a later chief.

2. A Manassite who joined David atZiklag
(1 Chron. xii. 20).

3. One of David's mighty men, a son of
Shimri (1 Chron. xi. 45).

4. A Korahite doorkeeper in the reign of
David (1 Chron. xxvi. 1, 2).

Je-di'dah [beloved].

Wife of Anion and mother of king Josiah
(2 Kin. xxii. 1).

Jed-i-di'ah [beloved of Jehovah].

A name which Nathan the prophet, by di-
vine direction, gave to Solomon (2 Sam.
xii. 25).

Je-du'thun [praising, praise].

1. A Ijcvite, one of the three chief .singers
or rather musicians appointed in the time of
David, and founder of an official musical
family (1 Chron. xvi. 41 ; xxv. 1, 6 ; 2 Chron.
V. 12 ; XXXV. 15 ; Neh. xi. 17). He or his
family is mentioned in the title of three
psalms (xxxix., Ixii., Ixxvii.). He was evi-
dently known earlier as Ethan ; see Eth.VN 3.

2. Father of Obed-edom the doorkeeper
and apparently of the family of Korah, a
division of the Kohathites (1 Chron. xvi. 38;
cp. xxvi. 1, 4, and also 8, 12, 15). Some in-
terpreters, however, hold him to be Jeduthun,
the singer, of the family of Merari.

Je-e'zer. See Abiezer.
Je-e'zer-ite. See Abiezrite.

Je-gar-sa-ha-du'tha [Aramaic, heap of
witness],

Laban's designation of the cairn Galeed
(Gen. xxxi. 47) ; see G.\leed.

Je-hal'le-lel, in A. V. Je-ha-le'le-el and
Jehalelel (he i)raiseth God].

1. A man registered with the tribe of Judah
and founder of a family (1 Chron. iv. 1(5).

2. A Merarite Levite (2 Chron. xxix. 12).
Jeh-de'iali [Jehovah inspires with joy].

1. A Levite. family of Kohath, house of
Amram (1 Chron. xxiv. 20).

2. A Meronothite who had charge of David's
asses (1 Chron. xxvii. 30).

Je-hez'kel, in A. V. Je-hez'e-kel [God
doth strengthen].

A descendant of Aaron whose family was
made the twentieth course of the priests
(1 Chron. xxiv. IG).

Je-M'ah [Jehovah liveth].
A doorkeeper for the ark in David's reign
(1 Chron. xv.24).

Je-M'el [God liveth].

1. A Levite of the second degree, who
played a psaltery at the removal of the ark
to Jerusalem and afterwards as a regular
duty in its tent (1 Chron. xv. 18, 20; xvi. 5).

2. A Levite, family of Gershon and chief
of the house of Laadan in David's reign
(1 Chron. xxiii.8). He gave rise to the father's
house named from him Jehieli (xxvi. 21, 22).

3. A son of Hachmoni in David's reign
(1 Chron. xxvii. 32).

4. A son of Jehoshaphat, placed by his
father over one of the fenced cities of Judah,
but slain with others of his brothers by
Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 2-4).

5. A Levite, family of Kohath and house
of Heman the singer (2 Chron. xxix. 14, in
R. V. Jehuel). He aided Hezekiah in his
religious reformation, and is perhaps the
assistant overseer of the temple revenues
who served during the same reign (2 Chron.
xxxi. 13).

6. A ruler of the temple at the time of
Josiah's religious reformation (2 Chron. xxxv.
8).

7. Father of Ezra's contemporary Obadiah
(Ezra viii. 9).

8. A son of Elara and father of Ezra's
contemporary Shechaniah (Ezra x. 2). He
may be the person of this name whom Ezra
induced to put away his foreign wife (x. 26).

9. A priest, of the course of Harim, in-
duced by Ezra to put away his foreign wife
(X. 21).

For others whose name is thus spelled in
A. V. see Jeiel.

Je-hi'e-li. See Jehiel 2.

Je-hiz-ki'ah [Jehovah doth strengthen].

A son of Shallum, and one of the heads of
the Ephraimite tribe in the reign of Pekah.
He assisted in securing the release of the
captives from Judah (2 Chron. xxviii. 12).

Je-ho-ad'dah, in A. Y. Je-ho'a-dali [Jeho-
vah hath adorned].

A son of Ahaz, and a descendant of Jona-
than, Saul's son (1 Chron. viii. 36). Called
in ix. 42 Jarah.

Je-ho-ad'dan, in R. V. of Kings Jehoaddin
[perhaps. Jehovah hath made pleasant].

Mother of king Amaziah. She was from
Jerusalem (2 Kin. xiv. 2 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 1).

Je-ho'a-liaz [Jehovah hath laid hold of].

1. A variant form of the name of Ahaziah,
youngest son of Jehoram, king of Judah
(2 Chron. xxi. 17 ; cp. xxii. 1), the constituent
parts of the name being transposed.

2. The son and successor of Jehu in the
kingdom of Israel. He began to reign in

Jehoasli

343

Jehoiada

8'21 15. c, apparently as associate of his father,
ami reigned seventeen years (2 Kin. x. 85;
xiii. 1 ). He continued the calf worship estab-
lished by Jeroboam. As a penalty for this
apostasy, the Syrians, first under Hazael and
then under Benhadad, were permitted to
carry on successful hostilities against him,
capturing city after city, till at length he had
no force left but 50 horsemen, 10 chariots,
and 10.000 footmen. In distress he called on
Jehovah, who gave* Israel a saviour. This
saviour of Israel appeared after the death of
Jehoahaz, in the ]>ersous of his two successors
Jehoash and Jeroboam. The former recov-
ered the cities which the Syrians had taken
from his father, and the latter restored the
ancient boundaries of Israel. Probably Je-
hoash received unintended assistance from
the king of Assyria, who., attacking the Syr-
ians in the rear, compelled them to desist from
the invasion of the Israelite kingdom, and
return to defend their own country. Jehoa-
haz was succeeded by his son Jehoash (2 Kin.
xiii. 2-9, 22-25).

3. A younger son of Josiah, who, on the
death of Jo.siah, was placed by the people of
Judah on his father's throne. He was then
twenty-three, and reigned only three months,
during which time his tendencies were evil
rather than good. He was deposed and taken
in chains to Riblah by Pharaoh -n echo, king
of Egypt, and afterwards carried down into
Egypt. Xecho, as victor over Josiah, decided
to dispose of the throne of Judah. and gave
it to Jehoiakim, Jehoahaz' elder brother
(2 Kin. xxiii. 30-.34 : 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-4).
Jehoahaz was also called Shallum (1 Chron.
iii. 15; Jer. xxii. 10-12), and he is the first
of the lidu's whelps (Ezek. xix. 1-9). Al-
though the third of Josiah's sons in point of
age and the first to occupy the throne, he is
enumerated fourth in 1 Chron. iii. 15, perhaps
by way of intentional degradation.

Je-ho'ash. See Joash I.

Je-ho-ha'nan [Jehovah is gracious].

1. A Korahite Levite, who had the sixth
course of the doorkeepers in David's reign
(1 Chron. xxvi. 3'.

2. The second in honor of Jehoshaphat's
captains. He had under him 280,000 men
(2 Chron. xvil. 15).

3. Father of Jehoiada's supporter, Ishmael,
in the revolt against Athaliah (2 Chron.
xxiii. 1).

4. A priest, head of the father's house of
Amariah. He lived in the days of the high
priest Joiakim (Xeh. xii. 13).

5. A son of Eliashib (Ezra x. 6, R. Y.) See

JOH.\XAN 9.

6. A son of Bebai. induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 28).

7. A son of Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh.

Vi. 18, R. v.). JOHANAX 10.

8. A priest who officiated at the dedication
of the wall of Jerusalem bv Nehemiah (Neh.
xii. 42).

Je-hoi'a-cMn [Jehovah doth establish].

The son and succes.sor of Jehoiakim in the
kingdom of Judah. He came to the throne
in the year 598 or 597 B. c. According to 2
Kin. XX iv. 8, he was then eighteen years old ;
according to 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9, his age was
eight. The discrepancy exists in the Septua-
gint Greek as well as in the Hebrew text.
One or other of the numbers is corrupt,
which of the two is doubtful. He did that
which was evil in the sight of the Lord,
according to all that his father had done.
But his reign continued only three months
and ten days. During this short period Ne-
buchadnezzar, king of Babylon, sent his gen-
erals to besiege Jerusalem, which surrendered
after the eighth year of Nebuchadnezzar had
begun (cp. 2 Kin. xxiv. 12 ; cp. Jer. Hi. 28) ; see
Chkonology. Jehoiachin, his wives, his
mother, the palace servants, every dignitary
in the city and the country, with all the
skillful artisans, were carried into captivity
(2 Kin. xxiv. 8-16; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9, 10).
For a long period he seems to have been in
actual confinement ; but in the thirty-seventh
year of his exile, 562 15. C, Evil-merodach
ascended the throne of Babylon, released him
from prison, and assigned him a daily allow-
ance of, or for, food while he lived (2 Kin.
XXV. 27-30; Jer. Iii. 31-34). Jeremiah, who
prophesied during, and after, the brief reign
of Jehoiachin, frequently mentions him un-
der the name Jechoniah or Coniah.

Je-hoi'a-da [Jehovah hath known].

1. The father of that Benaiah who held
high military office in the latter part of
David's and in Solomon's reign (2 Sam. xxiii.
22; 1 Kin. iv. 4). Jehoiada was a priest
(1 Chron. xxvii. 5; not as in A. V. chief
priest), and seems to have been the leader of
the Aaronites who brought 3700 men to David
at Ziklag (xii. 27).

2. A son of Benaiah, second to Ahithophel
in David's counsels (1 Chron. xxvii. 34).
Most commentators believe that some copyist
accidentally wrote Jehoiada son of Benaiah
for Benaiah son of Jehoiada. There is no
reason, however, why a grandson of Jehoiada,
bearing the same name, should not be occu-
pying a position of influence at this time.

3. A high priest during the usurpation of
Athaliah. His wife concealed in the tem-
ple the young prince Joash, the only surviv-
ing direct representative of the royal line of
David, and Jehoiada jilanned and success-
fully carried out the revolt which led to the
slaughter of Athaliah and the proclamation
of Joash as king. Jehoiada's wife was the
daughter of king Joram and the sister of
Ahaziah ; the high priest was. therefore, the
uncle of the young monarch whom he be-
friended and placed on the throne. So long
as he lived he was instrumental in keeping
the king true to the worship of Jehovah
(2 Kin. xi. 1-xii. 16; 2 Chron. xxii. 10-xxiv.
14). He died at the age of 130, and, in recog-

Jehoiakim

344

Jehoshaphat

nition of his eminent services to church and
state, he was buried in the city of David
among the kings (15, 16). After his death
Joash turned from the Lord and ungratefully
put Jehoiada's son to death for rebuking the
sins of the people (17-22).

4. A priest who was succeeded in Jere-
miah's time by Zephaniah in the office of
second priest and overseer of the temple
(Jer. xxix. 26; cp. Hi. 24).

5. A son of Paseah, who repaired a gate of
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6; in E. V. Joiada).

Je-boi'a-kim [Jehovah doth establish].

A son of king Josiah by his wife Zebidah
(2 Kin. xxiii. 34, 36). He was called origi-
nally Eliakim, God doth establish. On the
death of Josiah the people placed Jehoahaz,
third son of Josiah in age, on the throne ;
but three months afterwards Pharaoh-necho
put him in chains and carried him to Egypt,
and made his elder brother Eliakim king in
his stead, changing his name to Jehoiakim.
He began to reign about 608 b. c, at the age
of twenty-five years. He was obliged to
collect heavy tribute from the people for
Pharaoh. He departed from Jehovah, whom
his father had so faithfully served, and went
back to idolatry. Jeremiah wrote a roll
threatening the divine judgment unless re-
pentance took place ; but Jehoiakim treated
the matter with contempt, and after listening
to three or four leaves of the roll cut it up
and committed it to the flames (Jer. xxxvi.).
Babylon was now the dominant Asiatic power.
In the fourth year of Jehoiakim's reign, Neb-
uchadnezzar, son of the Babylonian king,
defeated Pharaoh-necho at Carchemish and
advanced, probably afterwards, against Jeru-
salem, and Jehoiakim became his servant
(2 Kin. xxiv. 1; Jer. xlvi. 2; Dan. i. 1, 2;
see Chronology). Three years later he
rashly rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar.
There were other troubles afflicting the king-
dom. Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites
made predatory incursions into its territories,
as did bands of Chaldeans, whom Nebuchad-
nezzar probably dispatched on learning of
the revolt (2 Kin. xxiv. 2). The Babylonian
king himself, or his armj^ eventually entered
Jerusalem and bound the Jewish rebel with
chains to carry him to Babylon (2 Chron.
xxxvi. 6). He was carried in a cage with
hooks into the presence of the king of Baby-
lon, who was in the camp at Jerusalem or
perhaps at Riblah (Ezek. xix. 5-9). The
purpose of carrying him to Babylon was, how-
ever, abandoned. He died or was murdered,
and his body had the burial of an ass, drawn
and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem
(Jer. xxii. 19; xxxvi. 30; Antiq. x. 6, 3).
He reigned eleven years and was succeeded
by his son Jehoiachin (2 Kin. xxiii. 36 ;
xxiv. 6).

Je-hol'a-rib and Joiarib, the forms being
interchangeable in Hebrew [Jehovah doth
contend].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of
David and was numbered the first course
when David distributed the priests into di-
visions (1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 7).

2. A chief of the priests who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 6,
7). In the next generation a father's house
bore this name (19) ; see Joiarib.

3. A man of understanding sent by Ezra to
obtain Levites and Nethiuim for the service
of the temple (Ezra viii. 16) ; see Joiarib.

Je-hon'a-dab. See Jonadab.

Je-hon'a-than, variant form of Jonathan,
with which it freely interchanges in Hebrew
[Jehovah hath given].

1. An official, the son of Uzziah, who was
charged with the oversight of the treasures
of king David stored in various places out-
side of Jerusalem (1 Chron. xxvii. 25).

2. One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat
to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

3. A priest, head of the father's house of
Shemaiah in the days of the high priest
Joiakim (Neh. xii. 18).

Je-ho'ram [Jehovah is high].

1. Son of Ahab and king of Israel (2 Kin.
iii. 1) ; see Joram 3.

2. A priest, one of those sent by Jehosh-
aphat to instruct the people (2 Chron. xvii. 8).

3. Son of Jehoshaphat and king of Judah
(2 Kin. viii. 16) ; see Joram 5.

Je-ho-shab'e-ath. See Jehosheba.

Je-hosh'a-phat, in A. V. of N. T. Josa-
phat [Jehovah hath judged].

1. Son of Ahiludand recorder under David
and Solomon (2 Sam. viii. 16 ; xx. 24 ; 1 Kin.
iv. 3).

2. One of the priests appointed to blow a
trumpet before the ark when it was being
brought up from the house of Obed-edom to
the city of David (1 Chron. xv. 24, in E. V.
Josliaphat).

3. Son of Paruah and Solomon's purveyor
in the tei'ritory of Issachar (1 Kin. iv. 17).

4. Son and successor of king Asa on the
throne of Judah. He appears to have been
associated with his father in the latter's 37th
regnal year, the 11th of Omri (1 Kin. xvi.
28, 29, Septuagint), and to have become sole
king on the death of his father five years
later, about 871 B. c. (xxii. 41, 42).' He
reigned twenty-five years, including the
time that he was associated with Asa. He
was thirty-five years old at his accession.
His mother was Azubah, daughter of Shilhi
(1 Kin. xxii. 41, 42; 2 Chron. xvii. 1). He
was a good king. He worshiped Jehovah,
and sought not unto the Baalim (1 Kin.
xxii. 43; 2 Chron. xvii. 3), although the
people still sacrificed on high places (1 Kin.
xxii. 43). Therefore the Lord greatly pro.s-
pered him. In the third year of his reign,
he took measures for instructing his people,

Jehoshaphat

345

Jehovah

seiidiug princes aud Levites, with the book
of the law in their hands, to teach in the
cities of Jiulah {2 Chrou. xvii. 7-9). The
fear of the Lord fell u]iou the neighboring
kingdoms. Philistines aud Arabians paid
tribute (10. 11). He garrisoned the fenced
cities of his realm (1"J-19). He terminated
the desultory warfare which had gone on
between Israel aud Judah siuce the time of
Kehoboam. He made peace with Israel and
took Athaliah. daughter of Ahab, as a wife
for his sou il Kin. xxii. 44; 2 Kin. viii. 18,
26). When he found that Jehovah was thus
blessing him, he was eucouraged to remove
the high places and the Asherim out of
Judah (2 C'hron. xvii. 5, 6). He put away
also the remnant of the sodomites out of the
land 11 Kin. xxii. 46).

About 853 B. c. he went on a visit to king
Ahab, aud was persuaded to join him, with
the army of Judah, in the attempt to re-take
Eamoth-gilead from the Syrians. Dressed in
the royal robes of Ahab, he went into battle.
Ahab was mortallj' wounded ; Jehoshaphat,
notwith.standing his exposure, survived (1
Kin. xxii. l-3b ; 2 Chron. xviii. 1-34). On
his return home he was reproved by the
prophet Jehu, son of Hanani, for having
fraternized with such a king as Ahab (2
Chron. xix. 1, 2). He resumed his work of
reformation in church and state, promoting
the worship of Jehovah, and appointing
judges in the walled towns of Judah, with a
supreme court, consisting of Levites, priests,
and laymen of high position, in Jerusalem
(4-11). After this reform had begun a great
confederacy of Ammonites, Moabites, and
Edomites invaded Judah from the southeast,
making their headquarters at En-gedi on the
western side of the Dead Sea. Jehoshaphat
claimed the promise of deliverance which
Solomon had asked (2 Chron. vi. 24-30 with
XX. 9). Jahaziel prophesied deliverance, and
Jehoshaphat went forth with thanksgiving
and placed singers before the army to praise
the Lord. Success was achieved without
fighting. Hostilities broke out in the con-
federate army, the Ammonites aud Moabites
attacked and destroyed the Edomites, and
then quarreling among themselves, turned
their weapons against each other (xx. 1-30).
After this event, perhaps in late autumn dur-
ing the time of peace, Jehoshaphat, who had
been building ships at Ezion-geber, asked
Ahaziah. king of Israel, to take part in a
mercantile voyage. The prophet Eliezer re-
buked him for joining himself with Ahaziah,
and the ships were wrecked. Ahaziah de-
sired to share in a new venture, but Jehosh-
aphat refused (2 Chron. xx. 35-37; 1 Kin.
xxii. 48, 49). In 8.52 B. c. or later, Jehoram,
king of Israel, desired to render Moab again
tributary to Israel, and asked aid of his
brother-in-law, Jehoshaphat. Jehoram had
exhibited signs of godliness by a considera-
ble reformation (2 Kin. iii. 2), and Jehosha-
phat consented to join him. The expedition

enjoyed partial success (2 Kin. iii. 4-27).
Jelioshaphat died at the age of sixty, about
the j'ear 850 b. c, and was buried in the city
of David, leaving his son Jehoram to ascend
the throne (1 Kin. xxii. 50).

5. Son of Nimshi and father of Jehu, king
of Israel (2 Kin. ix. 2, 14).

Je-hosh'a-phat, Val'ley of.

A valley where all nations shall be gath-
ered by Jehovah for judgment (Joel iii. 2, 12).
At least as early as the time of Eusebius, in the
fourth century A. D., the valley of Jehosliaphat
was identified with the valley of the Kidron,
so that now Jews, Eoman Catholics, and Mo-
hammedans fix the scene of the last judg-
ment here. This identification is only a con-
jecture, based on the cited passages and
Zech. xiv. So far as evidence goes, no valley
actually bore this name. Joel doubtless
chose this designation, which means "Jeho-
vah hath judged," as symbolic of the event.

Je-hosh'e-ba and Jehoshabeath, inter-
changeable forms in Hebrew [Jehovah is an
oath].

Daughter of Jehoram, king of Judah, aud
sister of Ahaziah. On the murder of
Ahaziah, when his mother destroyed the
seed royal, Jehosheba rescued his infant son
Joash and concealed him in the temple until
he could be safely proclaimed king (2 Kin.
xi. 2 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 11).

Je-hosh'u-a and Jehoshuah. See Joshua.

Je-ho'vah.

The common European pronunciation
of the Hebrew tetragram Yhih, one of
the names of God (Ex. xvii. 15). The
original name was occasionally used even
by so late a writer as Nehemiah (i. 5;
V. 13; viii. 1), in fact a form of it con-
stitutes the latter part of his name. But it
was not the favorite name of God with him.
It had ceased to be pronounced when the
Septuagint was translated, for the translators
substituted Lord. The N. T. writers also use
Lord in its place. The custom grew up in
reading of pronouncing the Hebrew word
'"donay, Lord, in its stead or, when it follows
'"donay, of pronouncing ''/o/iim, God (Gen. xv.
2), as the Englishman pronounces namely in-
stead of viz. When the vowel i)oints were
added to the Hebrew consonantal text, the
vowels of '"donay and "lohirn were given to
the tetragram. This pointing gave rise to the
European pronunciation, Jehovah. The sub-
stitution of the word Lord by the later
Hebrews and by the translators of the Septu-
agint led to the like substitution in the Eng-
lish version (Gen. ii. 4). In such instances
Lord is printed in small capitals. The tetra-
gram is generally believed to have been pro-
nounced Jahweh, Yahiveh, because the divine
name Jah (Ps. Ixxxix. 8, R. V.) and the
forms Y'ho, Yo and Yah, Yahic, which occur
constantlj- in proper names, as in the Hebrew
of Jehoshaphat, Joshaphat, Shephatiah, can
all be derived from Yahweh in accordance

Jehovah-jireh

346

Jehu

witli the laws of philology. Yahireh is an
archaic form. It probably represents the
Qal imperfect of the verb haivah, later hayah,
to be or become. If this is so, it means " He
who in the absolute sense exists and who
manifests his existence and his character"
(Ex. iii. 13, 1")). The creator, upholder, and
moral stovernor of the univer,se is 'Hohim,
God ; the covenant God of Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob, the God in whom lay their
present strength and their hojie for their fu-
ture existence, is 'El shadday, God almighty;
but the (rod of revelation and grace, dwell-
ing with his ])eople. guiding and delivering
them, and receiving their worship is Jehovah.

Whether the name was known to other
peoples before it attained to celebrity through
the Hebrews is .still a question. Men began
to call upon the name of Jehovah in the
days of Enosh, the third from Adam (Gen.
iv. 26). It must not be inferred, however,
that they necessarily used the name Jehovah.
They worshiped the God of revelation and
grace, whatever name they may have em-
ployed to denote the idea. Its first occur-
rence in recorded proper names is in Joche-
bed, an ancestress of Moses (see also 1 Chron.
ii. 8, 24). It can scarcely be sought in
Moriah. Evidence of its use in proper names
is thus found earlier than are traces of the
employment of Shadday for like purpose
(Num. i. 6, 12). In the generation after the
exodus, it appears in Joshua (Num. xiii. 16).
It then becomes frequent (1 Chron. vi.6, 7,36).

To know that God is Jehovah and to know
the name of Jehovah do not denote a mere
external acquaintance with the word Jeho-
vah, but an experience of God manifesting
himself to his people in grace and love (1
Kin. viii. 43 ; Ps. ix. 10 ; xci. 14 ; Is. Iii. 6 ;
Jer. xvi. 21). In Ex. vi. 2-8 God promises
that the children of Israel shall be delivered
from bondage and have an experience of his
gracious intervention and love such as their
forefathers had not known. See Pp:ntateuch.

Je-ho-vah-ji'reh [Jehovah will see or pro-
vide].

The name given by Abraham to the place
where God provided a ram to be ofiered in
sacrifice, instead of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 14). Ex-
act site unknown.

Je-ho-vah-nis'si [Jehovah is my banner].

The name given by Moses to an altar built
by liiui at Ivcjihidim to commemorate the
victory over Amalek (Ex. xvii. 15, 16).

Je-ho-vah-sha'lom [Jehovah is peace].

An altar built by Gideon in Oi)hrah to
commemorate the visit of the angel of the
Eord. who called him to deliver Israel, and,
when he expected to die because he had seen
the heavenly one. said to him: "Peace be
unto thee ; . . . thou shalt not die " (Judg. vi.
23, 24).

Je-hoz'a-bad [Jehovah hath endowed].
1. A Koraliite porter, son of Obed-edom (1
Chron. xxvi. 4).

2. Son of a Moabitess, and a servant of
Joash and one of his assassins (2 Kin. xii. 21 ;
2 Chron. xxiv. 26).

3. A Benjamite, a high military captain
under king Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xvii. 18).

Je-hoz'a-dak. See Jozadak.

Je'bu [probably, Jehovah is He] .

1. A Benjamite of Anathoth, who joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

2. A prophet, son of Hanani. He denounced
judgment against Baasha and his house for
continuing in the sin of Jeroboam I. (1 Kin.
xvi. 1-4, 7). He reproved Jehoshaphat for
helping ungodly Ahab (2 Chron. xix. 2), and
wrote a book in which the acts of Jehosha-
phat were narrated (xx. 34).

3. The founder of the fourth dynasty of
rulers in the kingdom of Israel. He was a
son of Jehoshaphat and grandson of Nimshi.
For brevity's sake he was often called the
son of Nimshi (1 Kin. xix. 16 ; 2 Kin. ix. 2).
Somewhat earlier than 854 b. c. he was a
soldier in the service of Ahab (2 Kin. ix. 25).
When the cup of Ahab's iniquity had been
made full to overflowing by the deliberate
murder of Jehovah's servants and prophets
and the establishment of the worship of Baal
in the northern kingdom, Elijah received a
command from God to anoint Jehu king over
Israel (1 Kin. xix. 16, 17). There is no record
that Elijah executed the divine commission.
Whether he did or not, his successor Elisha
sent one of the adherents of the prophets to
carry it out. He proceeded to Eamoth-
gilead, which the Israelites wei'e besieging.
He found Jehu sitting with the other oflBcers,
apparently in the mess tent, but, as instructed,
the young man took him into an inner room,
anointed him king over Israel, commissioned
him to destroy the house of Ahab, and then
precipitately quitted the camp. Jehu told
his military companions what had occurred,
and they resolved to support him in asserting
his claim to the kingdom. The reigning
sovereign was Jehoram. Ahab's son, who had
himself been a little before in the camp, but,
having been wounded, had returned to Jez-
reel t^o be healed. Thither accordingly the
cons]iirators went, Jehu leading the way.
The watcliman on the tower in Jezreel iden-
tified him when yet he was at a distance by
his furious driving. Ahaziah. king of Judah,
was visiting Jehoram, having come to condole
with him on his wound : and the two kings,
each in his chariot, went out to meet the ad-
vancing company. The parley was short,
and Jehoram was killed by an arrow sent with
great force from Jehu's bow. and his body
was cast into the plot of ground which hail
once been Naboth's vineyard. Ahaziah,
against whom there was no quarrel, except
that his mother was Ahab's daughter, was
similarly disjiatched by Jehu's order. By
his command also, Jezebel, the<|ueen-mother,
Ahab's heathen queen and evil genius, was
flung from a window and killed (2 Kin. ix.

Jehubbah

347

Jephthah

1-37). Then the piiardiaiis of Ahab's seventy
sons were induced to inil Ihem to death and
pile up their heads iu two heaps, one on
each side of the chief gate of Samaria. It
was the turn next of Alaab's great men and
his kinsfolk, and then of Ahaziah's forty-two
brothers. All was concluded by luring Baal's
priests into the temple of that heathen god
whose worshiper Jehu pretended to be, and
massacring them. Though Jehu executed
the judgment pronounced upon the house of
Ahab and slaughtered the j>riests of Baal, he
himself took uo heed to walk in the law of
God, and did not depart from the schismatic
calf worship (2 Kin. x. 29, 31). He ascended
the throne about 842 B. c. In that year, ac-
cording to Assyrian records, he paid tribute
to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, who came
into tlie neighborhood to wage war against
Hazael. He reigned twenty-eight years (3(5).
About 821 B. c, on account of advancing
age and the loss of bis energy and military
skill, his son Jehoahaz was probably associ-
ated with him. But the change did not pre-
vent his reign from closing in disaster.
Hazael cut Israel short (2 Kin. x. 32) ; see
■Chronology. A promise had been given
that the dynasty of Jehu should continue for
four generations ; and it did so, the line of
descent being Jehoahaz, Jehoash or Joash,
Jeroboam II., and Zechariah (2 Kin. x. 30 ;
XV. 8-12).

4. A man of Judah, family of Jerahmeel
(1 Chron. ii. 38)

5. A Simeonite (1 Chron. iv. 3.5).

Je-hub'bah [hidden].

An Asherite, familv of Beriah (1 Chron.
Tii. .34).

Je-hu'cal and Jucal, interchangeable He-
brew forms [he is able].

A son of Shelemiah and prince of Judah.
King Zedekiah sent him and others to ask
the prayers of Jeremiah, when the Baby-
lonian siege of Jerusalem was imminent ( Jer.
xxxvii. 3). Afterwardshe wished the prophet
to be put to death on the ground that his
prediction of the capture of Jeru.salem by
the Babylonians discouraged its defenders
(xxxviii. 1-6).

Je'hud [praise].

A town in the original territory of Dan
(Josh. xix. 45). Robinson identified it with
the village of el-Yehudiyeh, 8 miles east by
south of Jaffa. His view has been generally
accepted.

Je-hu'di [a man of Judah, a Jew].

A messenger sent by king Jehoiakim to
ask Baruch for the roll written by Jeremiah.
He was afterwards employed to read it,
which he did, till the king, enraged at its
contents, cut it in pieces and cast it into the
fire (Jer. xxxvi. 14, 21. 23).

Je-hu-di'jah [Jewess].
One of the two wives of Mered, the other
being Bithiah, an Egyptian princess (1 Chron.

iv. 18, A. v.). Jehudijah is, however, not a
proper name, but an adjective meaning
Jewess: and it has the definite article. She
was called the Jewess to distinguish her from
the Egyptian.

Je'liush. See Jeush.

Je-i'el, in A. V. twice Jehiel (1 Chron. ix.
35; xi. 44) [perhaps, treasure of Ood].

1. Father of the inhabitants of Gibeon and
an ancestor of king Saul (1 Chron. ix. 35, 36,
39) ; see Kish 2.

2. A son of Hotham, an Aroerite, in the
reign of David (1 Chron. xi. 44). Perhaps
he was the Reubenite chief (v. 7, 8).

3. A Levite musician (1 Chron. xvi. 5, first
half); see Jaaziel.

4. A Levite of the second degree, w^howas
a doorkeeper and played the harp at the re-
moval of the ark to Jeruisalem and after-
wards as a regular duty in the tent at Jeru-
salem (1 Chron. xv. 18, 21 ; xvi. 5).

5. A Levite of the sons of Asaph (2 Chron.
XX. 14).

6. A scribe who kept a record of the num-
ber of soldiers in TJzziah's army (2 Chron.
xxvi. 11).

7. A Hebrew who was induced by Ezra to
put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 43).

For others whose name is thus spelled in
A. v., see Jeuel.

Je-kab'ze-el. See Kabzeel.

Jek-a-me'am [he doth assemble the peo-
ple].

A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Hebron (1 Chron. xxiii. 19 ; xxiv. 23).

Jek-a-mi'ah, in A. V. once Jecamiali (1
Chron. iii. 18) [Jehovah doth gather].

1. A man of Judah, descended through
Sheshau from Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 41).

2. A son or descendant of Jeconiah (1
Chron. iii. 18).

Je-ku'thi-el [reverence for God].
A man of Judah, father of the inhabitants
of Zanoah (1 Chron. iv. 18).

Je-mi'mah, in A. V. Jemima [a pigeon, a
dove] .

The first of the three daughters bom to
Job after his great trial (Job xlii. 14).

Jem'u-el [perhaps, warmth or desire of
God].

A .son of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 10; Ex. vi.
15). In Xum. xxvi. 12; 1 Chron. iv. 24 he
is called Nerauel. He founded a tribal family.

Jeph'thah, in A. Y. of N. T. Jeph'tha-e

[he doth open or set free].

A Gileadite, in the twofold sense of having
a certain man called Gilead for his father
and the country of Gilead for his early home.
He was an illegitimate child, and his broth-
ers born in wedlock expelled him from the
paternal abode. He saw injustice in the
treatment which he received, and years later
he charged the elders of Gilead. among whom
were probably his brothers, with being party

Jephunneh

348

Jeremiah

to the iniquity and animated by hatred. He
fled to the land of Tob, probably in the
Hauran, where life was free and where with
trusty weapon abundant food was to be had.
There he made a name for himself by his
prowess, and attracted a band of the unem-
I)loyed around him as their chief. He must
not be thought of as a lawless freebooter, how-
ever, for he was a man with a conscience. He
sought sufficient justification before under-
taking an enterprise, he feared God and
taught his daughter the fear of God, and he
won her entire confidence and religious re-
spect. About the time of Jephtliah's ex-
pulsion, the Ammonites invaded the Israel-
itish territory east of the Jordan and held it
in subjection eighteen years. In this ex-
tremity the elders of Gilead, who had driven
Jephthah away, were compelled as a last
resort to urge the fugitive to return and be-
come their chief and deliverer. On assuming
headship over the Gileadites, Jephthah in-
formed the neighboring tribe of Ephraim of
the distress of Gilead, but he exhorted them
in vain to come to the help of their brethren.
He ahso demanded of the king of the Am-
monites the ground of his hostility, and in
reply justified Israel for taking up arms. '
While yet the issue of the war was doubtful,
Jephthah had vowed that if he were per-
mitted to achieve victory, he would offer to
God as a burnt offering whatever first came
to him out of his house. On his return from
the defeat of the Ammonites what first came
was his only daughter, and who, moreover,
was his only child. He was greatly troubled
when he saw her, but felt himself compelled,
though with infinite regret, to do with her
according to his vow. The probability is
that he sacrificed her, though many have
thought that he may have redeemed her
with money (Lev. xxvii. 1-8) and doomed
her to perpetual celibacy. The Israelite
women were accustomed four times a year to
mourn her sad fate. Hostilities breaking
out between him and the Ei)hraimites, who
complained that he had slighted them in
making arrangements for his Ammonite cam-
paign, he answered their false accusation and
defeated them in battle. He was apparently
in no way restrained from severity against
them by the fact that they were his brethren.
Jephthah judged Israel six years (Judg. x. 6-
xii. 7). Jephthah was cited by Samuel as
one proof among many of Jehovah's faith-
fulness to his promise to raise up a deliverer
for Israel in time of need (1 Sam. xii. 11),
and he is cited in the Epistle to the Hebrews
as a man of faith (Heb. xi. 32).

Je-phun'neh [it will be prepared].

1. Father of Caleb, the representative spy
from the tribe of Judah (Num. xiii. 6).

2. An Asherite (1 Chron. vii. 38).
Je'rah [moon, month].

An Arabian tribe descended from Joktan
(Gen. X. 26 ; 1 Chron. i. 20).

Je-rah'me-el [God hath compassion].

1. A descendant of Judah through Perez
and Hezron (1 Chron. ii. 9 ; cp. 4, 5). Two
wives are mentioned and a numerous progeny
is registered (25-41).

2. Son of a Levite called Kish, not Saul's
father (1 Chron. xxiv. 29).

3. One of the officers sent by king Jehoia-
kim to arrest Baruch (Jer. xxxvi. 26). He
was probably of royal blood (R. V.). Bee
Hammelech.

Je'red [descent].

1. Son of Mahalaleel (1 Chron. i. 2, A. V.) ;
see Jared.

2. A man of Judah and father of the in-
habitants of Gedor (1 Chron. iv. 18).

Jer'e-mai [high].

A Hebrew who was induced by Ezra to
put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 33).

Jer-e-mi'ah, in A. V. of N. T. Jeremy and
Jeremias (Mat. ii. 17 ; xvi. 14) [Jehovah doth
establish].

1. A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag
(1 Chron. xii. 4).

2 and 3. Two Gadites who joined David at
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 10, 13).

4. One of the heads of the half tribe of
Manasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chron. v.
24).

5. A native of Libnah, whose daughter
Hamutal became the wife of king Josiah and
the mother of Jehoahaz (2 Kin. xxiii. 30,
31).

6. Son of Habaziniah and father of Jaaz-
aniah, a Rcchabite (Jer. xxxv. 3).

7. The great prophet, a son of Hilkiah, a
priest of Anathoth, in the territory of Ben-
jamin (Jer. i. 1). He was young when he
received the divine call to the prophetic office.
He was sent to deliver his message in the face
of all those who might be opposed to its re-
ception, whether princes, priests, or people.
He was to be like a defensed city, an iron
pillar, and walls of brass, against which foes
might fight, but would not prevail. As a
symbolic ordination ceremony, the Lord
touched his mouth, putting within it words,
and setting him over nations and kingdoms,
on the one hand, to root out, overthrow, and
destroy, and, on the other hand, to plant
and to build (i. 4-10). He began to prophesy
in the thirteenth year of the reign of Josiah,
and continued to do so till the capture of
Jerusalem, in the fifth month of the eleventh
year of Zedekiah's reign. Thus his public
life extended through the last eighteen years
of Josiah's reign, the three months during
which Jehoahaz ruled, the eleven years of
Jehoiakim, the three months of Jehoiachin,
and the eleven years and five months of Zede-
kiah, in all about forty-one years. Nor did
he, even then, cease from his prophetic func-
tions (xliii., xliv.). " A prophet is not with-
out honor, save in his own country and in his
own house." The men of Anathoth, his pa-
ternal home, threatened to kill him if he did

Jeremiah

349

Jeremiali

not desist from prophesyiug. He persevered
in his mission desjiite the pei'secutiou, but he
keenly felt this opposition to the work of
God from his countrymcu. the chosen people
of God, and he cried to God for judgment
(Jer. xi. 18-21 ; xii. 3). The hostility to the
prophet, which began at Anathoth, after a
time became general, and again evoked a
cry for judgment upon his opponents (xviii.
18-23 ; cp. also xx. 12). Once, like Job, he
cui-sed the day of his birth (xx. 14-18). On
another occasion he exclaimed, "' Woe is me,
my mother, that thou hast borne me a man
of strife and a man of contention to the whole
earth ! I have not lent on usury, neither
have men lent to me on usury ; yet every
one of them doth curse me" (xv. 10). But
divine grace enabled him to remain faithful
to his duty in spite of oblo(|uy and persecu-
tion. In the fourth year of the reign of
Jehoiakim, Jeremiah employed Baruch to
take a projihetic roll, which he, apparently
sufl'ering his first imprisonment, could not
personally use, and read it in the ears of the
people who came to the temjile on occasion
of a fast. The roll ultimately reached the
king himself, who, after reading a few leaves
or columns, cut it in pieces and tlung it into
the fire (xxxvi. 1-2G). By divine direction
the prophet at once prepared a second roll
like the first, but with additions (27-32). A
foe of bis, the priest Pashhur, son of Immer,
chief governor of the temple, put him in the
stocks, from which, however, he was released
next day (xx. 1-3). During the siege of
Jerusalem the Jewish authorities looked at
Jeremiah's prophecies of the success of Ne-
buchadnezzar and the Chaldeans and the
subsequent captivity of Judah from the po-
litical or military, instead of from the re-
ligious, point of view. They considered that
his unfavorable predictions discouraged the
defenders of Jerusalem. And when the
Chaldean army temporarily raised the siege
to meet the Egyptians, and Jeremiah desired
to withdraw from the place before their re-
turn, the unfounded charge was made that
he was going over to the Chaldeans, and he
was committed to i)rison (xxxvii. 1-15). King
Zedekiah released him, but the princes soon
afterwards removed him to a dungeon, and
wished that he should be put to death. Zede-
kiah, however, who secretly favored him,
had him removed to the court of the prison.
The prophet was ther<^ when Jerusalem was
taken (xxxviii.). The Chaldeans looked upon
him as their friend, and Nebuzaradan, cap-
tain of their guard, by express orders from
Nebuchadnezzar, released Jeremiah, spoke
kindly to him, and allowed him to make his
residence wherever he pleased. He elected
to live under the rule of Gedaliah, whom
Nebuchadnezzar had made governor of Judah
(xxxix. 11-xl. 6). On the murder of Geda-
liah, he strongly dissuaded the Jews who had
been under the late governor's protection
from fleeing to Egypt. It was in vain ; they

not merely went thither themselves, but they
compelled the prophet to accompany them
on their journey (xli. 1-xliii. 7). He deliv-
ered his last predictions at Tahpanhes, in
Egypt (xliii. 8-xliv. 30). The time and
manner of his death are unknown. Besides
the prophecies to which his name is attached,
and his Lamentations, he may have written
some of the p.salms, which resemble his com-
positions in style.

Jeremiah committed some of his prophe-
cies to writiug in the reign of Jehoiakim,
but the roll which contained them was de-
stroyed by the king (xxxvi. 1, 23). When re-
written, large additions were made to them
(32). The present book is evidently a con-
tinuous composition, prepared at the close of
his ministry ; for prophecies of different
periods are placed together and those of the
same period are often dispersed. The book
consists of an introduction narrating the
prophet's call (i.), three sections of prophecy
(ii.-li.), and a historical ai)pendix, added
probably by a later writer (lii. ; cp. li. 64).
The three prophetic sections are : I. Predic-
tion of the approaching judgment of Judah
and the promise of restoration from exile
(ii.-xxxiii.). It includes a general denunci-
ation of Judah (ii.-xx.), denunciation of the
civil and religious rulers (xxi.-xxiii.), an un-
folding of the design and duration of the
judgment (xxiv.-xxix.), and prophecy of the
blessings which will follow the judgment
(xxx.-xxxiii.). II. History of the infliction
of the judgment (xxxiv.-xliv.), including
denunciations of the corruption which pre-
vailed immediately before the destruction of
the city (xxxiv.-xxxviii.), an account of the
destruction of the city (xxxix.), and of the
wretched condition of the remnant (xl.-xiiv.).
III. Predictions respecting foreign nations
(xliv.-li.), introduced by an address to
Bai-uch 'xlv.).

The Messiah is spoken of in xxiii. 5-8 ;
XXX. 4-11 ; xxxiii. 14-26 ; and Jehovah's
sure covenant with Israel is dwelt upon in
xxxi. 31-40 ; xxxii. 36-44 ; xxxiii.

The text of the Septuagint difl'ers consid-
erably from the Hebrew : chajiters xlvi.-li.
are not only arranged in a ditierent order
among themselves, but the entire section has
been inserted after xxv. 13 ; chap, xxxiii.
14-26 has been dropped ; and in many other
places the Greek version presents a shorter
text than the Hebrew. Disposed chronolog-
ically, so far as they bear explicit dates, the
prophecies stand thus :

In Josiah's reign, be- Ipt^jj^j^, (.^aps. i.-vi.

tween the 13th and V , = •., . jjj 'g)

ol.st year J ^ y. . -,

In .lehoahaz' reign of ) j^Qug

3 months I '^

In .lehoiakim'.s reign of")

11 years, in the begin- VChap. xxvi.

niiig )

T .,. ,ii. 1 Chaps. XXV.; xxxvi.;

In the 4th year . . . j-xlv.; xlvi. 1-12.

In an unnoted year . . Chap. xxxv.

Jeremotli

350

Jericho

lu Jehoiachin's reign
of 3 months ....

In Zedukiah's reign of
11 years, in the be-
ginning

In his 4th year .

In his 10th year .

In unnoted years . .

After the fall of Jerusa-
lem

\Yithout explicit date,
but not always with-
out indications of
time

1 Probably chap. xxii.
/ 20-30. ■

Cliaps. xxiv. ; xlix 34-

o<J.

1 Chaps, xxvii. (cp. ;'., 12

y and X X V i i i. 1) ;

) xxvni.; li. 59-64.

. Chapt^. xxxii. ; xxxiii.

1 Chap.s. xxi. ; xxix. ;

( xxxiv. ; xxxvii. ;

f xxxviii. ; xxxix. 15-

J 18.

I Chaps, xxxix. 1-14;

( xl.-xliv. ; lii.

I Chaps, vii.-xx. ; xxiii. ;

XXX. ; xxxi. : xlv. ;

xlvi. lo-xlviii.; xlix.-

li. 58 ; lii.

8. A chief of the priests, who returned
■with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Neh. xii. 1,
7). A father's house bore his name iu the
next generation (12).

9. A priest, doubtless head of a father's
house, who, with Nehemiah and others,
sealed the covenant to keep separate from
foreigners and observe the law of God (Neh.
X. 2).

Jer'e-motli and Jerimoth [probably
heights] .

1. A Benjamite, family of Becher (1 Chron.
vii. 8).

2. A Benjamite (1 Chron. viii. 14), perhaps
the persou called Jeroham (27).

'.i. A Levite, family of Merari, house of
Mushi (1 Chron. xxiii. 23; xxiv. 30).

4. A descendant of Heman and head of
the fifteenth course among the musicians in
David's reign (1 Chrou. xxv. 4, 22).

5. A son of Azriel and prince of the tribe
of Naphtali iu David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii.
19).

(j and 7. Two descendants of Elam who
were persuaded by Ezra to put away their
foreign wives (Ezra x. 2(i, 27).

8. A son of Bani, who was similarly per-
suaded (Ezra X. 29, in A. V., according to an-
other reading, Eamotli).

For persons who bear the name Jerimoth
only, see .Jerimoth.

Jer'e-my. See Jkkemiah.

Je-ri'ah, once Jerijah [probably, founded
by Jcliovah].

A Levite, family of Kohath, house of He-
bron (1 Chrou. xxiii. 19 ; xxiv. 23; xxvi. 31).

Jer'i-bai [contentious].

A son of Elnaam, and one of David's
mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 4(5).

Jer'i-cho [place of fragrance].

An important city situated in the valley
of the Jordan (Dent, xxxiv. 1,3), west of the
river, at the foot of the ascent to the moun-
tainous table-land of Judah. It was known
as the city of i>alm trees (ibid. ; Judg. iii. 13).
Perhaps it did not exist in patriarchal times;
for it is not mentioned, although other cities
of the plain are (Gen. xiii. 10-12 ; xiv. 2). It
is first alluded to when the Israelites en-

camped at Shittim on the other side of the
Jordan (Num. xxii. 1 ; xxvi. 3). When the
Israelites were about to cross the Jordan,
Joshua foresaw that Jericho, being a strongly
fortified cit.y, would command any camp
which they might pitch in the neighborhood
and would bar their further progress. He
accordingly made it the first object of his
attention, and sent spies to examine it (Josh.
ii. 1-24). Having led the Israelites across
the river and formed his camp near the city,
by divine direction he ordered the men of
war to go round the city once a day for six
days, and on the seventh day, headed by the
priests with trumpets, to compass the city
seven times, and then to raise a shout. They
did so. At the shout, the walls of the city
fell down, allowing the assailants to enter.
The place was devoted to utter destruction.
Rahab, who had protected the spies, and her
father's household alone were spared. Every
other human being was slain ; so also were
the animals. The silver and tlie gold, with
other valuables, were put into the treasury
of the house of the Lord. It was for secret-
ing a part of the spoil which had been de-
voted to Jehovah that Achan brought on
himself his dreadful doom. Finally, Joshua
pronounced a curse upon the demolished city,
prophesying that if anyone ever fortified it
he should lose his elder sou when the foun-
dations were being laid, and the younger one
when the gates were being set up (Josh. v.
13-vii. 2, 16-26). The place was assigned to
Benjamin, and stood on the boundary between
the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin (xvi. 1,
7; xviii. 12, 21). It was soon rebuilt, and it
was occupied as a royal residence by Eglon,
king of Moab, when he oppressed the Israel-
ites (Judg. iii. 13). David's ambassadors re-
turning home after they had been insulted
by Hanun, remained in Jericho until their
beards grew (2 Sam. x. 5 ; 1 Chron. xix.
5). In Ahab's reign Hiel the Bethelite
undertook to fortify the city, but lost his
two sons in the manner predicted by
Joshua (1 Kin. xvi. 34). During Eli-
jah's lifetime there was a school of the
prophets at the place (2 Kin. ii. 5). Elijah,
when about to be translated to heaven,
passed thi-ough it with Elisha, and Elisha re-
turned to it after finally parting with Elijah
(4, 15, 18). The captives of Judah, taken by
the Israelite army under Pekah, were set
free in the city of Jericho (2 Chron. xxviii.
15). In its vicinity Zedekiah was captured
by his Baliylonian pursuers (2 Kin. xxv. 5;
Jer. xxxix. 5; lii. 8). Three liundred and
forty-five of its former inhabitants and their
descendants returned from captivity with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 34 ; Neb. vii. 36). Some
of its new populace helped to rebuild the wall
of Jerusalem (iii. 2). Bacchides, the Syrian
general, repaired the fortifications of Jericho
during the Maccaba'an period (1 Mac. ix. 50).
In the early years of Herod the Great the
Eomans plundered Jericho (Antiq. xiv. 15, 3).

Jeriel

351

Jeroboam

SubsequeuUy Herod restored and beautified
it, crectiusr a royal palace and, on the hill
behind the town, a citadel which he named
Cyprus (xvi. 5, 2; xvii. 13. 1 ; War i. 21. 4
and 9). There was also a circus there at the
time of Herod's death {Antiq. xvii. (i, 5 ;
War i. xxxiii. 6-8). It was on the way down
from Jerusalem to Jericho that the incident
of the good Samaritan occurred (Luke x. 30),
and it was at Jericho itself that Jesus re-
stored sight to blind Bartimseus and his com-
panion (Mat. XX. 29; Luke xviii. 35). It was
there also that he brought salvation to Zac-
chffius, whose home was in Jericho (xix. 1, 2).
Jericho, lying more than a thousand feet
below the level of the Mediterranean, had a
tropical climate. Palms, balsams, sycomores,
and henna flourished (Song i. 14 ; Luke xix. 2,
4; War iv. 8, 3). The rose plant of Jericho
was proverbially fine ( Ecclus. xxiv. 14). The
original Jericho probably stood near the spot
where the copious 'Ain es-Sultan, apparently
the fountain healed by Elisha, bursts from a
mound. The modern village of 'Eriha (the
Hebrew y^riho a little altered), is 4i miles
west of the Jordan, and li southeast of the
fountain. It is a small and miserable place.
Only a solitary date palm remains, but fig trees
abound, and wherever there is water there is
abundant, and mostly tropical, vegetation.

Je'ri-el []nobably, founded by God].
A descendant of Tola, of the tribe of Issa-
char (1 Chron. vii. 2).

Je-ri'jah. See Jeriah.

Jer'i-moth [probably, heights].

1. A Benjamite, family of Bela (1 Chron.
vii. 7).

2. A Benjamite who joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Chi-on. xii. 5).

3. A son of David. His daughter, Maha-
lath, became a wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron.
xi. 18).

4. A Levite, an over.seer in connection with
the temple in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron.
xxxi. 13).

For others whose name sometimes appears
as Jeremoth. see Jeremoth.

Je'ri-oth [curtains].

One of Caleb's wives (1 Chron. ii, 18).

Jer-0-bo'am [the people become numer-
ous].

1. The distinguished Ephraimite who
founded the kingdom of the ten tribes. His
father's name was Nebat, belonging to the
village of Zeredah in the Jordan valley ; his
mother's name was Zeruah, who was a
widow at the time of his birth (1 Kin. xi.
26). As he grew up he showed himself to be
a man of energy and valor ; and when king
Solomon repaired Millo and the city of
David, he appointed the young Ephraimite
over all the house of Joseph (27, 28). One
day as Jeroboam was walking out of Jeru-
salem he met a prophet, Ahijah of Shiloh,
clad in a new garment, which he rent in

twelve pieces, giving ten to Jeroboam as aa
indication that Jehovah destined him to be
king over ten out of the twelve tribes. News
of the transaction somehow reached the ears
of Solomon, who sought to kill Jeroboam,
but he escaped to Egy])t, and was kindly re-
ceived by Shishak, its king (29-40). When
the refugee heard that Solomon was dead,
and that an assembly of the tribes was to
take place at Shechem to make his son Re-
hoboam king, he returned to attend the
meeting, and did so, doubtless with the sym-
bolical action and projihecy of Ahijah the
Shilonite vividly recalled to his memory. He
put himself forward as spokesman of the
people, and urged the alleviation of their
burdens. Rehoboam denied the petition, re-
turning a foolish and exasperating answer.
Ten tribes thereupon revolted from the
house of David, and, feeling themselves in
want of a ruler, elected Jeroboam king.
The prophecy of Ahijah had come true to
the letter ; yet Jeroboam resolved to depart
from the counsel by which it had been
accompanied. The prophet had exhorted
him to remain true to Jehovah, in which
case the crown should descend permanejitly
in his family (37, 38). But worldly policy
tempted him in another direction. He was
afraid that if the people went up statedlj' to
Jerusalem to worship they would be won
over to Rehoboam, in which ca.se he, the
rebel leader, would be put to death. He
therefore established a center of worship at
each of the two extremities of his kingdom,
Dan in the north and Bethel in the south.
In defiance of the commandment which for-
bids the adoration of God by means of
images, he set up a golden calf in each of
the two places (xii. 26-30; 2 Chron. xiii.
8), and recommended the worship as not
altogether new by using the familiar words
of Aaron (Ex. xxxii. 4). It would seem that
he still desired to worship Jehovah under
the image of the calf. He not only thus
established houses of high places which
lacked the ark and the shekinah, but he
made Israelites who were not of the tribe of
Levi priests, doubtless because the lawful
priests and other Levites refused to serve in
the idolatrous and schismatic worship (1
Kin. xii. 31 ; 2 Chron. xi. 13-15). He further
decreed that the harvest festival, which was
celebrated in Judah on the fifteenth day of
the seventh month, should be observed in
the northern kingdom on the fifteenth day
of the eighth month (1 Kin. xii. 32, .33).
The mass of the people conformed, and
the successive kings, actuated by worldly
policy, so uniformly supported the calf
worship, unless they exchanged it for the
more heinous service of Baal, that as one,
and another, and another of these rulers
reigned, the stereotyped language was re-
peated that he walked in the way of Jero-
boam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel to
sin (1 Kin. xv. 2G, 34 ; xvi. 19, 31 ; 2 Kin.

Jeroham

352

Jerusalem

iii. 3 ; x. 29 ; xiii. 2, 11 ; xiv. 24 ; xv. 9, 18,
24, 28). The idolatry established by Jero-
boam was one cause which led to the carrying
of the ten tribes into captivity to Assyria (2
Kin. xvii. 16) ; for it kept the Hebrew nation
divided in twain and made two inferior king-
doms where there had been one strong united
people ; and, as it was a degradation of the
lofty spiritual worship of Jehovah, it resulted
in lowering the spiritual tone of the northern
Israelites. Jeroboam was rebuked for his
apostasy, first by an unnamed prophet from
Judah, and then by Ahijah, the Shilonite,
who had promised him the kingdom ; but he
continued to the end unrepentant (1 Kin.
xiii. 1-xiv. IcS). He fortified Shechem and
Penuel, both sacred places. The former he
made his capital, but after a time seems to
have preferred residing at the beautiful Tir-
zah (1 Kin. xii. 25 ; xiv. 17 ; Song vi. 4).
There was a desultory warfare between Jero-
boam and Kehoboam (1 Kin. xv. 6), and a
great battle was fought between the former
king and Rehoboam's son and successor,
Abijam, in which the army of Israel was de-
feated with enormous .slaughter, and Bethel,
which was onlj^ 10 miles from Jerusalem,
temporarily lost to Israel (7; 2 Chron. xiii.
1-20). Jeroboam was made king about 931
B. C, and reigned twenty-two years (1 Kin.
xiv. 20). One son of his had died in infancy
(1-17) ; another, Nadab, ascended the throne
(20).

2. The son of Joash, king of Israel, and
his successor on the throne of the ten tribes.
He was of the dynasty of Jehu, and the
third in descent from that ruler. He became
king in Samaria about the year 790 B. c, and
reigned forty-one years. He found the king-
dom in a very depressed state, but raised it
again to prosperity, capturing Damascus, the
capital of the Syrian empire, and Hamath,
one of the Hittite towns, and restoring to
Israel the country from Hamath to the
Dead Sea. These successes had been predicted
by Jonah (2 Kin. xiv. 23-28 ; cp. Deut. iii.
17). Amos also prophesied in Jeroboam II. 's
reign (Amos i. 1). He draws a melancholy
picture of the moral and religious state of
Israel at the time (ii. 6-v. 27 ; viii. 4-6,
etc.), for which he predicts judgment from
God (vii. 1-9 ; viii. 7-10). For these prophe-
cies a complaint was made against him to
Jeroboam by Amaziah the priest at Bethel,
but it does not .seem to have brought any
penalty on tiie prophet (vii. 10-17). Hosea
also began his i>ro])hetic work in the northern
kingdom during the lifetime of Jeroboam.
The first three chapters pertain to that jieriod.
On the death of .Fcrohoam, his sou Zechariah
ascended the throne (2 Kin. xiv. 29).

Je-ro'ham [he findeth mercy].

1. A Levite, an ancestor of the prophet
Samuel (1 Sam. i. 1 ; 1 Cliron. vi. 27, 34).

2. A Benjamite, whose sons were chief men
and dwelt at Jerusalem (1 Chron. viii. 27).

See Jekemoth 2. He may be identical with
the following.

3. A Benjamite. father of Ibneiah who
dwelt at Jerusalem (1 Clu'on. ix. 8).

4. A priest of the house of Malchijah (1
Chron. ix. 12 ; Neh. xi. 12).

5. A Benjamite of Gedor, whose sons joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 7).

6. Father of the chief of the tribe of Dan
in the reign of David (1 Chron. xxvii. 22).

7. Father of one of the captains who aided
Jehoiada in putting Joash on the throne of
Judah (2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

Je-rub'ba-al and Je-rub'be-sheth. See
Gideon.

Jer'u-el [probably, founded by God].

A wilderness in Judah, adjacent to the
cliS' of Ziz, and therefore in the vicinity of
En-gedi (2 Chron. xx. 16). Exact situation
unknown.

Je-ru'sa-lem [to the Hebrews it meant
foundation of peace, secure haltitation].

The sacred city and well-known capital of
Judah, of Judiea, of Palestine, and of the
Jews throughout the world. For the sake
of convenient reference and clearness, the
subject is presented under certain heads:
I. Name. II. The city in itself: 1. Site; 2.
Water supply ; 3. Artificial defenses ; 4. Not-
able buildings in the time of Christ. III.
The history of the citv : 1. The Canaanite
city; 2. The city of the Hebrews; 3. The
city since Titus. IV. Modern excavation.

I. The name. The earliest known name is
Urusalim, i. e. Jerusalem. It was in use as
early as the sixteenth century before Christ,
long before the conquest of Canaan by the
Hebrews under Joshua, being found in letters
from its subject prince to Amenophis IV.,
king of Egypt, his lord. Salem, of which
Melchizedek was king, is a natural abbrevia-
tion of Jerusalem and not unlikely denoted
this city. The place is mentioned as Jerusa-
lem in the account of the conquest of Canaan,
but in that narrative it is also referred to as
.lebus ; in fact, this latter name is frequent
after the conquest during the occupation of
the city by the Jebusites; but when David
captured the city and made it his capital, the
old name of Jerusalem, or abbreviated Salem
(Ps. Ixxvi. 2), became once more the sole
designation. The pronunciation of the final
syllable has been modified by the later Jews,
so that it resembles a dual and quite appro-
priately suggests a double city.

II. 1. The site. Jerusalem is situated on a
table-land on the crest of the central ridge of
Palestine and at one of its highest points.
It has the same latitude as the northern end
of the Dead Sea. The portion of the table-
land occupied by the city is isolated from the
rest of the plateau, except on the north. On
the other sides it is encomjiassed by deep
ravines. This jutting jiromontory is itself
cut by another valley which, followed up-
ward from its mouth at the southeastern

Jerusalem

354

Jemsalem

corner of the promontory at the junction of
the southern and eastern ravines, trends like
the arc of a circle for nearly a mile north-
ward, midway sending a branch from its
concave side due west. Such at least was
the original configuration of the city's site ;
but in the course of centuries, through mu-
nicijjal improvements and the devastation of
war, heights have been lowered and valleys
filled. As a result of these ramifications,
there are three principal hills,
an eastern, a southwestern,
and a northwestern. The east-
ern hill is a ridge extending
for somewhat more than half
a mile from north to south,
which rises to a height of
from 200 to 300 feet above its
encompassing valleys, tapers
to a blunt point at its south-
ern extremity, and at it^
northern end is almost m ji-
arated (the reference is to tlie
ancient topography) from tin
table-land, of which it 1-5 a
part, by a branch of the t.ist-
ern ravine. This ridge attains
a general altitude of 2400 feet
above sea level. There is some
evidence that a slight dejires-
sion or valley, about 100 fe( t
wide and in places 40 fe( t
deep, lay athwart it tow aid
the southern end from th(> so
called fountain of the Yiittin
northwesterly to the T\ ro-
poeon valley. The southwest-
ern hill is much the largest of
the three. In form it is ob-
long, with a spur thrown out
on the northeastern corner
toward the eastern ridge. It
rises abruptly from the encir-
cling valleys. Its broad sum-
mit begins at an altitude of
about 2400 feet above the level of the sea and
swells 150 feet higher, with its greatest ele-
vation on the west. The third hill is rather
a projection of the plateau than an isolated
mound. It lies north of the one just de-
scribed. The present elevation of that part
included in the ante-Christian city is about
2450 feet. This triad of hills, with the
protecting ravines, afforded a strong posi-
tion for a city, althougli it is encircled be-
yond the ravines by hills which tower above
it. The mountains are round about Jeru-
salem.

The eastern ravine is the valley of the
Kidron. The hill to the east, which faces
and overlooks the hills of the city, is the
mount of Olives. Tlic long ridge which runs
north and south is the temiilc hill, called at
least in that portion of its extent where the
sanctuary stood, mount Moriah. Its southern
tapering extremity was known as Ophel.
The pool in the valley at its extreme southern

point is Siloam, and a pool just north of the
temple area is Bethesda.

Which height was mount Zion ? This ques-
tion has received three principal answers: 1.
Mount Zion was the southwestern hill. This
view has prevailed since the fourth centuiy.
(1) Zion was the city of David (2 Sam. v.
7-9), and Josephus says that the upper city,
unquestionably the southwestern hill, was
called the citadel by David (War v. 4, 1).

Strangely enough, however, Josephus does
not explicitly call it Zion. (2) Micah distin-
guishes Zion from the temple hill (iv. 2). (3)
Too much building is spoken of in Neh.
iii. for Zion to be part of the temple hill.
(4) The sanctity of Zion is accounted for by
the fact that it was for many years the abid-
ing place of the ark, and was celebrated as
such by David (2 Sam. vi. 12-18 ; 1 Kin. viii.
1-4 ; Ps. ii. 6). The name Zion thus became
the title for Jerusalem as a whole in its
quality as a holy city (Ps. xlviii. ; Ixxxvii. ;
cxxxiii. 3). 2. Mount Zion was the northwest-
ern hill (Warren). This hill is identified with
that quarter of the city called by Josephus
the Acra, which in Greek means hilltop or
citadel. It is, indeed, styled by him the
lower city, for so it was in his day; but
originally it was much higher, and was cut
down by Simon Maccabjeus because it com-
manded the temple (Antiq. xiii. 6, 7). It
was originally a suitable site for the Jebusite

Jerusalem

355

Jerusalem

fortress. 3. Mount Zioii was a portion of the
temple hill. The main arguments for this
view are (1) The temple hill is best adapted
by nature for a stronghold. (2) The temple
could be reached by going from the fountain
gate, up tlie stairs of the city of David, and
past the water gate (Neh. -., _

xii. 37), steps which may be _-•

those that have been dis-
covered ascending the ridge
from the pool at the south-
ern end. (3) Zion is spoken
of as holy in terms such as
are never applied to .Jeru-
salem, but are intelligible
if Zion was the hill on
which the temple stood.
Zion is called the hill of
the Lord, the holy hill, the
dwelling place of Jehovah
(Ps. ii. 6; ix. 11; xxiv. 3;
cxxxii. 13). (4) In the First
Book of the Maccabees Zion
is the temple hill (i. 33-38).
The invariable distinction
of the city of David from
mount Zion and the sanc-
tuary shows that the terms
had undergone a change
of meaning since 2 Sam.
V. 7. The simplest expla-
nation is that mount Zion
was part of the temple hill,
and by synecdoche often
used for the whole of it, whereas the desig-
nation city of David, which denoted the mu-
nicipality of Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 7; Antiq.
vii. 3, 2), was extended, with the growth of
population, beyond the bounds of mount
Zion and embraced the new suburbs on the

city of David might then on occasion in-
clude the sanctuary or exclude it. The
Syrians erected a fortress in the citj' of David,
but Judas Maccabaeus came and took posses-
sion of the sanctuary on mount Zion (1 Mac.
i. 33seq. ; iv. 36seq.). According to this view,

Fountain of the Virgin.

neighboring hills, around which the protect-
ing walls of the city were cast. The term

Cisterns of Jerusalem.

the stronghold captured by David occupied
the northern part of the ridge on which the
temple was afterwards built (Ferguson) or,
as the advocates of the theory are coming in
increasing numbers to believe, the southern
part, south of the temple, south also of the
transverse ravine (Klaiber, Guthe, Sayce).

II. 2. Water supply. Although Jerusalem
was often long and closely besieged and suf-
fered grievous fannne from having its sup-
plies of food cut off, there is no record of the
inhabitants having ever lacked water. In
fact, it was the besiegers wlio were apt to
want water, not the besieged. There is no
spring north of the city, and none is known
at present east, west, or .south which was not
commanded by the Avails, except En-rogel.
A living fountain to supply the Mamilla pool
and the pool of the Sultan on the west luis
not been discovered. The southwestern hill
is likewise without springs, so far as known,
although the dragon's well may have been
such (Neh. ii. 13). But the temple hill is
well supplied (Tacitus, Hist. v. 12). The
known living sources and their reservoirs
are the fountain of the Virgin on the eastern
side, with abundant water which was con-
ducted by a subterranean channel to the pool
of Siloam (see Gihox); the fountain of
Siloam at the southern end of the hill, where
also are to be sought, though their identifica-
tion is difficult, the king's pool, the pool that
was made, and .Solomon's pool (Neh. ii. 14;

Jerusalem

356

Jerusalem

iii. Ifi ; War v. 4, 1) ; on the western side of
the ridge, directly west of the temple, the
so-called healing baths, Hammam esh-Shifa;
and just north of the ridge, Bethesda.

The sjjrings were supplemented by cisterns.
The towers, which were upon the city walls,
contained immense reservoirs for rain water
(War V. 4, 3) ; and numerous cisterns, of
which not a few still exist, were found in all
parts of the city (Tacitus, Hist. v. 12).

Besides the supply afibrded by the springs
and cisterns of the city, water was also
brought from a distance. The Mamilla pool
west of the city is probably the upper pool
in the fuller's field and, as the name denotes,
the serpent's pool (I.s. vii. 3; xxxvi. 2; War
V. 3, 2). An aqueduct brought the water
from it to the pool of the patriarch east of
the Jafia gate. This is known to tradition
as the pool of Hezekiah, and is probably the
pool Amygdiilon — i. e. pool of the almond or
tower, mentioned by Josephus (War v. 11, 4).
From it a subterranean conduit passes east-
ward. A reservoir was also constructed at a
late period north of the temple area, in
ground made where the small valley diverged
westward from the Kidrbn. It was fed from
the west. It is now known as the pool of
Israel, and is probably identical with the
pool Strouthios (pool of the sparrow or of
soai)Wort, which was used for cleansing wool),
"which existed when Jerusalem was besieged
by Titus, and lay in front of the tower of
Antonia (War v. 11, 4). But the most ex-
tensive aqueduct was that which brought
water to Jerusalem from beyond Bethlehem ;
see Etam. It is believed to considerably
antedate the Christian era.

II. 3. Artificial defenses. Immediately after
capturing Jerusalem, David took measures to
enclose the city with a wall. The old Jebu-
site stronghold, henceforth called the city of
David, already existed. David, in addition,
fortified the city round about, from Millo
even round about (2 Sam. v. 9 ; 1 Chron. xi.
8). Solomon built Millo and the wall of Je-
rusalem, closing up the gap in the city of
David (1 Kin. ix. 15, 24; xi. 27). Succeed-
ing kings made rc]iairs and additions, until
eventually at least the wall passed near the
present Jaffa gate on the west (2 Chron.
xxvi. f»), approached the valley of Hinnom
on tlu^ south (Jer. xix. 2), ran near the pool
of Siloam (2 Kin. xxv. 4), included Ophel
(2 C!liron. xxvii. 3; xxsiii. 14), and on the
north enclosed the suburb which grew up on
the northwestern hill (2 Kin. xiv. 13 ; 2
Chron. xxxiii. 14; Jer. xxxi. 38). This wall
was razed to the ground by Nebuchadnezzar
(2 Kin. xxv. 10).

Nehemiah rebuilt the wall out of the old
material (Neh. ii. 13-15; iv. 2, 7; vi. 1.5). It
began, so to speak, at the shoe]) gate (iii. 1),
which was near the pool of Bethesda (John
v. 2). This pool has been discovered beneath
the church of St. Anne, about 100 yards from
the gate now called St. Stephen's, and on

what was originally the northern side of that
branch of the Kidron valley which was in-
terposed between the temple hill and the
main plateau. The sheep gate stood, there-
fore, in this branch valley or on the slope of
the plateau to the north or northwest. Near
the sheep gate, in the direction away from the
temple, were the towers of Meah and Han-
aneel (Neh. iii. 1 ; xil. 39). Then came the
fish gate, in the new or second quarter of the
city (iii. 3 ; Zeph. i. 10), and next the old gate
(Neh. iii. 6 ; xii. 39). Some distance on from
the latter point was the broad wall (iii. 8 ; xii.
38), and farther on the tower of the furnaces
(iii. 11 ; xii. 38). To this there succeeded the
valley gate, the technical designation of the
valley on the west of the city being used (iii.
13 ; cp. ii. 13-15), then the dung gate (iii. 14),
then the gate of the fountain, the wall of
the pool of Siloam by the king's garden, at
the southeastern corner of the city, and the
stairs that go down from the city of David
(15) ; to the east of this point was the water
gate [of the temple?], with a large open
place before it (viii. 1-3; xii. 37). The wall
next went past the sepulchers of David, the
pool that was made, and the house of the
niightj- (iii. 16) ; the going up to the armory,
at the turning of the wall (19) ; the house of
the high priest, Eliashib (20) ; then various
points indicated by other houses unto the
turning of the wall, the corner (24) ; the
turning of the wall and the tower which
standeth out from the king's upper house,
that was by the court of the guard (25).
Now the Nethinim dwelt here in Ophel from
over against the water gate [of the temple ?]
toward the east and this tower that standeth
out (26 ; cp. xi. 21). Then a i)iece of wall
from this tower to the wall of Ophel (iii. 27).
The horse gate came next, above which the
priests resided (28). It was on the eastern
side of the city, overlooking the Kidron
valley (Jer. xxxi. 40). Then a portion of the
wall over against the house of [the priest]
Zadok, then a section repaired by the keeper
ofthe east gate [of the temple, pro])ably] (Neh.
iii. 29). Presently the house of the Nethinim ;
then a section from over against the gate of
the Miphkad [which was probably a gate of
the temple at the place where the sin offer-
ing -was burned, called the Miphkad, cp.
Ezek. xliii. 21] to the upi)er chamber of the
tower (Neh. iii. 31) ; and, finally, the sheep
gate, which was the starting point of the de-
scription (.32).

Two important gates of the former wall
are not mentioned, though one at least ex-
isted at this time, the corner gate (2 Kin.
xiv. 13; 2 Chron. xxvi. 9 ; cp. Zech. xiv. 10)
and the gate of Ephraim (Neh. viii. 16 ; xii.
39). The corner gate appears to have been
the extreme northwestern point of the city
(Jer. xxxi. 38), and it was distant 400 cubits
from the gate of Ephraim (2 Kin. xiv. 13).
Through this latter gate the road to Ephraim
passed ; presumably, therefore, it was in the

w

^'L

f

I

Jerusalem

357

Jerusalem

northern wall of the city, and if so, then
east of tho corner gate. It was certainly
west of the okl gate (Neh. xii. 39). Begin-
ning with the sheep gate and following the
northern wall westward, the order of gates
and towers is shee]) gate, towers of Meah and
Hanancel, fish gate, (dd gate, gate of Ephraim,
corner gate. Whether the broad wall and
tower of furnaces were beyond the corner
gate is difficult to determine. It is to be ob-
served that the gates of the corner and Eph-
raim occur in that part of the wall where it
is recorded that "they left Jerusalem " (iii. 8,
R. V. margin), as though the wall required no
repairs at this point.

There was also a gate of Benjamin, through
which the road to Benjamin passed (Jer.
xxxviii. 7; Zech. xiv. 10). This may have
been but another name for the gate of Eph-
raim. After the fall of Samaria and the
virtual disappearance of Ephraim from geo-
graphical parlance, the gate of Ephraim
would naturally come to be known as the
gate of Benjamin, and when the walls of the
city were rebuilt, after the exile, to be called
indifferently the gate of Benjamin or of
Ephraim or. eventually, of Damascus.

they might be able to stand a siege (Ecclus.
1. 1-4 ; for need, cp. Antiq. xii. 1, 1). In Ki.S
B. c. Antiochus Epiphanes had the walls of
Jerusalem thrown dowTi and a fortress with
a great and strong wall and mighty towers
erected in the city of David, j)erlia]is abroad
designation meaning the city as distinct from
the temple (1 Mac. i. ;J1, .'Jo. ;Ji) ; 2 Mac. v.
24-26). This fortress became celebrated as
the Acra. It overlooked the temple (Antiq.
xiii. G, 7), and for twenty-five years was a
menace to the Jews. About two years after the
demolition of the city walls. .Judas Maccaba-us
partly restored them, strengthening the outer
wall of the temple ; but only to have his
work undone (1 Mac. iv. 60; vi. 18-27, 62).
His brother and successor, Jonathan, liow-
ever, renewed the work, proposing additional
fortifications and rebuilding and repairing
the walls, particularlv around the tenqile
hill (1 Mac. X. 10; xii.' 36, 37; Antiq. xiii. .'>,
11). His brother Simon carried the work to
completion (1 Mac. xiii. 10; xiv. 37; Antiq.
xiii. 6. 4). Under this great priest-king, not
only were the walls of the city built, but the
foreign garrison was forced in the year 142
B. c. to evacuate the Acra (1 Mac. xiii. 49-51).

«?3

Exterior of the Damascus Gate.

During the interval between Nehemiah
and Christ the fortifications of Jerusalem
suffered many vicissitudes. About 150 years
after the building of Nehemiah's wall, the
high priest, Simon the Just, found it neces-
sary to fortify the temple and the city so that

After a time the fortress was demolished and
the hill on which it had stood was graded
down so as to be lower than the level of the
temple (1 Mac. xiv. .36 ; xv. 28; Antiq. xiii.
6, 7). Simon appears also to have tak(>n up
his residence in the fortress Baris, which

Jerusalem

358

Jerusalem

I)rotectcd the temple on the north (1 Mac.
xiii. 52 ; cp. Neh. ii. 8). In the reign of John
Hyreanus a portion of the fortifications of the
city was dismantled hy Antiochus Sidetes,
hut the ruin seems to have been rejiaired by
John (Autiq. xiii. 8, 3 ; 1 Mac. xvi. 23). John
al.so remodeled and strengthened the fortress
Baris ( Antiq. xviii. 4, 3 ; ep. xv. 11, 4). Pom-
I)C'y found the defenses of Jerusalem strong.
On finally cai)turiug the city in G3 B. c, he
demolished the walls (Tacitus, Hist. v. 9;
and next two references). C'sesar allowed
them to he rc1)nilt (Antiq. xiv. 8, 5; War i.
10, :j and 4). On the north they consisted of
two walls which Herod and his Eoman allies
took in the year 37 B. c, but did not destroy
(Antiq. xiv. 16, 2 and 4 : cp. xv. 1, 2).

At the time of Ciirist, Jerusalem had the
two walls aforementioned on the north, and
shortly afterwards three. Josephus identi-
fies the first and innermost wall as the work
of David, Solomon, and succeeding kings.
He describes it by reference to landmarks of
his day as extending from the tower of Hip-

the tower of Antonia, formerly called Baris,
north of the temple (War v. 4, 2). Herod
AgrijJim I., who reigned over Judtea from A.
D. 41 to 44. undertook a third wall in order
to include within the city limits the unpro-
tected suburb of Bezetha, which had grown
up outside of the fortifications. After laying
the foundations, however, he relinquished
the work at the command of the emperor Clau-
dius. It was finally completed by the Jews
themselves. It began at the tower of Hip-
picus, extended northward to the tower of
Psephinus, at the northwest corner of the city
(War V. 3, 5; 4, 3) ; turned eastward and
passed on to the women's towers, which
stood west of the northern highway and near
the monuments of Helena, queen of Adiabene
(v. 4, 2; Antiq. xx. 4, 3) : included the tradi-
tional site of the camp of the Assyrians (War
V. 7, 3) ; passed the caves of the kings ; bent
southward at the corner tower, near the monu-
ment of the fuller : and joined the old wall at
the valley of the Kidron (v. 4, 2). The cir-
cumference of the walls was 33 stadia, a little

Castle of David, with Substructions of the Tower of Hippicus.

picus, which stood immediately south of the
modern Jafl'a gate at the northwest corner of
the old city wall, eastward to the west clois-
ter of tlie temple : and from the tower of
jnp]ii( lis south and east by the ]ntiA of Hiloam
and ()i)iiel to the eastern cloister of the tem-
])le (War v. 4, 2). It enclosed the south-
western and eastern hills. The second wall
<'ncomi>assed the northern and principal l)usi-
ness (luarter of the city (War v. 4, 2: for
l)azaars in tliis section, 8, 1 ; i. 13, 2 : Antiq.
xiv. 13, 3). It began at the gate Gennath,
tliat is, by interpretation, the garden gate,
which belonged to the first wall and stood
•not far east of the tower of Iliiqiicus (War
V. 4, 2 ; 3, 2 for gardens) ; and terunnated at

less than 4 miles (v. 4, 3). The defenses of
the city were augmented by the fortress
of Antonia at the temple, and by the palace
of Herod with its adjacent towers on the
western wall. All these fortifications Titus
razed to the ground on his capture of the city
in A. I). 70. He left only the grouj) of three
towers, Hii)iiicus, Phasaelus, and Mariamne,
and so much of the wall as enclosed the city
on the west side. He spared this portion of
tlie wall in order that it might aflord protec-
tion to his garrison, and the towers that pos-
terity might see what kind of a city it was
whicli Roman vahn- had taken (War vii. 1, 1).
II. 4. yotnbic hHil(liui!s in the time of Chrint.
Besides the walls which have been already

Jerusalem

359

Jerusalem

described, there were many structures to
awaken contiicting emotions in thcpiousand
patriotic Israelite. Foremost was tlie tem-
ple. Adjoining it on the north, within its
area and controlling it, was the fortress of
Antonia occupied by a Roman garrison ;
west of it stood the council house, probably
the place where the council of the nation or
sanlu'drin met: a little more to the westward,

at the farther end of the bridge which sprang

t

l),and in the hii)i)odrome men were confined
(xvii. !), 5; War i. 33, (i). Other buildings
were the house of the high priest (Mat. xxvi.
3 ; Luke xxii. 54 ; War ii. 17, (J) ; the house
of records, near the temple (War ii. 17, 6;
vi. (5, 3) ; the i)alace of the proselyte qiieea
of Adiabene, Helena (ibid.).

III. 1. The city of the Canaanites. If the
Salem of ^Melchizedek be Jerusalem, as is
probable, the city first emerges in history

Remims of an Ancient Bridge in the Western Wall of the Temple

It is ne.ir the soutliwehtein coiner, measures 50 teet in width, contains stones 19 and 26 teet in length, and once

spanned the Tyropoeon valley. It is known as Robinson's Arch.

from the western cloister of the temple and
spanned the Tyropoeon valley, lay the gym-
nasium or xystos, an object of abhorrence on
account of its demoralizing and heathenizing
influence ; above it, looking down into it and
peering across the valley into the sanctuary,
rose the palace of the Asmonseans, recalling
the heroic achievements of the Maccabees.
Or taking a wider circuit, to the north of the
temple beyond the fortress of Antonia was
the pool of Bethesda with its healing waters;
away to the west, at the opposite side of the
city from the temple, stood the magnificent
palace of Herod with its impregnable towei-s,
the residence of the procurators when in
Jerusalem ; around toward the south was the
pool of Siloam, and not too far from it were
the sepulchers of the kings (see the several
articles). In this neighborhood may best be
sought the very large amphitheater erected
by Herod the Great in the plain (Antiq. xv.
8. 1). It was. perhaps, the same as the hip-
podrome, which lay south from the temple
(War ii. 3. 1), for chariot races as well as
wild beast fights and gladiatorial combats
seem to have taken place in it (Autiq. xv. 8.

in the days of Abraham, when it already had
a king of the Semitic race, who was at the
same time priest of the Most High God (Gen.
xiv. 18). Manetho, an Egyptian priest and
historian of the third century before Christ,
transmits a tradition, which may contain
considerable truth and which chronologically
belongs here, to the ctt'ect that the nation of
the shepherd kings to the number of 240,000
were driven out of Egypt by Thoummosis
[or Amosis, i. e. Aahmes (Eusebius, Ohron.
lo-17)], and fled toward Syria ; but fearing
the Assyrians, who had dominion over Asia,
they built a city in the country now called
Judaea of sufficient size to contain the multi-
tude and named it Jerusalem (con. Apion.
i. 14, ITj). This expulsion of the shepherds
took place, according to Manetho, several cen-
turies before the exodus of the children of
Israel, and must not be confounded with
the later event (i. 26 seq.). It occurred some-
where about 1600 B. c. The earliest mention
of Jerusalem in a document of which the
original is extant is about 1500 b. c, when
it still has a Semite as its governor, but
is subject to Ameuophis IV., king of Egj-pt.

Jerusalem

360

Jerusalem

This was before the exodus. When the
Israelites entered Canaan, Jerusalem was
ruled by a king, still a Semite, and occupied
by Amorites, or more definitely by Jebusites.
Joshua defeated its king and his allies at
Gibeon, drove them down the pass of Beth-
horon, and slew them in the lowland (Josh.
X.). But no attempt was made to enter the
city. The Jebusites still dwelt in it. It was
allotted to the tribe of Benjamin ; but as it
stood on the border of Judah, its castle com-
manded a portion of the territory of two tribes
(Josh. XV. 8 ; xviii. 28). In the war which
was waged by the several tribes against the
Canaanites within their own bounds after
the death of Joshua, Judah fought against
Jerusalem, took it, and set it on fire (Judg.
i. 8). But apparently Judah did not capture
the citadel. Neither did Benjamin (21).
Hence, when the city was rebuilt, it was still
under the shadow of the Jebusite stronghold
and its inhabitants were Jebusites. It was a
city of foreigners and a reproach in the
midst of the land (Josh. xv. 63 ; Judg. i. 21 ;
xix. 11, 12). Such M^as the state of afiairs
when David began his career. When he had
slain Goliath, he returned from the field of
battle by way of Jerusalem and brought the
head of the Philistine thither. Possibly ho
erected it on a spear in view of the city; at
any rate he displayed it before the eyes of
the Jebusites (1 Sam. xvii. 54). It was a
prophecy to this stronghold of mocking for-
eigners of what awaited them. And when
he became king of all Israel, and found a
united and enthusiastic nation obedient to
him, and the jealousy between Judah and
Benjamin allayed, he at once led his troops
against the border town, and in face of the
derision of the inhabitants, who believed
their walls to be impregnable, gained posses-
sion (2 Sam. V.6 set}.). Henceforth for many
centuries Jerusalem was a city of the He-
brews.

III. 2. The citi/ of the Hebrewa. David made
Jerusalem the caiiital of his kingdom, and
took measures to make it the i-eligious center
also. The ark, which had had no dwelling
place of its own since Jehovah forsook Shiloh,
he brought to Jerusalem and pitched a suit-
able tent for it, and he began the collection
of materials for a temple. The city shared
in the prosperity of Solomon's reign. The
walls were enlarged, the temple was erected
on a scale of great magnificence, and sur-
rounded by a wall which gave it the apjiear-
ance of a fortress, and a royal palace was
built not inferior to the temple in splendor.
In the next reign, however, the army of
Shishak, king of Egypt, entered the city and
robbed the temple and the palace of their
treasures (1 Kin. xiv. 25 seq.), and about
eighty years later bands of Philistines and
Arabs gained brief admission to the city and
carried oil' plunder (2 Chron. xxi. 17). The
population was in the meanwhile increasing,
quarters of the city began to be distinguished

(2 Kin. XX. 4 ; xxii. 14), and before the be-
ginning of the eighth century a suburb on
the northwestern hill was enclosed by an
addition to the city wall. This part of the
city was the mercantile district, and con-
tinued to be such after the exile and until
the destruction of the city by Titus (War v.
8, 1). Here were the sheep and the fish gates,
and the quarter was skirted by the valley of
the cheesemongers. In the reign of Amaziah
a portion of the city wall was broken down,
and temple and palace were despoiled of
treasure by the northern Israelites (2 Kin.
xiv. 13, 14). Uzziah and Jotham repaired
the ruin, strengthened the walls, and erected
new towers for defense (2 Chron. xxvi. 9 ;
xxvii. 3). But they had perhaps other ruins
to care for than those wrought by war, for in
Uzziah's reign the city was visited by a
memorable earthquake (Amos i. 1 ; Zecli.
xiv. 5; Antiq. ix. 10, 4). Under Ahaz the
city was besieged, but not taken, by the
northern Lsraelites in alliance with the Syri-
ans (2 Kin. xvi. 5), and shortly afterwards,
by reason of the king's inclination to heathen-
ism, the lamps of the temple were allowed to
go out, the offering in the holy place ceased,
and the temple was closed (2 Kin. xvi. 14
seq. ; 2 Chron. xxviii. 24 ; xxix. 7). Heze-
kiah reopened the temple and restored the
service, but he was obliged to empty the
royal and the sacred treasuries and to strip
the plates of gold from the temple doors in
order to raise a sum sufficient to purchase
exemption from a threatened raid by the
Assyrians ; and even this relief was but tem-
])orary, for eventuallj' Assyrian troops stood
before the walls (2 Chron. xxix. 3 ; 2 Kin.
xviii. 15 seq.). The city was, however, de-
livered by the providential outbreak of pes-
tilence in the camp of the enemy (2 Kin.
xix. 35). When Manasseh returned from
captivity he built walls for the city and
strengthened the fortifications (2 Chron.
xxxiii. 14). During the reigns of the sons
and grandson of Josiah the city experienced
its overwhelming calamities. Nebuchadnez-
zar besieged it in the days of Jehoiakim, en-
tered it, bound but eventually released the
king, and carried ott' costly vessels from the
temple and a number of nol)le youth (2 Kin.
xxiv. 1 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6 ; Dan. i. 1). Again
he came, emptied the royal and the sacred
treasuries, seized the remaining vessels of
gold and silver belonging to the temple, car-
ried king Jehoiiichin a prisoner to Babylon,
and deported the best and most useful citizens
(2 Kin. xxiv. 10 seq.). Nine years later, in
the reign of Zedekiah, he laid siege to the
city for the third time. The investment
lasted two years. The misery within the
walls was extreme. Finally a breach was
made, the city was taken, the temple and the
palaces were burnt, the wall was broken
down, and the remnant of the population,
save the poorest, was deported (2 Kin. xxv. ).
The city lay waste for fifty years. Zerub-

Jerusalem

361

Jerusalem

babel and 50,000 followers returucd to Jeru-
salem iu 538 B. c, and at the begiuuiiig of
the uext year laid the foundation of the
temple (Ezra ii. 64, 65 ; iii. 8). The walls
of the city were rebuilt under Xehemiah
about 445 b. c. The supreme power was then
in the hands of the Persians, from whom it
passed, under Alexander the Great, to the
Macedonian Greeks. The city was taken b3'
Antiochus the Great '203 B. c, retaken by
the Egyptians iu 199, and opened its gates
again to Antiochus coming as a friend iu 198.
In 170 B. c. Antiochus Epiphanes took Jeru-
salem, subsequently desecrating the temple ;
see History. But the ]\Iaccabees arose ; and
in 165 B. c. Judas retook the city and puritied
the temple. The kings of the Asmonsean
race built near the temple a citadel called
Baris or the tower ; see Antonia, Tower of.
Pompej^ captured Jerusalem 63 B. C, breaking
down part of the wall ; Crassus despoiled
the temple in 54 B. c. and the Parthians
plundered the cityiu 40 B. c. Jerusalem was
taken again in 37 B. c. by Herod the Great,
who repaired the walls, adorned the city
with various edifices, and rebuilt the temple
on a scale of magnificence which markedly
contrasted with the comparatively humble
character of Zerubbabel's temple. The work
began 20-19 B. c, and was not quite completed
when our Lord was on earth. Herod also
strengthened the citadel and called it Antonia
(q. v.). When he passed away there were
two walls, in whole or in part encompassing
Jerusalem, against one in Solomon's time. A
third wall was begun by Herod Agrippa (about
A. D. 42 or 43) about ten years after the cru-
cifixion. In 70 B. c. the Romans, under Titus,
took Jerusalem, the temple and nearly all

III. 3. The city shtce Titim. Under the em-
peror Hadrian the Komans commenced to re-
fortify Jerusiilem as a gentile city, and liold
it against its former inhabitants. This seems
to have been one main cause of the Jewish
revolt under Bar-cochcl)a (about A. d. 132 to
135). On its suppression, the rebuilding of
the city was resumed and completed. The
old name Jerusalem Avas discarded. It was
called Colonia ^Elia Capitoliua : Colonia to
denote that it was a Roman colony, ^Elia iu
honor of Hadrian, whose prsenomen was
iElius, and Capitoliua because it was dedi-
cated to Jupiter Capitolinus. To this heathen
deity a temple was dedicated on the spot
where those of Solomon, Zerubbabel, and
Herod had stood. The Jews were forbidden,
on pain of death, to enter within its walls.
The Christians were, perhaps, by this time
sufficiently distinguished from the Jews not
to come under the prohibition. The name
^Elia continued for many centuries. The
emperor Coustantine first partially, and then
comjyletely, removed the prohibition against
the Jews entering the Holy City. In 326
Helena, his mother, caused five churches to
be built at Bethlehem and on the mount of
Olives, and in 335 the emperor himself
erected the first church of the Holy Sei)ul-
cher; see Sepulcher. In June, 613, Jeru-
salem was taken by storm by the Persians
under Cho.sroes II., a great massacre of the
Christian inhabitants following, and the
church of the Holy Sepulcher being burnt
down. In 628, on the death of Chosroes, Je-
rusalem was retaken by the Roman emperor,
Heraclius. In 637 it was surrendered on
conditions to the Saracens, who soon after-
wards reared what was till recently called

Roman Medal commemorating the Capture of Jerusalem.

the city having been burnt or otherwise de-
stroyed during the siege. He broke down
all the walls, with the exception of part of
the western one and three towers. Hippicus,
Phasaelus, and Mariamne, which he left to
show posterity the nature of the defenses he
had succeeded in capturing (War vii. 1, 1).

the mosque of Omar, but now more accu-
rately the Dome of the Rock, upon, or very
near," the site of the Jewish temple. During
the period that Jerusalem was ruled by the
Saracens, the treatment of the Christian pil-
grims who visited the sacred shrines varied.
Once the church of the Holy Sepulcher was

Jerusalem

362

Jeshimon

set on fire under a Fatiruite ruler, but on the
wliule there was toleration. It was difJ'erent
when the Saracens were displaced by the
Turks in A. D. 1077. The insults and oppres-
sion ])racticed by the semi-savages who had
now gained power, threw all middle and
central Euro]>e into a ferment, and brought
on the crusades. In the first of these reli-
gious expeditious Jerusalem was taken by
storm on July 15, 1099, and a Christian king-
dom established, which continued eighty-
eight years. During the Christian occupa-
tion many fresh sites were considered to have
been discovered, the buildings connected with
the Holy Sepulcher were enlarged and made
more splendid, and other edifices erected in
the city. In 1187 it had to be surrendered
to Saladiu, sultan of Egypt and Syria, and
with the exception of two short periods, when
the Christians again possessed it, has remained
in Mohammedan hands. Of late its popula-
tion has largely increased. In 1863 it was
estimated at 5000 Mohammedans, 3(306 Chris-
tians, and 7100 Jews, total 15,706 (Keith
Johnston). In 1892 Dr. Selah Merrill, United
States consul at Jerusalem, reported to his
government that the Jews alone amounted to
25,322. In this year also a railway was com-
pleted from Jatfa to Jerusalem.

IV. Modern excavation. "An inscription in
Arabic over the Yafa [i. e. the Jatfa] gate,"
says Prof. Eobinson, "as well as others in
various places, records that the present walls
of Jerusalem were rebuilt by order of sultan
Suleiman in a. h. [the year of the Hegira]
948, corresponding to A. D. 1542. They appear
to occupy very nearly the site of the former
walls of the middle ages, which were several
times thrown down and rebuilt during the
crusades, a slight deviation only being visi-
ble around the northwest corner, on both the
northern and western sides. The materials
were probably those of the former walls ; and
are in great part apparently ancient" [Bih.
Res. i. 384 ). The foundations are in some places
built of very large stones, which may have
formed part of the ancient walls. It may be
asked also. May not fragments of the old first,
second, and third walls have escajjcd destruc-
tion, even in places where they did not coin-
cide in direction with the present city walls?
The answer must be in the aifirmative. Prof.
Eobinson, in 1838, found near the Damascus
gate large ancient beveled stones, which had
apparently never been disturbed since they
were first put in position. He regarded them
as i)robably belonging to the guardhouse de-
fending a gate which existed prior to the
days of Herod (Bib. Res. 1. 463). Robinson
also believed that he and Mr. Whiting found
traces of the northwestern part of the foun-
dations of Agri])]ia's wall (4(i5), the observa-
tion having been confirmed by Hauauer be-
fore the remains were covered with buildings
(PideMine ILrplor. Fund Quarterly Statement,
Oct., 1892. p. 295). Sir Charles Warren, under
the auspices of the Palestine Exi)loration

Fund, made extensive excavations in Jeru-
salem from Feb., 1867, till April, 1870, sink-
ing shafts through the dehrh, which at one
place was 125 feet deep, covering the ancient
city. He found and traced for a considerable
distance the wall of Ophel (Wilson and Warren,
Recovery of Jerusalem, 286-289). Since then
Mr. Henry Maudsley, C. E., traced the course
of the first wall by relics of it still remaining
on mount Zion ( Twenty-one Years, 59). When,
in 1885, an excavation was made for the foun-
dation of the Grand New Hotel, a little north
of Hippicus, a portion of the second wall was
traced for about 120 feet. The work of ex-
cavation is still continued by the Exploration
Fund, with Dr. F. J. Bliss as director of the
operations.

Je-ru'sha and Jerushah [po.ssession].

Wife of Uzziah, kingof Judah, and mother
of his successor, Jotham (2 Kin. xv. 33; 2
Chron. xxvii. 1).

Je-sha'iah, in A. V. twice Jesaiah (1
Chron. iii. 21 ; Neh. xi. 7) [Jehovah is opu-
lent, or Jehovah hath saved].

1. A son of Jeduthun, and a musician in
the reign of David (1 Chron. xxv. 3).

2. A Levite, son of Eehabiah ; he also was
in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvi. 25).

3. A son of Hananiah, and a descendant
of Zerubbabel (1 Chron iii. 21).

4. A son of Athaliah and head of the
father's house of Elam, who, with seventy
males, returned from Babylon with Ezra
(Ezra viii. 7).

5. A Merarite Levite who returned in the
same comjjany (Ezra viii. 19).

6. A Beujamite, the father of Ithiel (Neh.
xi. 7).

Jesh'a-nah [old].

A city in the hill country of Ephraim,
wrested by Abijah from the northern king-
dom (2 Chron. xiii. 19 ; cp. xv. 8). It is be-
lieved to be the village called Isanas, where
Herod the Great defeated the general of An-
tigonns (Antiq. xiv. 15, 12). Clermont-
Ganneau identified it with the modern vil-
lage of 'Ain Sinia, about 3 miles N. by W. of
Bethel.

Jesh-a-re'lah. See Ashaeelah.

Je-sheb'e-alD [father's dwelling].
• A descendant of Aaron. His family be-
came the fourteenth course of the priesthood
(1 Chron. xxiv. 13).

Je'sher [probity, uprightness].
A son of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 18).

Jesh'i-mon [a waste, a desert].

1. A wilderness at the northeastern end of
the Dead Sea, not far from Pisgah and Peor
(Num. xxi. 20; xxiii. 28). Beth-jeshimoth
was situated in it ; see Bkth-jeshimoth.

2. A wilderness to the north of the hill
Hachilali and of Maon (1 Sam. xxiii. 19, 24;
xxvi. 1, 3).

It is probable that Jeshimon in these pas-

Jeshishai

363

Jesus

sages is not a proper name, but should be
rendered desert, as in E. V.

Je-sM'shai [pertaining to an old man].

A Gadite, descended from Buz (1 Chron.
V. 14).

Jesh-o-ha'iali [perhaps, Jehovah doth
huuiblu].

A SiuK'onite prince (1 Cbrou. iv. 36).

Jesh'u-a, in A. V. once Jeshuah (1 Chron.
xxiv. 11), an inconsistency not I'ouud in the
original edition of A. V. [a late form of
Joshua, Jehovah is salvation].

1. Joshua, the military leader in the wars
of Canaan (Neh. viii. 17).

2. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of
David and was made the ninth of the twenty-
four courses into which David divided the
priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 11).

3. One of the priests in Hezekiah's reign
who had to do with the receipt and distribu-
tion of the freewill oflerings in the temple
(2 Chron. xxxi. 15).

4. A high priest who returned with Zerub-
babel from Babylon (Ezra ii. 2 ; Neh. vii. 7).
He was the son of Jozadak. He built the
altar of burnt offering, and encouraged the
workmen and the people generally to rebuild
the temple (Ezra iii. 2-9). In Zechariah's
prophecies he is called Joshua, and stands as
the priestly representative of the returned ex-
iles to whom divine support is given (Zech.
iii. 1-10 ; vi. 11-13).

5. A man of the house of Pahath-moab,
some of whose children returned with
Zerubbabel and others from captivity (Ezra
ii. 6 ; Neh. vii. 11).

6. A Levite, head of a Levitical family,
who, with members of the family, returned
from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 40 ;
Neh. vii. 43 ; xii. 8). He actively assisted
Jeshua, the high priest, in stirauiating the
workmen and people to rebuild the temple
(Ezra iii. 9). The representative of the
house bearing his name affixed his seal to the
covenant (Neh. x. 9). From the last passage,
it appears that Jeshua was the son of Azaniah
(9). In Neh. xii. 24 the word ben, the son of,
after Jeshua is probably a corruption ; per-
haps a corruption of Ba'ni (cp. ix. 4,5). Not
unlikely it was this Levite .Jeshua who was
the father of the ruler of Mizpah. Ezer, who
repaired a portion of the wall (iii. 19).

7. A Levite. probably of the aforemen-
tioned family, who aided Ezra in explaining
the law to the people (Neh. viii. 7), and in
preparing them for a more heartfelt worship
of Jehovah fix. 4, 5).

8. A village of southern Judah (Neh. xi. 26).
Jesh'u-run, in A. Y. once Jesurun (Is.

xliv. 2) [righteous one].

A name of endearment used in poetry
for the nation of Israel with reference to the
moral character which they were created to
exhibit (Deut. xxsii. 15;'xxxiii. 5, 26; Is.
xliv. 2).

Je-si'ah. See Issni.\H.

Je-sim'i-el [God setteth up].

A prince of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron.
iv. 36).

Jes'se.

Son of Obed, family of Perez. He was
descended from Nahshon, chief of the tribe
of Judah in the days of Moses, and from
Euth the Moabitess'(Euth iv. 18-22). He
was father of eight sous, the youngest of
whom was David (1 Sam. xvii. 12-14). To
judge from 1 Chron. ii. 15, one of them died
without leaving posterity : unless, as is less
probable, Elihu (xxvii. 18) has been lost from
the register. Jesse had two daughters, but
by a ditferent wife from David's mother (ii.
16 ; cp. 2 Sam. xvii. 25). Jesse lived at Beth-
lehem, to which Samuel was sent to anoint a
king from among his sous. After seven of
them had been passed before him in the
order of their birth, David w^as called from
the flock which he was tending, and on his
arrival was anointed king (1 Sam. xvi. 1-13).
When Saul lost all aflection for David, he
almost uniformly called him the son of Jesse
(xx. 31 ; xxii. 7 ; xxv. 10), to remind every
one of his rival's humble origin, all the
while ignoring the fact that his own father,
Kish, was no more a king than Jesse was.
When David was in the cave of Adullam, he
was joined by his father, his mother, and his
brothers. He allowed his brothers to share
the danger of his wanderings, but placed his
parents under the protection of the king of
Moab, the native land of his ancestress Ruth,
till he knew what God had in store for him
in the future (xxii. 1-4). It is uncertain
when Jesse died. When the ten tribes re-
volted against Eehoboam, there was a certain
contemptuous reference after the manner of
Saul to the son of Jesse (2 Sam. xx. 1 ; 1
Kin. xii. 16 ; 2 Chron. x. 16). The relation-
ship between Jesse and David made the for-
mer obtain mention in prophecy (Is. xi. 1, 10 ;
cp. Rom. XV. 12).

Jes'u-i. See Ishvi.

Jes'u-run. See Jeshueun.

Je'sus, an imitation of the Greek form of
Jeshua, which in turn is a late form of
Jehoshua or Joshua [Jehovah is salvation].

1. Jo.shua, the militarv leader in the wars
of Canaan (A. V. of Acts' vii. 45 ; Heb. iv. 8) ;
see Joshua.

2. An ancestor of Christ, who lived about
four hundred vears after David (Luke iii.
29). The A. V." following a different Greek
text, calls him Jose.

3. In the Septuagint the name occurs sev-
eral times in the Apocrypha. It was borne by
the author of Ecclesiasticus, and twelve per-
sons with this name are mentioned by Jo-
sephus outside of bis references to Joshua
and to Christ. It was a common name among
the Jews of the Greek-speaking period.

4. A Jewish Cliristian, also called Justus,
associated with Paul (Col. iv. 11).

Jesus Christ

364

Jesus Christ

5. The name of oiu' Lord. See Jesus
Christ.

Je'sus Christ.

Our Lord was uamed Jesus in accord-
ance with the directions of the angel to
Joseph (Mat. i. 21) and Mary (Luke i. 31).
When given to ordinary chinlren it merely
expressed, if anything, the parent's faith in
God as the saviour of his people, or their faith
in the coming salvation of Israel. When
given to Mary's child it was designed to ex-
press the special otfice he would fulfill:
" Thou shalt call his name Jesus, for he shall
save his people from their sins" (Mat. i. 21).
Christ is from the Greek Christos, anointed,
corresponding to the Hebrew Mashiah, anoint-
ed, Messiah. Jesus therefore was our Lord's
personal name and Christ was his title (the
Christ) ; though the latter was early used also
as a proper name, as it is by us, either alone
or with Jesus.

It is the object of the following article to
sketch the progress of our Lord's life on
earth, so as to place its principal events in
their probable order and relation.

Chronology. The exact dates of the birth,
baptism, and death of Jesus cannot be abso-
lutelj' demonstrated ; but most scholars now
agree within narrow limits. Our ordinary
Christian calendar originated with Dionysius
Exiguus, a Roman abbot who died a. d. 556.
He first .selected the year of the incarnation
as that before and after which dates should
be reckoned. He fixed, however, on the year
of Eome, 754, as that in which Christ was born,
and that year consequently equals A. d. 1.
But the statements of Josephus make it clear
that Herod the Great, who died shortly after
Jesus was born (Mat. ii. 19-22), died several
years before the year of Eome, 754. His
death occurred thirty-seven years after he
had been declared king by the Romans,
which was in A. U. C. 714. This might be
751 or 750, according to whether Josephus
counted fractions of a year as whole years or
not. The year 750 is, however, made the
more probable from the further statement of
Jdsophus that shortly before Herod's death
he put to death two Jewish rabbis, and that
on the night of their execution there occurred
an eclipse of the moon. Astronomical cal-
culations show that in 750 there was a partial
lunar eclipse on the night of March 12 or 13 ;
but in 751 there was no eclipse. Josephus
also narrates that Herod died shortly before
the passovcr, which began in 750 on April 12.
We may, therefore, w^ith considerable confi-
dence date Herod's death about April 1, in
the year of Rome 750. which was 4 B. c.
Before that date, therefore, we must yilace
the events given in the gos^iels which oc-
curred between the birth of Jesus and the
death of Herod, for which a period of two
or three months is probably re^iuired.
Christ's birth, therefore, is to be ]ilaced at the
close of 5 B. c. or beginning of 4 B. c. The
observance of December 25th did not arise

until the fourth century, so that it has no
authority. It may, however, be accepted as
an approximation to the truth, and then
Christ's birth would be assigned to Decem-
ber 25, 5 B. c. This puts it five years earlier
than in the calendar of Dionysius, who
a.ssigned it to December 25, a. d. 1. The
date of the opening of our Lord's public
ministry is to be obtained principally from
Luke iii. 23, where it is said that at his bap-
tism he was about thirty years of age. The
expression is obviously indefinite ; but, as-
suming that he was born December 25, 5 B. C,
he would be thirty on December 25, a. d. 26.
The traditional date of the baptism is Janu-
ary 6, and if we suppose at any rate that it
occurred early in a. d. 27, Luke's expression,
"about thirty years of age," would be cor-
rect. This date also is somewdiat confirmed
by the statement of the Jews (John ii. 20),
made shortly after his baptism, "forty and
six years was this temple in building." The
rebuilding of the temple by Herod was be-
gun, as might be shown, in 20-19 B. c. ; so that
the forty-six years, supposing them to have
elapsed when the remark was made, would
bring us again to a. d. 27. If, finally, "the fif-
teenth year of the reign of Tiberius " (Luke
iii. l),when John the Baptist began his min-
istry, be reckoned, as it properly may be, from
the time when Tiberius was associated with
Augustus in the empire (A. D. 11 to 12), it
coincides with A. D. 26 and further agrees
with our other calculations. It is true that
all these items of evidence contain in them
points on which opinions may not unreason-
ably differ ; yet the dates we have given ap-
pear to be the most probable and to support
one another. The length of Christ's minis-
try and consequently the year of his death
are to be fixed by the number of passovers
which John notes in his Gospel. If we had
only the synoptic gospels (see Gospel), we
might infer that his ministry was onlj- a year
in length, and this was in ancient times a not
uncommon opinion. But John's Gospel speaks
of at least three passovers (ii. 13 ; vi. 4 ; xiii.
1), and it is highly probable that the feast
referred to in John v. 1 was also a passover.
If so, Christ's ministry included four pass-
overs, at the last of which he died ; and, if
he was baptized early in a. d. 27, his first
jiassover was in April of that year, and he
died in A. d. 30, when the passover festival
began on April 7. Those who think that
John V. 1 does not refer to a passover date
Christ's death in A. D. 29. We thus obtain
as the probable leading dates in Christ's life :
birth, December 25 (?), 5 B. C. ; baptism and
beginning of his ministrv, January (?), A. D.
27'; death. April 7, A. D.'30.

PoUficnJ conttifion of the Jews. When Jesus
was born Herod the Great, an able but cruel
man, was king of the Jews. His kingdom
included Samaria and Galilee as well as
Judiea. He was an Idumiean by descent,
though professing the Jewish religion. His

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365

Jesus Christ

fatlier, Antipater, had l)ecn mado governor
of Jiida?a l)y Julius Cipsar, and, after several
changes of fortune, Herod had been declared
king of the Jews )>y the Romans in 40 B. c.
But, while an independent king in many
ways, Herod ruled by the favor of and in de-
pendence on the Romans, who had become
the practical rulers of the world. On his
death, 4 B. c, his kingdom was divided among
his sous. Archelaus received Judsea and Sa-
maria. Herod Antipas received Galilee and
Perpea. Herod Philip received the territory
northeastoftheseaof Galilee (Lukeiii.l). But
in the tenth year of his reign Archelaus wasde-
posed by Augustus, and from that date Judaea
and Samaria were ruled by Roman governors,
styled procurators, until the destruction of
Jerusalem, with the exception of the years
A. D. 41-44, when Herod Agrippa I. was
invested with the royal power (Acts xii. 1).
During the ministry of Christ, therefore,
Galilee aud Pera;a, where he spent most of
his time, were under the rule of Herod
Antipas (Mat. xiv. 3 ; Mark vi. 14 ; Luke iii.
1, 19: ix. 7; xiii. 31; xxiii. 8-1:2), while
Samaria and Judsea were ruled directly by
the Romans through their governor, who at
that time was Pontius Pilate. The rule of
the Romans, whether direct or indirect, irri-
tated the Jews exceedingly, and, during
Christ's life, the land was in an almost con-
stant state of political ferment. While the
Romans sought to give the nation as much
self-government as possible, so that their
sanhedrin. or chief court, exercised juris-
diction in a very large number of cases; and
while the conquerors granted many privileges
to the Jews, especially in respect to their re-
ligious observances, yet the nation fretted
under a foreign domination, which was very
positive, when it wished to be so, and which
did not intend ever to grant them their old
liberty. The Jewish aristocracy, however,
including most of the Sadducees, were not
unfriendly to the Romans. The Pharisees,
who comprised the strictest religionists, were
disposed to devote themselves to the conser-
vation of Judaism, while generally avoiding
jiolitical complications. We read also of
Herodians, who doubtless favored the claims
of the Herodiau family to the Jewish throne,
while from Josephus we learn of political
patriots who successively arose in tlie vain
endeavor to throw off the Roman yoke. In
such a condition of things, one who claimed
to be Messiah would easily be involved in
political difficulties. We shall see that Jesus
carefully and successfully avoided these in
order that he might proclaim the true, spir-
itual kingdom of God.

Eeli(iiou!i eiiiKlitioii of the Jews. As already
implied, this was largely affected by the state
of political affairs. So far as the official
classes were concerned, the purely religious
hopes of the Old Testament had been almost
forgotten, aud even among the peoi>le the
idea of an earthly kingdom had nearly dis-

placed that of a sjiiritual one. We meet in
the gospels with two leading sects, the Phar-
isees and the Sadducees. The former were
religious and had the greater influence
among the peo])le ; but they had substituted
theological aud ceremonial tradition, as well
as casuistic subtleties, for the word of God,
and in their hands the religion of Moses and
the i)rophets had become a narrow, barren,
and uuspiritual form. The Pharisees natur-
ally opposed the spiritual and unconventional
religion which Jesus taught, and especially
his appeal from tradition to Scripture. The
Sadducees, on the other hand, were the aris-
tocrats. They included the high-priestly
families. They were infected by gentile
culture, rejected the Pharisaic traditions,
aud were more interested in politics than in
religion. They were led finally to oppose
Jesus, because they thought that his success
would disturb the existing political relations
(John xi. 48). Meanwhile the ceremonies of
God's worship were carried on with much
magnificence in the temple at Jerusalem, the
people attended with fidelity and in great
numbers the religious festivals, aud the zeal
of the nation for their religious privileges
and traditions was never greater, while every
now and then some outbreak of mingled
patriotism and fanaticism fanned the embers
of popular hope into a flame. Yet there
were .some who still preserved the spirit and
faith of a pure religion. They were found
mainly, though not wholly, among the hum-
ble classes. In them the expectation of a
saviour from sin had not died out, and from
the bosom of one of the.se pious circles did
Jesus himself come. The Jewish people,
therefore, in Christ's lifetime were still a re-
ligious people. They knew the Old Testa-
ment, which was read in their synagogues
and taught to their children. The nation was
in a state of i-eligious interest as well as of
political unrest. These facts explain to us
the popular excitement caused by the preach-
ing of John the Baptist and of Jesus, the
opposition of the ruling classes to them both,
and the success of the method which Jesus
pursued in 'preaching his gospel, as well as
the fate which he himself saw from the be-
ginning to be, even humanly speaking, in-
evitable.

Life of Jesus. The circumstances of the
birth of Jesus, as recorded in the gospels,
were in accord with his dignity and the pre-
dictions of Messiah, yet such also as to har-
monize with the lowly appearance which the
Saviour was to make on earth. As Malachl
(iii. 1; also iv. 5, 6) had prophesied that a
herald, in the spirit and power of Elijali,
should precede the Lord when he should
come to his temple, so Luke tells us first
of the birth of John the Baptist, the herald
of the Christ. A certain pious priest, named
Zacharias, who had no child and was far ad-
vanced in years, was discharging his duties
at the temple. He was chosen by lot, as the

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366

Jesus Christ

custom was, to offer the incense, representing
the prayers of Israel, on the altar in the holy
place. To him the angel Gabriel appeared
and announced that he was to be the father
of the i)romised forerunner of Messiah. This
was probably in October, 6 B. c. After his
term of service in the temple was over, he
and his wife, Elisabeth, returned to their
home in a city in the hill country of Judah
(Luke i. 39), and awaited the fulfillment of
the promise. Six mouths later the angel ap-
peared to Mary, a maiden probably of Davidic
descent, who lived in Nazareth and was be-
trothed to Joseph, who was certainly de-
scended from the great king of Israel (Mat. i.
1-16; Luke i. 27) ; see Genealogy. Joseph
was a carpenter by trade, a man of humble
station though of high descent, and a devout
Israelite. To Mary the angel announced that
she was to become the mother of Messiah
(Luke 1. 28-38) by the power of the Holy Spirit
working in her, and that the child, who was to
be called Jesus, should have the throne of his
father David. For her comfort also she was
told of the pregnancy of Elisabeth, who was
her kinswoman. When the angel left her,
Mary hastened for protection and sympathy to
the house of Zacharias. At their meeting, the
spirit of prophecy came on these two women.
While Elisabeth greeted Mary as the mother
of her Lord, Mary, like Hannah of old (1
Sam. ii. 1-10), broke forth in a song of praise
for the salvation of Israel that was coming
and for the honor which had been conferred
on hor. It is evident that these strange
events were regarded by them both in the
spirit of strong faith and holy exaltation,
the perfect expression of the historic hope of
Israel. When the time drew near for Elisa-
beth to be delivered of the child which she
had conceived, Mary returned to Nazareth.
Her further protection against reproach was,
however, secured by God himself. Joseph,
seeing her condition, was disposed quietly to
put her away without public accusation, but
even this gentle treatment was forestalled.
An angel revealed to him in a dream the
cause of Mary's condition ; told him that he
was to have Messiah for his child ; and that,
as Isaiah had foretold, the latter was to be
born of a virgin. With faith, equal to
Mary's, Joseph believed the message and
made Mary his legal wife. It was thus se-
cured that Mary's child was born of a virgin,
and at the same time that he had a legal
human father and his mother was protected
by the love and respectability of a husband.
There can be little doubt that these facts
were made known by Mary herself at a later
time. The fact that neither Christ nor his
a.postles apjical to his miraculous conception
in proof of his Messiahshij) occasions no
reason for doubting the narrative. The event
was not one which could be used as public
proof But the narrative of Christ's birth
beautifully harmonizes with what we now
know of his dignity and his mission upon

earth. The Messiah was to be the perfect
flower of Israel's spiritual life ; and so Jesus
was born in the bosom of this pious family
circle where the pure religion of the O. T.
was believed and cherished. The Messiah
was to appear in lowliness ; and so Jesus
came from the home of the Nazarcne car-
penter. The Messiah was to be the .son of
David, and so Joseph, his legal father, and
probably Mary, his actual mother, were de-
scended from David. The Messiah was to be
the incarnation of God, a divine person
uniting to himself a human nature, and so
Jesus was born of a woman but miraculously
conceived by the power of the Holy Ghost.
After relating the birth of John and the
prophetic song which burst from the long-
sealed lips of his father Zacharias (Luke i.
57-79), over the advent of Messiah's fore-
runner, the evangelist Luke explains how
Jesus came to be born in Bethlehem. The
emperor Augustus had ordered an enroll-
ment of all the subjects of the empire, and
although Palestine was under Herod, its in-
habitants also were included in the decree.
The enrollment of the Jews, however, evi-
dently took place after the Jewish method,
by which each father of a household was
regi.stered, not at his dwelling place, but at
the place where his family belonged in view
of its ancestry. Hence Joseph had to go to
Bethlehem, the original home of David.
Mary accompanied him. The lodging place,,
or khan, where strangers were permitted
to sojourn, was already fully occupied when
they arrived, and they only found shelter in a
stable, M'hich may have been, as early tradi-
tion affirms, in a cave near the town. Such
caves were often used about Bethlehem for
stables. We are not told that any cattle
were occupying the stable. It may have
been unused at the time. Nor would a
stable in that country and among that people
have seemed as offensive a lodging place as
it might with us; but it was a lowly abode
for the birthplace of Messiah. Yet such it
was destined to be, for there Mary's child
was born, and she laid him in a manger
(Luke ii. 7). But though born so humbly,
he was not to he without attestation. That
night shepherds in a field near Bethlehem
were visited by angels, who told thini of
Messiah's birth |and where he lay, and sang
in the hearing of the shepherds : " Glory to
God in the highest, and on earth peace among
men in whom he is well pleased " (Luke ii.
14, R. v.). The shepherds hastened to Beth-
lehem and saw the child. They related what
they had seen and heard, and then returned
again to their flocks. All this was again in
striking harmony with the mission of Messiah.
Yet we should remember that the event oc-
curred in a circle of humble peasants, and that
it made no noise in the busy world. For a
while Joseph and Jfary lingered in Bethle-
hem. On the eighth day the child was cir-
cumcised (Luke ii. 21) and the appointed

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nafne, Jesus, was given to him. Forty days
after his birth (Lev. xii.) his parents took
him, as the law directed, to the temple aud
Mary oflered her gifts of purilicatiou and
presented lier child unto the Lord. The
firstborn male child of the Hebrew mother
was to be redeemed by the payment of five
shekels (Num. xviii. 16), and this is meant
when it is said that they brought him " to pre-
sent him to the Lord." The mother was also
to offer her thanksgiving, and it is specially
noted by Luke that Mary gave the offering of
the poor, " a pair of turtle doves, or two young
pigeons." The modest circumstances of the
family are thus further attested. Yet the
lowly Messiah was not to leave his Father's
house without recognition. An aged saint,
Simeon by name, came into the temple and
the spirit of inspiration fell upon him at
sight of the child. He had been promised
by God that he should not die till he had
seen Messiah. Taking the infant in his arms,
Simeon gave thanks aud predicted the glory
and sorrow of his life (Luke ii. 25-35).
Anna also, a prophetess of great age, who
continually dwelt in the tem])le, bore witness
to the advent of the Christ (Luke ii. 36-38).
But a more remarkable attestation was soon
to follow. Shortly after Joseph aud Mary
had returned to Bethlehem, certain magi
from the east appeared in Jerusalem and de-
clared that they had seen Messiah's star in
the heavens and were come to worship him.
They had doubtless learned ft'om the Jews
scattered throughout the east of the expec-
tation of a coming king in Judsea who would
be man's great deliverer. They were doubt-
less also students of the stars, and God used
their superstitious notions to make them
witnesses of the gentile world, waiting in
the half-light of natural religion for the com-
ing of the Saviour, of whom they felt the
need, but whose real character they did not
understand. In the east they had seen a
star which for some reason they considered
to portend the birth of the Jewish king.
Coming to Jerusalem, they inquired for him.
Their message troubled the equally super-
stitious Herod, and summoning the scribes,
he demanded where Messiah was to be born.
When told that he was to be born in Bethle-
hem, Herod sent the magi there, but bade
them promise to inform him if they found
the child. On the way the magi saw the star
again over Bethlehem, and, having found
Jesus, offered him rare gifts of frankincense,
gold, and myrrh. We can imagine with what
renewed awe Joseph and Mary must have
received these unexpected and strange visi-
tors. They were another sign of the high
destiny of the child. The magi, however,
were warned of God not to return to Herod,
for that wicked man only intended to use
them to destroj' the newly born king. They
departed home, therefore, by another way.
Joseph also was warned by an angel of the
impending danger and instructed to take

Mary and the babe to Egypt, well out of
Herod's reach. It was none too soon, for
presently the cruel king, whose readiness to
murder even his own sous is related l)y Jo-
sephus, sent soldiers to slay all the male
children in Bethlehem who were less than
three years old. He hoped thus to accom-
plish the object in which he had been foiled
by the departure of the magi without in-
forming him concerning the child they had
sought. Bethlehem was a small place aud
the number of children slain may not have
been large ; but the act was cruel enough at
the best. Jesus, however, had escaped. How
long he was kept in Egypt we do not know.
Probably it was a couple of months. There
were many Jews there, so that Joseph could
easily find a refuge. But in due time the
angel informed him of Herod's death and
directed him to return. It was apparently
his first purpose to rear the child in Bethle-
hem, David's city. But his fear of Archelaus,
Herod's son, made him hesitate. Again God
gave him instructions, and in accordance
with them Joseph and Mary sought once
more their old home in Nazareth. In conse-
quence of this, Jesus appeared among the
people, when his public life began, as the
prophet of Nazareth, the Nazarcne. Such
are the few incidents ]ireserved in the gos-
pels of the birth and infancy of Jesus. Won-
derful as they appear to us, they attracted
no attention at the time on the part of the
world. The few persons concerned in them
either forgot them or kept them to them-
selves. But when the church was founded
we may suppose that Mary told them to the
disciples. Matthew aud Luke have related
them to us quite independently of each other,
the former to illustrate the roj-al Messiahship
of Jesus and his fulfillment of prophecy ; the
latter to explain the origin of Jesus and the
historical beginnings of his life.

After the return to Nazareth, nothing is
told us of Jesus' life, except the one incident
of his visit with his parents to the temple
when he had become twelve years of age
(Luke ii. 41-51). That incident, however, is
instructive. It shows the continued piety of
Joseph and Mary and the devout training
which they sought to give the child. It
shows also the early, spiritual development
of Jesus, for he was already mainly inter-
ested in those religious questions on which
the Jewish rabbis gave instruction to their
pupils. We are not to imagine the boy of
twelve as instructing the doctors, but as a
pupil in one of their temple schools, and yet
as showing by his questions a spiritual in-
sight which amazed them. The incident also
illustrates the natural, human life which
Jesus led. He grew, we are told, " in wisdom
and stature [or age], and in favor with God
and men " (Luke ii. 5-2). The wonders of
his infiincy were doubtless kept a secret by
Joseph and Mary, and Jesus appeared to his
companions and the family in no wise a

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supernatural beiug, but only remarkable for
his mental force and moral purity. Putting
together, however, other facts incidentally
mentioned in the gospels, we can form some
idea of the circumstances in which the child-
hood and young manhood of Jesus were passed.
He was a member of a family. He had four
brothers and some sisters (Mark vi. 3, etc.).
Some have supposed that these were the
children of Joseph by a former marriage ;
others that they were Christ's cousins. It
seems to us most natural and scriptural to
believe that they were the children of Joseph
and Mary, born after Jesus. But at any
rate, Jesus grew up in a family, experiencing
the pleasures and the discipline of family
life. He became, like Joseph, a carpenter
(3), so that he was accustomed to manual
labor. But mental discipline also was not
wanting. Jewish children were well in-
structed in the Scriptures, and our Lord's
familiarity with them is evident from his
teaching. His parables also reveal a mind
sensitive to the teaching of nature, and
which must have delighted always to ponder
the evidence of God's mind in the works of
his hand. Nazareth, though somewhat se-
cluded, was on the edge of the busiest part
of the Jewish world and not far from some
of the most famous scenes of Israel's history.
From the clifl' back of the town the eye
could contemplate many places associated
with great events. Not far ofi" was the sea
of Galilee, around which was gathered the
varied life of the world in miniature. It
was a period also, as has been said, of much
political excitement, and Jewish homes were
often agitated with the report of stirring
events. There is no reason to suppose that
Jesus grew up in isolation. We should rather
imagine him keenly alive to the progress of
events in Palestine. While the language
commonly spoken by him seems to have been
the Aramaic, which had displaced the older
Hebrew among the later Jews, he must often
have heard Greek used and may have been
familiar with it. All this period of his life,
however, the evangelists i)ass over. Their
books were written not to give biographies
of Jesus, but to report his public ministry.
We can see enough, however, to prove the
naturalness of our Saviour's human life, the
fitness of his surroundings to prepare him for
his future work, the beauty of his character,
and thus the gradual unfolding of his hu-
manity in expectation of the hour when he
was to offer himself as God's Messiah to his
people. That hour drew nigh when, perhaj)s
in the summer of A. d. 26, John, the son of
Zacharias, who had hitherto led a life of
ascetic devotion in the desert (Luke i. 80),
received from God his commission to summon
the nation to re]>entance for their sins in
preparation for Messiah's coming. John
moved from })lace to place along the Jordan
valley, and administered the rite of baptism
to those who believed his message. He called

both the nation and individuals to repent-
ance for sin, spoke in the tone of the older
prophets, especially of Elijah, and announced
that Messiah was at hand, that he would
purify Israel with judgments, and make ex-
piation for the world's sin (Mat. iii. ; Mark i.
1-b; Luke iii. 1-18; John i. 19-36). The
efi'ect of his ministry was widespread and
profound. Even from Galilee the j)Cople
tiocked to his preaching. The sanhedrin
sent a deputation to inquire his authority
(John i. 19-28). While the ruling classes
were unmoved by his appeal (Mat. xxi. 25),
poi)ular wonder and excitement were aroused,
and the jnirely religious character of his mes-
sage led the truly pious to believe that the
long-deferred hope of Israel was at last to be
fulfilled. After John's ministrj' had con-
tinued for some time, perhaps for six months
or more, Jesus appeared amid the multitude
and asked the prophet to baptize him. The
inspired insight of the Baptist recognized in
him one who had no need of repentance; saw
in him, in fact, no less than the Messiah
himself. "I have need," he said, "to be
baptized of thee, and comest thou to me?"
(^lat. iii. 14). We are not to suppose that
Jesus did not already know himself perfectly
well to be the Christ. His reply rather
shows the contrary : " Suffer it now : for thus
it becometh us to fulfill all righteousness."
The baptism meant for him, partly, self-
dedication to the work which John had an-
nounced, and also the conscious taking upon
himself of the sin of the people whom he had
come to save. As he came from the baptism
(Mark i. 10), John (John i. 33, 34) saw the
heavens opened and the Spirit of God, in the
form of a dove, descending and remaining on
him, and a voice came from above : " This is
my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased "
(Mat. iii. 17). This was the full endowment
of our Lord's human nature with spiritual
power for his ministry. How truly human,
as well as divine, he was through it all is
shown by the temptation which immediately
followed. He was not to enter on his work
without adequate mental preparation. Re-
alizing his vocation, he was led by the
Si)irit into the wilderness, doubtless for medi-
tation. There the great tempter met him,
and sought to pervert his purpose to selfish
and worldly ends. Jesus must have himself
related this experience to his disciples. While
w^e are not to doubt the outward reality of
the tempter and the physical features of the
scene as descril)ed to us (Mat. iv. 1-11 ; Luke
iv. 1-13), we sliould not forget that the power
of the tem])tation lay in the subtlety with
which the world was presented to Jesus as
more attractive than the life of stern obedi-
ence to God, with its probably fatal close.
For forty days the temptation lasted, and
Jesus returned from it to the Jordan fully
dedicated to the lowly, suffering lot which
he knew to be God's will for his Messiah.
Forthwith he began to call disciples. Yet

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with no loud procl:imation of his advent did
ho inaugurate his work. The Baptist pointed
him out to some ol' liis own disciples as
the Lamb of God (John i. 29, 36). Two,
John and Andrew, followed the new teacher.
Simon was soon added to the number {^3-
42). The next day Philip and Nathanael
were invited (43-oi). With his little band
Jesus quietly returned to Galilee, and at
Cana performed his first miracle, in which
the di.sciples saw the first signs of his com-
ing glory (ii. 1-11). We must be impressed
with the absence of any attempt to make a
X)ublic display. The new movement began
with the faith of a few obscure Galilseans.
But St. John's account makes it clear that
Jesus was fully sensible of who he was and
what he had come to do. He was only wait-
ing for the favorable moment to offer him-
self to Israel as her Messiah. That moment
was naturally found in the approaching pass-
over (April, A. D. 27). From Capernaum,
whither he and his family and disciples
had gone (12), he ascended to Jerusalem,
and there proceeded to cleanse the temple of
the traders who profaned it. It was an act
worthy of a prophet to reform the flagrant
abuses of God"s service ; but Christ's words,
" Make not my Father's house a house of
merchandise,"' indicate that he claimed to
be more than a prophet (16). It was, in
fact, a public summons of Israel to follow
him in the work of religious reformation,
for only when the Jews had rejected him
would he proceed to organize the new church
of the future ; but he himself did not expect
them to follow him. This is proved by his
veiled prediction of his death at their hands
(19), while in the conversation with Nico-
demus he clearly brought out the neces-
sity of a new birth and of his own suffer-
ing (iii. 1-21), in order that any might
enter the kingdom which God's love had
sent him to establish. For our knowledge
of this early Judsean ministry of Jesus we
are indebted to St. John (ii. 13 -iv. 3). It
lasted apparently about nine months. After
the passover Jesus retired from the city to
the JudiBan country, and having found the
nation unwilling to follow him, he began to
preach, as the Baptist was still doing, the
neces.sity of repentance. For a while the
two worked .side by side. Not till .Tobn's
providential mission was plainly over would
Jesus begin an independent one of his own.
Both labored together for the spiritual quick-
ening of the nation. Jesus began finally to
attract more disciples than Jolin did. This
led him to terminate his Jud<ean ministry,
for neither would he appear as a rival of his
coworker (John iv. 1-3). He turned once
more to%vard Galilee. On the way through
Samaria occurred his memorable interview
with the woman at Jacob's well (4-42).
But he hastened northward. Arriving in
Galilee, he found that his fame had pre-
ceded him (4.3-45). A nobleman from Ca-
24

pernaum sought him out, even in Cana,
where he was stopping, and secured from
him the cure of his son (46-54). It was
clear that Galilee was the place where
he should labor and that the fields were
white to harvest (35). Then, it would
seem, an event occurred which indicated
that the hour for him to begin his proper
W'Ork had indeed providentially arrived.
The news came that John the Baptist had
been cast into prison by Herod Antipas.
The work of the herald was over. The old
Jewish church had been sufficiently called to
repentance and reformation, and slie had re-
fused to listen. Jesus began forthwith in
Galilee to preach the kingdom of God, to
announce the germinal princii)les of the new
dispensation, and to gather the nucleus of
the future church.

The great Galiltean ministry of Jesus lasted
about sixteen months. He took for his center
the busy mart of trade, Capernaum. In Gali-
lee he was in the midst of a population prevail-
ingly Jewish, yet in a region removed from in-
terference by the religious authorities of the
nation. His evident purpose was to set forth
the true, spiritual kingdom of God, and by
mighty works to convince men of his owa
authority and of the character of the king-
dom. He asked for faith in himself. He
unveiled the real character of God and his
requirements of men. He did not apply to
himself the name Messiah, for it would have
been too easily misunderstood by carnal
minds. He generally called himself the Son
of man. He did not at first speak of his
death. They were not ready to hear of that.
He taught the principles of true religion,
with himself as its authoritative expounder.
His mighty works roused the greatest enthu-
siasm. He was thus enabled to attract wide
attention, till the whole land was eager to
see and hear him. But, as he foresaw, the
final result was the disappointment of the
people with his unworldly ideas. Only a
little band faithfully clave to him. Yet by
his teaching he laid down truths which that
band of disciples were to carry, after his
death, throughout the world. For the order
of events in the lower or early Galilpean
ministry we I'efer to the harmony in the
article Gospel. We can here only note the
leading phases of the history. The first
was that of the opening of the work. This
was marked by startling miracles, by the
summons to believe the gospel, and by the
awakening of enthusiastic interest in .lesus
on the part of the Galilfeans. It included
the events in the harmony, beginning with
the first rejection at Nazareth and ending
with Levi's feast. The close of this phase
of his work, which lasted perhaps four
months, found Jesus the center of universal
interest in Galilee, and gathered about him
a little company of devoted followers. We
are not told much about his teaching as
vet ; but from what we are told and from the

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siguificimt minicli'S he performed — such as
the cure of the demoniac (Mark i. 23-27),
the healing of the leper (40-45), the cure
of tlie i)aralytic (ii. 1-12), the miraculous
draught of lish (Luke v. 1-12) — it is clear
that the burden of his message was sub-
stantially that which he announced iu Naz-
areth (iv. 18-21), "The Spirit of the Lord
is upon me, because he liath anointed me
to preach the gospel to the poor; he hath
sent me to heal the brokenhearted, to preach
deliverance to the captives, and recover-
ing of sight to the blind, to set at liberty
them that are bruised, to preach the accep-
table year of the Lord." The aspect of
aU'airs, however, soon began to change, for
opposition arose on the part of the Pharisees.
This is the second phase of the Galilsean
ministry. Jesus visited Jerusalem (John v. 1)
and there healed the impotent man on the
Sabbath. At once conflict with the rulers
and rabbis broke out. Yet the conflict seems
to have been purposely provoked by Jesus, in
order that through it the diflerence between
the spirit of his teaching and that of current
Judaism might appear. We see iu him now
the spiritual interpreterof the Old Testament,
bringing out its real meaning, and doing so
(V.) with express appeal to his own au-
thority as the Son of God and the divinely
appointed teacher of men. This phase in-
cluded, besides John v., the incidents of
plucking the ears of corn and the healing of
the man with the withered hand ; see Gos-
pel. The conflict with the Pharisees and
the continued advance of popular interest
led next to the organization of his disciples,
which constituted the thii'd phase of this
part of his ministry. He now appointed his
twelve apostles, and, on one famous day, gave
in the sermon on the mount a description
of the character and life of the true members
of God's kingdom. It is a sublime exhibition
of a genuinely religious life, in joyful unison
with its heavenly Father, and consecrated to
his service in the salvation of the world, the
real fulfillment of the old law, though utterly
opposed to the formality and superficiality of
Pharisaism, the ideal of trust and communion
of man in relation to God. The sermon on
the mount was not meant by Jesus to teach
the way of salvation, nor did it constitute by
any means his whole gospel. He, like the
apostles, taught salvation through faith in
himself. But in this sermon, over against
Pharisaism and popular ignorance, he set
forth tliat spiritiuvl life which is the manifes-
tation of the divine kingdom and to entrance
into which faith in Jesus leads. The outlines
of the new organization having thus been
enunciated, we read, as the fourth phase, of
a succession of miracles and tours through
lower (ialilee — ,Iesns being accompanied by
his ajjostles — for the jiurpose of extending
his influence. This phase extends in the
harmony from the close of the sermon on
the mount to the time when Herod inquired

concerning the new teacher. During these
months the popular interest in Jesus steadily
increased, but the opposition of the Pharisees
increased equally. The most notable point
in the history just here is the great day of
parables. The parable was a form of in-
struction in which Jesus was unrivaled. It
was intended to convey truth to receptive
minds, and yet to avoid such open expression
of it as would give his enemies a plea for in-
terfering with him. The appearance of para-
bles in his teaching just at this period shows
the increasing gravity of the situation, ne-
cessitating a certain reserve on Christ's part.
We must, at the same time, admire the in-
comparable skill with which he embodied
in these simple stories the profoundest truths
concerning the origin and progress and jicrils
and destiny of the spiritual kingdom which
he was establishing in the world. At length,
however, the work in Galilee came to a crisis.
Herod Antipas began to inquire concerning
Jesus, and the fact was a warning that com-
plications, such as had already led to John's
imprisonment, and still more recently to his
murder, might ensue. A sufticient ojipor-
tunity had, moreover, been given to the
people to test their relation to the truth.
Ju.st then an event occurred which decided
the matter. Jesus had sought temporary re-
tirement with the twelve ; but the multitudes
had followed him to a desert place on the
northeastern shore of the sea of Galilee, and,
in compassion for their needs, he had miracu-
lously fed them, five thousand in number,
from five loaves and two fishes. The enthu-
siastic GaliUeans wished to take him by force
and make him a king (John vi. 15) ; but that
very fact proved that they had wholly mis-
understood his mission. It was time to bring
his work to a close. From the beginning he
had intimated that he had come to die, and
that only by dying could he be their Sav-
iour (iii. 14, 15). It was now time to pre-
pare for the sacrifice. On the next day after
the feeding of the five thousand Jesus deliv-
ered in Capernaum the discourse, recorded
in vi. 22-71, upon himself as the bread
of life and on the necessity of eating his
flesh and drinking his blood. Then, after
some pai'ting denunciation of the Pharisaic
misrepresentations of religion (Mark vii. 1-
23), he brought his public ministry in Galilee
to a close by retiring with his disciples from
the region in which he had hitherto been
working.

The next great period in Christ's life is
called the later Galilaean ministry ; see har-
monj-, in article Gospel. It lasted about six
months. In it Jesus went, for the only time
in his life, into gentile territory, viz., the
regions of Tyre and Sidon. Then, having
aiiparently passed southward along tlie east-
ern side of the ui)per Jordan and the sea of
Galilee, we find him in the regiim of De-
capolis. Again he went far into the northern
part of Galilee, and finally returned again to

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Capernaum. The period was mainly devoted
to the jireparation of his discijiles for his
death and for the extension of his j^ospel to
all peoples. lie preached little, and then
mainly to gentiles or to the half-heathen
people on the south and east of the sea of
Galilee. Finally, near Cfesarea Philippi, at
the hase of mount llermon, he elicited from
Peter and the rest the full confession of his
Messiahship, and, in connection therewith,
he plainly told them of his coming death
and resurrection, and of the nece.ssity that
every follower of his should he willing also
to hear the cross. Shortly after occurred the
transfiguration, in which three of his apos-
tles beheld his glory, and in which, it would
seem, he devoted himself finally, with sub-
lime exaltation of spirit, to the sacrifice to
which law and prophecy, as he was reminded
by Moses and Elias, had looked forward.
Afterwards he repeated the prediction of his
death, and, having returned to Capernaum,
further instructed his disciples (Mat. xviii. )
in that conception of God's service as one of
humility, self-sacrifice, and love, of which
his own great act of self-devotion was to be
the permanent example.

It was now probably the early autumn of
A. D. 29, and leaving Capernaum for the last
time Jesus " steadfastly set his face to go to
Jerusalem" (Luke ix. .51). The next period
of his ministry is called the last journeys to
Jerusalem. It is impossible to follow in exact
order our Lord's movements, for St. Luke, on
whom we are mainly dependent for the rec-
ord of this period, does not follow a precise
chronological method of narration. But the
main features of the period are clear enough.
Jesus now sought to attract the public atten-
tion of the whole land, including Jud<ea.
He sent out the seventy to announce his
coming. He visited Jerusalem at the feast
of tabernacles (John vii.), and again at the
feast of dedication (x. 2:2). and on both occa-
sions offered himself repeatedly to the peo-
ple. He called himself the light of the
world and the good shepherd of God's flock,
and boldly contended with the rulers who
opposed his pretensions. He also moved
back and f(jrth through Judsea and Persea,
and explained in popular discour.se and with
more beauty of illustration than ever before
the true religious life and the true idea of
God and of his service. Here belong the
parables of the good Samaritan, the wedding-
feast, the lost sheep, the lost coin, the prodi-
gal son, the unjust steward, the rich man and
Lazarus, the importunate \^^dow, the Phari-
see and the publican. Thus the announce-
ment of the go.spel became more complete,
while the fierceness of the opposition of the
rulers became more intense, until an event
occurred which brought matters to a climax.
Word was brought to Jesus of the sickne,ss of
his friend Lazarus in Bethany. Going to
him, he found him already four days dead,
and forthwith he eclipsed all his previous

miracles by raising the dead man to life
(xi. 1-46). The miracle was so stupendous
and ])erformed so near .leru.salem that it had
a profound ell'ect on tlie people of tlu' capital ;
and the sanhedrin, under the lead of
Caiaphas, the high priest, decided that the
influence of Jesus could be destroyed only
by his death (47-53). Forthwith Jesus re-
tired from the vicinity (.>1), evidently de-
termined that he should not die until the
passover. As that drew near he began to
approach the city through Penea (Mat. xix. ;
XX.; Mark x. ; Luke xviii. 1.5-xix. 28),
teaching as he went, but again ])redicting
his death and resurrection, until he reached
Bethany once more, six days before the feast
(John xii. 1). At Bethany, Mary, the sister
of Lazarus, anointed his head and feet while
he was at supper, an event in which Jesus
saw a silent prophecy of his coming burial.
But the next day he made the triunii)hal
entry on an ass's colt into Jerusalem. By
that he invited the anger of the rulers,
offered him.self publicly as Messiah, and
illustrated the peaceful character of the
kingdom he had come to found. The next
day he returned again to the capital, and, as
three years before, cleansed the temple of the
traders who profaned its courts, thus once
more calling the nation to follow him in a
purification of Israel. But though the i)il-
grims to the festival crowded about him and
had hailed him at the triumphal entry as
the Messiah, the rulers maintained their
resolute enmity. On the next day (Tuesday)
he again visited the city, on his way cursing
the liarren, though blooming, fig tree, which
was so apt an emblem of the barren, though
pretentious, Jewish church. Arrived at the
temple, he was met by a deputation from the
sanhedrin. which demanded his authority
for his acts. This he -efused to give, know-
ing that they were already resolved to de-
stroy him, while, by the parables of the two
sons, the wicked husbandmen, and the mar-
riage of the king's son. he described their
disobedience to God, the infidelity of Israel
to her high trust, and the certain desolation
of the faithless church and city. Forthwith
he was questioned by a succession of partii'S
who sought to find accusation against liini or
to weaken his reputation. The Pharisees
and Herodians asked about the lawfulness
of giving tribute to Csesar; the Sadducees
about the resurrection : a law>'er about tlie
great commandment ; and he. having silenced
each in turn, discomfited them by his ques-
tion concerning David's address to Messiah
as Lord, for the psalmist's language clearly
implied that his own claim to be the S<m of
God and equal with God was not blasphe-
mous. It was a day of bitter conflict, .lesus
vehemently denounced the unworthy leaders
of the people (Mat. xxiii. 1-38). When cer-
tain Greeks desired to see him he .saw in
their coming a presage of the Jews' rejection
of him, and that the gentiles were to be his

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followers, and realized that the end was at
liaud (John xii. 20-50). As he left the tem-
ple he sadly remarked to his disciples that
.soon the splendid huilding would be in ruins,
and later on the same evening he gave to
four of them his prediction of the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, the .spread of the gospel,
the sufferings of his followers, and his own
second advent, a prediction which shows to
us that amid the lowering storm of Jewish
hostility the vision of Jesus was clear, and
that he moved on to his fate knowing it to
be the appointed path to ultimate success. It
is probable that on that very night the plot
was formed to destroy him. Judas, one of
the twelve, had, we may believe, long been
alienated from the spiritual ideas of the
Master. He wasgrieved also at Christ's re-
fusal to seek a worldly kingdom ; for Judas
was, John tells us, an avaricious man. At
the supper at Bethany he had become finally
and fully conscious of his entire want of
sympathy with Jesus, and as the disappoint-
ment which he felt over the failure of his
hopes grew keener he resolved to wreak his
anger on the Lord by betraying him to the
rulers. His offer changed their plans. They
had purposed to wait until the festival was
over and the crowds had departed. But in
the absence of any real charge against Jesus
they were only too glad to avail themselves
of the traitor's proposal. The next day
(Wednesday) seems to have been spent by
Jesus in retirement. He probably remained
in Bethany. On Thursday afternoon the
paschal lambs were to be .slain, and after sun-
set the paschal supper, with which the seven-
day feast of unleavened bread began, was to
be eaten by all pious Israelites. On that
day Jesus sent Peter and John into the city
to prepare the passover for him and the
twelve. He .sent them, no doubt, to the
house of a disciple or friend (Mat. xxvi. 18) ;
but by the device of telling them to follow
when they entered the city a man whom they
would meet bearing a pitcher of water, he
kept the place of assembly secret from the
rest of the di.sciples, for the purjiose no doubt
of preventing Judas from betraying it to the
rulers, and thu.s possibly interfering with
the last precious interview with the apostles.
When evening came he observed with them
the i)assover supper. For the order of events
during the evening, .see again the harmony.
The view of some that according to John's
Go.spel (xiii. 1, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 31) Jesus
was crucified on Nisan 14th, the day on which
the paschal lamb was slain, and therefore
that he did not eat the ]>assover supper at the
regular time, but anticipated it by a day,
appears to be quite inconsistent with the
language reported by Matthew (xxvi. 17-19),
Mark (xiv. ]2-l(i), and Luke (xxii. 7-13, 15),
and the expressions appealed to in John may
be explained on the hy])othesis which we are
following. ■■■ It should be noted that in all
* John xiii. 1 does not mean that all that is

])robability Judas withdrew before the estab-
lishment of the eucharist, and that Jesus
twice predicted the fall of Peter, once in
the upper room and again while on the
way to Gethsemane. John's Gospel does
not relate the e.stablishment of the eucha-
rist, but it gives the Lord's last discourses
with the apostles, in which he comforted
them in view of his departure from them by
revealing the unchangeable spiritual union
between himself and them, and the mis-
sion of the Spirit which would bring to frui-
tion their relation to him. It records also
his sublime high-priestly prayer (xvii.). On
the way to Gethsemane Jesus further warned
the disciples that they would soon be scat-
tered, and appointed a meeting with him,
after his resurrection, in Galilee. The agony
in the garden was his final and complete sur-
render of himself to the last great act of sac-
rifice. It was interrupted by the coming of
Judas with a company of soldiers, obtained
doubtless from the garrison near the temple
on the ground that a .seditious person was to
be arrested (John xviii. 3, 12), together with
some of the Levitical guard and servants of
the chief priests. Judas knew that Jesus
was wont to resort to Gethsemane. Some
suppose, however, that he had first gone
to the upper room and, finding that Jesus
had departed, followed to Olivet, at the base
of which the garden lay. Jesus, after a brief
expostulation, submitted to arrest ; where-
upon his disciples lied. The captors took
him first to Annas (13), the father-in-law
of Caiaphas, where he had a ])reliminary
examination Avhile the sanhedrin was being
convened (13, 14, 19-24). It is not improb-
able that Annas and Caiaphas lived in the
same palace, for Peter's denials are said to
have occurred in the court of the palace,
both while this examination before Annas
and the later one before the sanhedrin
were taking place. At the first examination
Jesus refused to answer the inquiries, and de-
manded that evidence against him be pro-
duced. He was sent bound, however, to the
apartments of Caiaphas, where the. sanhedrin
had hastily assembled. No harmonious evi-
dence of blasphemj", which was the crime
they sought to prove against him, could be
found ; so that the high priest was forced to
solemnly adj ure him to say if he were Me-ssiah .
Thereupon Jesus made the claim in the most
exjjlicit manner, and the angry court con-
demned him as worthy of death for bias-
recorded in ch. xiii. was " before the feast of the
passover," bul is an introductory remark de-
seribins tlu' loving spirit in which the fatal pass-
over wiis entered upon by Jesus; xiii. 29, "buy
tliose thintrs that we have need of asaiust the
feast," may refer to tilings necessary for t}ie next
dav, on which the freewill ofteriiisrs of the people
were presented; xviii. 28, "that they niifiht eaf
the passover," may mean simply " keep the pas-
chal festival;" xix. SI, "the preparation," was
not tlie i)reparation for the passover, but for the
Sabbath.

Jesus Christ

373

Jesus Christ

phemy. The unjust spirit of his judges ap-
peared iu the ribald mockery to which he
was subjected. It was, however, the hvw
that the decisions of tlie saiihedriii must be
made in the daytime. Hence very early in
the morning the court convened again and
the same formalities were gone through
(Luke xsii. 66-71), and then, since per-
mission of the governor was required for the
execution of a criminal, they hastened with
Jesus to Pilate. The indecent haste of the
whole proceeding shows their fear that the
people might prevent his destruction. Pilate
probably resided in Herod's palace on the
hill of Zion. But the distance from the high
priest's house was not great, and it was still
very early when the governor was summoned
forth to hear their request. They wished
him at first to grant permission for the execu-
tion without inquiring into the charges, but
this he refused to do (John xviii. 29-32).
Then they accused Jesus of "perverting the
nation, and foi'bidding to give tribute to
Caesar, saying that he himself is Christ a
king" (Luke xxiii. 2). After Jesus had
ackiiowledged to the governor tliat he was a
king (3), Pilate examined him privately
(John xviii. 33-38), and discovered the
wholly non-political and harmless charac-
ter of his claims. He forthwith declared
that he found no fault in him and that he
would let him go. But the governor was in
reality afraid to thwart the will of his dan-
gerous subjects, and when they fiercely de-
manded the crucifixion of Jesus he fell back
on various weak expedients to shift the re-
sponsibility. Having learned that Jesus was
from Galilee. Pilate sent him to Herod Anti-
pas (Luke xxiii. 7-11), who also was then in
Jerusalem ; but Herod refused to exercise
jurisdiction. Meanwhile the crowd had in-
creased, and the governor appealed to them
to say what prisoner he should release, as his
custom was, at the passover. He evidently
hoped that the popularity of Jesus would
rescue him from the chief priests. But the
latter persuaded the rabble to ask for Barab-
bas. The message of his wife further in-
creased Pilate's anxiety to release Jesus ; but
though he several times appealed to the mul-
titude in his behalf, they were implacable
and bloodthirsty. The governor was afraid
to act on his. own convictions and weakly
gave permission for the execution. Yet
while the scourging which always preceded
crucifixion was in progress in the hall of his
palace he could not rest. Again he sought
to satisfy the Jews by the spectacle of Jesus
bleeding and thorn-crowned, but they, made
bold with success, cried out that he ought to
die because he made himself the Son of God
(John xix. 1-7). This, however, increased Pi-
late's superstitions, so that again he examined
Jesus privately and again sought to release
him (8-12) ; but the Jews finally appealed to
his political ambition and practically accused
him of disloyalty to Caesar in abetting a rival

king. This decided the matter. Pilate had
the grim satisfaction of hearing the Jews
proclaim their supreme allegiance to the
emperor (13-15), and therewith he handed
Jesus over for execution. Jesus thus died
for no crime and without any real legal jiruc-
ess. His death was literally a judicial mur-
der. The execution was carried out by four
soldiers (John xix. 23) under charge of a cen-
turion. With him also two common robbers
were led to death. The victims usually car-
ried their crosses, either the whole of them
or the transverse portion. Jesus seems to
have carried the whole, .since he fainted un-
der it. The place of crucifixion was a short
distance outside the city ; see Golgotha. The
victim was usually nailed to the cross on the
ground and then the cross was placed up-
right in the hole prepared for it. The crime
of the offender was written on a tablet and
placed over his head. In Jesus' case the
accusation was written iu Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin. Its longest form is given by John
(xix. 19), " Jesus of Nazareth, the king of the
Jews." Mark tells us that it was " about the
third hour " (/. e. 9 a. m.) when the crucifixion
was completed. If we remember that the pro-
ceedings began "as soon asit was day " (Luke
xxii. 66), their completion about nine o'clock
will not seem incredible. It is moreover iu
accord with the haste which had characterized
the action of the Jews from the beginning.

Into the incidents which the gospels have
preserved as occurring during the crucifixion
we cannot go here. Such sufferers often re-
mained alive for several days; but the al-
ready exhausted frame of Jesus did not en-
dure the agony so long. At the ninth hour
he expired with a great cry. The words
spoken from the cross, however, indicate that
he retained his consciousness to the end, and
that he fully realized the significance of all
that happened. When he died there seem to
have been but few present. The crowd which
followed him at first had returned to the city.
The mocking priests also had left him. A
few di.sciples and the soldiers are all that we
know to have been present at the end. The
rulei's were, therefore, not aware that he had
died. L^uwilling to have the bodies hanging
on the cross over the Sabbath, they went to
Pilate and asked that their legs might be
broken ; but, when the soldiers came to Jesus
for this purpose, they found him already dead.
One, however, pierced his side to make sure,
and John, who was near, saw blood and
water issue from the wound (xix. 34). .Tesus
seems to have died literally of a broken
heart. Meanwhile Joseph of Arimatha'a, a
secret disciple of Jesus, though a rich man
and a member of the sanhedrin — who, how-
ever, had not consented to his blaster's con-
demnation (Luke xxiii. 51) — knowing that
death had come, had begged for the body of
Jesus. By him and a few others it was laid
in a garden of Jo.seph's, in a new tomb hewu
out of a rock.

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374

Jesus Christ

Now it is clear that the disciples were
wholly disconcerted aud overwhelmed by the
sudden arrest and death of their Lord.
Though he had on three recorded occasions
forewarned them of his death and of his
resurrection on the third day, they were too
distressed to have any hojie. Though he
had told them to go to Galilee to meet him,
tlicy lingered in Jerusalem. Their conduct
will not seem incredible nor the narrative
doubtful to those who know the prostration
which often accompanies bitter disappoint-
ment and sorrow. Hence Jesus api>eared to
them in Jerusalem and its vicinitj'. The
resurrection narratives in the gospels are not
intended, however, to be complete accounts
of the events. They do not pretend to mar-
shal the evidence for the reality of the res-
urrection. That consisted in the testimony
of apostles to whom he repeatedly appeared
(1 Cor. XV. 3-8). In the gospels we have a
number of incidents preserved either because
of their intrinsic interest or for the sake of
the spiritual instruction which they provided
to believers. The order of events seems to
have been nearly the following : Early in
the morning of the first day of the week two
companies of pions Galilsean women pro-
ceeded to the sepulcher to anoint the body
of Jesus for permanent burial. The one
company consisted of Mary Magdalene, Mary
the mother of James, and Salome (Mark xvi.
1). Joanna and other nnnamed women were
probably in the second party (Luke xxiv. 10,
■which is a general statement, including the
report of all the women). The first party
saw the stone rolled away from the tomb,
and Mary Magdalene, supposing that the
body had been stolen, returned to Peter and
John with the news (John xx. 1, 2). Her
companions went on, and entering the tomb
heard from the angel the news of the resur-
rection and the message to the disciples (Mat.
xxviii. 1-7 ; Mark xvi. 1-7). As they has-
tened away, we may suppose that they met
the other cortpany of women, and that all
returned again to the tomb, but only to re-
ceive from two angels a more emphatic assur-
ance and direction (Luke xxiv. 1-8). The
women then hastened toward the city with
the news and on the way Jesus met them
(Mat. xxviii. 9, 10). Meanwhile Mary Mag-
dalene had reported to Peter and John that
the tomb was empty, and they had run
thither and found it even so (John xx. 3-10).
She had followed them and, when they de-
parted from the garden, she remained, and
to her also did Jesus appear (11-18). All
the women finally returned to the disci-
])les and reported the wonderful news. It
was not, however, on the testimony of these
women that faith in the resurrection of Jesus
was to rest. During the day he appeared
to Peter (Luke xxiv. 34; 1 Cor. xv. 5), later
to two discii)les journeying to Emmaus
(Luke xxiv. 13-35), and in the evening to
all the eleven except Thomas (3()-43 ; John

XX. 19-23). At that time be ate before
them, proving the reality of his physical
resurrection. Since, however, Thomas even
yet would not believe, the discii)les still lin-
gered in Jerusalem, and on the following
Sunday Jesus again appeared to them, and
proved to the doubting apostle that he had
indeed risen (John xx. 24-29). Then, it
would api)ear, the apostles returned to Gali-
lee. We next read of seven of them fishing
in the sea of Galilee and of the Lord's ap-
pearance to them (John xxi.). By appoint-
ment also he met them on a mountain of
Galilee and gave to them " the great commis-
sion," with the assurance of his power aud
presence (Mat. xxviii. 16-20). This may very
probably have been the occasion when five
hundred disciples were present (1 Cor. xv. (i).
Soon after he appeared also to James (7),
but where we know not. Unally he brought
the apostles again to Jerusalem, aud lead-
ing them out to the motmt of Olives to a
place where Bethany was in sight (Luke
xxiv. 50, 51) he was taken up into heaven
and a cloud received him out of their sight
(Acts i. 9-12). We have thus ten appear-
ances of the risen Saviour recorded in the
New Testament, while Paul ]jroperly adds
the appearance to him on the way to Dama.s-
cus (1 Cor. xv. 8). There were doubtless,
however, other ai)pearances not recorded.
Luke says (Acts i. 3) that " he showed him-
self alive after his passion by many proofs,
appearing unto them by the space of forty
days" (R. V.). Yet he did not continue
with them in constant intercourse as he had
done before. He rather manifested himself
to them (John xxi. 1, E. V.). The forty days
between his resurrection and ascension
formed evidently a transitional period, in-
teuded to train the disciples for their future
work. It was necessary to give ample, re-
jieated, and varied proof of the resurrection,
and this wasdone as we have seen. It was nec-
essary to give them instruction concerningthe
necessity of hisdeath and thecharacterof the
kingdom which through their labors he was
to establish. It was requisite to i)oint out to
them the fulfillment of Scrij)ture by his death
and resurrection, for thus alone would they
see the continuity of the new dispeus;itiou
with the old. For this instruction they had
not been ready before his death, but it is re-
peatedly referred to as having been given
during these fortv days (Luke xxiv. 44-48;
John XX. 21-23; "xxi! 15-22; Acts i. 3-8).
And finally the experiences of the forty days
trained the disciples to think of their Master
as absent and yet living ; as invisible and
yet near them ; as risen to a new life and
yet retaining the old nnture and even the old,
though now glorified, body, which they had
loved ; as exalted but still the .same, so that
they were prepared to go forth and proclaim
him as the glorified Son of txod and crowned
king of Israel, yet also the Man of Nazareth
aud the Lamb of God who takes away the

Jesus Christ

375

Jeuel

sin of the world. Meanwhile the Jews
affirmed that his disciples had stolen his
body. Fearing this, they had on the day of
his death requested from Pilate a military
watch to guard the tomb. When the resur-
rection occurred, accompanied, as we are
told, by the descent of an angel who rolled
the stone from the tomb, the soldiers were
overcome with fright and afterwards fled.
Superstitious pagans as they were, they
doubtless were little more affected by what
they had seen than ignorant men usually
are by what they consider ghostly aj^pear-
auces. But the rulers, who may possibly
have accounted for the soldiers' rejwrt by
supposing a trick on the part of the disciples,
gave the men money to keep the matter
quiet, and thus the report was given out
that the body had been stolen while the sol-
diers slept (Mat. xxviii. 11-15 1. ^^^leu, how-
ever, the apostles began, on the day of Pen-
tecost, to give their testimony to the resur-
rection, and the number of believers in it
grew rapidly (Acts ii., etc.). it was by at-
tempts at force, not by proofs, that the chief
priests tried to silence their witness and sub-
due the growing sect (Acts iv.).

We have not sought in this article to ex-
hibit the teaching of Jesus, but the outward
framework and historic movement of his life.
In the latter there appears, as we gather it
from the gospels, a gradual, progressive
revelation of himself and of his message,
which constitutes one of the stronge.st evi-
dences of the truthfulness of the accounts
on which our knowledge is based. The real-
ity of the humanity of Christ made it possi-
ble for him thus to appear as a real charac-
ter of human history, related to a particular
environment, and to present in his life a
career which moved naturally, yet steadily,
forward to a definite goal. His was a gen-
uinely human life and, therefore, capable of
historical treatment. At the same time Jesus
knew and declared himself to be more than
man le. g. Mat. xi. 27 : John v. 17-3S : x. 30:
xvii. .5, etc.). As his self-revelation advanced
his disciples realized his divine dignity (Mat.
xvi. 16: John xx. 2S). Then later reflection
and experience, under the illumination of
the Spirit, made his divinity still more
evident to them, until the last surviving
apostle was led to become the fourth evan-
gelist and to present in his Lord's earthly
career the incarnation of the personal divine
Word. Yet St. John never forgot nor obscured
the real humanity of Jesus. He gives us the
full truth concerning the person of the great
Master. "" In the beginning was the Word,
and the Word was with God. and the Word
was God" (John i. 1). and "the Word was
made flesh, and dwelt among u.s, (and we
beheld his glory, the glory as of the only
begotten of the Father.) full of grace and
truth ■■ (14 1. "These [things] are written,"
he concludes, '"that ye might believe that
Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God : and that

believing ye might have life through his
name"' (xx. 31). g. t. p.

Je'ther [abundance, eminence, excellence],

1. A descendant of Judah through Jerah-
meel. He died childless (1 Chrou. ii. 32 ; cp.
26, 28).

2. A man registered among the descendants
of Judah, but the lineage is not traced be-
yond his father, Ezra (1 Chron. iv. 17).

3. An Asherite, apparently the same as
Ithran, son of Zophah (1 Chron. vii. 37 with
38).

4. A form of Jethro. Moses' father-in-law
(Ex. iv. 18, R. V. margin).

5. The firstborn son of Gideon. His father
bade him fall upon the captives. Zebah and
Zalmunna, and slay them : but the youth
shrank from the deed, and they escaped the
disgrace of dving at the hands of a bov
(Judg. viii. 20' 21).

6. The father of Amasa. Absalom's com-
mander-in-chief (1 Kin. ii. 5). See Ithba.

Je'theth.

A chieftain of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 40 ; 1
Chron. i. 51).

Jeth'lah. See Ithlah.

Je'thro [his preeminence, his excellence].

A priest of Midian and Moses' fiither-in-
law (Ex. iii. 1). He is called Eeuel (ii. 18 ;
Antiq. ii. 12, 1). Eeuel, which means friend
of God. seems to have been his personal
name, and Jethro, his excellence, to have
been his honorary title. His seven daugh-
ters tended his flocks : and Moses, who had
fled from Egypt, rendered them a service
which led to his introduction to Jethro's
family and marriage with Zipporah. one of
the daughters. Moses kept his father-in-
law's flocks for about forty years (Ex. iii. 1.
2; Acts vii. 30). When called by God to re-
turn to Egypt and achieve the emancipation
of the Hebrews. Moses obtained .Tethro's per-
mission to depart, and took with him his
wife Zipporah and his two sons (Ex. iv. 18-
20) : but he afterwards sent her and her
two sons temporarily back to her father's house
(24-26 ; xviii. 2) : see Zipporah. After the
passage of the Eed Sea. whidi conducted the
Israelites into the vicinity of Jethro's coun-
try, the Midianite priest brought his daugh-
ter and her two sons back to Moses (xviii.
1-7). He rejoiced over the deliverance of the
emancipated people, and suggested the ap-
pointment of judges when he saw that the
Hebrew leader was wearing himself out by
deciding even the most trivial cases per-
sonally (8-27). See Hobab.

Je'tur [possibly, nomad or nomadic camp].

A people descended from Ishmael (Gen.

XXV. 15 : 1 Chron. i. 31 ; v. 19). See Ituk^a.

Je'u-el [perhaps, treasure of God].

1. A man of Judah, family of Zerah. At
one period he, with 690 of his clan, lived at
Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 6).

2. A Levite, a descendant of Elizaphan.

Jeusli

376

Jezreel

He took part in the reformation under Heze-
kiah [2 C'bron. xxix. 13, in A. V. Jeiel).

3. A contemporary of Ezra who with mem-
bers of his family returned from Babylonia
with the scribe (Ezra viii. 13, in A. V. Jeiel).

Je'ush, in A. V. once Jehush (1 Chron.
viii. 39) [perhaps, hastening].

1. A son of Esau by his wife Oholibamah
(Gen. xxxvi. 5). He became a chieftain in
Edom (la).

2. A Benjamite, son of Bilhau (1 Chron.
vii. 10).

3. A Levite, family of Gershou and a son
of Shimei (1 Chron. xxiii. 10, 11).

4. A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron.
viii. 39).

5. A son of Kehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 19).

Je'uz [counseling].

A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim by his wife
Hodesh (1 Chron. viii. 10).

Jew [from Latin ludseus, Greek loudaios,
Hebrew Y'hudi'\.

One belonging to the tribe or to the king-
dom of Judah (2 Kin. xvi. 6 ; xxv. 25). Then
the meaning was extended, and the word was
applied to any one of the Hebrew race who
returned from the captivity ; and finally it
comprehended any one of that race through-
out the world (Esther ii. 5 ; Mat. ii. 2).
For their history while they were in Pales-
tine, see History. Their present state is a
fulfillment of prophecv (Lev. xxvi. 33, 39;
Dent. iv. 27; xxviii. 25, 36, 37, 64-68) ; they
are scattered over all gentile lands, but no-
where in the world, not even in Palestine, have
they a land where they can live under a gov-
ernment of their own. The Jews' language
(2 Kin. xviii. 26 ; Neh. xiii. 24) was Hebrew.

Jew'ess.

A woman belonging to the Hebrew race
(Acts xvi. 1 ; xxiv. 24).

Jew'ry. See Jud.ea.

Jez-a-ni'ah ; in full Jaazaniah (2 Kin.
xxv. 23) [Jehovah doth hearken].

A captain of the forces, son of Hoshaiah, a
Maacathite (2 Kin. xxv. 23; Jer. xl. 7, 8 ;
xlii. 1). He came with his men to pay his
respects to Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar
had appointed governor of Judah after the
capture of Jerusalem. Jezaniah had no com-
plicity in the subsequent murder of Gedaliah,
and seems to have taken a prominent part in
attempting to bring the perpetrators to justice.
He joined in appealing to Jeremiah, the
prophet, to ask advice of (iod concerning the
purpose of the remnant of the Israelites to
migrate to Egypt (xlii.). He was a brother
of Azariah, or more probably Azariah is a
corruption of Jezaniah (xliii. 2).

Jez'e-bel [unmarried, chaste].

1. Daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Zi-
donians and former priest of Astarte (1 Kin.
xvi. 31 ; con. Apion. i. 18). She became the wife
of Ahab, king of Israel. Being of more mascu-
line temperament than her somewhat efiemi-

nate husband, she ruled over him, gave
him evil counsel, and at last caused his
ruin. She was a devoted worshiper of Baal,
and intolerant of all other faiths. To please
her, Ahab reared a temple and an altar to
Baal in Samaria, and set up an Asherah (1
Kin. xvi. 32, 33). Though legally only the
king's consort, and not the ruler of the coun-
try, yetsheslew all the prophetsof Jehovah on
whom she could lay hands, and did this ap-
parently on her own responsibility (xviii. 4-
13). When she planned the death of Elijah
(xix. 1, 2). and afterwards efifected the judicial
murder of Naboth, she similarly ignored the
king's authority, though he condoned the deed
(xxi. 16-22). On account of these murders
and other violations of the moral law, the
divine sentence was pronounced against her
that the dogs should eat Jezebel by the wall
of Jezreel (23). The prophecy was fulfilled.
When, eleven years after Ahab's death, Jehu
executed pitiless vengeance on the royal
household, Jezebel painted her face, tired
her head, and, looking out at a window,
called to him as he approached : "Had Zimri
peace, who slew his master?" Jehu looked
up at the window and said : " Who is on my
side ? who ? " Two or three eunuchs looked
out. " Throw her down," he cried, and they
unhesitatingly obeyed. She fell in front of
his chariot, which he intentionally drove
over her, and her blood bespattered the
horses and the wall. About an hour later,
recalling that the dead woman was a king's
daughter, he gave directions to bury her;
but it was found that the dogs, which with
other animals constitute the scavengers of
oriental cities, had been beforehand with
them. They had left no more of her than
the skull, and the feet, and the palms of her
hands (2 Kin. ix. 7, 30-37).

2. A woman at Thyatira who called her-
self a prophetess, and seduced some members
of the Christian church there to commit
fornication and eat things sacrificed to idols.
It is probable that Jezebel is a symbolic
name. If so, it was given because of a resem-
blance between her and Ahab's idolatrous
and wicked queen (Rev. ii. 20, 23).

Je'zer [formation].

A son of Naphtali, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 24; Num. xxvi. 49; 1
Chron. vii. 13).

Je-zi'ah. See Izzi.^^h.

Je'zi-el [assembly of God].

A Benjamite, son of Azmaveth, who joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

Jez-li'ah. See Izliah.

Je-zo'ar. See Izhar.

Jez-ra-hi'ah [Jehovah shineth forth].

An overseer of singers in Nehemiah's time
(Neh. xii. 42).

Jez're-el [God soweth].

1. A city near the boundary line of Issachar
(Josh. xix. 17, 18). The Israelites encamped

Jezreel

377

Jezreel

at a fountain in its vicinity
just before the battle of Gil-
boa ( 1 Sam. xxix. 1 ; cp. 2 Sam.
iv. 4), the Philistines follow-
ing them to the same localitj-
(1 Sam. xxix. 11). Ish-bosheth
ruled over Jezreel among
other places ('2 Sam. ii. 9) ;
and it was one of the capitals
of Ahab (I Kin. xviii. 45), and
also of his son (2 Kin. viii. 29).
Naboth was a Jezreelite, his
vinej'ard was in close prox-
imity to Ahab's palace, and
he was stoned outside the citv
(1 Kin. xxi. 1, 13). Jezebe"l
met her violent death in Jez-
reel (23; 2 Kin. ix. 10, 30-35).
Ahab's seventy sons were mas-
sacred there by order of Jehu
(x. 1-11). The bloodshed in
these sanguinary transactions
is called by Hosea " the blood
of Jezreel," and he prophesied
that it should be avenged (Hos.
i. 4). The crusaders correctly
identified Jezreel with Par-
vum Gerinum, now the vil-
lage Zer'in. The discovery
lapsed into oblivion, and was not revived till
1814. The identification is now universally
accepted. Though in a plain, the site was an

W^^!*-^

J( 7TLC

admirable one for a fortified city, standing as
it does upon the brow of a very steep, rockj' de-
scent, of 100 feet or more, toward the north-

Plain of Esf]r.Tf-l"n.

Jibsam

378

Joab

east, with a splendid view all the way to the
Jordan. The fountain of Jezreel, which
is below the village, is copious and good. It
is called 'Ain el-Meiyiteh. Another and yet
more copious one, 'Ain Jalud, is at no great
distance. The ancient vineyards seem to
have been to the east of the city, where
rock-cut wine presses now exist.

The valley of Jezreel is either the great
plain intersecting Palestine immediately
north of Carmel, or, better, that part of it
which, adjacent to Jezreel, descends from
Jezreel eastward to the Jordan (Josh. xvii.
16 ; Hosea i. 5). In Gideon's days the Midi-
anites and Amalekites pitched within its
limits (Judg. vi. 33). The whole central
plain is now called the plain of Esdra-
elon, a slight modification of Jezreel (cp.
Judith i. 8; iv. 6; vii. 3). Through all by-
gone time it has been a battlefield of nations.

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 56). It seems to have been from
this place that David obtained his wife
Ahinoam the Jezreelitess (1 Sam. xxv. 43;
xxvii. 3). Exact situation unknown.

3. A man of Jucjah, descended from Hur
(1 Chron. iv. 3).

4. A son of the projihet Hosea. So named
because Jehovah had declared that he would
avenge the blood of Jezreel on the house of
Jehu (Hos. i. 4, 5).

Jib'sam. See Ibsam.
Jid'lapli [he weepeth].
A son of Nahor and Milcah (Gen. xxii.
22). It is not known where he settled.
Jim'na and Jimnali. See Imnah.
Jiph'tah. See Iphtah.
Jiph'thah-el. See Iphtah-el.

Jo'ab [Jehovah is father].

1. Son of Seraiah and descendant of Kenaz,
■who was reckoned with the tribe of Judah.
He was the father of the inhabitants of the
valley of craftsmen (1 Chrou. iv. 13, 14).

2. The son of Zeruiah (2 Sam. viii. 16),
David's half sister (1 Chron. ii. 16 ; cp. 2
Sam. xvii. 25). Joab was, therefore, that
king's nephew. He was the second of three
brothers, Abishai, Joab. and Asahel, all of
an heroic type. He does not seem to have
accompanied David when a fugitive during
the latter part of Saul's reign : perha})s he
was then too young, though his elder brother,
Abishai, was of age to go, and went (1 Sam.
xxvi. 6-25). Joab's first personal appear-
ance on the scene of public life is when he
is at the head of David's soldiers in the war
with Ish-bosheth. He commanded at, and was
victor in, the battle which grew out of the
tournament at Gibeon (2 Sam. ii. 12-32). He
either believed, or at least pretended to be
convinced, that when Abner, Ish-bosheth's
commander-in-chief, after his quarrel with
his royal master, sought an interview with
David, he came simply as a spy. Having
reproved the king for allowing Abner to

depart in peace, Joab recalled him and,
with the connivance of Abishai, assassinated
him at a nominally friendly interview. He
assigned as the reason for the murder the
fact that his younger brother Asahel had
been killed by Abner in the battle at Gibeon.
He omitted, however, to mention that it was
in a fair fight, and strictlj" in self-defense.
Probably, also, an unavowed second reason
was the apprehension of Joab and Abishai
that Abner might be given the command of
the army. David felt himself politically too
weak to bring them to justice, yet he never
condoned the crime (2 Sam.iii.i-39). When
David had become king of all Israel and led
his army against the Jebusite fort on mount
Zion, he promised that the first one who should
climb up the gutter leading from the Jebusite
city to the stronghold and capture the hold
should be chief and captain of the army. The
first to climb was Joab, who in consequence
became head of the forces (2 Sam. iv. 8, with
1 Chron. xi. 6). He soon afterwards repaired
a portion of the city (8). After David's con-
quest of the Edomites (2 Sam. viii. 13, 14 ; 1
Chron. xviii. 12), Joab remained in Edom
with the army for six months, cutting oif
every male (1 Kin. xi. 14-17). He com-
manded in the war with the confederate
Syrians and Ammonites (2 Sam. x. 1-14 ; 1
Chron. xix. 1-19). and he so pressed the siege
of Eabbah that he could at any time have
as.saulted it successfully ; but instead of
doing so he sent for David that he might
have the credit of the victory (2 Sam. xi. 1 ;
xii. 26-29; cp. 1 Chron. xx. 1-3).. He was
the king's obsequious servant, and carried
out the directions about putting Uriah in the
forefront of the battle that he might be slain
(2 Sam. xi. 6-27). It was Joab who sent to
David the wise woman of Tekoa to induce
him to forgive Absalom (xiv. 1-27) ; but he
was so reluctant to interfere further in the
case that it was not until his barley field had
been set on fire by the unworthy prince that
he consented to act again (28-33). When
Absalom rebelled Joab remained loyal to
David, and led one of the three divisions of
the royal forces which defeated the rebels
(xviii. 1, 2). Then, in defiance of the king's
command, he thi-ust three darts through the
heart of the revolted prince, terminating his
life (9-17), and afterwards he spoke some
plain though not unwise words to the king
on his extravagant grief at the death of
a rebellious son (xix. 1-8). David shortly
after appointed Amasa to be captain of the
host in the room of Joab (13), and when
Sheba rebelled Amasa was employed to lead
the forces sent to crush the revolt. This
gave mortal offense to Joab, who, at an
avowedly friendly interview, stabbed him
dead just as he had killed Abner in sim-
ilar circumstances, only that this time there
was no pretense of a blood feud between
the parties. Jealousy was the motive for the
crime. Then Joab and Abishai put down

Joah

579

Joash

the rebellion (xx. 1-22). Joab thus again
beuiime coniiuander-iu-chief (23 ; cp. also 1
Kiu. ii. 34, 35). He was opposed to David's
numbering the people, and inteutionally did
the work imperfectly (2 Sam. xxiv. 1-9; 1
Chron. xsi. 1-6). When Adonijah set himself
up for king Joab went with him (1 Kin. i. 7),
but, with his other supporters, deserted him on
hearing that Solomon had been proclaimed
king (28-49). David on his deathbed indi-
cated his wish thi^t Joab should be brought
to justice for the murders of Abuer and of
Amasa. Solomon carried out the sentence.
Joab, clinging to the horns of the altar in
the court of the tabernacle, fell by the hand
of Benaiah, chief of the bodyguard, and was
buried in his own house in the wilderness
(ii. 5, 6, 28-34).

3. Founder of a family, members of which
returned from captivity (Ezra ii. 6; viii. 9;
Neh. vii. 11).

Jo'ah [Jehovah is brother].

1. A sou of Obed-edom (1 Chron. xxvi. 4).

2. A Levite, son of Zimmah and a descend-
ant of Gershom (1 Chi-on. vi. 21). Perhaps
he was the Levite, son of Zimmah and de-
scendant of Gershon who assisted at the re-
ligious reformation under king Hezekiah (2
Chron. xxix. 12).

3. A sou of Asaph. He was the recorder
under king Hezekiah (2 Kin. xviii. 18, 26 ;
Is. xxxvi. 3, 11, 22).

4. A son of Joahaz. He was recorder
under king Josiah (2 Chron. xxxiv. 8).

Jo'a-haz [Jehovah hath laid hold of].
Father of king Josiah' s recorder Joah (2
Chron. xxxiv. 8).

Jo-a'nan, in A. Y. Joanna [Greek form of
Yohnnan, Jehovah hath been gracious].

An ancestor of Christ, who lived about
500 B. c. (Luke iii. 27).

Jo-an'na [a Greek form of Yoltanan, Je-
hovah hath been gracious].

The wife of Chuza, steward of Herod the
tetrarch. She was one of those women who
ministered to Jesus of their substance (Luke
viii. 3), and one of the party who accompa-
nied Mary Magdalene to the sepulcher of
our Lord (xxiv. 10).

For the man called Joanna in A. V., see

JO.\NAN.

Jo-an'nan. See John 2.

Jo'a-rib. See Joiarib 2.

Jo'ash. I., and Jehoash [.Tehovah is strong].
The longer form is used in 2 Kin. only, but
the shorter form also occurs there frequeutly.

1. A man of Judah, family of Shelah (1
Chron. iv. 22).

2. A man of Manasseh, family of Abiezer
and father of Gideon fJudg. vi. 11, 15). He
lived at Ophrah. and was apparently a man
of substance. He had reared an altar to
Baal and an Asherah. These Gideon was
directed to throw down, and he did so. The

idolaters demanded that Joash should sur-
render his son to be put to death for the sac-
rilege, but Joash shrewdly said : " If Baal is
a god, let him plead for himself" (Judg. vi.
11-32).

3. A Benjamite of Gibeah who came to
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

4. A son of Ahab (1 Kin. xxii. 26 ; 2
Chron. xviii. 25).

5. Son of Ahaziah, king of Judah. When
Athaliah, the mother of Ahaziah, heard that
her son had been slain by Jehu, she massa-
cred all his children except Joash, then only
an infant, who escaped by the artifice of the
late king's sister Jehosheba, wife of the high
priest. He was hidden with his nurse for six
years iu the temple, Athaliah meanwhile
ruling over the land. In the seventh year,
Jehoiada, the high priest, showed Joash to
the palace guards, and, placing them at posts
where they could be of most service iu de-
fending him, publicly anointed him king.
The measure was a popular one, and as the
boy stood by a pillar, with the royal crown on
his head, the military men and others who
saw him shouted "God save the king!"
Athaliah, hearing the noise, rushed to the
spot and entered the temple ; but, by the
high priest's orders, she was at once ejected
and slain, leaving Joash now without a rival.
Then Jehoiada framed two covenants : the
one that the youthful ruler and his people
should serve Jehovah, and the other that
they should discharge their mutual duties as
king and subjects. Then they proceeded to
the house of Baal, and broke it down, destroy-
ing the images which it contained, and kill-
ing Mattan, its officiating priest, on the altar
(2 Kin. xi. 1-20; 2 Chron. xxiii. 10-21).
Joash ascended the throne 835 B. c, but was
the only legitimate king since 842, and his
reign was apparently dated from this year
with 841 as his first regnal year. So in Eng-
land, the Commonwealth was ignored and
the fir.st year of Charles II. 's actual reign
was called the twelfth : king de jure on the
death of Charles I., January .30th, 1648-49,
king (le facto at the Restoration, jNIay 29th,
1660. Joash was seven years old at his coro-
nation and he reigned forty years. Of cour.se,
at the age of seven the character of his
nominal rule depended wholly on the char-
acter of his advisers. Happily, he was un-
der the direction of the high priest, Jehoi-
ada, and as long as that wise counselor lived,
Joash did well, one notable measure of his
being the repair of the temple, though the
peo])le still continued generally to worship
at the high places (2 Kin. xii. 1-16). But on
the death of Jehoiada, at an advanced age,
both the king and his people apostatized from
Jehovah, and began to set up Asherim and
other idols. Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada,
denounced judgment upon the evil doens, on
which Joash gave orders for his murder ; and
the multitude, breaking out into riot, grati-
fied their sovereign by stoning to death the

Joasli

380

Job

too faitlifnl prophet (2 Chron. xxiv. 15-22;
Mat. xxiii. 35). Soon afterwards Hazael,
king of Syria, having captured the Philistine
city of (Jath, threatened Jerusalem, and had
to be bought off with the contents of the tem-
])le treasury. When the invaders departed,
Joash was suffering from sore diseases. Ama-
ziah, his son, conducted the government;
and in the course of three years, as it would
appear, tlie servants of Joash slew him in
liis bed in revenge for the murder of Zech-
ariah {2 Kin. xii. 20 ; 2 Chron. xxiv. 25) ; see
Chronology. He was buried in the city
of David, but not in one of the proper sepul-
chers of the kings. Joash was an infant in
8-42 B. c. and was seven years old in 835 (2
Kin. xi. 21), and his son Amaziah was twenty-
five years old in 804 (xiv. 2). The son was
accordingly born in 828, in Joash's four-
teenth or fifteenth year. In oriental life this
is physically possible and is i-eadily paralleled.
The early marriage of Joash was desirable
and was doubtless urged by the high priest
Jehoiada, since Joash was the sole survivor
of his family and in his offspring lay the
only hope that so great a calamity would be
averted as the extinction of the direct line
of David.

(i. Son of Jehoahaz^ king of Israel. He
began to reign about 805 B. c, and reigned
sixteen years. lu religious matters he fol-
lowed in the footsteps of Jeroboam I., con-
tinuing the worship of the two calves at
Bethel and Dan. Nevertheless he felt intense
veneration for Elisha, weeping and express-
ing sorrow when the great prophet was dying.
Elisha, before he passed away, enjoined the
king to open the window eastward and shoot
out an arrow. He did so. The i)rophet then
bade him take arrows and smite upon the
ground. He did so, smiting the ground thrice.
The arrows symbolized victories which he was
to gain over the Syrians ; and had he struck
six times instead of three, the number of vic-
tories would have been doubled (2 Kin. xiii.
14-25). Afterwards he lent 100,000 merce-
naries to Amaziah, the new king of Judah, for
an Edomite expedition. A prophet directed
them to be sent honie, which was accordingly
done. Though they had been paid in full
for the services which they had been forbid-
den to render, yet they departed in a great
rage, plundering the territory of Judah as
they went along (2 Chron. xxv. 6-10, 13).
Perhaps on this account, Amaziah sent Joasli
a challenge to fight. Joash remonstrated in
severe language, but Amaziah would not for-
bear. A battle took ])lace at Beth-shemesh,
in which Joash was victorious ; and he fol-
lowed up his success by breaking down a
part of the wall surrounding Jerusalem, and
carrying off the treasures of the temple and
tlie ]>alace, with hostages as guarantees
against further disturl)ance of the peace.
On the death of Joash, his son, Jeroboam II.,
ascended the throne (2 Kin. xiv. 8-16 ; 2
Chron. xxv. 17-24).

Jo'ash, II. [perhaps, Jehovah hath hastened
(to help)].

1. A Benjamite, family of Becher (1 Chron.
vii. 8).

2. An officer who had charge of David's oil
cellars (1 Chron. xxvii. 28).

Jo'a-tham. See Jotham 2.

. Job, I. (Gen. xlvi. 13, A. V.). See loB.

Job, II. [one ever returning to God (Ewald).
If derived from 'ayeb, it denotes not one per-
secuted (Gesenins), but rSther one character-
ized by hostility].

An O. T. saint who dwelt in the land of
Uz (Job i. 1). He is mentioned for the first
time elsewhere by Ezekiel (xiv. 14, 16, 20).
It appears that he lived under patriarchal
conditions, in some district eastward from
Palestine and contiguous to the desert, at a
time when the Chaldeans made raids in the
west (i. 17). There is no reason to doubt
that he is an historical personage and that he
passed through the remarkable experiences
described in the book which bears his name.
These experiences brought the question, Why
does God permit the righteous to suffer?, to
the forefront ; and afforded the material for
a magnificent philosophical poem.

The Book of Job is a poetic book of the O.
T. which gives an account of the sufl'erings
of Job, of the argument carried on betw'een
himself and his friends concerning the rea-
sons for his sufi'erings, and of the solution of
the problem. It is not known whether the
poem was written during the lifetime of Job
or later. The prologue (i.-iii. 2), the intro-
ductions to the various speeches and es-
pecially to Elihu's speech (xxxii. 1-5), and
the epilogue narrating the prosperity of
Job in his latter days under Jehovah's
blessing (xlii. 7-17), are in prose.

In the opening of the book, Job is repre-
sented as being very prosperous, possessing
i many flocks and herds, a large number of
j servants, and a numerous family. Satan is
j permitted to try Job's faith in God, first by
causing him to be despoiled of his possessions,
! and to be bereaved of his family ; when this
means fails, Satan is further permitted to
cause Job much sufl'eringin body. Job's faith
triumjihs over all difficulties, and he is finally
restored to more than his former prosperity.
The book between the introduction and
conclusion may be divided into three main
parts, each of which muy be again divided
into three minor parts. The introduction
describes Job's prosperity ai.d happy con-
\ dition. In part first, first subhead, we
find Job's first afHiction described, the loss
of his property and family; under the sec-
ond head comes the second stage of the
afHiction, the attack on Job's person, and un-
der the third head, the coming of his three
friends to condole with him. Part second
contains the argument between Job and his
three friends, this being threefold, each
I friend speaking three times (except the third,

Jobab

381

Joel

who speaks twice), and Job replying to each.
This forms the iirincipal part of the book.
Tlie tliree friends argue on the basis that
affliction is always and necessarily a result
of sin, and as Job accepts this general prin-
cipk-, but denies its application to himself,
misunderstandings result, and the speakers
are as far from a solution of the situation in
the end as in the beginning. Firstly, Eli-
phaz begins the argument by expressing in
general the sinfulness of man and hinting
at, rather than boldly asserting, Jol)'s special
sinfulness. Job answers, declaring his inno-
cence. Secondly, Bildad continues in the
.same strain, insisting that the Lord cannot
be unjust, therefoi-e man must be at fault.
Job answers as before that he is innocent, ap-
pealing to God to lighten his burden of afflic-
tion. Thii-dly, Zophar follows with the same
argument, implying more directly that Job
must be a sinner. The second series of
speeches now begins. The same arguments
are gone over by the speakers in the same
order, the friends becoming more vehement
and impatient of what they consider Job's
obstinacy. In the third series Eliphaz openly
accu.ses Job of secret sin. After Job's earnest
denial, Bildad falls back on the first position,
and Zophar remains silent. But during these
arguments Job is profoundly conscious of his
own uprightness, yet cannot understand
God's apparent harshness to him. His in-
ward struggle becomes more intense as his
outward situation appears more hopeless, but
he remains firm in his determination that
whatever befall him still will he trust in
God. Then the thought bursts upon him
that sometime, in God's own pleasure, he
will be justified. It may not be in this life,
but it will certainly come. That carries with
it a conviction of immortalitj% and with the
statement, " I know that my redeemer liveth,
and that he shall stand' up at the last upon
the earth : and after my skin hath been thus
destroyed, yet from my flesh shall I see
God," Job reaches a foundation from which
nothing can move him.

In the third part of the book Elihu, who
until this time has been a silent listener, pro-
poses to argue out the matter upon a diflferent
basis. Instead of regarding the afflictions of
men as a punishment for sin, he declares that
they are often sent as a means of strength-
ening and purifying the children of God.
They are not, then, the exi)ression of an
angry and implacable God, but the chasten-
ing of a loving father. In this Elihu appears
as the messenger of the Lord, preparing the
way for his coming, and offering an argument
which Job could dispute or accept. Job ac-
cepts this view. Next, the divine decision is
given and Job humbles himself before the
Lord. Finally, Job is restored to double his
former prosperity, and his family is restored
to the same number as before.

Jo'bab [shouting, trumpet call, howling, a
desert].

1. An Arabian tribe descended from Joktan
(Gen. X. 29; 1 Chron. i. 23). It is not known
what district they occupied.

2. A king of Edom. He was the son of
Zerah of Bozrah (Gen. xxxvi. 3.3 ; 1 Chron.
i. 44, 45).

3. A king of Madon, who entered into the
northern confederacy against Joshua, but,
with his allies, was totally defeated at the
waters of Merom (Josh. xi. 1 ; sii. 19).

4. A Benjamite, sou of Shaharaim by his
wife Hodesh (1 Chron. viii. 9).

Joch'e-bed [Jehovah is glorious, or Jeho-
vah is the great oue].

A daughter of Levi, who married her
nephew Amram and became the ancestress
of Miriam, Aaron, and Moses (Ex. vi. 20 ;
Num. xxvi. 59) ; see Egypt iii. 3.

Jod.

The tenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
English I and its modification J come from
the same source, and both are used to rejire-
sent it in anglicizing Hebrew names, as in
Jechoniah. It stands at the head of the
tenth section of Ps. cxix. in several ver.sions,
in which section each verse begins with this
letter. It was often confused by readers with
van (q. v.).

Jo 'da.

An ancestor of Christ, who lived near the
time of the exile (Luke iii. 26). A. V., fol-
lowing a diflerent reading, has Juda — i. e.,
Judah.

Jo'ed [Jehovah is witness].

A Benjamite, descended from Jeshaiah
(Neh. xi. 7).

Jo'el [Jehovah is God].

1. A Levite, familj- of Kohath, and an an-
cestor of Samuel the prophet (1 Chron. vi. 36,
with .34, 38). Probably he is not identical
with Shaul (24), but belongs to the collateral
line descended through Zephaniah from Ta-
hath.

2. The elder sou of Samuel the prophet
and father of Heman the singer (1 Sam. viii.
2; 1 CUiron. vi. 33; xv. 17). Called once in
the Hebrew text aud A. V. Vashni (vi. 28).
This name the R. V. relegates to the margin,
placing Joel in italics in the text.

3. A Gershonite Levite, who with 1.30 of
his brethren, of whom he was the head,
aided in bringing up the ark from the house
of Obed-edom to the city of David (1 Chron.
XV. 7, 11, 12). He seems to have been the son
of Ladan (1 Chron. xxiii. 8), who was ap-
pointed to take charge of the dedicated treas-
ures of the house of God (xxvi. 21, 22).

4. A man of Issachar, and a chief of that
tribe. He was descended through Uzzi (1
Chron. vii. 3).

5. One of David's valiant men, a brother
of Nathan (1 Chron. xi. 38) ; see Igal.

6. Son of Pedaiah and ruler in David's
reign of the half tribe of Manasseh west of
the Jordan (1 Chron. xxvii. 20).

7. A chief of the Gadite tribe prior to the

Joel

382

Jogbehah

reigns of Jotham king of Jndah and Jero-
boam II. king of Israel (1 Chrou. v. 12; cp.
17).

8. A Reubenite, whose family occupied the
district about Aroer (1 Chron. v. 4, and prob-
ably h).

9. A Koliathite Levite, son of Azariah, who
aided in cleansing the temjile during Heze-
kiah"s reign (2 Chron. xxix. 12).

10. A Simeonite prince, who took part in a
war with the Amalekites during the reign of
Hezekiah (1 Chron. iv. 35-43).

11. A son of Nebo, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 43).

12. A Beujamite, son of Zichri, overseer at
Jerusalem during the government of Nehe-
miah (Neh. xi. i)).

13. Sou of Pethuel, and the author of the
second among the minor prophetic books.
Nothing is known of his history (Joel i. 1).

The book consists of two parts, of thirty-
six versos each. I. Prediction of judgment
and an exhortation to repentance (i.2-ii. 17).
A period of unexampled distress has occurred
or is impending, produced by a .scourge of
locusts, and calling for repentance and sup-
plication (i. 2-20). The same theme under
the figure of an army with horses and chari-
ots is repeated, and the call for repentance
and prayer is renewed (ii. 1-17). A devasta-
tion by literal locusts may be intended in
chap, i., and possibly even in chap, ii., as
many believe. If so, it served the prophet
as an occa.sion and a type for his message (ii.
1-27). Whether there was an actual plague
of locusts at the time or not, locusts are a
natural figure, employed in Scripture, for an
invading army (Rev. ix. 3-11), and the
prophet adojjts the figure of such a devasta-
tion to symbolize the great day of Jehovah's
power and judgment. The judgment is nigh
at hand (ii. 1), is to be the last before the
ilessianic l)lc.ssing (28), and is to be executed
by a people great and strong (2), which come
from the north (20), before whom a fire de-
voureth and behind whom a flame burneth
(3), whose camp is very great (11), and on
account of whom the inhabitants of Zion
cry out to the Lord for deliverance, that the
nations should not rule over them (17). The
allegorical view is the oldest, and has been
the most i)revalent. II. The blessing which
shall follow the judgment (ii. 18-iii.21). The
destroyer shall be himself destroyed, the
wasted years restored, and bountiful harvests
again bless the land (ii. 18-27) ; God's Spirit
shall be poured out on all flesh (28-.32 ; cp.
Acts ii. 1()-21 ; Rom. x. 13), and all enemies
of the kingdom shall be brought to judg-
ment, there being compreliended in one i)ic-
ture God's successive judgments of the na-
tions and the final, universal judgment,
culminating in the establishment of Zion
forever.

The book is not dated, and its contents
afford but scanty indications of the time of
its composition. It mentions the scattering

of Israel among the nations (iii. 2), but the
reference is not to the ten tribes si)ecifically,
but to the children of Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob, God's people and heritage, and is
moreover a prophecy. So, too, the captivity
of Judah and Jerusalem is mentioned (iii. 1),
but likewise prophetically in the spirit of
Deuteronomy (xxviii.) or of Micah (iii. 10;
iv. 12). For the prophet and people are in
Judah, Zion exists (Joel ii. 1, 15), the temple
is standing (i. 14 ; ii. 17), and the service is
regularly conducted, although the meal and
drink ott'erings are sjioken of as cut oft' V>y
reason of the destruction of vegetation (i. 9-
13 ; cp. ii. 14). The prophecy does not belong
to the period after the exile, nor to the time
between the first dei)ortation of the Jews
and the fall of the city, nor to the earlier
period when the Assyrians were invading
the land, for judgment is not pronounced
against Assyria or Babylon or later enemies,
but only against Judali's foes, Tyre and Sidon,
Phiiistia, Edom, and Egypt (iii. 4, 19). Tyre
and Sidon had forgotten the brotherly cove-
nant (Amos i. 9), and had purchased Jewish
captives from the Philistines and sold them
to the remote Greeks. There is no reference
to Syria, from which Judah scarcely sutFered
before the reign of Ahaz (2 Kin. xii. 17).
During and after the reign of Ahaz, the
prophets of Judah frequently refer to Sj-ria
as a hostile power (Is. vii. 8; viii. 4; xvii. ;
Jer. xlix. 23-27; Zech. ix. 1). Nor is there
any mention of the Assyrians, who did not
come into conflict with Judah until after the
time of Ahaz, and who for a half century
preceding Ahaz' reign had not been active
in western Asia. There is reference to the
Greeks, not as present in Palestine or as hos-
tile to Judah, but simply as a nation afar off
to whom the Phtenicians and Philistines had
sold captive children of Judah, and as con-
trasted with the men of Sheba, a nation at
another extremity of the earth, to whom
Judah shall sell captives taken from Phiiistia
and Phoenicia (Joel iii. 1-8). The majority of
commentators accordingly believe that the
prophecy was uttered liefore the time of Ahaz.
The position of the book as second among
the minor prophets indicates that the belief
was current at the time of forming the canon
that Joel began to prophesy after Hosea had
commenced his prophetic labors and before
Amos had entered ujjon his, that is. during
the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and while
Jeroboam was on the throne of Israel (Hos.
i. 1 ; Amos i. 1 ; vii. 10).

Jo-e'lah [possibly, let him help].

A son of Jeroham of Gedor. He joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 7).

Jo-e'zer [Jehovah is help].
A Korahite who joined David at Ziklag (1
Chron. xii. 6).

Jog'be-hali [lofty].

A town of Gad (Num. xxxii. 35 ; Judg.
viii. 11). Its name still lives in Jubeihah, a

Jogli

383

John

village 6 miles northwest of Eabbath Am-
mou on the road from es-Saltaud the Jordan.

Jog'li [led into exile].

Father of Bukki, of the tribe of Dan
(Num. xxxiv. 22).

Jo'ha.

1. A Benjamite, son of Beriah (1 Chron.
viii. Ki).

2. A Tizite. son of Shimri and one of David's
mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 45).

Jo-ha'nan [.Tehovah is gracious].

1. A Benjamite who joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Chron. xii. 4).

2. The eighth of tlie Gadites who did so.
He was made a captain in David's army (1
Chron. xii. 12, 14).

3. A member of the high-priestly line, who
lived about 800 B. c. (1 Chron. vi.'lO).

4. An Ei)hraimite (2 Chron. xxviii. 12).

5. The eldest sou of king Josiah (1 Chron.
iii. 15). He seems to have died young.

6. Son of Kareah and a captain of the
army, who on hearing that Nebuchadnezzar
had appointed Gedaliah governor of Judah,
came with his men to submit to the new
ruler (2 Kin. xxv. 22, 23; Jer. xl. 8, 9). He
warned Gedaliah that Baalis, king of the
Ammonites, had sent a certain Ishmael to
murder him (13, 14) ; and when the governor,
neglecting the warning, was assassinated, he
led the force which went to avenge his death
(xii. 11-15). He afterwards counseled and
carried out a removal of the Jewish remnant
to Egvpt, against the advice of Jeremiah (16-
xliii. 13).

7. A son of Elioenai (1 Chron. iii. 24).

8. A son of Hakkatan, of the clan of Az-
gad. With 110 males, he accompanied Ezra
from Babylon (Ezra viii. 12).

9. Son of Eliashib, but scarcely of the high
priest Eliashib. Ezra went to Johanan's
chamber, and, refusing to eat or drink,
mourned over the sin of those who had con-
tracted foreign marriages (Ezra x. 6, in R.
V. Jehohanan).

10. Son of Tdbiah, the Ammonite, who
married a Jewess in the days of Nehemiah
(Neh. vi. 18, in R. V. Jehohanan).

11. A high priest (Neh. xii. 22), grandson
of Eliashib (23; cp. 11). In ver. 11, the name
appears as Jonathan, doubtless through cor-
ruption of the text. Josephus, who calls
him John, says that he killed his brother
Jesus in the temple, believing tliat he was
about to supersede him in the high-priest-
hood. This was in the reign of Artaxerxes
Mnemou, 405-362 B. c. (Antiq. xi. 7, 1 ; cp.
5,4).

John [Greek 'loannes, from Hebrew Yo-
hnnaii, Jehovah hath been gracious].

1. Father of Mattathias, the instigator of
the Maccabsean revolt (1 Mac. ii. 1).

2. Eldest son of Mattathias (1 Mac. ii. 2, in
A. V. Joannan). He was surnamed Gaddis
(in A. V. Caddis), a word of unknown mean-
ing. He was slain by the children of Jam-

bri, about 160 b. c. (ix. 36, 38, 42; and 2 Mac.
viii. 22, where he is erroneously called
Joseph).

3. A man who obtained special privileges
for the Jews from Antiochus the Great (2
Mac. iv. 11). He was son of Accos and father
of Eupolemus (1 Mac. viii. 17).

4. Son of Simon, the Maccabec (1 Mac.
xiii. 53 ; xvi. 1). He liecame known as John
Hyrcanus. About 142 B. c. he was appointed
by his father commander-in-chief of the army
(xiii. 53). He met ami defeated Cendebteus
in battle near Jamuia (xvi. 1-10). When his
father and two brothers were nmrdered in
135 E. c, and he himself was marked for
destruction, he took the oflensive against his
adversary and drove him from Judsea (Antiq.
xiii. 8, 1). He exercised the olhce of high
priest and civil governor from 135 to 105 B.
c. Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria, invaded
Judgea, and in the fall of 134 b. c. laid siege
to Jerusalem. After a year, the Syrians took
the city and dismantled its fortifications
('xiii. 8, 2 and 3). The death of Antiochus
afibrded John an opportunity to enlarge his
domains, and he conquered Samaria and
Idumsea. He also renewed the alliance with
the Romans and thereby secured the resto-
ration of Joppa and other towns to Jewish
authority. He also repaired the walls of
Jerusalem (1 Mac. xvi. 23). The civil war
which broke out in Syria in 125 B. c. and a
succession of Syrian kings from whom, for
one reason or another, he had nothing to
fear, enabled John to maintain his independ-
ence without ditiiculty. He favored the
Pharisees at the first, but when they unrea-
sonably clamored for his resignation of the
high-priesthood, he went over to the Sad-
ducees. With his death in 105 b. c. the power
of the Maccabees and, with it, of Israel rap-
idly waned. See Maccabees.

5. John the Baptist. The immediate fore-
runner of Jesus, whose way he was sent to
prepare. John was born of godly parents,
and was of full priestly descent, both his
father Zacharias and his mother Elisabeth
being descendants of Aaron (Luke i. 5). At
the same time Elisabeth, the Levite, was
cousin to the Virgin Mary, who belonged to
the tribe of Judah (3()). The residence of
John's parents was at a town in the hill
country of Judaea (39). Perhaps the town
was Juttah, but it is generally believed to-
have been Hebron. When Zacharias, in the
performance of his priestly duties, was burn-
ing incense in the temple at Jerusalem, the
angel Gabriel appeared to him, promised that
he should become the father of a son, directed
that the child should be named John, and be
brought up as a Nazirite, like Samson and
Samuel, and foretold that he should be filled
with the Holy Spirit from birth and prepare
the people for the Lord (Luke i. 8-17). John
was born in the year 5 b. c. He spent his
early years in seclusion in the wilderness near
his home, west of the Dead Sea (80). In

John

384

John

A. D. 26 he appeared as a jireaclier iu the
wihleruess adjoiuing the Jovdau. His minis-
try is believed to luive been exercised dur-
ing a Sabbatic year (iii. 1, 2), in which the
])eoi)le were relieved of labor in the fields
and had leisure to attend John's preaching.
He came to announce a new dispensation,
l)roclaiming the advent of the kingdom of
God and the l)aptism of the Holy Spirit
(Mat. iii. 2, 11), to prepare the people in in-
tellect and heart for the reception of Christ
(.3, 8), to i)oint out the Christ in the person
of Jesus ("John i. 15), and to show the union
of tlie two dispensations in the Christ, as the
Lamb of God (29, 36). He addressed him-
self with great eai-nestness and jjlainness of
speech to the immense multitudes who re-
paired to him from all quarters. He urged
the necessity of immediate and sincere re-
pentance, the special reason assigned being
that the kingdom of heaven was at hand.
The penitents, after confes.sing their sins,
were baptized by John in the Jordan ; and
he became distinguished from others of the
name by being called the Baptist. The bap-
tism by water which he administered typi-
fied cleansing from sin. He did not regard
it as enough, but directed his hearers to One
who should come afte-r him, whose shoe-
latchet he was not worthy to unloose, and
who would baptize them with the Holy
Ghost and fire (Mat. iii. 5-12). Notwith-
standing this confession of inferiority to
Jesus, our Lord sought baptism at his hands.
John remonstrated, which shows that he
knew Jesus to be the Messiah ; but he obeyed,
for he recognized his own subordinate i)osi-
tion (13-17). He knew Jesus from the teach-
ing of his parents, and the correctness of
this information was confirmed to him by the
visible descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus
at his baptism. By this sign he was author-
ized to declare Jesus to be the Christ (John
i. 32, 33). Malachi had foretold the appear-
ance of Elijah, the prophet, before the great
and terrible day of the Lord, to turn the
heart of the fathers to the children and the
heart of the children to their fathers. John
denied that he was Elijah in person (John i.
21) ; he defined his own mission and charac-
teristics by simply cjuoting Is. xl. 3. But
John came in the sjiirit and ])0wer of Elijah
(Mai. iv. 5, 6, with Luke i. 17), he was the
messenger sent to ])rei)are the way before
Christ (Mai. iii. 1, with Mark i. 2), and Jesus
applied these jiredictions to John (Mat. xi.
10, 14; xvii. 12, 13). There was a resem-
blance between the two men also iu their
cheap and coarse attire, which they wore to
symbolize the renouncement of ease and lux-
ury, and in their blunt manners, which ren-
dered them fitter for the wilderness than for
kings' courts (2 Kin. i. 8, and Mat. iii. 4; xi.
8 ; Mark i. 6). John had said of Jesus, "He
must increase, but I must decrease;" and
without jealousy he saw the fulfillment of
his prediction (John iii. 25-30). His public

ministry was short, but his popular success
was immense. At length, toward the close of
A. D. 27 or iu the early part of 28, having with
his usual fidelity reproved Herod the tetrarch
for living in sin with his brother Philip's
wife, he was committed to prison (Luke iii.
19, 20). While there, perplexed and impa-
tient at Christ's method of developing his
work, and perhaps feeling that he was for-
gotten while others were helped, he sent two
of his disciples to ask if Jesus were the prom-
ised Messiah. In reply Jesus pointed to his
works. When the two disciples departed,
Jesus took the opi)ortunity of passing a high
panegyric on John (Mat. xi. 2-15). John was
the greatest of the prophets in that he was
privileged to prepare the people for the
Christ's appearance and to point out the
Christ to them. The vindictivencss of the
adulteress Herodias caused John's death.
She persuaded her daughter, who had pleased
Herod by her dancing, to ask the head of the
Baptist. It was given her, and the headless
body was soon afterwards removed by John's
disciples and buried. Finding their master
gone, they remembered his testimony to the
Lamb of God, and became disciples of Jesus
(Mat. xiv. 3-12 ; Mark vi. 16-29 ; Luke iii.
19, 20). Josephus attributes the death of
John the Baptist to Herod's jealousy of his
great influence with the people. He says
also that the destruction of Herod's army in
the war with Aretas, which soon after oc-
curred, was generally considered a divine
judgment on the tetrarch for the murder of
John. The historian makes the place of the
Baptist's imprisonment and death the fort of
Machserus (Antiq. sviii. 5, 2). Machaerus,
now called Mekaur, is situated in the moun-
tains on the eastern side of the Dead Sea,
about 5 miles north of the Anion, and on the
top of a conical hill 3800 feet above the Dead
Sea. The wall of circumvallation of the old
stronghold still remains clearly traceable,
while inside are a deep well and two dun-
geons. One of the latter may have been the
prison in which John was confined.

6. Father of the apostle Peter (John i. 42;
xxi. 15-17, both E. V.). He is called Jonah
in Mat. xvi. 17. See Jonah.

7. John the apostle. A son of Zebedee,
and brother of that James who suffered mar-
tyrdom under Herod Agrippa I. (Mat. iv. 21 ;
Acts xii. 1, 2). It is reasonably inferred that
he was younger than James, and that his
mother was named Salome and was sister to
the mother of Jesus ; see James. His father
w'as a master fisherman on the sea of Galilee,
and his two sons aided him in his occupation
(Mark i. 19, 20). John had attended the
X)reachiiig of tlie Baptist at the Jordan, and
was evidently the unnamed disciple to whom
and Andrew John the Baptist pointed out
Jesus as the Lamb of God (John i. 35-40). He
doubtless accompanied Jesus back to Galilee,
and attended the wedding at Cana (ii. 1-11).
But he had not been summoned yet to per-

John

385

John, Epistles of

mauent fellowship with Jesus, and he re-
sumed his work ou the hike. While he was
so engaged with James, Jesus called them to
follow him (Mat. iv. '21, 22 ; Mark i. 19, 20).
Later they were appointed apostles (Mat. x.
2). Our Lord called James and John Boaner-
ges, .sous of thunder (Mark iii. 17), evidently
from a certain vehemence of disposition which
they po.ssessed. The impetuosity of their
natural temperament, not yet fully chastened
by grace, was shown when John rebuked one
who cast ou t demons in Christ's name, but who
was not one of the disciples (Luke ix. 49),
and when, finding their Master rejected in
a Samaritan village, they wished to call down
fire from heaven on the unbelieving inhabi-
tants (.52-56). A certain lapse into selfishness
was also to be laid to their charge when they
joined with their mother in petitioning for
the places of honor, the one on the right
Land and the other on the left hand of Jesus
in his future kingdom ; but at the same time
their zeal was manifested, for they declared
themselves ready to face death for him (Mat.
XX. 20-24 ; Mark x. 35-41). But the natural
defects of their character were overcome,
and their very vehemence, chastened by
grace, became an element of strength and
a glory. They early belonged to the in-
ner circle of Christ's friends, and John
showed an eminently loving and unself-
ish disposition, becoming in consequence
the disciple whom Jesus peculiarly loved,
and occupying the place next to Jesus
at the table (John xiii. 23 ; xix. 26 ; xx. 2 ;
xxi. 7, 20). John was one of the three apos-
tles whom Jesus honored above the rest bj'
selecting them to be present at the raising of
Jairus' daughter (Mark v. 37; Luke viii.
51), at the transfiguration (Mat. xvii. 1 ; Mark
ix. 2; Luke ix. 28), and at the agony in the
garden (Mat. xxvi. 37; Mark xiv. 33). He
Avas known to the Jewish high priest, and
he brought into the pontifical palace the
apostle Peter (John xviii. 16), whose part-
ner in fishing he once at least had been
on the sea of Gralilee (Luke v. 10). He
followed Jesus to the place of crucifixion,
and Jesus on the cross commended his mother
Mary to John's loving care, and the trust
was accepted and efticiently discharged, with
a sense of the high honor which it conferred
(John xix. 27). Ou the resurrection morn-
ing, when the women reported that the Lord
had risen, Peter and John ran together to
the sepulcher. John arrived first; but stood
at the opening, looking in. Peter boldly en-
tered (xx. 1-10). Shortly after this John re-
turned again for a time to his old means of
livelihood on the sea of Galilee (xxi. 2).
While there a misunderstanding as to the
meaning of a certain utterance of .Jesus led
to the unfounded notion that a promise had
been made that the apostle should never die
(xxi. 22). Subsequent to the ascension, he
was one of the 120 who met in the upper
room at Jerusalem (Acts i. 13). After Pente-

cost, he became Peter's colleague in active
missionary work (iii. 1). Both were imjiris-
oned by the Jewish authorities, and witnessed
a good confession (iv. 19). Both were sent
by their fellow-apostles to Samaria to aid in
the work begun by Philip (viii. 14). John
was one of the apostles who remained in Je-
rusalem during the persecutions that soon
assailed the infant church, and he was still
there, a pillar of strength, when Paul visited
the city after his first missionarv journey
(XV. 6;'Gal. ii. 9). Five books of 'the N. f.
are ascribed to him — the Fourth Gospel, three
epistles, and the book of Eevelation. In the
title of the last-named work the author is
called St. John the Divine. Tradition fixes
on Ephesus as the scene of his later minis-
trations, and it is probable that the seven
churches of Asia enjoyed his care (Eev. i. 11).
W^hen he penned the Revelation, probably in
A. D. 95, he was in the island of Patnias, an
exile for the word of God and the testimony
of Jesus (Rev. i. 9). The accession of Nerva
is said to have freed him from danger and
enabled him to return to Ephesus. Polycarp,
Papias, and Ignatius were his pupils. Poly-
carp's disciple Irenseus states that he con-
tinued to reside at Ephesus until his death
in the reign of Trajan.

8. John Mark. Mark the evangelist. Mark,
however, was only the surname ; John was
the proper, and probably the earlier, name
(Acts xii. 12, 25). See Mark.

9. A Jewish dignitary who took part with
Annas, Caiaphas, Alexander, and as many as
were of the kindred of the high priest,
which perhaps he was himself, in calling the
apostles Peter and John to account for their
preaching (Acts iv. 6).

John, E-pis'tles of.

The First Epistle of John is evidently by
the author of the Fourth Gospel. The same
characteristic phraseology is found in both
works and the same way of constructing
sentences. The epistle moreover plainly sup-
poses the readers' acquaintance with the gos-
pel. Both were evidently sent primarily to
the same churches, and in the opinion of
many the epistle was an accompaniment of
the gospel. The opening words of the epis-
tle suggest at once the gospel's prologue, and
parallels between the two books may be
found in nearly every verse of the epistle.
The epistle, moreover, has in view the world
as the antagonist of the church and the field
of its operations (ii. 2, 1.5-17 : iv. .3-5 ; v. 4. 5,
19), and warns against heresies which struck
at the integrity of Christ's person (ii. 18-26;
iv. 1-3 ; v. 6-10). These features harmonize
with the date and purjiose of the gospel. The
two works therefore clearly came from the
same hand and at about the .same time. The
epistle seeks to apply to Christian life the
truth whose historical revelation is recorded
in the gospel. It, no less than the gospel,
claims to be by an apostle. The writer was

Jolin, Epistles of

386

Jolin, Gospel according to St.

one of tliose who had lived in personal con-
tact with Christ (i. 1-li, 5; iv. 14) and writes
in an authoritative manner as became an
apostle (i. 4; ii. 1; iv. 6, 14). How deeply
he had absorbed the teaching of his Lord is
proved by the similarity of phraseology and
thought between the epistle and Christ's dis-
courses in the gospel. The Johannean author-
ship of the epistle is vouched for by Irenseus
ami the Muratori Fragment ; while earlier
quotations by Polycarp, Papias, etc., prove
its use in the church from the beginning of
the second century. Its train of thought
may be outlined as follows: After the intro-
duction (i. 1-4), in which John declares the
purpose of his ministry to be the declaration
to men of the manifestation of the life-giv-
ing, divine Word, in order that they may
have joyful fellowship in him with the orig-
inal apostles, he teaches that the character
of God, as learned from Christ, must deter-
mine tke character of theChi'istiau's inward
and outward life (i. 5-ii. 6) ; hence he urges
to love of the brethren, warns against love
of the world and beretical teaching (ii. 7-27).
He next in.sists (ii. 28-iii. 24) on the necessity
of doing righteousness, and so of abiding in
God, in view of the coming second advent of
Christ ; since at it our divine sonship will
be fully manifested and that sonship is
distinguished by obedience and love. Then
he reminds his readers (iv.) that the test of
Laving the .Si)irit of God is to be found in the
true confession of Christ as the incarnate Son
of God, in adherence to apostolic teaching, and
in love ; and that right faith in Jesus is the
condition of the whole spiritual life of love (v.
1-12). In the conclusion (v. 13-21) he tersely
summarizes the purpose of the epistle as in-
tended to confirm them in faith and com-
munion with God, and solemnly recites the
historical and spiritual facts on which their
eteriuil life steadfastly reposes.

The Second Epistle of John. The author
calls himself " the elder," and writes to '' the
elect lady and her children," expressing his
joy at the Christian life of her children and
warning her against heretical teachers. The
brevity of the epistle easily explains the
l)aucity of references to it in the earliest
writers. In fact the external evidence is
larger than would be expected. The Johan-
nciin autlnirshiji, however, is abundantly
proved by the remarkable coincidences of
laugtuige and tliought with 1 John and no
motive can be imagined for its forgery. Some
have supposed that by the elect lady was
meant a church ; others suppose her an indi-
vidual named Kuria (the Greek for lady).
It is pro))ab]y best to leave the name in-
definite.

Tlie Third Epistle of John. Another brief
letter addressed by the c'ld(-r to Gains (he
well-beloved, exiircssiug joy at the hosjiitality
to the brethren which Gains had shown, and
urging his friend to continue to imitate that
whicli is good. Keference is also made to a

certain Diotrephes who had opposed the
writer ; and on the other hand to a Demetrius
who is praised. It is impossible to identify this
Gains with any of that name mentioned in
the N. T. ; see Gaivs 3. He appears to have
been a prominent man in one of the churches
of Asia, but not an officer of the church.
This epistle is remarkably like the first and
second in style and thought : so that there is
no reason to doubt that the three were by the
same writer.

All John's epistles, with those of James,
Peter, and Jude, are frequently included in
the number of the so-called "catholic" or
" general " epistles, i. e. those addressed not
to particular churches or persons, but to large
or many communities. 1 John was no doubt
sent to the churches of Asia, among which
the Fourth Gospel was first issued. 'To 2 and
3 John, however, this title does not apply,
nor are they styled "general" in A. V. or
R. V. They were probably i)laced among
the "general " epistles simply because, being
brief, they were attached to 1 John.

G. T. P.

Jolin the Divine, The Revelation of St.

See IvEVELATIOX.

John, Gos'pel according to St.

The title prefixed to the Fourth Gospel, in
accordance with the universal belief of the
early church that the book was written by
the apostle John. Like the other gospels it
does not mention the writer's name, but both
internal and external considerations support
the traditional belief.

I. Internal evidence. (1) The writer was
one of the apostles. This appears from his
use of the first person plural (i. 14 and jier-
haps xsi.24) and from many items of minute
description, especially concerning the impres-
sion made on the disciples bv events in
Christ's life, etc. (i. 37 ; ii. 11, 17; iv. 27, 54 ;
ix. 2; xi. 8-16; xii. 4-6, 21, 22; xiii. 23-26;
xviii. 15 ; xix. 26, 27, 35 ; xx. 8), and from
the explicit statement in xxi. 24. (2) He
mentions a "disciple whom Jesus loved"
(xiii. 23; xix. 26 ; xx. 2 ; xxi. 7, 20, 21). who,
in xxi. 24, is said to be the author. All the
apostles, however, are mentioned by name in
the book except Matthew, James the son of
Aljilueus, Simon Zelotes, and the sons of
Zebedee. The three former did not belong
to the narrower circle of intinuite disciples,
to one of whom this title would alone be
applicable, and James the son of Zebedee
died early (Acts xii. 2). John, therefore,
alone remains. (3) That the writer was a
Jew is proved incontestably by the strongly
Hebraistic character of his style in writing
Greek. (4) He shows intimate acquaintance
with the geography, history, and customs of
tlie Jews during Christ's ministrv {e. g. i. 21,
28, 46; ii. 6; iii. 23; iv. 5, 27, "R. V.; v. 2,
3; vii. 40-52; ix. 7; x. 22, 23; xi. 18; xviii.
28 ; xix. 31), and his book gives more personal
details than any of the gospels. The internal

John, Gospel according to St. 387 John, Gospel according to St.

evidence thus harmonizes strikingly with the
Johannean authorship. Nothing stronger
coukl he asked, short of an exjilicit state-
ment. The latter, in fact, is almost given in
xxi. 24, for, aecording to the unanimous tes-
timony of early Christian history, John was
the only apostle who lived long enough to
give rise to the helief that he would survive
till the second advent. Chap. xxi. is evi-
dently an addition by the author to his work,
which was originally intended to close with
chap. XX. It amounts substantially to an
atiirmation that St. John was the author of
the wholi' treatise.

II. E.rteninl evidence. The testimony of
Irenseus (born about A. D. 115-125 and
bishop of Lyons in the last part of the
second century), who was a disciple of
Polj'carp, who was a disciple of St. John, is
explicit that John wrote this Gospel in Ejihe-
sus after the other gospels had been issued.
This is of itself sufiicient evidence. It is
confirmed, however, by a line of testimonies
from the very close of the apostolic age. The
First Epistle was plainly written by the au-
thor of the Gospel, and its apo.stolic authority
is attested by its use by Polycarp (A. D. 110)
and Papias (a. d. 130-140).' The Ignatian
epistles (a. d. 100) show that the Gospel was
familiar and authoritative to the churches of
Asia Minor at the beginning of the second
century. Justin (a. d. 150) used it freely,
and quotes from it. evidently considering it
one of "the memoirs of the apostles," which
he .says were called gospels, and were written
by the apostles and their comjianions. In the
Teaching of the Apo.stles the use of the
Fourth Gospel is thought by many to be im-
plied ; and, while that is perhaps doubtful,
the more recently recovered apocryphal Gos-
pel of Peter shows that the Fourth Gospel
formed with the other three the narrative
upon the basis of which the pseudo-Peter
wrote. Tatian's Diatessaron was a harmony
of the gospels used in the churches, and is a
combination of our four. The MS. of Syriac
gospels, recently found by Mrs. Lewis, proves
that in the second century our four gospels
were the accepted ones in the Syrian church.
Finally, it is certain that even the earliest
heretics (Gnostic) of the second century ac-
cepted the Fourth Gospel as apostolic. Thus
external evidence amply confirms the belief
that the Fourth Gospel was written by St.
John, and, as such, was received as authori-
tative by the church from the very beginning
of the post-apostolic age. The evidence also
points to its composition in Asia Minor (tra-
dition says Ephesus) in the last quarter of
the first century. The opponents of Jesus
are called simply the Jews (i. 19 ; ii. 18 ;
V. 10; vii. 15, etc.), explanations are given
about the Jewish feasts (vi. 4 ; vii. 2 ; xi. 55 ;
xix. 31), the sea of Galilee is explained by
its gentile name, sea of Tiberias (vi. 1),
and the designation in the prologue of Christ
as the Word of God points to a period when

Christianity was confronted with such philo-
sophical tendencies as we know existed iu
Asia Minor. This explains also the ai)parent
purpose of the book. It was to give Christ's
testimony to himself as the incarnate Son of
God and Saviour of the world (xx. 30, 31).
It assumes acquaintance with the other gos-
pels and intends t(j suj)plement them ; see
Gospel. They had not given those great
discourses of the Lord, in which he had re-
plied to the attacks of the Jews ujjou his di-
vine claims or had unfolded to his disciples
the mysteries of his being and their spiritual
relations to himself. This self-testimony of
Jesus John determined to set down, esi)ecial-
ly since heresies had risen which denied
some aspects of the person of Christ. With
this he combined also, as was natural, many
items of personal reminiscence. The result
was to provide the church with a comj)lete
portrayal of her divine-human Lord.

John's Gospel begins with a prologue (i. 1-
18), in which the apostle summarizes the
great truth about to be shown iu the life of
Christ, viz. the existence of a second divine
person whose office it is to reveal God and
who is, therefore, called the Word, who, be-
sides being the universal source of life and
light to creation, became incarnate as Jesus
Christ, and thus to those who believed, re-
vealed God and imparted salvation. He
then relates, 1. The opening testimonies to
Jesus given by John the Baptist and by Jesus
himself to his first disciples (i. 19-ii. 11).

2. Christ's revelation of himself in a series of
acts and, still more, of discourses addressed
to inquirers or to his adversaries (ii. 12-xii.
50). This includes (a) his testimony at his
first passover (ii. 12-25), and the discourse
with Nicodemus (iii. 1-21), together with
the renewed testimony of the Baptist (22-
36) ; (b) the conversation with the woman of
Samaria (iv. 1-42) ; (c) the second miracle in
Galilee (43-54) ; {(J) Christ's defense to the
Jews of his divine dignity and authority (v.) ;
ie) his presentation of himself as the bread
of life (vi.) ; (/) his renewed defense of his
authority and dignity at the feast of taber-
nacles (vii., viii.) ; (g) the healing of the
blind man and parable of the good shepherd
(ix. 1-x. 21) ; {}>) Christ's final testimony to
the Jews (22-42) ; {,}) the raising of Laz-
arus and its consequences (xi.) ; {k) the tes-
timony given at Bethany, in the triumphal
entry, and at the visit of the Greeks (xii.).

3. Christ's revelation of him.self in connec-
tion with his death and resurrection (xiii.
1-xxi. 25). This includes (a) his last dis-
courses with his disciples (xiii.-xvii.) ; (h) his
arrest, trial, and crucifixion, in which he
bore witness, particularly before Pilate, to
his person and work (xviii., xix.) ; (c) his
resurrection and certain testimonies con-
nected with it (xx.. xxi.). The result is to
show that in the human Jesus there was the
eternal Son of God. who by his person,
teaching, and redeeming work has revealed

Joiada

388

Jonah

God and secured eternal life to those who
receive him. St. John thus represents the
mission of Jesus as the climax of God's self-
revelation and as the procurement for be-
lievers of tliat light which consists in knowl-
edge of the highest truth and of that life
which consists in spiritual union with God,
which together constitute the perfect good
and the everlasting salvation. "These
[things]" he says, " are written, that ye might
believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of
God ; and that believing ye might have life
through his name " (xx. 31).

G. T. P.

Joi'a-da [Jehovah hath known].

1. A son of Paseah, who repaired a gate of
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6 ; in A. V. Jehoiada).

2. A high priest, great-grandson of Jeshua
(Neh. xii. 10).

Joi'a-kim [Jehovah doth establish].

A high i)riest, son of Jeshua (Neh. xii. 10,
12, 21-2()), in the reign of [Arta]xerxes (An-
tiq. xi. 5, 1).

Joi'a-rib or Jehoiarib, the two forms freely
interchanging in Hebrew [Jehovah defends].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family
formed the first of the twenty-four courses
into which David divided the priests (1 Chron.
xxiv. 7), and it dwelt at Jerusalem (ix. 10) ;
see Jehoiarib.

2. A chief of the priests who returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 6,7). In
the next generation a father's house bore
this name (19; cp. 1 Mac. ii. 1, Joarib being
the Greek form).

3. A man of understanding who was re-
turning from Babylon with Ezra and was
sent with others from the encampment on
the river of Ahava to secure Levites and
Nethinini for the service of the temple
(Ezra viii. 16, 17).

4. A man of Judah, descended from a cer-
tain Zechariah (Neh. xi. 5).

Jok'de-am [perhajis, possessed by people].

A town in the mountains of Judah (Josh.
XV. ."")()). Site unknown.

Jo'kim.

A mail of Judah, family of Shelah (1
Chron. iv. 22).

Jok'me-am [the people is brought to-
gether] .

A town of Ephraim (1 Chron. vi. 68), ap-
parently near Abel-mchohih (1 Kin. iv. 12,
where A. \., contrary to the Hcl)rew t(>xt,
calls it Jokneam). The Kohathite Levites
were given residence in it (1 Chron. vi. 66,
68). Instead of this town, Kibzaim is given
in Josh. xxi. 22, and is commonly believed to
be another name of the same place.

Jok'ne-am [the i)oople is i)ennitted to
]iossi'ss, or it is allowed to possess jjcople].

1. A town on or near mount Carmel (Josh,
xii. 22). Th(! boundary line of the tribe of
Zebulun extended to the river that is before
Jokneam (xix. 11). It was given with its

suburbs to the Merarite Levites (xxi. 34).
The identification jiroposed by Eli Smith and
Eobinsou is generally accepted, namely Tell
Keimun, probably the Cyamon of Judith vii.
3, on the southern margin of the plain of
Esdraelon, on the slopes of Carmel, a little
south of the Kishon, and about ir> miles
northwest by west of Jezreel. It commands
the main pass from the western portion of
Esdraelon to the more southern plain.

2. A place mentioned in A. V. of 1 Kin. iv.
12 ; but see Jokmeam.

Jok'sban [perhaps, a fowler].

The jirogeuitor of a tribe descended from
Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 1,2). From
Jokshan sprang Sheba and Dedan (3). Exact
place of settlement unknown.

Jok'tan [Hebrew Yoktav, little, small].

A person or tribe descended from Shem
through Eber and from whom thirteen tribes
of Arabia sprang (Gen. x. 25, 29 ; 1 Chron. i.
19-23). The Mussulmans correctly or incor-
rectly call Joktan Kaht/ni.

Jok'tbe-el [probably, subjection to God or
it is made to serve God].

1. A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 38). The identification with the ruin
Kutlaneh, about 4 miles east by south of
Ekron, and 4 west-southwest of Gezer is
groundless.

2. A name given by Amaziah. king of
Judah, to Selah, now Petra, when he had
taken it in war (2 Kin. xiv. 7).

Jo'na. See Jonah 2.
Jon'a-dab and Jebonadab [Jehovah is
bounteous].

1. Son of David's brother Shimeah (2 Sam.
xiii. 3).

2. A son of Eechab, the Kenite (Jer. xxxv.
6 ; cp. 1 Chron. ii. 55). He became head of
the tribe and gave character to it by his rule
requiring his people to dwell in tents, refrain
from agriculture, and abstain from wine (Jer.
xxxv. 6, 7) in order to ]n-eserve jirimitive
simi)licity of manners. Jehu, finding that
Jonadab sympathized with his work of sup-
pressing Baal worship, took him to Samaria,
where he aided Jehu in putting out of Baal's
temple all who were not priests of that god,
in preparation for the massacre which was to
ensue (2 Kin. x. 15, 23).

Jo'nab, in A. V. of N. T. Jonas, tM'ice
Jona, the Greek genitive case (Mat. xvi. 17 ;
John i. 42) [a dove].

1. A prophet of Israel, a sou of Amittai,
and citizen of Gath-hepher in Galilee, who
before the close of the reign of Jeroboam II.
foretold Israel's recovery of its borders from
the entering of Hamath to the sea of the
plain (2 Kin. xiv. 25; Jon. i. 1).

The book of Jonah is the fifth in order of
the minor prophetic l)ooks in the Hebrew
original, in the Septuagint, and in the Eng-
lish Bible. It may be divided into three sec-
tions :—

Jonah

389

Jonah

I. Jonah's disobedience (i.). He was bid-
den to go to Nineveh and ery against it. But
he desired the destruetion of the city, proba-
bly because its punishment woukl humble an
enemy of Israel ; and he feared lest it should
repent at his message and be spared to the
destruction of his nation. Accordingly he
took ship at Joppa to flee to Tarshish. A great
storm arose. The ship was in danger. At
length the sailors cast lots to ascertain on
whose account the storm had been sent. The
lot fell upon Jonah. He told them that he
was a worshiper of the God of heaven
who had made the sea and the dry land ; and
that, if they would cast him overboard, the
sea would become calm. They reluctantly
obeyed. The sea became quiet ; and the
prophet, who had disappeared in the depths,
was swallowed by a great fish which the Lord
had prepared. II. Jonah's prayer (ii.). Sur-
prised at finding himself alive in the midst
of the sea, the prophet gave thanks to God
for his present escape from death and grate-
fully expressed the hope of ultimate deliver-
ance. The fish at length vomited him upon
the dry land. III. Jonah's message and its
results (iii., iv.). Bidden a second time to go
to Nineveh, he obeyed and delivered his mes-
sage. The Ninevites publicly repented and
God spared the city. At this Jonah was dis-
pleased ; not that his prophecy had been nulli-
fied by the repentance of the people, for he
and his hearers expected that it would be
(iii. 9; iv. 2), but jirobably because he felt
that the doom of his own country was sealed.
But by the withering of a gourd the Lord
taught him the lesson of divine compassion
on man and beast generally, irrespective of
man's relation to the church.

It has been urged that the book of Jonah
nowhere claims to have been written by that
prophet. But the title (i. 1) is like the title
of Hosea, Joel, Micah, Zephaniah, Haggai,
and Zechariah, books of which the author-
ship is not disputed. It is urged further that
the book was written long after Jonah's time,
because in the prayer ascribed to him are
some quotations from late psalms (ii. .3 with
Ps. xlii. 7 ; 5 with Ps. Ixix. 1 ; 9 with Ps. 1.
14). But the i>salms may equally well con-
tain quotations from Jonah. The prophecy
may be dated before or shortly after the close
of the reign of Jeroboam II. (2 Kin. xiv. 25).
It perhaps belongs chronologically after Amos
(Amos i. 1) and probably,before the vigorous
reign of Tiglath-pileser over Assyria, which
began in 745 b. c.

The narrative has been variously regarded
as myth, legend, parable, history. The chief
interpretations are — 1. The allegorical or par-
abolical. This conception of the prophecy is
much in vogue, for it avoids the miracle. It
interprets Jonah as a type of Israel fleeing
from the duty imposed on the nation to bear
witness to the world for God. The sea typi-
fies, as frequently, the raging nations; the
sleep of Jonah represents Israel's sloth to ful-

fill its mission to the gentiles, for which it is
delivered into captivity to the world, i)u( yet
is preserved alive; having been discii)line(l,
it is ready to engage in its apjjointed mission,
but it is still narrow and needs to be taught
the wideness of God's mercy. In sujtport of
this view it is j)ointed out that .Jeremiah
speaks of Nebuchadnezzar under tlie figure
of a dragon swallowing up Israel, but com-
pelled to di.sgorge his prey (Ii. 34), and Hosea
represents the exile of Israel as lasting three
days (vi. 2). If. however, there was any i)or-
rowing at all, Jeremiah is as likely to liave
borrowed from Jonah as vice versa. Hosea
was a contemporary prophet with Jonaii iu
the northern kingdom, and might draw a
lesson from Jonah's experience, if there is
any interdependence of Hos. vi. 2 and .Ton. i.
17. 2. The historical. The miraculous ele-
ment is magnified or minimized according to
individual judgment and knowledge. The
conception of the narrative as historical has
these supi)orts: (1) The form of the book is
historical and has left this impression on its
readers. (2) Jonah himself was unquestion-
ably a historical personage. (3) While it is
conceivable that the words of Christ regard-
ing Jonah in the belly of the fish and at
Nineveh do not imply his belief in the events,
it is highly probable that they do. especially
since Jonah was a real person (Mat. sii. 39,
40 : Luke xi. 29, .30). (4) The narrative was
regarded by the Jews as historical (Antiq. ix.
10, 2). (5) The repentance of the Ninevites
is credible. They were given to superstition ;
national distress and a low state of tlie em-
pire would dispose them to listen to a warn-
ing from the gods ; the arrival from a for-
eign country of a strange prophet, of whose
peculiar history they may have heard, was
calculated to afTectthem; the Spirit of (iod
worketh when and where he will. It is
urged, indeed, against the historical charac-
ter of the book that a jiermanent conversion
of the Ninevites did not take place. Cer-
tainly it did not, and it is nowhere asserted
that it did. The statement merely is that
the men of that generation repented under
the lead of their king. So the men of Judah
in Hezekiah's and .Josiah's reigns sanctified
themselves under the leadershij) of those
kings. It is further urged that the book was
.scarcely regarded as a historical narrative
when the Hebrew canon was arranged, or it
would have been placed among the historical,
and not among the prophetical, books. But
the recorded events are typical and proi)lietic,
like the events narrated in Zech. vi. 9-15.
And what is more, the Hebrew canon does
not make the distinction between historical
and prophetical books. The prose writings
of official prophets are grouped by them-
selves. Omitting Ruth, the books from Joslina
to 2 Kings inclusive are classed as prophetic.
This collection forms continuous history, and
it is immediately followed by a second group
denominated prophetic, and containing all

Jonam

390

Jonathan

the remaining books which bear the name of
an official iiroi)het. Here Jonah rightly be-
longs, and here the book has been placed. See
Canon.

2. Father of Simon Peter (Mat. xvi. 17;
John i. 42; xxi. 15). In R. V. of John
Simon's father is called John on the authority
of manuscripts.

jo'nam, in A. V. Jonan, the reading of
variant texts [perhaps a modification of the
Hebrew YoJianan, Jehovah hath been gra-
cious] .

An ancestor of Christ, who lived about two
hundred years after David (Luke iii. 30).

Jo'nas. See Jonah.

Jon'a-tlian [Jehovah has given].

1. A Levite, son or remoter descendant of
Gershom, son of Moses (Judg. xviii. 30, R. V.).
He was doubtless the Levite who had so-
journed at Bethleheni-judah, but had left
that town to seek another residence, and,
when passing through Ephraini, was hired
by Micah to officiate as priest before an image
of Jehovah (xvii. 7-13). When the Dauites
were on their way to seek new settlements
in the north of Palestine, they robbed Micah
of his image, and persuaded his mercenary
priest to go with them, tempting his ambition
by promising that he should be the priest,
not of a single household, but of a tribe.
They kept their word, and Jonathan became
the fir.st of a line of ])riests who worshiped
at the shrine of the stolen idol all the time
that the tabernacle was in Sliiloh, till the
captivity of the land or district (Judg. xviii.
3-6, 14-31). To avoid the dishonor accruing
to Moses from the idolatry of his descendant,
a nun was in,serted in the Hebrew word for
Moses, which changed it into Manasseh (.30,
A. v.). The inserted letter was not incor-
porated into the text, but was suspended above
the line.

2. Eldest son of king Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 49 ;
cp. XX. 31). Whew first mentioned, after his
father had reigned two years, he is in com-
mand of 1000 men, while Saul leads other
2000. Jonathan with his forces attacked and
destroyed the Philistine garrison, or rather
deputy, at Geba (1 Sam. xiii. 3). Shortly
afterwards the young prince, attended only
by his armor-bearer, climbed up an ascent
between two rocks, called Bozez and Seneh,
and suddenly assailing the first Philistines
he met, created a panic in their army, which
became so great that in their fright the sol-
diers turned their arms against each other
(xiv. 1-23). The same day Saul had almost
put his heroic son to death for having eaten
honey in a wood, being ignorant that the
king had pronounced a rash imprecatio7\
against any one who should partake of food
that day. But the people interfered, and
would not allow Jonathan's life to be sacri-
ficed (24-46). When David, then a young
man and known but to few, achieved his
great victory over Goliath, Jonathan, who

was of a singularly unselfish nature, con-
ceived a warm friendship for the hero
(xviii. 1). and would not give it up, even
when Saul pointed out that his friend might
one day supersede him on the throne. During
Saul's persecution of David, Jonathan com-
municated with his yc)uthful associate, giving
him most valuable intelligence of the king's
feelings and movements, till at length the
tyrant, provoked by what he considered his
unfilial conduct, threw a javelin at him, as
he had more than once done at David (xviii. -
XX.). On this last occasion Jonathan was
seeking to discover whether a reconciliation
of Saul with David was possible. David was
lying in concealment in the fields waiting
for word. The two friends anticipated the
difficulty Jonathan might have in conveying
this information to David, especially in case
Saul should be evilly minded toward the son
of Jesse, for Jonathan was known to favor
David, and Saul and the party opposed to
David would watch Jonathan to prevent him
from communicating with David and a .sec-
ond time frustrating their plans. Accord-
ingly, to disarm suspicion, Jonathan arranged
to go out with company, and as though to
hunt, and by means of arrows to give a sign
to David. He did so, and then, finding that
suspicion had been allayed and that he was
no longer observed, he sent the boy back to
the town with the bow and arrows, and re-
mained for a final interview with David.
The two friends met once after this in the
wood of Ziph (1 Sam. xxiii. 16-18). Jona-
than was killed, with two of his brothers
and their father, at the battle of Gilboa, and
his bones, like theirs, were affixed to the
wall of Beth-shean, till the men of Jabesli-
gilead removed them and gave them honor-
able burial (xxxi. 1, 11-13 ; 1 Chron. x. 2, 8-
12). David deeply lamented his death (2
Sam. i. 17-27). Jonathan left behind him a
son called Mephibosheth and Merib-baal, who
was lame, his nurse having let him fall from
her arms when he was five years old, as
she was running away with him in terror
when the news of Gilboa came (2 Sam. iv. 4).
David ultinuitely showed him great kindness
for Jonathan's sake, and the line of his de-
scendants is traceable for several generations
in increasing numbers, as if all danger of its
extinction had ])assed away (2 Sam. ix. 1-13;
1 Chron. viii. .33-40; ix. 39-44).

3. Uncle of king David. He M'as a coun-
selor, a man of understanding, and a scribe
(1 Chron. xxvii. .32). Some expositors believe
that in this passage the Hebrew word for
uncle is used in a general sense for relation,
and they identify this counselor with David's
nephew Jonathan (R. Y., margin).

4. Son of the high priest Abiathar. He
was one of two young men who concealed
themselves at En-rogel, near Jerusalem, dur-
ing Absalom's rebellion, and sent David in-
formation of everything passing in the city
(2 Sam. XV. 36 ; xvii. 15-22). When Adonijah

Jonathan

391

Joppa

attomptod to usiirj) the tliruue and was cele-
liratiiii; a IVust, Jonathan hroiiijht the news
that Solomon had l)een prochiinied king, a
piece of intelligence which led to the hreak-
iiig up of the assemblage (1 Kin. i. 41-49).

.5. A son of David's brotlier Shimeah, and
victor over one of Goliath's sons, as David
bad been over Goliath himself {2 Sam. xxi.
2L 22).

i). One of David's mighty men, son of
Shage or rather Shammah the Hararite (1
Chron. xi. 34; cp. 2 Sam. xxiii. 11). The
text of 2 -Sam. xxiii. 32, 33 is to be emended
by comparison with Chronicles.

7. A son of Kareah. After the capture of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, he placed
himself under the protection of Gedaliah
(Jer. xl. 8). The name is not found in the
corresponding passage (2 Kin. xxv. 23). Per-
haps it accidentally dropped out of Kings or
erroneously crept into the text of Jeremiah.

8. Father of that El)ed, head of the house
of Adin, who with fiftj' males accompanied
Ezra to Palestine (Ezra viii. (i).

9. A son of Asaliel, who opposed Ezra's
proposition that the Jews should put away
their foreign wives (Ezra x. 1.^, R. V.).

10. A Levite of the lineage of Asaph (Neh.
xii. 35 ; cp. xi. 15, 17).

11. A priest, head of a father's house in the
days of the high priest Joiakim (Xeh. xii. 14).

12. A high priest, son of Joiada (Neh. xii.
11). See JoH.\x.\N 11.

13. Youngest son of the priest Mattathias
(1 Mac. ii. 5). When his brother Judas Mac-
eabfeus was slain in battle in 160 b. c, Jona-
than was chosen his successor (ix. 23-31).
The forces at his disposal were, however, too
few for offensive operations against the
Syrians, and he withdrew into the wilder-
ness of Tekoa (33). He was surnamed
Apphus (ii. 5), which is thought to mean
Dissembler, and to have been given him on
account of his tirst exploit, in which he laid
an ambush for the children of Jambri and
slew them because they had killed his
brother John (ix. 37-41). On a Sabbath day
in 157 B. c. he repulsed an attack of the
SjTians under Bacchides on the Jordan,
probably on the eastern bank ; but after the
victory he and his followers leaped into the
river and swam to the other side (ix. 4.3-48),
where they remained (58). outwitting the
attempts which were made to assassinate
their leader (60, 61). Jonathan and Simon
afterwards fortified themselves at Bethbasi
in the wilderness, probably of Tekoa ; and
when Bacchides besieged the fortress, Jona-
than left Simon to defend the place, while
he himself ravaged the .surrounding country
(62, 66). Bacchides was so straitened that
he made peace with Jonathan and withdrew
from Judfea (67-72). Jonathan took up his
residence at Michmash, and began to judge
the people (73). When Alexander Balas re-
volted against Demetrius, king of Syria, the
latter hastened to secure Jonathan as an

ally, and gave him authority to gather
troops. The Syrians who were still in the
strongholds of Judsea lied, and Jonathan en-
tered Jerusalem in 1.52 B. C. (x. 1-14). Alex-
ander, equally desirous to have the support
of Jonathan, appointed him high ]»ricst of
the Jews and king's friend, and joiuithan
put on the pontifical robes at the feast of
tabernacles in 152 b. c. (15-21). Upon hear-
ing of this event, Demetrius hastened to
make further concessions to the Jews (22-45).
Jonathan, however, gave no credence to the
words of Demetrius; and Alexander, when
he secured the throne of Syria in 150 B. c.
appointed him governor of Judiea (46, 59-
66). In 148-7 B. c. Demetrius II. raised
the standard of revolt against Alexander.
Demetrius was assisted by ApoUonius, who
sent a threatening message to Jonathan.
Jonathan seized Joppa and defeated Apol-
lonius in the neighboring plain (67-87).
When Alexander's father-in-law, Ptolemy,
intervened in the war, Jonathan showed his
friendship and accompanied him to the bor-
ders of Syria (xi. 1-7). Ptolemy proved
treacherous to Alexander and placed Deme-
trius on the throne. Jonathan was able to
secure the friendship of the new king, and
rendered him great service by a contingent
of 3000 Jewish soldiers, who quelled an in-
surrection against Demetrius in Antioch.
Demetrius proved false, and Jonathan sided
with the young Antiochus and fought suc-
cessfully mth the troops of Demetrius near
Kedesh in Galilee. Jonathan now sought
the aid of the Romans and Spartans (xii. 1,
2) ; he also undertook aggressive operations
against Demetrius, and defeated his troops
and allies in the vicinity of Hamath (24-35).
But Tryphon, who had championed the
cause of the young Antiochus. now lifted up
his hand against his master and .sought to
destroy Jonathan also. He persuaded the
Jewi.s.h leader to come with but a small body-
guard to Ptolemais. When Jonathan en-
tered, the gates of the city were closed,
Jonathan's escort was put to the sword, he
himself was seized and kept for a time a
prisoner and finally slain in Gilead in 143
B. c. (.39-48; xiii.' 12-23). The bones of
Jonathan were recovered and buried in the
family sepulcher at Modin (2.5-27).

14. A general who, at the command of
Simon Maccabeus, took po.ssession of Joppa.
He was a son of Absalom (1 'Mac. xiii. 11).

Jo'nath e'lem re-ho'kim, in A. V. Jonath-
elem-recliokim [the siknt dove of them that
are afar off or, by changing the pronuncia-
tion of the middle word, the dove of the dis-
tant terebinths].

Probably the air to which Ps. hi. was to
be set (Ps. Ivi. title).

Jop'pa, in A. V. once Japlio (Josh. xix. 46),
and so twice on margin of R. V. of O. T.,
this being the Hebrew form, while Joppa is
derived from the Greek [beauty].

Jorah

393

Joram

A town in Palcstiue whieli was assigned to
Dan (Josh. xix. 4(j). It was tlu> seaport of
Jerusaloni, to which the wood cut down in
Lebanon for the building of Solomon's temple
was floated from Tyre (2 Chron. ii. 1(5). Jonah
embarked at .Ioi>iia in a ship about to sail to
Tarshish. when he made his vain attenijit to
escape from Jehovah (Jon. i. 3). When the
temple was rebuilt, after the return from
Biibylon under Zerubbabel and Jeshua, rafts
of cedar trees were again lloated from Tyre
to Joppa (Kzra iii. 7. R. V.). The t'hristian
woman Tabitha lived her charitable life and
died at Jojipa and was raised from the dead
by Peter (Acts ix. 36-42). The miracle re-
sulted in many converts to Christianity being
made in the place. The apostle remained
with them for some time, lodging in the house
of one Simon a tanner (43; x. 5. 6); and it
was to Joppa that the servants of Cornelius
came to invite Peter to Ca;sarea (7-48).
Joppa still flourishes. It is called by the
Arabs Yafa, and by the English Jaffa. A
ledge of rocks runs out from the promontory
on which the houses stand, and makes a
harbor which, though small and dangerous,
is still the only one on the coast for many
miles north and south. The harbor is sur-
rounded by rocks, with two entrances, the
most northerly one rendered dangerous by
.sandbanks, the other, which is only 10 feet
wide, by its proximity to rocks. Only a few
small vessels can find accommodation within
its confined area. The town stands on a
rocky hill of oldong form on successive plat-
forms produced by strata reposing the one on
the other. In the vicinity are fine gardens,
watered by Persian water wheels, and con-
taining orange, lemon, apricot, quince, and
other fruit trees. It has various soap works,
and tanneries still exist upon the seashore.
It is the gate of entrance into Palestine for
pilgrims from all quarters, and is the western
terminus for the Jaffa and Jerusalem railway.

Jo'rah. See H.\riph.

Jo'rai.

A Gadite (1 Chron. v. 13).

Jo'ram and Jehoram, the forms being in-
terchangeable in Hebi-ew [Jehovah is high].

1. A son of Toi, king of Hamath, who was
.sent by his father to congratulate David on
his victory over Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 10).
Called in 1 Chron. xviii. 10 Hadoram. which
in this case probably means "the god Addu
or Hadad is exalted.''

2. A Levite, descended from Moses' son
Eliezer (1 Chron. xxvi. 2."): cp. xxiii. 1,5, 17).

3. Son of Ahab, king of Israel. On the
death of his elder brother, Ahaziah, he suc-
ceeded to the throne 8.53 B. c, and reigned
till 842 B. c. He put away the image of Baal
which his father had made, but adhered to
the calf worship instituted by Jeroboam. On
the death of Ahab, Mesha, king of Moab, had
rebelled and withheld tribute. To recover
his dominion over Moab, Joram obtained the

assistance of king Jehoshaphatof Judah, and
of the Edoniite ruler. As the confederates
were marching around the southern jiortion
of the Dead Sea, they were nearly perishing
with thirst, but Elisha bade them dig trenches,
and on the following niorning water came
rushing down the wady and filled the
trenches. Not only did the water supjdy
the needs of the Israelites, but, looking ruddy
under the rays of the morning sun, was mis-
taken by the Moabites for blood ; and. suppos-
ing that the Israelites had fallen out among
themselves, they rushed to the spoil. Joram
and his allies rose again.st them when they
were thus off their guard, and jjut them to
flight, and then overran Moab, but without
being able permanently to reduce it to sub-
jection (2 Kin. iii. 1-27) ; .see Moabite
Stone. Joram was the king to whom the
Syrian sovereign sent Naanian, with a letter,
to be cured of his lei)rosy (v. 1-27). It was
Joram to whom Elisha communicated every
movement of the Syrian invaders, and who
had them in his power at Samaria, and
by Elisha's advice sent them home unmo-
lested (vi. 8-23). He was king during that
siege of Samaria which brought on the
dreadful famine, and was incompetent and
W'icked enough to vow vengeance against
Elisha, his best ally (31-33). Joram's end
was tragic. Wounded at Eamoth-gilead^
which he was besieging, he returned to Jez-
reel to be cured of his wounds, and had for
his guest Ahaziah, king of Judah, who had
come to visit him in his sickness. The two
kings rode out together, each in his chariot,
when the ruthless Jehu drove furiously up
and slaughtered them both. The murder of
Joram took place in the plot of ground which
had once constituted Xaboth's vineyard, and
the body of the king was cast out of the
chariot at that .spot to be devoured by dogs,
thus fulfilling part of the prophecy against
Ahab's apostate liouse. With Joram the
dynasty of Omri ceased, and that of Jehu be-
gan (ix. 1-x. 17).

4. One of the priests sent by Jehoshaphat
to instruct the people (2 Chron. xvii. 8).

.5. Son of Jehoshaphat. From about 854
B. c. he was associated with his father in the
government, and in 849 B. c, in the fifth
year of Jehoram, king of Israel, the reins of
government were transferred entirely to his
hands (2 Kin. viii. 16 ; cp. i. 17 ; iii. 1). No
sooner did he feel himself secure on his
throne than he murdered all his brothers and
some other princes of Judah (2 Chron. xxi.
1-4). He had for his wife a daughter of
Ahab. who led him into gross forms of
heathenism, as Jezebel had seduced Ahab (2
Kin. viii. 18; 2 Chron. xxi. 6, 11). As in
other cases, his departure from Jehovah
brought with it adversity. The Edomites
rose in rebellion, and though he gained a
victory over them, yet this did not prevent
their achieving their independence. Libnah
also revolted, and successfully (2 Kin. viii.

Jordan

394

Jordan

20-22; 2 Chron. xxi. 8-10). Philistine and
Arab marauders entered Judah and plun-
dered the palace, carrying off the king's wives
and children, with the single exception of
Jehoahaz, or Ahaziah, the youngest boy (2
Chron. xxi. 16, 17; xxii. 1). A writing from
the prophet Elijah was handed to the king,
denouncing his apostasy and his wickedness,
and threatening him with painful disease and
death ; see Elijah. He was soon after-
wards seized with dysentery, which became
chronic and continued for two years (2 Chron.
xxi. 18, 19). During this sickness Ahaziah
acted as regent (2 Kin. ix. 29 with viii. 25,
26). There was no pretense at lamentation
when his death occurred. His sole reign,
beginning in the fifth year of Jehoram of
Israel, was eight j-ears. He died in 842 b. c,
leaving his one surviving son Ahaziah to as-
cend the throne (2 Kin. viii. 24 ; 2 Chron. xxi.
12-xxii. 1).

Jor'dan [descender].

The most important river in Palestine,
and, in some respects, the most interesting
one in the world. It rises from various
sources. The eastern source is at Banias. the
ancient Caesarea Philippi, where a copious
stream, the Banias, issues from a cave at the
base of a mountain. The central source is
at Tell el-Kadi, probably the ancient Dan,
where from two springs a yet more abundant
stream, the Leddan, rises. The Christian
father Jerome assumed that Jor was the name
of the Banias, and Dan that of the Leddan,
and that the combination of the two made
Jordan. But the eastern source had no such
name as Jor ; and the word Jordan is not
compounded of the two words Jor and Dan,
but is a simple word. The third source of
th^ Jordan, and the one most remote from
its mouth, is the fountain, below Hasbeiya,
from which the river Hasbany proceeds.
Thomson says that the Hasbany is the longest
hy 40 miles, the Leddan much the largest,
and the Banias the most beautiful. In the
rainy season the Hasbany is fed by many
small streams and rills from the ravines
around the north of Hermon. In fact, the
proximity of that great mountain is a potent
factor in determining the existence and the
magnitude of the Jordan. From the Banias
source of the river to its entrance into the
lake of Huleh or the waters of Merom is a
distance of 12 miles ; the junction of the
Banias and the Leddan taking place about
midway between these points, and the con-
fluence with the Hasbany a fraction of a mile
lower. The lake itself is 4 miles long. The
Jordan, emerging from it at its southern side,
next makes its way lOJ miles more to the sea
of Galilee, which is 12^ miles long. After
passing through this lake, it pursues a tortuous
course, till it enters the Dead Sea, at a point
6.5 miles in a straight line from the southern
part of the sea of CTalilee. Including the
two lakes, and taking no note of the wind-

ings, the river from Banias to the Dead Sea
is 104 miles long. As far as is known, it
stands absolutely alone among the rivers of
the world in the fact that throughout the
greater part of its course it runs below the
level of the ocean. When it issues forth
from the cave at Banias it is 1000 feet above
the level of the Mediterranean. By the time
it enters the waters of Merom it has fal-
len all but seven of those thousand feet; at
the sea of Galilee it is 682 feet below the sea
level, and when entering the Dead Sea 1292
feet. It was appropriately named Jordan,
the descender. If a smart earthquake were
to establish a connection between the Medi-
terranean and the Jordan valley, or if the
Vandal-like proposal, once made, were car-
ried out, of joining them by a channel arti-
ficially cut, such hallowed spots as the sea
of Galilee, with the sites of Capernaum,
Bethsaida, etc., and, farther down the river,
Jericho, would disappear into the depths of
a salt-water gulf. In 1848 an expedition
from the United States, led by Lieut. Lynch,
of the American navj', successfully sailed
from the sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea.
The explorers found two ten-aces along the
banks of the river. The stream itself pur-
sued a very tortuous course. Lieut. Lynch
thus wrote : " In a space of 60 miles of lati-
tude and 4 miles of longitude the Jordan
traverses at least 200 miles. . . We have
plunged down twenty-seven threatening rap-
ids, besides a great many of lesser magni-
tude." The low-lying valley of the Jordan
in its southern parts, where the depression is
greatest, is virtually a tropical country, and
requires nothing but irrigation to make it
produce crops of tropical luxuriance (War iv.
8, 3). On account of its fertility Lot, for-
getful of moral considerations, chose it as the
place of his residence (Gen. xiii. 8-13). The
Jordan was not bridged in ancient times, but
forded. The fords are frequent and easy in
the upper stream and as far down as the
mouth of the Jabbok, where Jacob crossed
(xxxii. 10 ; xxxiii. 18). Below that point the
river is rarely fordable, and then only at cer-
tain seasons of the year. The current of the
river is so rapid near Jericho that the numer-
ous pilgrims who go thither to bathe are
always in danger, and not infrequently are
swept away. For the Israelites to cross the
Jordan at any time, and above all when the
river was in flood, required the miracle of
the dividing of the stream narrated in the
Book of Joshua (Josh. iii. 1-17 ; iv. 1-24 ; Ps.
cxiv. 3, 5). The overflow of the Jordan dur-
ing the time of harvest (March or April in
that warm valley) is produced by the melting
of the snow on mount Hermon (Josh. iii. 15).
The river was anciently fringed, as it is now,
with a thicket of trees and shrubs, in which
lions lurked (Jer. xlix. 19: Zech. xi. 3).
Naaman, the Syrian, was directed to wash in
Jordan seven times that he might be miracu-
lously cured of his leprosy (2 Kin. v. 10),

Jorim

396

Joseph

and ultimately did as he was bidden (14).
John tlu' Baptistadmiiiistered the special rite
which gave him his designation, in Jordan,
and it was there that our Lord was baptized
(Mat. iii. 6, 13-17).

Jo'rim.

An ancestor of Christ, who lived about 350
years after David (Luke iii. 'M).

Jor'ke-am, in A. V. Jorkoam [perhaps,
pallor or fear of the people, or possibly, sta-
l>ility, expansion].

A place peopled by members of the family of
Hezron and house of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 44).

Jos'a-bad. See Jozabad.

Jos'a-phat. See Jehoshaphat.

Jo'se. See Jesus 2.

Jo'sech.

An ancestor of Christ, who probably lived
after the exile (Luke iii. 26). The A. V., fol-
lowing a diflerent reading, calls him Joseph.

Jos'e-decli. See Jozadak.

Jo'seph [may he add]. The name has also
the sound of a verb of diflerent etymology,
meaning "he taketh away ;" and the Hebrew
writer in Gen. xxx. 23, 24, following custom,
plays upon the sound and iii)on both etymol-
ogies when he explains, not what the root of
tlae word is, but the reason for bestov.ing the
name.

1. The eleventh of Jacob's twelve sons,
and the elder son of Eachel, who, when she
gave him birth, said, '' The Lord add to me
another son," and therefore called his name
Joseph (Gen. xxx. 22-24). He was born in
Paddan-aram, about'six years before the re-
turn of Jacob to Canaan (25 ; cp. xxxi. 41),
when Jacob was 90 or 91 years old. He was
his father's favorite child, because he was the
son of his old age and Eachel's child ; and he
made him a coat such as was worn by young
people of the better class (xxxvii. 3). The
father's favoritism aroused the envy of the
elder brethren ; and their ill-will was in-
creased by two dreams which Joseph had, and
which foreshadowed the time when his
father, his mother, and his brethren should
bow down and do him obeisance. When
Joseph was seventeen years old (xxxvii. 2),
Jacob sent him to Shechem, where his broth-
ers were feeding their flocks, to ask after
their welfare. On reaching Shechem, he
found that they had gone on to Dothan, and
he followed them thither. As he was seen ap-
proaching, the brothers proposed to slay him
and report to his father that a wild beast had
devoured him. Reuben, however, prevailed
upon them not to take Joseph's life, but to
cast him alive into a pit, intending eventu-
ally to take the youth out and restore him to
his father. In Reuben's absence a caravan
of Ishmaelites, traveling on the great high-
way that led down into Egypt, drew near.
To Midianite merchantmen of the company
Joseph was sold. A kid of the goats being
killed, his coat was dipped in the blood and

the besmearerl garment was sent to Jacob,
who concluded that his son had been torn to
l)ieces by some wild beast (Gen. xxxvii. 1-35).
Meanwhile the slave dealers took Joseph
down into Egy]it, and sold him to Potiphar,
the captain of Pharaoh's guard. The young
slave's ability was soon discovered, and
Potiphar gave him charge of all his house.
But on false accusations he was committed
to prison, where he was confined for years.
There he so gained the confidence of the
jailer that all the prisoners were committed
to his charge. God enabled him to interpret
prophetic dreams of the chief butler and the
chief baker of Pharaoh, who were confined
with him in prison, and his interpretation in
each instance was found correct. Two years
later Pharaoh dreamed two ])rophetic dreams,
which no one could interpret, and the chief
l.)Utler, who had been restored to his royal
master's favor, remembered Joseph and told
of the occurrences in the prison. Josejih was
immediately sent for, and interjireted the
dreanjs, both of which had the same mean-
ing. Seven years of great plenty were to be
succeeded by seven years of grievous famine.
He ventured to recommend that some one
should be appointed to collect the sur[ilus
produce during the seven years of plenty,
and store it against the years of famine. Pha-
raoh saw the wisdom of the suggestion ; and,
justly believing that no one would carry out
the plan more efl'ectively than its author, ele-
vated Joseph to be the second man in the
kingdom of Egypt. Joseph was now thirty
years of age (xli. 46). He had been chastened
and humbled by the sufl'erings of thirteen
years. Pharaoh gave him Asenath, daughter
of a priestly family at On. to wife ; and be-
fore the years of famine came, two sons were
born to him, Manasseh and Ephraim ; and
from them two tribes sprang (Gen. xli. 50-52;
xlviii. 5 ; Num. xxvi. 28). The famine
came as predicted (see Nile), and afl'ected all
the known world, especially the western part
of it around the Mediterranean (xli. 54, 56,
57). In Egypt, however, there was a store
of food. In due time Joseph's brothers
had to come down to the latter country
to buy grain. They did not recognize Jo-
seph, but he knew them ; and as they did
obeisance to him, he saw that the dreams
which brought him into such trouble had
come to be verified. After testing their char-
acter in various ways, on their second visit
he revealed himself to them, forgave them
the wrong they had done him, and persuaded
them and their father to settle in Egypt.
Pharaoh warmly welcomed them. The king
who acted thus kindly has long ))een believed
to have been Apepi II. or Apoi)liis (Eusebius).
At any rate, he was doubtle.ss of the Hyk-
sos or Shepherd dynasty, and being himself
a Semite, was the more ready to welcome
men of a race identical with his own. Joseph
died at the age of 110 years, and his body
was embalmed and put in a coflin in Egypt ;

Joseph

397

Joseph

but he had left strict injunctions that when
the exodus took place his remains should be
removed to Canaan ((ieu. xlii.-l. ; Heb. xi.
22). His wishes were carried out; and his
remains were ultimately buried near She-
chem, iu the very center of the promised laud
(Ex. xiii. 19; Josh. xxiv. 32).

The particulars of Joseph's life, which in-
volve Egyptian customs, are borne out by
the monuments and the papyri. It is known,
for instance, from the Eosetta stone that it
was the habit of the king to release prisoners
at his birthday feast and on other great occa-
sions. References to magicians and sooth-
sayers are frequent, and great stress is laid
on dreams as messages from the gods. When
Joseph was sent for in the prison, although
there is express mention of haste, yet he
stayed to shave himself and put on clean
raiment (Gen. xli. 14). Shaving was particu-
larly practiced and among the priests was a
religious rite. The term " Lord over the
whole laud '' has been found but ouce (on a
monument in the museum of Turin), but the
investiture of an official of high rank is fre-
quently depicted and agrees with the descrip-
tion iu Genesis, the signet ring, the linen ves-
ture, and the chain about the neck being
prominent. The phrase, also, '" According un-
to thy word [mouth] shall all my people be
ruled " is emphasized by the fact that the
hieroglyph for ruler is a mouth.

There is reference to Egyptian conceptions
of propriety in the separate setting of bread
for Joseph, for his brethren, and for the Egyp-
tians present (Gen. xliii. 32). Joseph ate by
himself, because he was a man of highest
rank and a member of the priestly class,
which kept apart from the laity. The Egyp-
tians ate by themselves, for Egyptians held
aloof from foreigners ; the priests ate and
drank nothing that was imported (Porphery
iv. 7), and the people generally considered it
an abomination to use the eating utensils of
the Greeks (Herod, ii. 41), and ostracized
shepherds, swineherds, and cowherds, even
when native Egyptians, because the occupa-
tion of tending cattle was incompatible with
the refinement and cleanliness demanded by
Egj-ptian standards (Gen. xlvi. 34 ; Herod, ii.
47; cp. 164). This objection to herdsmen
was probably the cause of Joseph's settling
his kindred in the land of Goshen, where
they would not come in contact with the na-
tives of the land.

Jacob-el and Joseph-el are names of places
in Palestine conquered by Thothmes III.,
the Egyptian warrior-king, long after the
descent of Jacob and his sons into Egypt and
about a century before the exodus. It is
doubtful whether they stand in any relation
to the patriarch Jacob and his son Joseph.
They are names like Jiphthah-el or Iphtah-el,
a valley in the territory of Zebulun (Josh.
xix. 14), may mean God doth supplant and
God doth take away, and they were in use in
Babylonia as personal names.

The two tribes of Manasseh and Ephraim
descended from Josepii's tW(jsons. Tiie Idess-
ings pronounced on Joseph by the dying
Jacob were designed for these tribes as well
as for Joseph himself (Gen. xlviii. 8-22; xlix.
22-20). In Ps. Ixxx. 1 Joseph is a poetic
designation of the tribes of Manasseh and
Ephraim.

2. Father of the spy from the tribe of Issa-
char (Num. xiii. 7).

3. A son of Asaph and head of a course of
musicians in the reign of David (1 Chron.
XXV. 2, 9).

4. An ancestor of Christ, Mho lived between
the time of David and the exile (Luke iii.
30).

5. A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 42).

6. A priest, head of the family of Sheba-
niah in the days of the high priest Joiakim
(Neh. xii. 14).

7. An ancestor of Christ who lived after
the exile (Luke iii. 26, in E. V. Josech).

8. Son of Mattathias, iu the ancestry of
Christ (Luke iii. 24, 25).

9. Son of Zacharias. When Judas Macca-
baeus sent Simon to aid the Jews in Galilee
and himself went to fight in Gilead, he left
Joseph and Azarias in charge of the forces in
Judaea. They engaged' in battle, contrary to
their orders, and were defeated (1 Mac. v. 18,
55-62).

10. The husband of Mary, the mother of
Jesus (Mat. i. 16 ; Luke iii. 23). For his an-
cestry see Gene.\logy. When Mary was
found with child before marriage, Joseph
was minded to put her away without public
exposure, for he was a just man. But an
angel informed him iu a dream that the child
to be born had been miraculously conceived
by the Holy Spirit. Now he had no hesita-
tion in carrying out his contract with her,
and he made her his wife (Mat. i. 18-25).
Being a descendant of David, he had to go
to Bethlehem, the earlj^ home of his ances-
tors, for enrollment, according to the decree
of the emperor Augustus, and was there with
Mary when Jesus was born (Luke ii. 4, 16).
He was with Mary when, at the presentation
of Jesus in the temple, Simeon and Anna
gave forth their prophetic utterances (33).
Warned by an angel in a dream that Herod
plotted the murder of the child, Joseph con-
ducted the flight into Egypt (Mat. ii. 13, 19).
He returned to Nazareth when Herod was
dead (22, 23). He was accustomed to go with
Mary annually to the passover at Jerusalem,
and he took Jesus also to the feast when
our Lord was twelve years old (Luke ii.
43), and he also safely reached Nazareth
on the return journey (51). He was a car-
penter (Mat. xiii. 55), and was assisted in his
work by the young man Jesus (Mark vi. 3).
Apparently Joseph was alive when Jesus' min-
istry had well begun (]\Iat. xiii. 55), but as
we do not hear of him in connection with
the crucifixion, it may be inferred that he

Joses

398

Joshua

died previous to that event. This was the
reasou why Jesus, when on the cross, com-
mended Mary to the kindness of the apostle
John, which he would scarcely have done
liad her natural guardian still been alive
(John xix. 26, 27).

11. The same as Joses 1 (Mat. xiii. 55, E. V.).
See Brethren of the Lord.

12. A Jew of Arimatha?a, a member of the
sanhedrin, a councilor of honorable estate,
who looked for the kingdom of God (Mark
XV. 43). He had not consented to the resolu-
tion of the sanhedrin to put Jesus to death,
for he was a disciple of Jesus, although se-
cretly, for, like Nicodemus, the only other
member of the governing body who believed
on our Lord, he was fearful of publicly com-
mitting himself. Both became more cour-
ageous when they saw the crucifixion. Joseph
went boldly to Pilate, begged the body of
Jesus, and laid it in his own new tomb, which
he had hewn out in a rock (Mat. xxvii. 57-
60 ; Luke xxiii. 50-53; John xix. 38).

13. A Christian called Barsabbas or son of
Sabbas, and Justus. He had companied with
Jesus and the disciples from the time of
Jesus' baptism, and was one of two who
were considered worthy to fill the vacancy
among the apostolic twelve produced by the
apostasy of Judas ; but the lot fell upon
Matthias (Acts i. 21, 26). He was probably a
brother of Judas, called Barsabbas (Acts xv.
22).

14. The personal name of Barnabas (Acts
iv. 36, in A. V. Joses).

Jo'ses.

1. One of the brethren of the Lord (Mark
vi. 3). In Mat. xiii. 55, E. V. prefers the
manuscripts which give the name as Joseph.

2. The personal name of Barnabas, for a
time the missionary colleague of Paul (Acts
iv. 36, in E. V. Joseph).

Jo'shah [perhaps, uprightness],
A Simeonite, son of Amaziah (1 Chron.
iv. 34).

Josh'a-phat [Jehovah hath judged].

1. A Mithuite, one of David's mighty men
(1 Chron. xi. 43).

2. A priest, one of the trumpeters before
the ark during its removal to Jerusalem (1
Chron. xv. 24, in A. V. Jehoshaphat).

Josh-a-vi'ah [perhaps, Jehovah setteth
upright].

One of David's mightv men (1 Chron. xi.
46).

Josh-be-ka'sliali [possibly, seat of hard-
ness] . ,

A singer, son of Heman (1 Chron. xxv. 4),
and head of the seventeenth course of singers
(24).

Josh-eb-bas'she-beth, in A. V. margin
Josheb-bassebet.

A textual corruption in 2 Sam. xxiii. 8 for,
apparently, Isb-baal, there is a Lord. Baal
was altered, as was often done after it had

acquired idolatrous associations, to hosheth,
shame ; and instead of bosheth, i. e. b-sh-th,
the word b-sh-b-lh which ends the preceding
verse was seen by a copyist. His identity
with Jashobeam is fairly established by com-
parison of this verse with 1 Chron. xi. 11
and verses 8 and 9 with 1 Chron. xxvii. 2,
4. This latter form is jierhaps another mode
of avoiding the name Baal.

Josh-i-bi'an, in A. Y. Josibiah [Jehovah
gives an abode].

A Simeonite, family of Asiel (1 Chron.
iv. 35).

Josh'u-a, in A. V. once Jehoshua (Num.
xiii. 16), and once Jehoshuah (1 Chron. vii.
27), the latter an incon.sistency not found in
A. V. in the original edition of 1611. Jehoshua
developed into Jeshua (Neb. viii. 17), and
this form was Grecianized and appears as
Jesus (Acts vii. 45) [Jehovah is salvation].

1. An Ephraimite, the son of Nun (Num.
xiii. 8, 16). His military tendencies were so
soon recognized that, when first he ajipears
in the Scripture narrative, he is the leader
of the Israelitish army in its first conflict
with the Amalekites, and, aided by the
prayers of Jloses, achieves the victory (Ex.
xvii. 8-16). A personal attendant on Moses,
he was with him on mount Sinai when the
golden calf was made, and mistook the noise
of idolatrous revelry in the camp for the
shouting of hostile combatants (xxiv. 13 ;
xxxii. 17, 18). He bad charge of the first
tent of meeting (xxxiii. 11). As prince of
Ephraim, he was one of the twelve spies sent
to report on the land of Canaan and its as-
sailability ; and he was one of the two who
encouraged the people to go and possess the
land (Num. xiii. 8 ; xiv. 6-9). For this he
narrowly escaped being stoned to death (10).
When the ten cowardly spies were doomed to
die in the wilderness for their distrust of Je-
hovah's power to aid them, Joshua and his
faithful colleague, Caleb, were exempted
from the penalty, and lived on (xiv. 30, 38).
At the end of the forty years' sojourn in the
wilderness, by divine direction Moses placed
Joshua before the high priest and the congre-
gation in Shittim and publicly ordained him
to be his successor (Num. xxvii. 18-23 ; Dent,
i. 38) ; and just before death, the lawgiver
took Joshua to the tabernacle to receive his
charge from the Lord (xxxi. 14. 23). On
the death of Moses, Joshua began immediate
preparations for cros.sing the Jordan. The
people were allowed three days in which to
prepare victuals (Josh. i. 10, 11), the two and
a half tribes were reminded of their obliga-
tion to render their brethren armed assist-
ance (12-18). and spies were dispatched to
search out Jericho (ii. 1). The camp was
then moved to the river and the people care-
fully instructed as to the order of march (iii.
1-6). He showed his military skill in the
plan of campaign which he adopted for the
conquest of Canaan : a central camp, advan-

Joshua

399

Josiah

tageously situated ; the capture of the towns
which coininaiuled tiie approaches to liis
cauip: jji-eatcampaijiiisfoUowiug up victories;
see C'axaan. He blundered, however, in
making a treaty with the (iibeonites and in
not garrisoning the citadel of the Jebusites.
By these two mistakes, Judah was to a degree
isolated from the northern tribes. He car-
ried out the injunction to assemble the peo-
ple on Ebal and lierizim to hear the blessings
and the cursings (viii. o0~3r)). Aided by the
high i)riest and a commission, he superin-
tended the allotment of the conquered coun-
try, beginning the distributiou while the
camp was at Gilgal (xiv. (i-xvii.). and com-
pleting it and assigning cities of refuge and
the Levitical towns after he had removed the
tabernacle to Shiloh (xviii.-xxi.). For him-
self he asked and obtained a town, Timnath-
serah, in mount Ephraim (xix. 50). When
old, he convoked an assembly of the people
at Shechem, because it was the place of
Abraham's first altar on entering Canaan and
the locality where the tribes had invoked
blessings and cursings upon themselves.
There he made them a powerful address,
urging them not to forsake Jehovah (xxiv.
1-28). Soon afterwards he died, at the age
of 110, and was buried at the place of his
choice, Tininath-serah (29, 30).

The Book of Joshua properly follows Peu-
teronomy in the Hebrew Scriptures and in
the English Bible ; for it continues the his-
tory from the death of Moses, which was the
last event recorded in Deuteronomy. It is
more intimately connected with the Penta-
teuch than with the books which follow it :
for the spirit of the Mosaic times was still
active in the history which it recounts ; and
it is the sequel of Genesis in that it records
the po.ssession of the promised land for which
Abraham waited, as related in Genesis. But
since it was not written by Moses, it was
kept distinct from the five books of Moses in
the Hebrew Scriptures. In these Scriptures
it is the first of " the prophets ; " and begins
that division of them called the " former
prophets," which embraces all the books of
the English Bible between Joshua and 2
Kings inclusive, except Euth ; see Canox.
The book may be divided into three sections :

I. The conquest of Canaan (i.-xii.) : includ-
ing the preparation for crossing the Jordan
and the passage of the river (i.-iv. 18), the
establishment of the camp and celebration
of the passover (iv. 19-v. 12), the capture of
Jericho and Ai, the confirmation of the cov-
enant on Ebal, and the treaty with the Gibe-
onites (v. 13-ix.), the southern and northern
campaigns (x., xi.), and the summary (xii.).

II. The settlement of Canaan (xiii.-xxii.) ;
including a description of the land which re-
mained to be divided (xiii.), its allotment,
with the assignment of cities of refuge and
the allotment of towns to the tribe of Levi
(xiv.-xxi.), and the temporary misunder-
standing about the altar on the Jordan, as

though it were intended to divide the nation
(xxii.). III. Joshua's farewell address and
death (xxiii., xxiv.).

It is expressly stated that Joshua wrote
"these words," including at least the ac-
count of the proceedings at Shechem (xxiii.-
xxiv. 2')) in the book of the law of God
(xxiv. 26). The concluding verses of the
book (xxiv. 29-33) were written after the
death of Joshua, Eleazar, and the men of
that generation. The simplest theory is that
the conquest of Hebron, Debir, and Anab by
Caleb took place after the death of Joshua
and is recorded proleptically in xv. 13-20
(see Hebron), that Zephath is called Hormah
by anticipation in xii. 14, and that this verse
reflects an event which occurred alter the
death of Joshua (Judg. i. 17; see Hokmah) ;
and that xix. 47 records the migration of the
Danites in the days of the judges. It is
reasonable to conclude from the general
character of the documents and casual state-
ments in them that large portions of the
book were in writing in the time of Joshua.
At any rate, they received final form while
the town of Ai was still in ruins (viii. 28),
before the reign of Solomon, while the
Canaanites still dwelt in Gezer (xvi. 10 with
1 Kin. ix. 16), and before the reign of David,
at a time when the Jebusites still occupied
the stronghold of Jerusalem (xv. 63). In gen-
eral, see Pentateuch.

2. A native of Beth-shemesh, the owner of
a field to which the kine drawing the cart
which carried the ark from the Philistine
country made their way (1 Sam. vi. 14).

3. The governor of Jerusalem during the
reign of Josiah (2 Kin. xxiii. 8).

4. The high priest while Zerubbabel was
governor of Judah (Hag. i. 1, 12, 14 ; ii. 2-
4 ; Zech. lii. 1-9). Called in Ezra and Xehe-
miah Jeshua (q. v.).

Jo-si'ah, in A. V. of N. T. Josias [Jehovah
healeth].

1. Son and successor of Amon in the king-
dom of Judah. He came to the throne about
the year 639 B. c. He was then only eight
years old, but he had already begun to seek
after the God of David his father. While he
was of immature years, tl^e keeper of his
conscience and the director of the kingdom
seems to have been the higb priest Hilkiah,
but in Josiah he had an apt and willing
pupil. When the king was in his twelfth
year, he made a first movement against idol-
atry, breaking down the images of Baal and
the Asherim. not merely in Judah, but
in Israel (2 Kin. xxii. 1, 2 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv.
1-7). In his eighteenth year he took ener-
getic steps to repair and adorn the temple;
and the workmen, entering with enthusiasm
into his plans, acted with exemplary fidelity
in using the money intrusted to them for the
purpose. While the repairs of the temple
were being executed, Hilkiah, the high
priest, informed Shaphan, the scribe, that he

Josiah

400

Jotbathah

had found the book of the law iu the house
of the Lord. He handed the book over to
Shaphau, who read it to the monarch. Josiah
was deeply impressed by the prophecy that
if the people departed from Jehovah dread-
ful consequences would ensue. He rent his
clothes and humbled himself before God, who
was pleased to give him the gracious assur-
ance that the threatened calamity should not
come iu his time (2 Kin. xxii. 8-20 ; 2 Chron.
xxxiv. 15-28). The prophecy which so af-
fected Josiah was Deut. xxviii.-xxx., especial-
ly xxix. 25-28. The book found by Hilkiah
must thus have contained Deuteronomy at
least, and it may have been a copy of the en-
tire Pentateuch. The sacred books had,
doubtless, been generally destroyed and lost
sight of during the apostasy and persecution
in the long reign of Manasseh (2 Kin. xxi.
16 ; 2 Chrou. xxxiii. 9) ; and the book found
by Hilkiah was probably the temple copy of
the law, which had been hidden or thrown
aside during the profanation of the sanctuary
(Deut. xxxi. 9, 26). That Deuteronomy was
an old book at the time may be argued from
the fact that it reflects the condition of Israel
in early times and not in the reign of Josiah.
It enjoins upon the people the extermination
of the Canaanites and Amalekites (xx. 16-
18 ; XXV. 17-19), but in Josiah's day there
was no occasion for such a law. It contem-
plates foreign conquest ou the part of the
Israelites (xx. 10-15) ; but in Josiah's day
and for nearly a century previously the ques-
tion was not of conquest, but whether Judah
could maintain its existence at all. It vests
the supreme authority under Jehovah in a
judge and the priesthood, but makes pro-
vision for a time when the Israelites should
desire a king (xvii. 8-20; xix. 17); but in
Josiah's day the Israelites had been ruled by
kings for centuries. It discriminates against
Ammon and Moab in favor of Edom (xxiii.
3-8) ; but in Josiah's day and for a longtime
previously Egypt was the representative foe
of the people of God (Is. Ixiii. 6 ; Joel iii. 19 ;
Obad.), and Jeremiah promises future resto-
ration to Moab and Ammon, but denies it to
Edom (xlviii. 47 ; xlix. 6, 17, 18). The leg-
islation of Deuteronomy was in force long
before the time,of Josiah: it was observed at
the coronation of Joash in 835 B. c. (2 Kin.
xi. 12), and was followed by Joash's sou and
successor, Amaziah (xiv. 6 ; cp. Deut. xxiv.
16). The reading of the book to the people
affected them as it had the king. So deep
was the impression produced that a sec-
ond assault upon idolatry was begun, more
sweeping than the first. After the king and
his subjects had together covenanted to wor-
ship Jehovah only, they proceeded to take
the vessels of Baal, of the Asherim, and of
the heavenly bodies, burn them, and cast the
ashes into the brook Kidron. The Asherah in
the house of the Lord was similarly burnt,
the residences of the sodomites were broken
down, and the high places were destroyed,

not merely through the kingdom of Judah,
but through the former territory of the
northern tribes, now largely empty of its
Israelitish inhabitants. The valley of Hin-
nom and the shrine of Topheth, in which
children had been made to pass through the
fire to Molech, were defiled, and other
sweeping reforms eflected. When at Bethel,
Josiah took the bones of the idolatrous
priests from their graves, and burnt them on
the altar, thus fulfilling the prophecy of a
man of God in Jeroboam's time (1 Kin. xiii.
2). Nor did he scruple to slay the living
idolatrous priests themselves on the altars on
which they had been accustomed to sacrifice.
Then he concluded by holding a passover, so
well attended and so solemn that nothing
like it had been celebrated since the time of
Samuel (2 Kin. xxiii. 1-25; 2 Chron. xxxiv.
29-xxxv. 19). Thirteen years afterwards
Pharaoh -n echo, king of Egypt, marched an
army along the maritime portion of Palestine
on his way to the Euphrates, where he de-
signed to try his strength against the great
Assyrian power. Situated as the small and
comparatively feeble kingdom of Judah was
between the Assyrian and Egyptian empires,
then in mutual hostility, it was difficult for
it to maintain neutrality ; indeed, Josiah
seems to have looked on himself as a vassal
of the Assyrian king, legally and morally
bound to give him military aid in war; and
he gave battle to Pharaoh-necho at Megiddo
in the plain of Jezreel, and in the fight
was mortally wounded by an arrow . His at-
tendants removed him from his war chariot
to a second conveyance, which brought him
to Jerusalem. He had, however, only reached
that capital when he died. Great lamenta-
tions were made for him by Jeremiah, the
singing men and the singing women, and the
people generally. His loss to his country was
irreparable. The religious reforms which he
had commenced were assailed, and the par-
tial independence which his country had en-
joyed under his rule passed away. He had
reigned thirty-one years, but was only thirty-
nine when he died, about 608 B. c. (2 Kin.
xxii. 1 ; xxiii. 29, 30 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-
27; cp. Zech. xii. 11). Jeremiah and Zeph-
aniah prophesied during the latter part of
of his reign (Jer. i. 2; iii. 6; Zeph. i. 1).

2. A son of Zephaniah, in Zechariah'sdays
(Zech. vi. 10). Perhaps the same as Hen of
ver. 14 ; but see Hen.

Jos-i-bi'ah. See Joshibiah.

Jos-i-pM'ah [Jehovah will increase].

Head of the house of Shelomith, who re-
turned from exile with Ezra (Ezra viii. 10).

Jot'bah [pleasantness, goodness].

The town of king Amon's grandfather (2
Kin. xxi. 19).

Jot'ba-thah, in A. Y. once Jotbath (Deut.
X. 7) [goodness, pleasantness].

A station of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness, apparently near Ezion-geber (Num.

Jotham

401

Jubile

xxxiii. 33). The place abounded in brooks
of water (Deut. x. 7). Situation unknown.

jo'tham, in A. V. once Joatbam (Mat. i.
9), in imitation of the Cxveek form [Jehovah
is upright].

1. Youngest son of (iideon. He escaped
when his seventy brothers (the ofl'spring of
polygamy, of course) wore massacred by their
half-brother Abimelech ; and afterwards, in
contempt of the usurjiation, standing on
mount Gerizim, he uttered the parable, audi-
ble to the Shechemites in the valley below,
of the trees anointing a king (Judg. ix. 1-21).

2. A king of .ludah, who reigned as regent
of his father, Uzziah, while the latter was a
leper (2 Kin. xv. 5). His regency began
while Jeroboam II. was still king of Israel
(1 Chron. v. 17). Further evidence of the
partial contemporaneousness of the regency
of Jotham and the reign of Jeroboam exists,
if the earthquake took place while Uzziah
and Jeroboam were reigning (Amos i. 1 ;
Zech. xiv. 5) and occurred coincidently with
or shortly after Uzziah's invasion of the
priest's office (Antiq. ix. 10, 4). Jotham be-
came sole ruler when his father died, about
734 B. c. He followed Jehovah, but did not
interfere with the high places at which the
people worshiped other gods. He built the
high gate of the temple and worked on the
wall on the hill of Ophel, south of the holy
house. He erected cities in the uplands of
Judah and castles and towers in the forests.
He gained a victory over the Ammonites
and made them tributary. During his reign
of sixteen years Isaiah and Hosea continued
to prophesy (Is. i. 1 ; Hos. i. 1). At the
close of his reign the allied Israelites and
Sj'rians began their invasion of Judah. He
died at the age of forty-one ; surviving his
father scarcely a year, it seems. He left his
son Ahaz to ascend the throne (2 Kin. xv.
32-38; 2 Chron. xxvii. 1-9). With Jotham,
Hoshea is connected by a strange syn-
chronism : " Ho.shea reigned in the twentieth
year of Jotham" (2 Kin. xv. 30). This ref-
erence has been explained as meaning the
twentieth year since Jotham began to reign,
his accession having been recorded (ver. .5),
hut his reign and death not having been yet
described by the author of Kings. What-
ever be the true explanation, this strange
synchronism goes far to bring the data of
the Hebrew record into harmony with the
Assyrian chronology.

3. A son of .Tahdai (1 Chron. ii. 47).
Jour'neys of the Is'ra-el-ites. See Wil-
derness OF THE Wandkrinc;.

Joz'a-bad, in A. V. once Josabad (1 Chron.
xii. 4) [Jehovah has bestowed].

1. A Gederathite who joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Chron. xii. 4).

2 and 3. Two Manassites who assisted
David to pursue the Amalekites after their
capture of Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 20).

4. A Levite, one of the overseers of the

26

tithes in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chi"on. xxxi.
13).

.'>. A chief of the Levites in the time of
Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 9).

(j. A Levite, son of Jeshua (Ezra viii. 33).
Perhaps he was the Jozabad who by order
of Ezra took part in teaching the people the
law (Nell. viii. 7), and was the Levitical
chief who had the oversight of the outward
business of the house of God (Neh. xi. It!) ;
he may have been the Levite of the name,
who was induced by Ezra to put away hi.s
foreign wife (x. 23).

7. A priest, a son of Pashhur, induced by
Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 22).

Joz'a-car, in A. V. Jozachar [Jehovah has
remembered].

Son of an Ammouitess and one of the two
assassins of Joasli, king of Judah (2 Kin.
xii. 21). Called erroneously Zabad in 2
Chron. xxiv. 2(j ; see Beth and Daleth.

Joz'a-dakaud Jehozadak, in A.V. Josedech
in Haggai and Zechariah [Jehovah is just].

Father of Jeshua, the high priest (Ezra iii.
2, 8). He was carried captive to Babylonia
by Xebuchadnezzar (1 Chron. vi. 15).

Ju'bal [a stream, a moist region ; perhaps
also music].

The younger son of Lamech, by his wife
Adah. Jubal was the father of all such as
handle the harp and pipe (Gen. iv. 21).

Ju'bi-le, in some editions of A. Y. Jubilee
[joyful shout, sound of the trumpet].

The fiftieth year occurring after seven
times seven years had been counted from
the institution of the festival or from the
last jubilee (Lev. xxv. 8-10) ; cp. the calcu-
lation of Pentecost. It derived its name
from the custom of proclaiming it by a blast
on the trumpet. As every seventh year was
a Sabbatic year, the jubilee followed imme-
diately after one of this character. In the
tenth day of the seventh month (the great
day of atonement), in the fiftieth year, the
trumpet of the jubilee was sounded. It pro-
claimed liberty to all Israelites who were in
bondage to any of their countrymen, and the
return to their ancestral possessions of any
who had been compelled through poverty to
sell them. Even the ground for that year was
allowed to remain fallow, though it had been
so in the previous Sabbatic year. To pre-
vent injustice to one who having purchased
land could retain it only to the first jubilee,
the practice (thoroughly in conformity with
the principles of political economy) was to
give for the purchased possession only the
worth of the temporary occupation till the
jubilee year. But one purchasing from an-
other a house in a walled city retained it
permanently ; it did not revert to the orig-
inal owner at the jubilee, since city lots were
apparently not bound up with the several
portions of Canaan as originally allotted to
families. Those of the nnwalled villages were
regarded as belonging to the field and did so

Jucal

402

Judah

return ; so also did the houses of Levites
wheresoever situated (Lev. xxv. 8-55; xxvii.
17, 18; Num. xxxvi. 4). There appears to
be an allusion to the jubilee in Is. Ixi. 1-3
and Ezek. xlvi. 17 ; cp. also Neh. v. 1-13.

Ju'cal. See Jehucal.

Ju'da. See Judah, Judas, Joda.

Ju-dse'a, in A. V. in canonical books once
Judea (Ezra. v. 8), and thrice Jewry (Dan. v.
13 ; Luke xxiii. 5 ; John vii. 1) [Latin from
Greek loudain, Jewish land, and that in turn
from Hebrew Y'htidah].

A geographical term first introduced in
the Bible in Ezra v. 8, A. V., to designate a
province of the Persian empire. It is there
the rendering of the Aramaic Y'hud. The
R. V. translates it "the province of Judah."
The land of Judsea is mentioned in 1 Esdras
i. 39, and the kings of Judtea in verse 33.
The land of Judgea is also spoken of in Mac-
cabee times after the Persian had given place to
the Macedonian-Greek domiuioxi (1 Mac. v. 45 ;
vii. 10, A. v.). On the banishment of Arche-
laus Judsea was annexed to the Roman
province of Syria ; but it was governed by
procurators appointed by the Roman em-
peror. The succession of procurators was
interrupted for a brief period by the reign
of Herod Agrippa I., a. d. 41-44. The pro-
curator resided at Csesarea. His immediate
superior was the proconsul, or president, of
Syria, ruling from Antioch (Luke iii. 1 ;
Antiq. xvii. 13, 5; xviii. 1, 1). This ar-
rangement obtained when our Lord carried
out his ministry on earth, and Judsea is often
mentioned in the N. T. (Luke xxiii. 5-7;
John iv. 3 ; vii. 3 ; Acts i. 8). Its northern
boundary may be considered as extending
from Joppa on the Mediterranean to a point
on the Jordan about 10 miles north of the
Dead Sea. Its southern boundary may be
drawn from the wady Ghuzzeh, about 7
miles southwest of Gaza, through Beer-sheba,
to the southern portion of the Dead Sea.
The length from north to south is about 55
English miles, and that from east to west
the same. See History.

Ju'dah, Grecianized Judas, genitive Juda,
and once anglicized Jude (Jude i.) [object of
praise] .

1. The fourth son of Jacob, the fourth al.so
of Leah. There were noble elements about
his character, and when Simeon and Levi,
two of his elder brothers, by treachery and
murder avenged the wrongs of Dinah, who
was the full sister of all three, Judah took
no part in the double crime (Gen. xxxiv.).
He married a Canaanite, a daughter of Shua
of Adullam, and had two wicked sons, Er
and Onan, who were slain by divine judg-
ment for their sins (xxxviii. 1-10). Prior to
this he had had a third son, Shelah (5).
Afterwards, by Tamar, the deceased Er"s
widow, Judah became the father of twin
sons, Perez and Zerah (11-30 ; xlvi. 12 ; Num.
xxvi. 19). It was through Perez that Judah

became the ancestor of David (Ruth iv. 18-22),
and when the fullness of time was come, of
our Lord (Mat. i. 3-16). Judah saved
Joseph's life by proposing that he should
be sold instead of murdered (Gen. xxxvii.
26-28). When Joseph, whose relationship
to his brother was not suspected, proposed
to detain Benjamin in Egypt, Judah depre-
cated the step in a speech marked by
great natural eloquence, and ended by ofl'er-
iug himself to remain a prisoner provided
Benjamin was .set free (xliv. 33, 34). The
result of this splendid advocacy was that
Joseph, with no further delay, revealed him-
self to his brethren (xlv. 1). When Jacob
was on his way to Egypt he chose Judah,
though not the eldest son, to go before him
to Joseph, to shoM' the way before him unto
Goshen (xlvi. 28). On account of the sins
of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi, they were
passed over, and the blessing of the birth-
right was bestowed by Jacob on Judah (xlix.
3-10). See Shiloh.

2. A tribe sprung from Judah. It was di-
vided into five tribal families which proceeded
from his three sons and two grandsons (Num.
xxvi. 19-21 ; 1 Chron. ii. 3-6). The prince of
the tribe of Judah in the early period of the
wanderings was Nahshon, the son of Am-
minadab (Num. i. 7; ii. 3 ; vii. 12-17; x. 14).
Another prince was Caleb, son of Jephunneh
(xiii. 6; xxxiv. 19). At the first census in
the wilderness it numbered 74,600 (i. 26, 27) ;
and at the second census, taken at Shittim
on the eve of entering Canaan, 76,500 (xxvi.
22). It was one of the tribes which stood on
mount Gerizim to bless the people (Dent,
xxvii. 12). Achan, who brought destruction
on his countrymen and on himself, belonged
to the tribe of Judah (Josh. vii. 1, 17, IS).
After the death of Joshua, the people of this
tribe were chosen to set an example to the
others of dispossessing the Canaanites; and,
with the assistance of theSimeonites, they cap-
tured Bezek, Hebron, Zephath, Gaza, Ashke-
lon, and Ekron, the last three being Philis-
tine cities. To the.se Caleb's younger brother
Othniel added Debir (Judg. i. 1-20).

The tribe of Judah occupied the greater
part of southern Palestine. The boundary
drawn for it by Joshua commenced at the
extreme southern point of the Dead Sea,
passed thence, probably by wady cl-Plkreh,
south of the ascent of Akrabbini, to the
wilderness of Zin, thence by the south of
Kadesh-barnea and the brook of Egypt to
the Mediterranean Sea. The eastern border
was the Dead Sea. The northern boundary
started from the northern end of the sea, at
the mouth of the Jordan, and passing by
Beth-hoglah and near Jericho, went up by the
ascent of Adummim, by En-shemesh, to En-
rogel and the valley of the son of Hinnom,
south of Jerusalem, passed on to Kirjath-
jearim, and thence by Beth-ishemesh and
Timnah, north of Ekron, to Jabneel, and on
to the ]\Iediterranean. That sea itself con-

Judah

403

Judah

stituted the western bouudary, but a portion
of the area was almost always in the hauds of
the Philistines (Josh. xv. 112 ; v\). also 13-63 ;
xviii. 11-20). The lenyth oltiie territory of the
tribe of Judah from north to south was about
50 miles where most thickly inhabited, but
about 1)5 miles from Jerusalem to Kadesh-
barnea ; and its breadth from the Jordan to the
Philistine plain was aljout 15 miles. As to its
physical features, it is naturally divided into
three regions: the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 48 ; Luke i. 39) ; the lowland or
Shephelah (Josh. xv. 33), and the plain near
the Mediterranean Sea. The country about
Beer-sheba was known as the Xej^eb or .south.
A great part of Judah is rocky and barren,
but it is admirably adapted for the culture
of the vine and for jiasture (cp. Gen. xlix. 11,
12). The artificially-terraced hills (now neg-
lected) w'ere once the scene of extensive cul-
tivation. Parts of the territory were regarded
as a wilderness, especially the region south
of Arad (Judg. i. 16) and that immediately
west of the Dead Sea (Ps. Ixiii. title). The city
of Judah (2 Chron. xxv. 28) is the city of
David (2 Kin. xiv. 20). The text is probably
corrupt.

Soon after their conquest of Canaan the
Israelites were oppressed by the king of Meso-
potamia, but Othniel of the tribe of Judah
delivered the nation from the foreign domi-
nation (Judg. iii. 8-11). In the troublous
times which now came upon the Israelites,
due to their neglect of God, to tribal jealousies,
amd to failure to dispos.sess all the heathen,
Judah, Dan, and Simeon became a group by
them.selves, separated from the other tribes
to the north by a strip of country several
miles broad which was traversed with incon-
venience, in part by reason of its Canaanite
inhabitants, Amorites, Gibeonites, and Jebu-
sites, and in part on account of its natural
roughness and wildness, being cleft by deep
transverse valleys between Jerusalem and
Jericho. It was also se])arated from Gad and
Eeuben by the chasm of the Jordan and the
Dead Sea. The tribe had its own difficulties
to contend with, being beset by the Philis-
tines (Judg. iii. 31 ; x. 7 : xiii. 1), and took
little part in the wars of the other tribes
against oppressors. Boaz and Ruth lived in
Bethlehem at this time. Judah. however,
united with the other tribes to punish Benja-
min (xx. 1, 18). In the time of Eli and Samuel,
when the Philistines oppressed both Judah
and Benjamin, intercourse with the northern
tribes became closer; and Judah was included
in the kingdom of Saul. After the death of
Saul, the men of Judah supported the claims
of their tribesman David to the throne, and
for seven years warred in his behalf. When
his cause triumphed, Jerusalem on the bor-
der of Judah and Benjamin was made the
capital of all Israel. The promi.se had been
given to David that his posterity should for-
ever occupy his throne (2 Sam. vii. 13-16 ; 1
Chron. svii. 12, 14, 23), though chastisement

would be inflicted if there were a departure
from Jehovah. The promise was not intended
to do away with the necessity for wisdom in
the king, and when Kehoboam manifested
his uuacquaiiitance with the first jirinciples
of government, ten tribes were lost to the
house of David. See Israel.

Judah and a large i)art of Benjamin re-
mained loyal to David's line, and constituted
the main elements of the kingdom of Judah.
This kingdom lasted from about 931 B. c.
until the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B. c. During
this time nineteen kings of David's line, ex-
clusive of the usurping ijueen Athaliah, oc-
cupied the throne ; see Chkonology. Its
territory was nearly coincident with that of
the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, save that
the northern boundary fluctuated, Bethel
being sometimes held by Judah, especially
after the fall of Samaria. An event which
exercised the most powerful influence on
the history and ultimate fate of the rival
kingdoms was the construction of the two
golden calves by Jeroboam, that the people
of his kingdom might have local sanctuaries,
and not have to visit Jerusalem for worship,
and perhaps be there won over to their old al-
legiance. One eflect this had was to make all
who were faithful to Jehovah emigrate to the
kingdom of Judah, bringing it no mean ac-
cession of spiritual and even of political
strength (1 Kin. xii. 26-33 ; xiii. 33; 2 Chron.
X. 16, 17). The first relations of the two rival
kingdoms were naturally those of mutual hos-
tility. This, doubtless, emboldened the neigh-
boring nations to intermeddle in Jewish af-
fairs, aud in the fifth year of Kehoboam's
reign Shishak, king of Egypt, plundered Je-
rusalem (1 Kin. xiv. 2,5-28; 2 Chron. xii.
1-12). War between Judah and Israel went
on in a languid way during the first sixty
years of their separate existence (1 Kin. xiv.
30; XV. 7, 16; 2 Chron. xii. 15; xiii. 2-20);
after which, under Ahab and Jehoshaphat,
not merely peace, but a i)olitical and family
alliance took place between the two reigning
houses. In consequence, the worship of Baal
was introduced into Judah, and at last be-
came a potent factor in the destruction of
the kingdom. Two great parties were formed,
the one attached to the worship of Jehovah,
the other in favor of Baal aud other foreign
divinities. During the subsequent period of
the kingdom of Judah these parties were in
continual conflict with each other, first one
and then the other becoming temporarily
dominant, according as the reigning monarch
was its friend or its opponent. As at other
periods of the theocracy, fidelity to Jehovah
brought temporal as well as spiritual pros-
perity, while apostasy from him was attended
by di.saster. Among the good kings were Asa,
Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Jcsiah, while
Ahaz, Manasseh, and some others were con-
spicuously the rever.se. The foreign relations
of the kingdom were important. Egy])t was
Judah's neighbor on the southwest, and was

Judah

404

Judas

frequently involved in the affairs of Judah.
The Egyptian kings Shishak and Zerah and,
after a long interval, Necho warred with
Judah. On the other hand, Egypt was re-
garded as a valuable ally against the great
empires on the Tigris and Euphrates; and
the blow intlicted upon the Assyrians by
Tirhakah in the reign of Hezekiah contribu-
ted to the deliverance of Judah, and later
the advance of the Egyptians compelled the
army of Nebuchadnezzar to raise the siege
of Jerusalem temporarily. See Pharaoh.
On the capture of Jerusalem by the Baby-
lonians, a large body of Jews found refuge
in the country of the Nile. During all these
years the varied influences of Egyptian cul-
ture and religion were exerted upon the
people of Judah. In respect to the powerful
nations on the Tigris and Euphrates, there
were, of course, an Assyrian and a Baby-
lonian period. The Assyrian period began
in 734 B. c, when Ahaz invoked the aid
of Tiglath-jjileser against the allied kings of
Israel and Syria, and afterwards did homage
to him at Damascus. After the Assyrian con-
quest of the northern kingdom a decade later,
Judah was exposed for nearly a century and
a quarter to the greed and fury of the As-
syrians, until Nineveh was overthrown by
the Babylonians. Sargon. Sennacherib, Esar-
haddon, and Ashurbanipal, four successors on
the Assyrian throne, mention more or less
extensive conquests of Judah. Three of
these four kings are mentioned in the He-
bi'ew records (Is. xx. 1 ; xxxvi. 1 ; xxxvii. 38).
The Babylonian period began in 605, when
Jehoiakim was subjugated by Nebuchadnez-
zar. In less than a score of years Jerusalem
was in ruins and the people of Judah were
deported to Babylonia. The divine promise
to David did not preclude the temporary loss
of the throne by his descendants.

The causes which led to the fall of Jerusa-
lem and the exile were: 1. Those causes which
issued in tlie disruption of the kingdom and
the fall of Samaria, which left Judah solitary.
See Israel. 2. The neglect of God's com-
mand to exterminate the Canaanites. When
the Israelites could not, that is, would not,
utterly destroy the Canaanites, they pre-
served the leaven of corruption in their
midst. 3. Social and political alliances with
idolatrous peoples. 4. The loss of moral
strength by apostasy and the loss of enthu-
siasm for a great cause on earth, the estab-
lishment of God's kingdom. 5. Eefusal to
repent at the call of the prophets. 6. When
these agencies had wrought ruin to the state
and to manhood, when it was time to yield,
the persistent resistance to the dominant em-
j)ire made with the help of petty alliances
was a short-sighted policy, and a mistaken
estimate of the coming imperial power. Little
Judah should not have been submissive to
Assyria, but should have yielded to Babylon
toward the last. Such was the exhortation
of Jeremiah. From the verv beginning of

their national existence the Hebrew people
needed to husband all their resources, physi-
cal and political, moral and spiritual, if their
kingdom was to stand amidst the empires of
the world. On the return from exile, Zerub-
babel, a descendant of David, was the civil
ruler ; but he was oply a local governor under
the Persians. He was followed after a time
by Nehemiah, also of the tribe of Judah. Ex-
cept during the administration of these two
men, the governor of the Persian province
Beyond-the-river, of which Judah formed a
part, was the res])onsible head. After the
conquest of Alexander the Great, Judfea be-
longed to Egypt and Syria in turn. The suc-
cessful revolt of the Maccabees against the
Syrians led to the establishment of a dynasty
of i)riest-kings, who sprang from the tribe of
Levi, but occu])ied the throne of David. See
Maccabees. They were succeeded by an
Idumaau dynasty, beginning with Herod tlie
Great, ruling under the authority of the Ko-
mans. See Herod, History, Jerusalem.
When the scepter reverted to the house of
David the kingdom was no longer temporal
but spiritual, and the sovereign no eai'thly
potentate, but the Son of God.

To judge from the context, by Judali the
tribal territory is meant in Josh. xix. 34.
The passage has not been satisfactorily ex-
plained, the word Judah is not found in the
Septuagint ; perhaps the text is corrupt.

3. A Levite, among whose descendants was
Kadmiel (Ezra iii. 9). See Hodaviah.

4. A Levite who returned from Babylon
with Zerubljabel (Neh. xii. 8).

5. A Levite, induced by Ezra to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 23).

6. A Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, and
second in command over the city of Jerusa-
lem (Neh. xi. 9).

7. One who took part in the dedication of
the wall, probably a jjrince of Judah (Neh.
xii. 34J.

Ju'das, genitive Juda ; the Greek form of
the Hebrew proper name Judah.

1. Judah, son of Jacob (Mat. i. 2, 3, A. V.).

2. An ancestor of Jesus, who lived before
the exile (Luke iii. 30 ; in A. V. Juda).

3. Judas Maccabseus, third of the five sons
of the priest Mattathias (1 Mac. ii. 1-5). His
father, driven to desperation by the deter-
mination of Antiochus Epiphanes to force
idolatry upon the Jews, began the struggle
for religious liberty. On the death of Matta-
thias, in l(j6 B. c, Judas, in compliance with
his father's wish, assumed the military lead-
ership of the faithful Jews (ii. 66; iii. 1). He
entered immediately upon a career of vic-
tory. A combined Syrian and Samaritan
army, under the command of Apollonius, ad-
vanced against him. He routed it, slew Apol-
lonius, and took his sword (10, 11). Judas
fought with this sword during the remainder
of his life (12). He defeated another Syrian
army under Seron near Beth-horon (13-24),

Judas

405

Judas

and, probably still in 166 B. c, won a de-
cisive battle with Gorgias near Emmaus (27-
iv. 25). In the i'ulluwiuj!; year Antiochiis
sent a large army into Jiidiea under the com-
mand of Lysias, but it was defeated by Judas
at Beth-zur (iv. 26-34). In consequence of
these successes, the Jews recovered control
of the temple, purified it, and consecrated it
anew (36-o3). This event was celebrated by
the annual feast of dedication (John x. 22).
This Syrian war was followed l)y offensive
operations under Judas and his brother Simon
against hostile neighboring nations (1 Mac. v.
9-54). Antiochus Eupator succeeded his father
Antiochus Epiphanes on the throne of Syria,
and reigned from 164 to 162 B. c. Under the
guidance of Lysias he renewed the war with
the Jews. Lysias defeated Judas at Beth-
zacharias (vi. 28-47). and laid siege to Jeru-
salem (48-54), but was compelled by compli-
cations at home to conclude a peace with
Judas and return to Antioch. The Jews ac-
knowledged the suzerainty of Syria, but were
promised the free exercise of their religion
(55-61). Demetrius Soter, who reigned from
162 to 150 B. c, again favored the Grecian
party among the Jews, and put the helleu-
izer Alcimus into the high-priesthood (vii. 1-
20). Judas resisted the efforts of this high
priest (23, 24), and Demetrius sent an army
under Nicanor to support Alcimus ; but Nica-
nor was defeated at Capharsalama and again
at Adasa near Beth-horon (26-50). During
the brief peace which ensued Judas began
negotiations with the Romans, and obtained
from them assurances of friendship and as-
sistance (viii.) ; but probably before the an-
swer of the senate was returned, Demetrius
sent another army under Bacchides into
Judfea in 160 b. c. Judas offered valiant re-
sistance to the invaders at Elasa, but his
troops were worsted and he himself was slain
(ix. 1-18). His body was recovered by his
brothers, and buried in the family sepulcher
at Jlodin (19). It was some time before the
patriotic party recovered from the demorali-
zation caused by their defeat and the death
of their leader, but at length they offered the
command to Judas' brother Jonathan (23-31).

4. Son of Chalphi and one of the two cap-
tains who stood by Jonathan Maccabfeus at
Hazor when all the rest had fled, and enabled
him to retrieve the day (1 Mac. xi. 70).

5. A son of Simon Maccabteus (1 Mac. xvi.
2). His father devolved the command of the
army upon him and his brother John, and
sent them against Cendebteus. The two
brothers gained a great victory over the
Syrian general near Kidron, not far from
Ashdod (2-10). Judas was wounded in the
battle (9). In 1.35 B. c, about three years
later, he and his brother Mattathias were
treacherously murdered in the castle of Dok
by a kin.sman by marriage, either at a feast
at the same time that their father Simon
was assas-sinated (14-17) or a little later
(Antiq. xiii. 8, 1).

6. Judas of Galilee, who, in the days of
the enrollment, raised a revolt; but he per-
ished, and all, as many as obeyed liiiii. were
scattered abroad (Acts v. 37 ; cj). l.,uke ii. 2).
Josephus calls him several times a Galila-an,
but once a (Jaulonite, of the city of Gamala,
implying that he was from Gaulonitis, east
of the Jordan. It ajipears that, with the
support of a Pharisee called Sadduc, Judas
imbued his countrymen with the belief that
the enrollment under Quirinius was the com-
mencement of their reduction to a state of
servitude. He founded a philosoi)hic sect
whose chief tenet was that their only ruler
and lord was God (Antiq. xviii. 1. 1 and 6;
War ii. 8, 1). Josephus states that Judas
succeeded in making some of the Jews re-
volt, and implies, but does not directly men-
tion, that he lost his life. He expressly
states, however, that his sons were slaiu
(Antiq. xx. 5, 2i. The indirect consequence
of this attemiit was the rise of the party of
zealots, who largely contributed to the dis-
turbances which provoked the Jewish war of
A. D. 66-70.

7. Judas Iscariot, son of Simon Iscariot
(John vi. 71. R. V.), and the apostle who be-
trayed his divine Lord, and that by a kiss.
By being surnamed Iscariot he is distin-
guished from another of the twelve who was
named Judas (Luke vi. 16; John siv. 22).
The surname probably meant that he came
originally from Kerioth in the south of Judah,
toward the land of Edom (Josh. xv. 25).
Judged by his character, he followed Jesus
probably because he expected to derive
earthly advantage from the establishment
of Christ's kingdom. Jesus, without naming
any person, early referred to the future act
of treason which one of the twelve would
commit (John vi. 70). Judas was appointed
to keep the bag, but he yielded to dishon-
esty, and appropriated part of the money
to himself. When Mary of Bethany in
her affection for Jesus broke the alabaster
box of precious ointment and anointed
him, Judas was the spokesman of himself
and others in denouncing what he con-
sidered extravagance ; not that he cared
for the poor, but that he wished the price
of the ointment to be put into the bag,
whence he could help himself as he had
done before (John xii. 5, 6). Jesus mildly
reproved him ; but the rebuke aroused his
resentment, and he went to the chief priests
and offered to betray Jesus unto them for a
price. They agreed with him on thirty
pieces of silver, about $19.50, an ordinary
price for a slave. From that time Judas
sought an opportunity to deliver Jesus unto
them (Mat. xxvi. 14-16; Mark xiv. 10, 11;
Ex. xxi. 32: Zech. xi. 12. 13). At the pas.s-
over supper Jesus, in order to carry out his
design of being crucified at the feast, ])ointed
out the traitor. The devil had already put
into the heart of Judas to betray his Master
(John xiii. 2). When Jesus solemnly said.

Judas

406

Jude

" One of you shall betray me," each disciple
asked, "Lord, is it I?" Peter beckoned to
John to ask Christ who it was, and as Jesus
and Judas were dipping together in the dish
Jesus said : " He it is, for whom I shall dip
tlie sop, and give it him ; " and he gave it to
Judas (Mat. xxvi.23; John xiii.26 R.V.). After
the sop Satan entered into Judas (27). See-
ing the attention of the disci])les directed to
him, he also asked : " Is it I, Rabbi V " Jesus
answered : "Thou hast said," which was the
equivalent of " Yes" (Mat. xxvi. 21-25 E. V.).
Even yet the disciples did not know what
Jesus meant, and when he added, " That thou
doest, do quickly," they supposed that this
was a direction to the treasurer to lose no
time in buying some articles of which they
had need. The traitor went at once to the
chief priests. It is probable that Judas was
not at the institution of the sacrament. He
was present at the supper, and partook of it
with the twelve (Mat. xxvi. 20) ; but he went
out immediately after receiving the sop (John
xiii. 30), and the eucharist was after the
supper (Mat. xxvi. 26-29 ; Mark xiv. 22-25 ;
Luke xxii. 19, 20). Luke in narrating the
events of the supper, changes the actual order
that he may place the spirit of Christ and the
spirit of the disciples in contrast (xxii. 15-20
and 21-24). After the departure of Judas
the tone of Jesus' conversation changes.
When supper was ended he led the eleven to
the garden of Gethsemane. Thither Judas
came, accompanied by a great multitude with
swords and staves, from the chief priests
and elders. In accordance with a sign which
had been agreed upon, in order to point out
Jesus to the soldiers, Judas advanced and
saluted Jesus with a kiss, and Jesus was
seized (Mat. xxvi. 47-50). The next morn-
ing, when Judas, now in calmer mood, saw
that Jesus was condemned, and was likely to
be put to death, he awoke to the enormity of
his guilt, and went to the chief priests with
the confession, " I have sinned in that I
have betrayed the innocent blood," and
ofl'ered to return the money. His conscience
was not so seared as the consciences of the
chief priests, who, having seduced the erring
apostle into his great sin, then turned round
on him and said, "What is that to us? see
thou to that." On which he cast down the
silver pieces in the temple, and went and
hanged himself (Mat. xxvii. 3-5), and falling-
headlong he burst asunder in the midst, and
all his bowels gushed out (Acts i. 18). The
109th Psalm, directed primarily against .some
contemporary of the writer, found fulfillment
in Judas (Ps. cix. 8; Acts i. 20). But no
heavenly coercion compelled the son of per-
dition (John xvii. 12) to fulfill his destiny.
Nor was he, a suppliant, refused mercy ; he
did not ask it.

8. One of the twelve apostles, carefully
distinguished from Judas Iscariot (John xiv.
22). He was son or perhaps brother of James
(Luke vi. 16; Acts i. 13; see R. Y. text and

margin). He was also called Thaddseus. for
this name is found in other lists in the place
corresponding to his (Mat. x. 3; Mark iii.
18). The received text of Mat. x. 3 has
" Lebbfeus, whose surname was Thadda?us."
These two surnames are believed to mean
the same thing: the former coming from
Hebrew and Aramaic leh, heart, and the
latter from Aramaic thad, a mother's breast,
and both signifying a beloved child.

9. One of the four brethren of the Lord
(Mat. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3, in A. Y. Juda),
and probably the author of the Epistle of
Jude. See Brethren of the Lord, Jude.

10. A man who lived at Damascus, in the
street called Straight, and with whom Paul
lodged just after his conversion (Acts ix.
11).

11. Judas, surnamed Barsabbas. He was a
leading man in the church at Jerusalem, and
was chosen with Silas to accompany Barnabas
and Paul to Antioch, bearing the letter from
the council at Jerusalem to the churches
of Syria and Ciiicia. He had prophetic gifts.
His subsequent history is unknown (Acts xv.
22, 27, 32). He bears the same surname as the
disciple Joseph, who was proposed for the
apostleship, and was probably his brother
(i. 23).

Jude. in E. V. of Jude 1 Judas.

An English form of the name Judas, given
in the A. Y. to the writer of the Epistle of
Jude (ver. 1). He describes himself simply
as "brother of James," by whom the author
of the Epistle of James and leader of the
church in Jerusalem seems to be meant. In
this case Jude should be a brother of the Lord,
and not an apostle ; and these inferences
seem borne out by the presence of a Judas in
the lists of our Lord's brethren (Mat. xiii. 55;
Mark vi. 3), and by the apparent implication
of verse 17 of his epistle, that its writer was
not an apostle. Those who identify the
brothers of the Lord with the sons of
Alphfeus, nevertheless, identify Jude with
the apo.stle Judas. Except his bare name,
nothing is recorded of him beyond what we
may infer from the facts that the brethren
of the Lord did not believe in him during
his life on earth (John vii. 5) and that after
his resurrection they were his followers
(Acts i. 14). An interesting story told of his
grandchildren by the church writer, Hege-
sippus, and preserved by Eusebius (H. E. iii.
20), confirms the possible inference from 1
Cor. ix. 5 that he was married, and implies
that he was dead before a. d. 80.

The General Epistle of Jude is a brief
epistle. It names its author as Judas, a
bond servant of Jesus Christ and brother of
James (ver. 1, R. Y. margin) ; that is proba-
bly Judas, the brother of the Lord (Mat. xiii.
55 ; Mark vi. 3). Its address is quite general :
"to them that are called, lieloved in God the
Father, and kept for Jesus Christ " (ver. 1,
R. Y.). Nevertheless, it is probable from the

Judges

407

Judges, Book of

character of thi' epistle, which seems intended
for ii special occasion and is full of allusions
which would be likely to l)e intelligible only
to Jews, that some particular body of Chris-
tians was intended, which, from tlie circum-
stances of sending the letter, did not need to
be specified in the addi-ess. It is most
natural to think of it as intended for the
Jewish Christians dwellinj? in Palestine. The
letter has been largely used by 2 Pet. ii.,
and must have been written before it,
probably not much before : it seems most
natural to date it about A. D. 66. It was
called out by the outbreak among Jude's
readers of an alarming heresy with immoral
tendencies, probably sometliing like the in-
cipient gnosticism rebuked in the pastora?
epistles and the Apocalypse (ver. 3, 4, 10,
1.'), 16, 18), and was designed to .save the
churches addressed from its inroads. After
the address (ver. 1, 2), it assigns the reason
for its writing (ver. 3, 4), and then first an-
nounces the condemnation in store for the
false teachers (ver. 5-16), and afterwards
divulges the duty of true Christians in the
circumstances (ver. 17-23), concluding with
a rich and appropriate doxology (ver. 24, 25).
Owing doubtless to its brevity, there are no
very clear traces of the u.se of Jude in the
very earliest fathers of the church. In the
latter part of the second century, however,
it is found in full use in the Greek and
Latin churches alike, and was clearly from
the beginning a part of the Christian canon.

B. B. AV.

Judg'es.

Men who were raised up to head successful
revolts against foreign oppressors and, hav-
ing emancipated the nation and shown there-
by their call of God, were looked to by the
people to maintain their rights. National
apostasy from Jehovah and the worship of
heathen deities were uniformlj' punished, both
then and in after times, by Jehovah's allow-
ing the nation to he brought under a foreign
yoke. Upon the repentance of the people
and return to Jehovah, a saviour like unto
Mo.ses was raised up. There were twelve of
these judges, not including Abimelech, who
was a petty king and not called of God (ix.).
They were Othniel of Judah, deliverer of
Israel from the king of ^Mesopotamia ; Ehud,
who expelled the Moabites and Ammonites ;
Shamgar, smiter of six hundred Philistines
and saviour of Israel ; Deborah, associated
with Barak, who led Xaphtali and Zebnlun
to victory against the northern Canaanites ;
Gideon, who drove the Midianites from the
territory of Israel ; Tola and Jair ; Jeph-
thah, subduer of the Ammonites ; Ibzan,
Elon, Abdon, and Samson, the troubler of
the Philistines. Eli and Samuel also judged
Israel (1 Sam. iv. 18; vii. 15), but the former
acted in his official capacity as high priest
and the latter as a prophet of Jehovah.
Tliese judges did not form an unbroken suc-
cession of rulers, but appeared sporadically.

They were often local, discharging their du-
ties in restricted districts. They apparently
exercised only such authority as was spon-
taneously accorded to them. They could not
order the various tribes to war. Some of the
op])ressions and not a few of the judges were
evidently contemporaneous and overlapped.
Shamgar, for example, was contemporary
with Ehud, for the account of his exploit is
inserted in the midst of the narrative of
Ehud's work (iii. 31); and a Philistine op-
pression of Judah was coeval with the Am-
monite domination east of Jordan and attack
on Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim (x. 7). See
Chronology.

These facts throw light on the distracted
state of the nation during the period of the
judges. The political districts, moreover,
are found to be those that were separated by
the Jordan and by the heathen barrier be-
tween Judah and the north. The song of
Deborah and the hi.story of Jephthah show
the laxity of the bonds which united the
tribes, and make known what tribes were
able and willing to join forces and fortunes.
The isolation of Judah is remarkable ; see
Judah. But there were centralizing influ-
ences at work. National feeling existed, for
the war of extermination waged against
Benjamin shows the sense of national guilt
and national responsibility. There was one
ark for all the tribes in the national taber-
nacle at Shiloh (Josh, xviii. 1 ; Judg. xxi.
19; cp. Ex. xxiii. 14-17). It was carried to
Bethel, the frontier town of Benjamin near-
est to Gibeah, when the men of Israel gath-
ered there to wage war against the tribe of
Benjamin, but would first worship the Lord
and ask counsel of him (Judg. xx. 18-29).
Great oppressions united the people in com-
mon misery and called for united action ;
great deliverers united the hearts of the people
in loyalty and pride about one head ; great de-
liverances, obtained by united action, bound
tribes more closely together in common
glory.

The period of the judges has been called
Israel's iron age. The people frequently
lapsed into idolatry, and worship at the sanc-
tuary was rendered difficult by the distracted
state of the country. Rudeness of manners
was displayed in Jael's murder of Sisera, in
Jephthah's sacrifice of his daughter, in Gid-
eon's treatment of the men of Succoth,in the
sin of the men of Gibeah. Against the.se
shadows, however, there stand out brightly
the trust and filial piety of Jephthah's
daughter, the fidelity of Ruth to Naomi, and
the kindly and upright character of Boaz.

Judg'es, Book of.

A historical book of the O. T. placed after
Joshua and continuing the narrative from
the death of Joshua. The work consists of
three parts. I. Introduction (i.-ii. 5), giving
an account of the extent to which the coun-
trv had been subdued after the death of

Judges, Book of

408

Juniper

I

Joshua. II. A history of the judges as saviours
of Israel, from the death of Joshua to that of
Samsou (ii. tJ-xvi. 31). This section has its
own iutroductiou iu prophetic style, sum-
mariisiug the events of the period and point-
ing out the religious lesson (ii. G-iii. 6), fol-
lowed by more or less detailed accounts of
six judges and bi'ief mention of other six.
The assumption of kingshij) by Abimelech,
son of Gideon, is recorded as an integral part
of the history, although he was a petty king
rather than a judge, and was not a saviour of
Israel. III. Two appendices, namely, an ac-
count of Micah's image worship and its es-
tablishment among the Danites of the north
(xvii.,^ xviii.), and of the sin of the men of
Gibeah and the consequent war for its pun-
ishment (xix.-xxi.).

The date of the composition of the Book
of Judges is difficult to determine. At any
rate, the following facts must be satisfied.
All schools of criticism at present acknowl-
edge the great antitjuity of the song of Deb-
orah, and that it is practically contemporary
with the event which it celebrates. This
section, the second and main portion of the
book, could not have been written until after
the death of Samson (svi. 30, 31). In the
appendices, the recurring expression, " iu
those days there was no king in Israel,"
points to the composition of these chapters at
least after the establishment of the kingdom.
The tabernacle was no longer at Shiloh
(xviii. 31) when they were written. The
mention of the "captivity of the land"
(xviii. 30) has beeia interpreted as a reference
to the ravages of Tiglath-pileser in the north
(2 Kin. XV. 29), or to the deportation of the
ten tribes after the fall of Samaria. But this
explanation conflicts with the parallel state-
ment, "all the time that the house of God
was iu Shiloh " (Judg. xviii. 31). More-
over, historical circumstances in the reigns
of David, Solomon, and Jeroboam (1 Kin.
v.-vii. ; xii. 28-31) make it highly improb-
able that this image worship continued
to be practiced until the time of Tiglath-
pileser or the Assyrian exile. Hence from
the time of David Kimchi many interpreters
have understood the captivity of the land to
refer to the capture of the ark by the Philis-
tines, when Jehovah forsook Shiloh. Several
expositors have adopted the conjecture of
Houbigant that the last letter in the phrase
" captivity of the land " has become corrupt,
and that the Hebrew text originally had
nun instead of tzade, which would then
read "captivity of the ark." Keil thinks
that the reference is to a conquest of the land
of the northern Danites and enslavement of
its population by the neighboring Syrians of
Damascus. Any of these suppositious is be-
set by fewer ditficulties than the assumption
that Micah's image worship continued until
the fall of Samaria. Tlie expression "from
Dan even to Beersheba " (xx. 1) was, of course,
appropriate in the times of the judges, for it

doubtless originated then. For x. 11-lS ; cp.
i. 31, 32, 34 ; iii. 13, 31 ; vi. 3, 9, 10, 33. The
indications of time, which are found in the
appendices, thus point to the period before
David's reign over all Israel. The general
introduction to the book was written while
the Jebusites still occupied the stronghold at
Jerusalem (i. 21). All these indications of
time strongly favor the inference that the
book as a whole was written in the time of
Samuel, if not actually by that prophet him-
self, as the Jews of old believed. Critics
who deny the Mosaic authorshiiJ of Deu-
teronomy assume that a late reviser worked
over the material, because the book reflects
the same religious conception as does Deu-
teronomy.

As the analysis of the work shows, these
histories were gathered and placed in their
present framework in order to exhibit their
religious teaching and serve as an admonition
to subsequent ages. This religious signifi-
cance of the events, which the comi)iler de-
sired to exhibit, was not concealed from the
actors themselves. The song of Deborah and
the national uprising to punish the perpetra-
tors and abetters of the crime of Gibeah re-
veal the consciousness of the participants that
they were engaged in sacred warfare and
that the history which was being enacted
was full of religious instruction.

Judg'ment Hall. See Pe^torium.

Ju'dith [object of praise, praiseworthy ;
also feminine of Y'hudi, a Jew, and meaning
a Jewess] .

1. A wife of Esau and daughter of Beeri,
the Hittite (Gen. xxvi. 34). She was also
called Oholibamah (xxxvi. 2; cp. Anah).

2. Heroine of the book of Judith ; see
Apocrypha.

Ju'li-a [feminine form of Latin Julius].

A female Christian at Eome to M'hom Paul
sent his salutation (Rom. xvi. 15).

Ju'li-us.

A centurion of the Augustan band, em-
ployed to conduct Paul as a prisoner to Rome
(Acts xxvii. 1). He showed courtesy to the
apostle, allowing him to visit his friends at
Sidon (3). He did not believe Paul's predic-
tion of the coming storm, but on finding it
verified by the event, he evidently formed a
high opinion of the apostle, and for his sake
saved all the prisoners from being put to
death by the soldiers to prevent their escap-
ing when the ship became a wreck (43).

Ju'ni-as, in A. V. Junia.

A Jewish Christian at Rome, to whom Paul
sent a salutation, alluding to the fact that he
was his kinsman and fellow-prisoner, and
had been before him in Christ (Rom. xvi. 7).

Ju'ni-per.

Not the coniferous tree of the genus Juni-
per u.i, of which several species occur in
Lebanon, Galilee, and Bashan ; but a legu-
miuous plant (Reiama netam), an almost leaf-

Jupiter

409

Eadesh

less broom (1 Kin. xix. 4, 5 ; Job xxx. 4; Ps.
cxx. 4) ; see BiitxiM.

Ju'pi-ter.

Tbc siiiirenu' god of the Romans. He cor-
responded to tile Zeus of the (ireeks, and iu
the only part of the N. T. in wiiieli the name
is introduced (Acts xiv. 12, 13) the Greek
text has Zeus. Zeus had a noted temi)le at
Olympia in Elis (Herod, ii. 7), from which he
derived his designation of Olympius. Anti-
ocluis Epiphanes erected a temple to him un-
der that title at Atlieus, dedicated the tem-
ple at Jeru.salem to Jiijiiter Olympius, and at
the request of the Samaritans, Jo.sephussays,
called the sanctuary on Gerizim by the name
of Jupiter, the protector of strangers (2
Mac. vi. 2; Antii}. xii. 5, .5). The worship
of Jupiter, which Paul and Barnabas met
with at Lystra, existed at the time over the
whole Greek and Roman world. He had
temples and a priesthood ; garlands were
presented to him, as were also ofieriugs of
other kinds, and oxen and sheep were sacri-
ficed to propitiate his favor.

Ju-shab-he'sed [loving-kindness is re-
turned).

A sou of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 20).

Jus'tus [just, righteous].

1. A surname of Joseph, the unsuccessful
candidate for the apostleship rendered va-
cant bv the fall of the unworthy Judas
(Act^ i! 23).

2. A godlj' man of Corinth, whose house
adjoined the syuagogue, and with whom
Paul lodged (Acts xviii. 7). His fuller uame
was Titus Justus (R. V.).

3. The surname of a Jew called Jesus, who
joined Paul in sending salutations to the L'o-
lossians (Col. iv. 11).

Ju'tah and Jut'tah [extended, inclined].

A town in the hill country of Judah, men-
tioned with Maon, Carmel, and Ziph, and
doubtless in their vicinity (Josh. xv. 55).
With its suburbs it was assigned to the priests
(xxi. 16). It is now called Yuttah, and stands
on a low eminence, about 5A miles S. by W. of
Hebron. The supposition is credible that
Jutah was the city of Judah in the hill coun-
try to which Mary went to visit Elisabeth
(Luke i. 39 1, and that Judah Cloitdn) has
been substituted for Jutah ('lonfa). The
more common view, however, is that Hebron
was the city of Elisabeth.

K.

Kab, in A. V. Cab.

A Hebrew dry measure (2 Kin. vi. 25) ;
containing, according to rabbinical tradition,
one sixth of a seah or one one hundred and
eightieth of a homer. See Measure.

Kab'ze-el and once Jekabzeel ( Neh. xi. 25)
[God brings together].

A citv in the extreme south of Judah

(Josh. XV. 21). It was the home of David's
heroic supporter, Beuaiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 2U ;
1 Chron. xi. 22). The town was inhabited
after the exile (Xeh. xi. 25 ; where it is
called by the synonymous uame of Jekabzeel).
Exact situation unknown.

Ka'desh, including Ka- desh-bar'ne-a

[consecrated]. The meaning of P>arnca is
unknown.

1. A fountain, city or town, and wilderness
on the southern frontier of Judah and of
Palestine (Num. xx. 16 ; xxxiv. 4; Josh. xv.
3 ; Ps. xxix. 8 ; Ezek. xlvii. 19 ; xlviii. 28) ;
distinguished as Kadesh-baruea from other
places bearing the uame Kadesh (Num. xiii.
26 with xxxii. 8 ; Deut. i. 19 with 46). At an
early period it was called Eu-mishpat or
Fountain of Judgment (Gen. xiv. 7). It was
in the wilderness of Paran (Num. xiii. 3, 26),
in the wilderness of Ziu (Num. xx. 1 ; xxvii.
14), eleven days' journey from Sinai by way
of mount Seir (Deut. i. 2), in the uttermost
of the border of Edom (Num. xx. 16). It
appears to have been not a great distance
from the highway between Palestine and
Egj-pt, for Hagar's well was situated between
Kadesh and Bered, and on the road to Egypt
(Gen. xvi. 7, 14 ; cp. xx. 1). The place was
overrun by Chedorlaomer (xiv. 7). Into the
region adjacent Hagar tied (xvi. 7, 14), and
Abraham sojourned there for a time (xx. 1).
The Israelites, during their wanderings,
twice encamped at Kadesh. They arrived iu
the neighborhood in the second year about
the fifth mouth (Num. xiii. 20; cp. x. 11),
sent tlieuce the spies into Canaan, received
the discouraging report there about the diffi-
culties of conquest (xiii. 26), refused to ad-
vance, and were coudemned to remain in the
wilderness, and abode at Kadesh many days
(Deut. i. 46). They returned to Kadesh in
the first month (Num. xx. 1) of the fortieth
year (xxxiii. 36, 38; cp. Deut. ii. 7, 14). Here
Miriam died and was buried (Num. xx. 1) ;
and here Moses smote the rock that water
might gush out, as, in similar circumstances,
it had done at Eephidim (xx. 1-13) ; see
Meribah. But he and Aaron sinned in act-
ing in their own name. From Kadesh am-
bassadors were sent to the king of Edom to
ask permission for the Israelites to pass
through his territory (xx. 14, 16, 22 ; Judg.
xi. 16, 17). In 1842, the Rev. J. Rowlands
discovered a fountain called by the Arabs
Kades or Kudes, on the east of Jebel Helal.
In 1878, the Rev. T. W. Holland, and in
1881 the Rev. Dr. H. Clay Trumbull, visited
the spot and revived the identification. The
name remains in wady Kadis, Jebel Kadis,
and 'Ain Kadis ; the site answers to the bib-
lical description in every respect; and con-
firmation is alTorded by the name of the ad-
jacent wady, Abu Retemat. On the ground
that the Israelites encamped twice at Kadesh
(Num. xiii. 26; xx. 1, 22: xxxiii. 36), many
interpreters had long been of the opinion

Kadmiel

410

Kanah

that Rithmah was practicallj' identical with
Kadesh (xii. 16 with xxxiii. 18) ; and now it
appears that the wady nearest and iiarallel to
that of Kadis bears the name corresponding
to Rithmah, wady Abu Retemat. 'Ain Kadis
is about 77 miles to the south of Hebron and
51 miles south of Beersheba. The spring,

Kad'mon-ites [people of the east] .

A tribe dwelling somewhere between Egypt
and the Euphrates (Gen. xv. 19), probably in
the Syrian desert.

Kain [possession, creature, smith].

1. Progenitor of the Kenite tribe, which
was sometimes called from him simply Kain

Wilderness of Kadesh.

which is of sweet water, issues from under a
rugged spur of rock belonging to the north-
eastern mountain range west of the Arabah.
The stream is copious, and is intercepted in
its course by two or three wells built round
with masonry. Then after traversing the
oasis which it has created, it is finally lost in
the desert beyond. This identification has
been generally accepted as probably correct.
Numerous other sites had previously been
suggested, especially 'Ain el-Weibeh, on the
western side of the Arabah, northwest of
Petra. Robinson had failed to discover any
spring called Kadis, and settled on the spring
el-Weibeh because of its copiousness and its
proximity to the borders of Edom. Wetz-
stein identified Kadesh with Kadus, north
of Jebel Madara ; but see Kedesh 1.

2. The name is perhaps contained in "the
land of Tahtim-hodshi " (2 Sam. xxiv. 6),
corrected by means of Lucian's text to " the
land of the Hittites, toward Kadesh."

Kad'mi-el [God is of old].

A Levite, head of a tribal house, who re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 40; Neh. vii. 43; xii. 8). He helped to
oversee the workmen engaged in rebuilding
the temple (Ezra iii. 9). The representative
of the house sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 9),
perhaps being the same person who had pre-
viously assisted in the public confession (ix.
4,5).

(R. V. of Num. xxiv. 22; Judg. iv. 11,
margin).

2. A village in Judah, in A. V. spelled
Cain (Jcsh. xv. 57).

Kallai [swift].

A priest, head of the father's house of
Sallai in the time of Joiakim, the high priest
(Neh. xii. 20).

Ka'mon; in A. V. Camon.

The place where the judge Jair the Gile-
adite was buried (Judg. x. .5). The site is un-
known. Eusebius and Jerome locate it in
the plain of Esdraelon,_ between Megiddo
and Acre ; but presumably it was in Gilead,
as Josephus states (Antiq. v. 7, 6). Polybius
mentions a town Kamoun which was taken
by Antiochus in his war with Ptolemy Philo-
pator, immediately after he had cajjturcd
Scythopolis and at the same time that he
took Pella, Abila, Gadara and other places
in Gilead (Hist. v. 70, 12).

Ka'nah [place of reeds].

1. A brook which formed part of the
boundary line between Ephraim and Manas-
seh (Josh. xvi. 8; xvii. 9). Robinson identi-
fied it with the wady Kanah, which rises
south of Shechem, and joins the 'Aujah, the
combined streams falling into the Mediter-
ranean 4 miles north of Joppa. This seems
too far south, but the identity of the ancient
and modern names is in its favor.

Kareah

411

Kenath

2. A town on the boundary of Asher (Josh.
xix. 28). It was plausibly identified by
Eobinson with the modern Kana, about 71
miles southeast of Tyre. It is a village with
no marks of antiquity, but lower down the
ravine which comes from it are old sculptures
on the fiice of the southern clift's.

Ka-re'ali, in A. V. once Careah [bald].
Father of the captains Johanau and Jona-
than, who came to Gedaliah, the Babylonian
governor of Judah (2 Kin. xxv. 23; Jcr.
xl. 8).

Kar'ka. in A. V. Kar'ka-a, retaining the
final syllable which denotes direction [rent,
ravine].

A place on the southern boundary of Judah
(Josh. XV. 3). The name has the definite
article, and maybe a common noun meaning
simply the ravine (Wetzstein).
Kar'kor [foundation].
A place east of the Jordan, where Zebah
and Zalmunna encamped with their army
(Judg. viii. 10). Site unidentified.
Kar'tah [city].

A town of Zebulun given to the Merarite
Levites (Josh. xsi. 31). Not identified.
Ear 'tan [perhaps an old dual, twin towns].
A town of Naphtali, given to the Ger-
shonite Levites (Josh. xxi. 32). Called in 1
Chron. vi. 76 Kiriathaim, A. V. Kirjathaim.
Site unidentified.
Kat'tath.

A town of Zebulun (.Josh. xix. 1.5) ; identi-
fied sometimes with Kitron of Judg. i. 30,
and sometimes with Kartah.

Ke'dar [probably, mighty]. To the He-
brews the name was also suggestive of the
black tents.

A tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen. xxv.
13), children of the east, dwelling in black
tents, possessing flocks and camels (Song i. .5;
Is. Ix. 7; Jer. xlix. 28, 29), and having vil-
lages also in the wilderness (Is. xlii. 11).
Thej' were an Arabian tribe (Is. xxi. 13, IC ;
Ezek. xxvii. 21). They were ruled by princes
(ibid.), and were skillful in archery (Is. x.'^i.
l6, 17). They dwelt between Arabia Petrsea
and Babylonia. The people of Kedar were
Pliny's Cedrai, and from their tribe Moham-
med ultimately arose.

Ked'e-mah [toward the east].

A tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen. xxv.
1.5; 1 Chron. i. 31). Xot mentioned else-
where.

Ked'e-moth [ancient places or beginnings] .

A city east of the Jordan, near the wilder-
ness (Deut. ii. 26), allotted to the Reubenites
(Josh. xiii. 18) and assigned to the Merarite
Levites for residence (xxi. 37; 1 Chron. vi.
79 1. Site unidentified.

Ke'desh [sacred place, sanctuary].

1. A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 23), probably different from
Kadesh-barnea (ver. 3). Its site is perhaps

Kadus, about GV miles north of Jebel Madara
near wady el- Yemen.

2. A fortified city of the Canaanites, whose
king was slain by .Joshua (Josh. xii. 22 ; xix.
.37). It was allotted to the tribe of Naphtali,
and is therefore sometimes called Kedesh-
naphtali (Judg. iv. 6). It was given to the
Gershouite Levites for their residence, and
was made one of the cities of refuge (Josh. xx.
7; xxi. .32; 1 Chron. vi. 76). It was the resi-
dence of Barak (Judg. iv. 6). Its inhabitants
were carried into captivity to Assyria by
Tiglath-pileser (2 Kin. xv. 29). Demetrius
considered it a strategic point in his war
against the Jews (1 Mac. xi. 63, 73; Antiq.
xiii. 5, 6). Robinson's identification of it
with the village of Kades in Upper Galilee,
about 4i miles northwest from the waters of
Merom, has met with general acceptance.

3. A city of Issachar given to the Ger-
shonite Levites (1 Chron. vi. 72 ; in Josh. xxi.
28 Kishion, A. V. Kishon). See Kishion.

Ke-hel'a-thah [an assembly].

A station of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness (Num. xxxiii. 22, 23). Not identified.

Kei'lah.

A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh. xv.
44; 1 Chron. iv. 19). The Philistines fought
against it, but David attacked them and de-
livered the town. Nevertheless he did not
remain in the town when Saul approached,
lest the men of Keilah should surrender him
to Saul (1 Sam. xxiii. 1-13). The town was
inhabited after the captivity (Neh. iii. 17, 18).
The identification with Kila, a ruined vil-
lage 8i miles northwest of Hebron, is scarcely
tenable ; for Kila is in the mountains and
Keilah was situated in the lowland.

Ke-la'iah [perhaps, contempt]. See Kel-

IT.\.

Kel'i-ta [dwarf].

A Levite, called also Kelaiah, who was in-
duced by Ezra to put away his foreign wife
(Ezra X. 23). He was employed with others
by him to read and interpret the law to the
people (Neh. viii. 7), and with Nehemiah
sealed the covenant (x. 10).

Kem'u-el [perhaps, congregation of God].

1. Son of Nahor and JVIilcah, and head of
a younger branch of the Aramaeans (Gen.
xxii. 21).

2. A prince of the tribe of Ephraim and a
commissioner for the allotment of Canaan
(Num. xxxiv. 24).

3. A Levite, father of Hashabiah (1 Chron.
xxvii. 17).

Ke'nan. See Cainan.

Ke'nath [possession].

A town on the western slope of the Jebel
Hauran, on the extreme northeastern border
of Israelitish territory. It was the most
easterly of the ten cities of the Decapolis
(Pliny, Hist. Nat., 5, 16), and was near Bostra
(.Jerome, Onom.). Imposing ruins of it still
remain, which bear the name Kanawat.

Kenaz

412

Key

There is no reason to doubt that this
town is that referred to in the Old Testament.
It was taken bj' Nobah, probably a Manas-
site, who called it after his own name (Num.
xxxii. 4:^). The new name, however, did
not permanently supplant the old one. The
town passed again into gentile hands (1 Chrou.
ii.23). Herod the Great was defeated here by
the Arabians (War i. 19, 2).

Ke'naz [perhaps, hunting].

1. A de.scendant of Esau through Eliphaz
(Gen. xxxvi. 11). He became a chieftain in
mount Seir (15), probably taking his title
from the clan which he ruled (40-43). The
reference in Josh. xv. 17; 1 Chron. iv. 13 is
probably likewise to the tribe. See Keniz-

ZITE.

2. A descendant of Caleb, son of Jephunneh
(1 Chron. iv. 15). A name has evidently
dropped out of the text before it.

Ke'nez-ite. See Kenizzite.

Ke'nite.

A tribe of wliich a branch dwelt in Canaan
or vicinity in the time of Abraham (Gen. xv.
19), while another portion of the same people
settled in Midian, and by the time of Moses
had become incorporated with the Midianites
(Judg. i. 16; iv. 11; cp. Num. x. 29). The
Midianite Kenites may, however, have been
merely a tribal family descended from a man
of Midian named Cain, and have had nothing
in common with the Kenites who dwelt in
Canaan. Balaam, looking from the heights
of Abarim on the region inhabited by the
Amalekites, prophesied the destruction of
Amalek, and then looking on the Kenites of
Canaan in their rocky fastnesses foretold
their captivity (Num. xxiv. 20-22). It may
perhaps be gathered from this that before the
conquest of Canaan the Kenites dwelt in the
rugged, rocky country northeast of the Ama-
lekitesand totheeastand southeast of Hebron.
Hobab the Midianite, of the family of the
Kenites, accompanied the Israelites on their
march from mount Sinai to Canaan to aid
them with his knowledge of the country
(Num. X. 29-32). When the Israelites crossed
the Jordan, encamped at Gilgal, and took
Jericho, Hobab's family pitched their tents
at Jericho ; but after the conquest of Canaan
they cast in their lot with the tribe of Judah,
and settled in the wilderness of Judah, south
of Arad and southeast of Hebron (Judg. i.
16). This choice perhaps indicates that they
were indeed a branch of the old Kenite tribe
of Canaan and sought the home of their fore-
fathers. One Kenite, however, did not care
to dwell with his brethren in the south, but
took up his abode near Kedesh in Naphtali
(Judg. iv. 11). The Kenites who settled in
the south of Judah were still there in friendly
relations with the Israelites in the time of
Saul and David (1 Sam. xv. 6; xxvii. 10;
XXX. 29). They had their registry with
Judah (1 Chron. ii. 55).

Ken'iz-zite, in A. V. Kenezite, save once
(Gen. XV. 19).

One of the tribes in or near Canaan in the
time of Abraham (Gen. xv. 19). Like some
other tribes, it ai)pears to have been absorbed
later by the conquering people. Having set-
tled in mount. Seir, it became subject to the vic-
torious descendants of Esau, when they took
possession of the country (Dent. ii. 12), amal-
gamated with the conquerors, and looked to
one of Esau's descendants as its head. This
chieftain was knoMm as Kenaz from tlie tribe
which he ruled (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 40-42).
Individuals of tlie tribe, on the other hand,
united with the sons of Jacob, Jephunneh
the Kenizzite apparently taking to wife a
woman of the tribe of Judah, and Othniel
the Kenizzite becoming the fir.st judge of
Israel after the conquest. See Caleb 2.

Ker-en-hap'puch [the horn of paint].

The youngest of Job's three daughters
born after his great trial (Job xlii. 14).

Ke'ri-oth, in A. V. once Kirioth (Amos ii.
2) [cities].

1. A town in the extreme south of Judah,
properly Kerioth-hezron (Josh. xv. 25). The
same as Hazor 2 (q. v.). Possibly it may
have been the birthplace of Judas Lscariot,
as the latter half of the name means man of
Kerioth.

2. A town of Moab (Moabite Stone 13 ; Jer.
xlviii. 24), apparently fortified (41). It pos-
sessed palaces (Amos ii. 2). It is supposed to
be a synonym of Ar, the ancient capital of
Moab, because it seems to be referred to
as the capital (ibid.), and because in enu-
merations of the towns of Moab when Kerioth
is cited Ar is omitted (Jer. xlviii. ; Moabite
Stone) and vice versa (Is. xv., xvi. ; cp. Josh,
xiii. 16-21). Unidentified ; not Kureiyat, for
which see Kikiathaim.

Ke-ri-oth-liez'ron. See Keeioth 1 and
Hazor 2.

Ke'ros [the reed of a weaver's loom].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, members
of which returned from captivity (Ezra ii.
44 ; Nell. vii. 47).

Ket'tle. See Pot.

Ke-tu'rah [incense].

Abraham's wife, whom he married after
the death of Sarah when he had still 38
years of life before him. She became the
ancestress of the tribes (.if Zimran, Jokshan,
Medau, Midian, Lhbak, and Shuah (Gen.
XXV. 1, 2 ; 1 Cliron. i. 32). Her sons were
not regarded as on the same level with Isaac,
and their father gave them gifts and sent
them away during his lifetime to the east
country (Gen. sxv. 6). A tribe Ketura is
mentioned in late Arabian genealogies as
dwelling near Mecca.

Key.

An instrument for turning bolts (Judg. iii.
25). An oriental key consists of a piece (f
wood with ijegs fastened on it corresponding

Keziah

413

Kidron

to small holes in a wooden bolt within. See
Lock. It is ^'onerally carried in the girdle.
but occasionally it is fastened to something
else and borne over the shoulder (cp. Is. xxii.
2:i). The key is the -symbol of authority
(ibid. ; Mat. xvi. 19 ; Rev. i. 18 ; iii. 7 ; ix.
1; XX. 1). It is also the symbol of access to
that from which one would otherwise be shut
out (Luke xi. 5"i).

Ke-zi'ah, in A. V. Kezia [cassia].

The second of Job's daughtei-s born after
his great trial (Job xlii. 14).

Ke'ziz. Si'c Emkk-kp:ziz.

Kibroth-hat-ta'a-vah [the graves of lust].

A place in the Sinaitic peninsula, between
mount Sinai and Hazeroth, where the Israel-
ites were buried who were slain by a plague
for lusting after the fiesh pots of Egypt
(Num. xi. 33-35; xsxiii. KJ, 17; Deut. ix.
22). In 1870 Palmer and Drake believed
that they had found the site at Erweis el-
Ebeirig, iiday's journey from 'Ain el-Hudera.
It is an elevated table-land well adapted for
the encampment of a great multitude, and

Kid.

A young goat. It was highly esteemed as
an article of food (Luke xv. 29). The llesh
was boiled and eaten (Judg. vi. 19), being
sometimes cooked iu milk (Ex. xxiii. 19).
The law probably did not prohibit the use
of a sucking kid for food, l)ut forbade that it
be cooked in its own mother's milk. The
relation between even a lower animal and
its ollspring was sacred and should not be
disregarded by man. A kid might be used
as a burnt otl'ering (Judg. xiii. 15, 19). The
Hebrew words, ISa'ir and tS''irah, rendered
kid of the goats in A. V., are translated by
goat and he goat in R. V. (Gen. xxxvii. 31 ;
and wherever kid occurs in Lev., Num., and
Ezek.). See Goat.

Kid'ron, in A. V. of 1 Mac. and N. T.
Cedron [dark, turl)id].

1. A ravine which begins about half an
hour's walk to the northwest of Jerusalem
near the so-called tombs of the judges,
trends for a mile and a half toward the
southeast, turns sharply to the south and

i^r-

K "

■^.f^.

Valley of the Kidron at Jerusalem.

with traces for many miles round of having
been so employed. Tradition says that it
was the camp of a great Hajj caravan, which
in the distant past sojourned here and was
never heard of again.

Eib'za-im [two heap.s]. See Jokmeam.

continues in this direction past the city as
far as the valley of Hinnom and En-rogel.
Here it bends again to the southeast and
pursues a tortuous course to the Dead Sea.
No stream flows in it except during continu-
ous heavy rains in winter, and there is no
evidence that its bed was ever occupied by a

Kinah

414

King

perennial brook. Indeed, the word brook,
which is connected with it in the English
version, represents a Hebrew word which
commonly either means a ravine occupied by
the channel of a torrent dry during the hot
season or denotes the winter torrent itself.
By writers who use Greek, tlie Kidron is ex-
pressly called winter brook (John xviii. 1 ; 1
Mac. xii. 37). The name may be derived
from the turbid water of the winter torrents
or from the gloominess of the valley, espe-
cially in its lower part. To speakers of the
Greek language, the Greek form of the name
suggested the word for cedar and the rivulet
came to be frequently called the brook of the
cedars (John xviii. 1, R. V. margin ; 2 Sam.
XV. 23, codex Vat.). The Kidron separates
Jerusalem from the mount of Olives and had
to be crossed by those going from the city to
Bethany or Jericho (2 Ham. xv. 23). It was
regarded as the eastern boundary of the city
(1 Kin. ii. 37 ; Jer. xxxi. 40). The portion of
the valley lying near the southern part of
the city was early used as a common burying
ground (2 Kin. xxiii. 6) ; and godly kings,
who from time to time found it necessary to
cleanse the temple of idolatrous symbols,
made the Kidron valley the dumping place
for the ashes of these abominations (1 Kin.
XV. 13; 2 Chron. xxix. 16; x.xx. 14; 2 Kin.
xxiii. 4). Athaliah is reported to have been
led away to the Kidron for execution that
the temple might not be defiled by her blood
(Antiq. ix. 7, 3).

2. A town near Jamnia and Ashdod (1
Mac. XV. 39 ; xvi. 9, 10); fortified by Cendebseus
and occupied by a detachment of his Syrian
army because it commanded several roads
into Judaea (xv. 41). See Gederoth.

Kl'nah [song of mourning, lamentation].

A village in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. xv. 22). Situation unknown.

Klne. See Cow.

King.

The head of that form of state which is
specifically called a kingdom. The title for-
merly implied autocratic power. Nimrod
ruled over a kingdom in Babylonia contain-
ing several cities (Gen. x. 10). Chedorlaomer
was king of Elam and head of a confederacy
of kings (xiv. 1, 5). Pharaoh held sway
over the princes of Egypt (xii. 15). Nebu-
chadnezzar of Babylon and Artaxerxes the
Persian were each a king over kings (Ezra
vii. 12 ; Dan. ii. 37, cp. 2 Kin. xxiv. 17). In
Canaan in the time of Abraham the rule of a
king was often over one town only (Gen. xiv.
2, 18; XX. 2). Some centuries later Joshua
enumerated thirty-one kings whom he had
conquered within the bounds of Canaan
(Josh. xii. 7-24). It was not until centuries
after the tribes and nations adjacent to Pal-
estine had been ruled by kings, that the
Israelites demanded a visible monarch. Al-
though the demand when made was prompt-ed
by unbelief and in so far was rebellion against

Jehovah, yet it was not in itself at variance
with the theocracy and the invisible, but ef-
ficient, rule of Jehovah ; for the theocracy in
its very institution contemplated the adminis-
tration of the several offices of government by
human agents; see Theockacy. Moses fore-
saw the need that would arise for a visible
king and he i)rovided for the event, just as
provision was made for prophets and priests
to make known the will or legislation of
Jehovah and for judges to represent the
unseen Judge (Deut. xvii. 14-20). When the
king was chosen the theocracy was not abol-
ished. The nominally uncontrolled sovereign
was required to be the vicegerent of Jehovah ;
and when Saul, mistaking his position, sought
to act independently, another was chosen to
supersede him and his posterity on the
throne. The same rule obtained with all
Saul's successors; when they gave up fidelity
to Jehovah, they forfeited their title to the
kingdom (1 Kin. xi. 31-36). For the suc-
cession of kings who ruled in Judah and
Israel, see Chkonology.

A man became king of a nation through
appointment to the office by one higher in
authority (1 Sam. ix. 16; xvi. 1, 13; 2 Kin.
xxiii. 33, 34; xxiv. 17), by the choice of the
people (1 Sam. xviii. 8; 2 Sam. v. 1-3; 1
Kin. xii. 20; 2 Kin. xxiii. 30), by usurping a
throne (1 Kin. xv. 27, 28), or by inheritance
(xi. 36). The ceremony of coronation among
the Israelites consisted regularly in plac-
ing on the throne, putting the crown
upon the head, anointing with oil, and proc-
lamation (2 Kin. xi. 12; cp. 1 Sam. x. 24; 2
Sam. ii. 4; v. 3; 1 Kin. i. 34; 2 Kin. xxiii.
30). It was doubtless regularly accompanied
by sacrifice, and sometimes also by a solemn
procession (1 Sam. xvi. 2, 5; 1 Kin. i. 25, 43-
46). The king often led the army to battle
in person (Gen. xiv. 5; Num. xxi. 23; 1 Sam.
viii. 20; xiv. 20), made treaties in behalf of
himself and his people (Gen. xxi. 22-32; 1
Kin. XV. 19), enacted laws and executed
them (Esth. iii. 12, 13; viii. 7-12; Dan. iii.
4-6, 29 ; vi. 6-9), exercised judicial functions
(2 Sam. XV. 2; Is. xxxiii. 22), and had the
power of life and death (2 Sam. xiv. 1-11 ; 1
Kin. i. 51, 52 ; ii. 24-34 ; Eslh. iv. 11 ; vii. 9,
10). The restraints upon the king were the
fear of God and man. The popular will
might not always be ignored (1 Sam. xiv. 45;
XV. 24). The endurance of the people might
not be overtaxed with impunity (1 Kin. xii.
4). There were officers of religion, both
priests and prophets, v\ho in religious mat-
ters were independent of the king and did
not hesitate to rebuke misdemeanors (1 Sam.
xiii. 10-14; xv. 10-31; 2 Sam. xii. 1-15; 1
Kin. xviii. 17, 18 ; xxi. 17-22 ; 2 Chron. xxvi.
16-21). But a despotic king .sometimes broke
tlirough these restraints (1 Sam. xxii. 17-19;
1 Kin. xii. 1.3-16; Jer. xxvi. 20-23'. In
view of the royal duties and prerogatives,
the king required physical, mental, and
moral qualities of a high order to rule well.

Kingdom

415

Kings, Books of the

Physical superiority is appreciated the mo-
ment it becomes visible. Thus, when Saul
was preseuteil to his future subjects, and they
saw him tower head aud shoulders above all
the multitude present, they raised the shout,
"God save the king" (1 Sam. x. 23, 24; cp.
also xvi. 7). In order to be an able
judge the king must be a man of pene-
tration, able to disentangle truth from
falsehood, and punish, not the innocent,
but the guilty. This is the reason why
there was such emotion among the Israelites
when Solomon, trying his first case, that of
the two women aud the child, so signally
detected where the truth aud where the
falsehood lay (I Kin. iii. 28; cp. Is. xi. 1-9).
But penetration was not enough ; the moral
element was requisite to make the sovereign
give, without fear or favor, the verdict which
he considered just. For the protection of
his person and assistance in the discharge of
his duties the king had a bodyguard, the
captain of which generally acted as execu-
tioner {2 Sam. XV. 18 ; xx. 2.3 with 1 Kin. ii.
25, 29) ; see Guard. Wealthy kings had
magnificent palaces, surrounded themselves
with luxury, and lived in state (1 Kin. x).
See also Sepulcher.

God is compared to a king possessed of
unlimited power, and using it under the in-
fluence of supreme beneficence (Ps. v. 2 ; x.
16). He is the King of kings (1 Tim. vi. 15).
Christ is a king. He called himself so,
but explained that his kingdom is not of this
world (John xviii. 33-38). He also is the
King of kings (Rev. xix. 16).

King'dom.

1. The territory or the people ruled over
by a king (2 Kin. xv. 19),

2. The sovereign rule of God over the uni-
verse (1 Chron. xxix. 11 ; Ps. xxii. 28 ; cxlv.
13; Mat. vi. 13).

3. A sovereignty which Daniel prophesied
that God was about to establish on earth, and
which, once set up, should remain forever.
Of this kingdom the Son of man should be
the ruler (Dan. vii. 13, 14). John the Bap-
tist declared that in his day it was at hand
(Mat. iii. 2). So did Jesus in the earlier part
of his ministry (iv. 17), and he taught his
disciples to pray for its coming (vi. 10). The
apostles when first sent forth were instructed
to say that it was at hand (x. 7). Afterwards
the divine Preacher spoke of it as having
come (xii. 28), and gave forth many parables
illustrative of its nature. It is sometimes
called the kingdom of heaven, and at others
the kingdom of God, Matthew preferring the
former and Mark and Luke the latter desig-
nation (cp. Mat. xiii. 24, 31, 33, 44, 45 with
Mark iv. 11, 26, 30 ; Luke xiv. 15; xvii. 20,
etc.). The kingdom was to be of a spiritual
character, and no carnal weapons were to be
used in its establishment (John xviii. 33-.37).
Commenced on earth with the royal ministry
of Christ, it was to be consummated amid

the bliss of the eternal world (Mat. xxv. 31-
46 ; Luke xxiii. 42, 43). The kingdom of
God is thus the " invisible church." It is the
whole spiritual commonwealth of God's chil-
dren, the true company of all faithful people.
It is represented by the organized or visible
church, but is more comprehensive aud
greater than the visible church in any age
or all ages.

Kings, Books of the.

The two Books of the Kings were origi-
nally one book, but were divided in the Sep-
tuagint into two. They are placed among
"the prophets " in the Hebrew canon, in that
group of Scriptures which, because standing
first among the prophets, were known as
" former prophets." The writings of the for-
mer prophets form a continuous narrative
which begins at the death of Moses and ends
with the exile. Joshua is the first book in
the series and the Books of the Kings are the
last. These were written to jjoint out the
religious teaching of the national history
during the period of the kingdom from the
accession of Solomon. The author shows the
growth and decay of the kingdom, indicates
the causes which worked to etfect these re-
sults, and draws attention to the large part
played by forces of a moral and religious
character (cp. 2 Kin. xvii.). His narrative
covers a period of more than four hundred
years, and he is consequently dependent upon
former historians for his facts. He draws
chiefly from the " book of the chronicles of
the kings of Israel " (1 Kin. xiv. 19), down
to the death of Pekah, and the "book of
the chronicles of the kings of Judah " (29),
down to the death of Jehoiakim. It is gen-
erally believed that these chronicles were
originally, as the titles suggest, two separate
works. Probably they were ultimately
united into one and constituted the work
quoted by the chronicler as the " book of the
kings of Judah and Israel " (2 Chron. xvi.
11). These two chronicles contained more
than the present Books of the Kings, for the
writer of Kings refers his readers to them
for further details (1 Kin. xiv. 19, 29), and
the chronicler quotes portions which the
writer of Kings does not (2 Ctiron. xxvii. 7 ;
xxxiii. 18). It is believed that these two
chronicles were not the public annals, but a
compilation from several documents. This
opinion is based on the fact that writings of
various projihets are mentioned as having
been inserted in the book of the kings of
Israel (2 Chron. xx. 34 ; xxxii. 32), which
could not have been done if the book were
the state annals added to from day to day by
the royal scribe. The double chronicles M'ere
written before the fall of Jerusalem ; for the
phrase " unto this day " refers, so far as can
be determined, invariably to the time when
the city and temple were in existence (1 Kin.
viii. 8) ; and if it does not prove that the
writer of the present Books of the Kings lived

Kir

416

Kiriath-jearim

before the exile, it at least shows that the
writer of the book from which he quotes did.
Whether the writer of the ])resent Books
of the Kings began the work before the
destruction of Jerusalem or not, he did not
complete it until after the middle years of
the Babylonian exile (2 Kiu. xxv. 27). He
perhaps finished it before the close of the ex-
ile, since the work contains no allusion to the
deliverance of the people from Babylon.

The author is chiefly concerned with the
history of the Davidic monarchy. Like the
author of Genesis, he disposes of subsidiary
matters before treating his main theme, lu
following this method, he records events re-
lating to Israel before giving the contem-
poraneous history of Judah. This leads him
to sometimes narrate the same event in con-
nection with both the northern and the south-
ern kingdoms (1 Kiu. xv. 16 with 32 ; 2 Kin.
xvii. 5, 6 with xviii. 9).

The work is divided into three parts. I.
The reign of Solomon (1 Kin. i.-xi.). II. A
synchronistic account of the kingdoms of
Judah and Israel until the captivity of Is-
rael (xii.-2 Kin. xvii.). III. The kingdom of
Judah until the Babylonian exile.

Kir [wall, fortified town].

1. The i)lace from which the Arampeans
migrated to Syria (Amos ix. 7), and to which
those of them living in Damascus were car-
ried back again on being conquered by the
Assyrians (2 Kin. xvi. 9 ; Amos i. 5). Its in-
habitants are* represented as arrayed with
Elam against Judah (Is. xxii. 6). Not iden-
tified. Gesenius' doubtful identification of
it with a region called Kur, between the
Black and the Caspian seas, is groundless.
Nor is Schrader's identification of it with
Media probable (cp. Is. xxi. 2 with xxii. 6),
for there is no reason for believing that the
Araniieans came from Media. I'urrer's iden-
tification with the district Cyrrhestica, north-
west of Antioch, lacks proof.

Kir of Mo'ab.

A fortified city of southern Moab (Is. xv.
1), called also Kir-hareseth and Kir-heres
(xvi. 7, II ; Jer. xlviii. 31, 36 ; in A. V. some-
times Kir-haraseth and Kir-haresh). It was
strong enough to resist the combined forces
of Israel, Judah, and Edom (2 Kin. iii. 25). Its
modern name, traceable back to the Targum,
is Kerak. It is 11 miles east from the south-
ern bay of the Dead Sea, south of the Lisan
or tongue, and IK south of the Arnon river.
It stands on a triangular hill, at an elevation
of 3323 feet above the Mediterranean, on a
rocky platform which rises at its southeastern
extremity to 3720 feet. Except at one or two
spots, the hill is isolated from the neighboring
hills by precipices falling sheer down to the
deep valleys below. Its weak point for mili-
tary purposes is that it is commanded by adja-
cent hills 40,")0 feet high. Kerak constitutes a
triangle from 2400 to 3000 feet on each side.
It is entered by two arched tunnels, probably

of R(mian age. There are remains of Eoman,
crusading, and Mohammedan times. There
is a great castle which was built by king
Fulco about A. D. 1131, and which in 1183
defied the efforts of Saladin to efl'ect its cap-
ture. Kerak was al.so found impregnable by
Ibrahim Pasha in 1841. Its present popula-
tion is believed to be about 8000, of whom
1600 are Christians.

Kir-har'a-seth, Kir-har'e-seth, Kir-ha'-
resh, Kir-he'res [city of bricks or city of
pottery]. See Kir of Moab.

Kir'i-atli, in A. V. Kirjath [city].

A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 28), some-
times identified with Kirjath-jearim.

Kir-i-a-tha'im, in A. V. sometimes Kir-
ja-tha'im [twin cities].

1. An ancient city of the Emim (Gen. xiv.
.5), re))uilt by the Eeubenites (Num. xxxii.
37; Josh. xiii. 19), which afterwards fell into
the hands of the Moabites (Moabite Stone 10 ;
Jer. xlviii. 1,23; Ezek. xxv. 9). It is be-
lieved that its site was at Kureiyat, north of
the Arnon, and 2i miles south by east of
Ataroth. The ruins are on two hills.

2. The same as Kartan (q. t.) (1 Chron. vi.
76).

Kir-i-ath-ar'ba, in A. Y. Kirjath-arba
[city of Arba, or perhaps, city of the croucher] .

An old name for the city of Hebron, point-
ing to the fact that it was the city of Arba,
or the Arba, father of Anak. Perhaps he
was its founder (Gen. xxiii. 2 ; Josh. xiv. 15;
XV. 1.3, 54 ; XX. 7 ; xxi. 11 ; Judg. i. 10). The
old name was not obsolete even in the time
of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 25). See Hebron.

Kir-i-ath-a'rim, in A. Y. Kirjath-arim.
See Kiriath-jearim.

Kir-i-ath-ba'al, in A. Y. Kirjath-baal

[city of Baal]. See Kiriath-jearim.

Kir-i-ath-hu'zoth, in A. Y. Kirjath-hu-
zoth [city t)f streets].

A INIoabite town near Bamoth-baal (Num.
xxii. 39, 41). It may have been the same as
Kiriatharim.

Kir-i-atli-je'a-rim, in A. Y. Kirjath-
jearim [city of woods or forests].

A town belonging originally to the Gibeon-
ites (Josh. ix. 17). It was on the western part
of the boundary line between the tribes of Ju-
dah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 9 ; xviii. 14, 15),
but pertained to Judah, being considered a
town belonging to the hill country of thelatter
tribe (xv. 48, 60 ; Judg. xviii. 12). After the
ark had been returned to the Israelites by
the Philistines, it remained in safe custody
in Kiriath-jearim for the next twenty years,
until the second battle of Ebenezer, and
longer (1 Sam. vi. HM-ii. 2). Some of its
population returned from captivity (Neh. vii.
29 ; in Ezra ii. 25 the name appears as Kiri-
ath-arim). It was called also Kiriath-baal
(Josh. XV. 60; xviii. 14), Baalah (xv. 9, 11),'
or Baale (2 Sam. vi. 2 ; cp. 1 Chron. xiii. 6).

Kiriath-sannali

41-

Kiss

Euscbiiis states that it was situated 9 or 10
Roman miles from Jeriisiilem on the road
to Diospolis, I. e. Lydda, and accordingly it
is commonly identified with Kuriet el-'Enab,
7 miles west by north of Jerusalem. Conder
argues for the ruins "Krma, 11 miles west by
south of Jerustilem. and 2\ south by west of
Kesla. But coutrary to his opinion, Josh xv.
10 is surely against the location i>roposed by
him. 'Krma and Jearim are also radically
ditt'erent, and the site is too remote from the
other (;ihe<inite settlements.

Kir-i-ath-san'nah, in A. V. Elrjath-san-
nah. See Dkbik.

Kir-i-ath-se'pher, in A. V. Kirjatli-se-
pher. See Debir.

Kir'i-oth. See Kerioth.

Kir'jath. See Kiri.\th.

Kir-jath-ar'ba, etc. See Kiriath-arba,
€tc.

Kish, in A. V. of N. T. Cis, in imitation
-of the Greek.

1. A Benjamite, son of Jeiel (1 Chron.viii.
30; ix. 3."), 36).

2. A Benjamite, father of king Saul and
son of Abiel (1 Sam. ix. 1), but also registered
as a son of Ner and a descendant of Jeiel of
Gibeon (1 Chron. viii. 33; ix. 3tj, 39). This
latter genealogy may indeed merely register
the fact that Kish was a descendant of Xer,
without implying that he was his immediate
son ; and allow of the insertion of Abiel and
others between Kish and Ner.

Jeiel

Jeiel or Abiel.

Abdon. Zur. Kish. Baal.

Ner. Nadab.

Zeror.

Abiel.

Kish.

Saul.

Ner.

I
Abner.

But perhaps only one Kish and one Ner
<lesceuded from Jeiel. If so. the explanation
of the genealogy is that Ner's descendants
became two tribal houses, those of Kish and
Ner. The former, the important royal family
of Saul, looked to Xer'sson Kish as its founder;
but it was merely a younger branch of the
older, but less distinguished, line of Ner.
Both houses belonged to the family of .leiel,
and hence Kish as well as Ner is regis-
tered, according to the familiar principle,
among Jeiel's sons (ix. 36). Saul's father,
Kish, and Abner's father, Ner. are mentioned
as sons of Abiel al.so (1 Sam. ix. 1 ; xiv. .51),
and either Ner or Abner is stated to have
been Saul's uncle (xiv. .50). Abiel may be,
as some expositors .suppose, or may not be.
another name or the uncorrupted form of
Jeiel.

27

I I :' I I I I

Abdon. Zur. : Baal. Ner. Nadab. Gedor

Kish.
Saul.

Abner.

3. A Levite, in David's time, of the family
of Merari, house of Mahli (1 Chron. xxiii.-21,
22; xxiv. 29).

4. A Levite, family of Merari and son of
Abdi, who aided in the revival under Heze-
kiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12).

.5. A Benjamite, an ancestor of Mordecai
(Esth. ii. 5).

Kish'i. See Kushaiah.

Kish'i-on, in A. V. once Kishon (Josh. xxi.
28) [hardness].

A border town of Issachar (Josh. xix. 20),
given to the Gershonite Levites (xxi. 28). In
1 Chron. vi. 72 Kedesh appears in its stead,
probably by a copyist's error. Site unknown.

Ki'shon, in A. V. once Eison (Ps. Ixxxiii.
9) [bending, curving, tortuous].

1. The most important river of Palestine
next to the Jordan. " That ancient river,
the river Kishon" swept away the soldiers
of Sisera's beaten army when they tied north-
ward from Taanach and attempted to cross
the stream (Judg. v. 19-21 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 9).
The priests of Baal who had the contest with
Elijah were slain on its southern bank (1
Kin. xviii. 40). It is now called the Nahr el-
Mukutta'. Conder and Kitchener state that
its real source is near Khurbet el-Mezrah and
the springs called el-Mujahiyah, the place of
bursting forth of water. From this spot,
which is only a little west of Beth-shean, a
series of pools extends, and then a continuous
stream. As the name Kishon implies, the
river is tortuous, making great curves as it
proceeds in a generally northwesterly direc-
tion through the plain of Esdraelon. It looks
an insignificant stream, of 15 or 18 feet
across, but has treacherous banks, and a
muddy bottom, so much so that when the
Turks and Arabs were defeated by the
French in the battle of mount Tabor, on
April 16, 1799, the fate of the vanquished
host was the same as that of Sisera's army.
Toward Harosheth of the gentiles, Jabin's
city, the Kishon runs through a narrow
gorge under the cliffs which constitute the
northern side of mount Carmel, the water at
one place being nearly hidden by oleander
bu.shes. Then the stream enters the plain of
Acre. Sand dunes, dotted with palm trees,
interfere with it in the latter part of its
course ; and it is only when full of water that
it can overcome the obstacle, and make a
proper entrance into the Mediterranean.

2. A town, so spelled in A. V. See KisHiON.
Kiss.

A salutation, common in the Orient from

Kite

418

Kneading Trough

patriarchal times onward, between persons
of the same sex and to a limited extent be-
tween individuals of different sexes. Fathers
and mothers kissed their children and de-
scendants (Gen. xxxi. 28, 55 ; xlviii. 10 ; 2
Sam. xiv. 33, etc.), and children their parents
(Gen. xxvii. 26, 27; 1. 1; 1 Kin. xix. 20).
Brother and sister kissed each other (Song
viii. 1), and brother kissed brother (Gen. xlv.
15 ; Ex. iv. 27). So did other relatives and
kinsfolk (Gen. xxix. 11 ; Ex. xviii. 7 ; Euth
1. 9). Comrades kissed each other ; so did
friends (1 Sam. xx. 41 ; 2 Sam. xix. 39 ; xx.
9 ; Acts XX. 37). In the time of our Lord, a
guest invited to a house expected on entering
to be kissed by his entertainer (Luke vii. 45).
It was in these circumstances that Christians
were enjoined to salute each other with a
holy kiss (Eom. xvi. 16; 1 Cor. xvi. 20; 2
Cor. xiii. 12 ; 1 Thes. v. 26), or with a kiss of
love (1 Pet. V. 14), symbolical of Christian
brotherhood. As kissing between friends,
guests, and entertainers lapsed, the salutation
enjoined by the apostle fell also into desue-
tude. In all the foregoing cases a kiss was,
or at least professed to be, an expression of
love. It therefore added to the baseness of
Judas' treachery that he had not merely be-
trayed his Lord, but did so by means of a
kiss (Mat. xxvi. 48, 49 ; Luke xxii. 47, 48 ;
cp. Prov. xxvii. 6). In all love there is a
greater or less amount of respect. The feet
of kings were kissed in token of great respect
and to tender allegiance (Ps. ii. 12), and the
same idea was involved in the kiss given to
idols (1 Kin. xix. 18; Hos. xiii. 2). A kiss
was sometimes thrown by the hand to the
idol (Job xxxi. 27). When women kissed the
feet of our Lord, it indicated the unbounded
respect and affection which they felt for his
character and work (Luke vii. 38, 45).

Common Kite of Palestine.

Kite.

A bird of prey of the falcon family, with
long, pointed wings and usually long, forked
tail. The word is used in R. V. to render

the Hebrew Da'ah and Dayyah (Lev. xi. 14 ;
Deut. xiv. 13 ; Is. xxxiv. 15 ; in A. V. vul-
ture) and twice in A. Y. to render 'Ai/yah
(Lev. xi. 14; Deut. xiv. 13; in R. V. falcon).
Both birds were ceremonially unclean (Lev.
xi. 14). The Hebrew name of the former
corresponds to the Arabic huduyyeh, vernacu-
lar for the kite. It is of various kinds (Deut.
xiv. 13). The black kite {Milrus nigrHiiti) is
found in central and southern Europe, north-
ern Africa, and western Asia. It appears in
Palestine in March, gliding noiselessly in the
air, looking down for its food, which consists
of offal, for, being a somewhat cowardly
bird, it does not molest poultry. It breeds in
trees, ornamenting its nest with rags of differ-
ent colors. The black-winged kite {Elanus
cseruleus) also occurs in Palestine, but is rare.

Kith'lish, in R. Y. CMthlish.

A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 40). Xot identified.

Kit'ron.

A town in the territory of Zebulun, but
from which the Canaanites were not driven
out (Judg. i. 30). Compare Kattath.

Kit'tim or Chittim, the latter being the
more consistent, and in A. Y. more frequent
spelling [origin and meaning unknown].

Descendants of Javan, who inhabited Cy-
prus and other islands and coasts of the
eastern Mediterranean (Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Cliron.
i. 7; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. 10; Ezek. xxvii.
6 ; and Dan. xi. 30, where the language of
Num. xxiv. 24 is used ; Antiq. i. 6, 1). The
name is connected definitely with Cyprus,
chiefly through Kition. an ancient town on
the southern coast of the island, and through
the Kiti, whom Thothmes III. mentions as
possessing the island. The name was even-
tually greatly extended. In 1 Mac. i. 1 Alex-
ander the Great is said to have come out of
the land of Chittim, and in viii. 5 Perseus is
called king of Chittim, meaning Macedonia.

Egj'ptians kneading Dough in a Trough.

Knead'ing Trough.

A shallow vessel, usually of wood and

Knife

419

Korah

portable, in which dough is worked into a
well-mixed mass preparatory to baking (Ex.
xii. 34). The Egyptians kneaded the dough
with their feet (Herod, ii. 36) or with their
hands.

Knife.

The Hebrews used a knife which they
called ma'akeleth, eating instrument, for
slaughtering animals for food or sacrifice,
and for cutting up the carcass (Gen. xxii. 6 ;
Judg. xix. 2U ; cp. Lev. viii. 20 ; ix. 13).
Another word, hfrcb. which commonly sig-
nifies a sword, denotes a knife made of flint
(Josh. V. 2), and perhaps a knife for shaving
(Ezek. V. 1 ; in R. V. sword) ; see Flint.
The Egyptians also, when embalming a corpse,
used a sharp stone knife for making an in-
cision in the body (Herod ii. 8(i). The He-
brew scribes sharpened the stylus with a
small knife (Jer. xxxvi. 23). Herod the
Great was accustomed to use a knife for par-
ing fruit, and attempted to kill himself with
it (Anti(i. xvii. 7, 1).

Knop.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Kaphtor
in Ex. XXV. 33-3(i; xxxvii. 17-22, where it
constitutes a part of the candlestick used
in the tabernacle. In other passages the
Hebrew word api>arently denotes the cai)ital
of a column (Amos ix. 1 ; Zeph. ii. 14, both
R. v.). It seems to have been some project-
ing support for the branches of the candle-
stick, and for the corollas of the ornamental
flowei-s ; but its precise nature is unknown.
Josephus perhaps states that it represented
a pomegranate ( Autiq. iii. 6, 7), but his words
are not clear.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew P'ka'im
(1 Kin. vi. 18; vii. 24), an ornament cut in
cedar, and associated with open flowers in
the woodwork of Solomon's temple. Since
the feminine form of the word denotes wild
gourds, the R. V. places gourds on the mar-
gin of the first passage, as if the ornament
was shaped like a gourd.

Ko'a.

A people named between Babylonians and
Assyrians (Ezek. xxiii. 23), located by Fried-
rich Delitzsch east of the Tigris, south of the
lower Zab.

Ko'hath [perhaps, assembly].

A son of Levi and founder of the great
Kohathite family (Gen. xlvi. 11 ; Ex. vi. 16,
18).

Ko'hath-ite.

A mcml)er of the great Levite family
founded by Kohath. This was subdivided
into the families or houses of the Amramites,
the Izharites, the Hebronites, and the L^z-
zielites (Ex. vi. 18; Num. iii. 27). Moses and
Aaron were of the Kohathite family (Ex. vi.
20). The Kohathites pitched on the south
side of the tabernacle in the wilderness
(Xum. iii. 29). When the priests had cov-
ered the sanctuary and its vessels, the Ko-
hathites carried them, but were not to touch

anv holy thing, lest they should die (iv. 15,
17-20; 2 t'hron. xxxiv. 12). At the first
census in the wilderness, the Kohathite males
from a month old and upward were HfilM)
(Num. iii. 28), and those from thirty to fifty
years old 2750 (i v. 34-37). In the sub.se(iuent
allotment of cities to the family, the priests,
the descendants of Aaron, had shares with
the other Kohathites, the former obtaining
thirteen cities out of the tribes of .Fudah,
Simeon, and Benjamin, and the latter leii
cities out of the tribes of Ephraim, Dan, and
JIanas.seh (Josh. xxi. 4, 5; 1 Chron. vi. 61,
66-70).

Ko-la'iah [voice of Jehovah].

1. Father of the false prophet Ahab (Jer.
xxix. 21).

2. A Benjamite (Neh. xi. 7).
Koph.

The nineteenth letter of the Hebrew al-
phabet. English Q comes from the same
source ; but in anglicized Hebrew names c or
k represents it, as in Cain and Korah. It
heads the nineteenth section of Ps. cxix., in
which section each veree of the original be-
gins with this letter.

Ko'rah, in A. V. once Kore (1 Chron. xxvi.
19) and once Core (Jude 11) [ice, baldness].

1. A son of Esau by his wife Oholibamah,
born in Canaan (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14), who
founded a tribe which dwelt in Edom and
was ruled by a chieftain (18).

2. A son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau
(Gen. xxxvi. 16). But the name has crept
into the text erroneously, not being found in
ver. 11, 12 or 1 Chron. i. 36.

3. A son of Hebron (1 Chron. ii. 43). See
Maresh.\h 2.

4. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar (Num. xvi. 1). In conjunction with
the Reubenites Dathan, Abiram, and On ho
rebelled against Moses and Aaron. He was
jealous that Aaron, a Levite of the same
family as he and only his equal in rank,
should have the office of priest for all Israel.
The Reubenites were discontented because
the leadership in Israel, which belonged to
Reuben as the firstborn of Jacob, was pos-
sessed by the tribe of Levi, represented by
Moses and Aaron. At length Korah and his
company, sons of Levi (7), who formed a
large portion of the conspirators, but not
all of them, for at least Dathan and Abi-
ram were absent (12), assembled against
Moses and Aaron, publicly charged them
with usurping the supremacy over tho
tribes, and claimed that all the congrega-
tion was holy and that any one might
officiate as a priest (3). Moses replied that
God would himself decide the matter, and he
bade Korah and his company provide them-
selves with censers and be ready to offer in-
cense on the morrow (6-11). Moses .sent
word to Dathan and Abiram to appear like-
wise on the morrow, but they refused on the
ground that Moses had no right to summon

Korahite

420

Lachish

them (12-15). Moses then turned to Korah,
saying : " Be thou and all thy company pres-
ent with censers, two hundred and tifty cen-
sers besides those of yourself and Aaron " (16-
17). They did so, assembling at the taber-
nacle (18). Korah gathered also the whole
congregation of Israel there and incited them
against Moses and Aaron (19). God directed
Moses and Aaron to separate themselves from
the multitude that it might be destroyed, but
Moses interceded for the people (20-22).
Moses was then directed to bid the congre-
gation remove from the district in the camp
occupied by Korah, Dathau, and Abiram (24).
It will be remembered that the division of
the Levites to which Korah belonged were
accustomed to pitch on the south of the
tabernacle in immediate proximity to the
tribe of Reuben ; see Camp. Accordingly, fol-
lowed by the elders of Israel, and certainly
also by Korah, Moses went to the locality
where the tents of Korah, Dathan, and Abi-
ram were pitched and warned the congrega-
tion to leave the district (25, 26). The people
obeyed. Dathan and Abiram, together with
their families, appeared at the door of their
tents (27). The earth opened and swallowed
them up with their households and Korah
with his servants (32, 33; xxvi. 10). The
sons of Korah, however, were not destroyed
(11). After the earthquake fire devoured
the two hundred and fifty men that ofi'ered
incense (xvi. 35; cp. 40). See Koehite.
Ko'rah-ite and Ko'rath-ite. See Kor-

HITE.

Ko're [a partridge].

1. The rebellious Levite, founder of a house
(1 Chron. xxvi. 19) ; see Kor.\h 4.

2. A Levite of the house of Korah (1
Chron. ix. 19; xxvi. 1).

.3. A Levite, son of Imnah, appointed over
the freewill offerings during the reign of
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi. 14).

Kor'hite, in R. V. everywhere and in A. V.
twice KoraMte, and in A. V. once Ko-
rathite.

A descendant of that Korah who was
swallowed up in the wilderness as a punish-
ment for his rebellion. The Korhites consti-
tuted a father's house among the Kohathites.

Heman the singer and Samuel the prophet
vi'ere Korhites (I'Chron. vi. 33-38). The de-
scendants of Heman were organized by
David as singers (xv. 17 ; xvi. 41, 42 ; xxv.
4, 5). Psalms xlii. (which probably once
included xliii.), xliv.-xlix., Ixxxiv., Ixxxv.,
Ixxxvii., Ixxxviii., bear the name of the
family in the title. Korhites were gate-
keepers (1 Chron. ix. 19 ; xxvi. 19) and bakers
lor the sanctuary, preparing the showbread
and sacrificial cakes (ix. 31, 32).

Koz. See Hakkoz.

Ku-sha'iah.

A Levite of the family of Merari, house
of Mushi (1 Chron. xv. 17\ in vi. 44 called
Kishi.

L.

La'a-dali [order].

A man of Judah, family of Shelah. He
was the father of the inhabitants of Mare-
shah (1 Chron. iv. 21).

La'a-dan. See Ladan.

La'bau [white].

1. Son of Bethuel, and grandson of Nahor
Abraham's brother. He lived at Haran in
Paddan-aram (Gen. xxiv. 10, 15; xxviii. 5,
11). He was the brother of Rebekah. Abra-
ham's confidential servant had met Rebekah
at the well ; and, regarding her as a suitable
woman to become Isaac's wife, had given her
valuable presents. When Laban saw the
ring and bracelets upon his sister's hands,
he said: "Come in, thou blessed of the
Lord ; wherefore standest thou without?"
He readily permitted Rebekah to go to
Canaan to become Isaac's wife (Gen. xxiv.
1-67). When Jacob subsequently fled from
the vengeance of Esau, it was to Laban his
uncle that he went ; and he remained with
Laban twenty years, serving him seven for
his daughter Rachel, and then, having Leah
handed over to him in a fraudulent way, a
second seven to obtain the daughter for
whom he really cared, and then six more
for cattle. At the end of the twenty years,
Jacob, perceiving that his prosperity had ex-
cited the envy of Laban and his sons, fled
with his wives, his children, and his cattle,
in the direction of Canaan. He was over-
taken by Laban in mount Gilead; but the
pursuer, warned by God not to molest Jacob,
made a covenant with him, and the two
parted to meet no more (Gen. xxix.-xxxii).
Laban worshiped the God of his fathers, the
God of Nahor (xxxi. 53), Jehovah (xxiv. 50;
XXX. 27) ; but he combined idolatry with his
worship, making use of hou.seliold gods called
teraphim (xxxi. 30 ; cp. xxxv. 4) and prac-
ticing divination (xxx. 27, R. V.).

2. An unidentified place in the Sinaitic
peninsula (Deut. i. 1). It is mentioned with
Hazeroth ; hence some have thought that it
may have been the same as Libnah, the sec-
ond station from Hazeroth (Num. xxxiii. 20).

La'chish [perhaps, tenacious, difficult to
capture],

A fortified city in the lowland of Judah
(Josh. XV. 33, 39). At the time of the con-
quest of Palestine, its king was defeated and
slain by Joshua (x. 3-35 ; xii. 11). Rehoboam
strengthened its defenses (2 Chron. xi. 9).
Amaziah, king of Judah, having fled thither
from conspirators at Jerusalem, was pursued
and slain in the town (2 Kin. xiv. 19; 2
Chron. xxv. 27). Lachi.sh was besieged by
Sennacherib, king of Assyria ; and it was from
the camp in front of it that the rabshakeh was
dispatched to demand the surrender of Jerusa-
lem (2 Kin. xviii. 14, 17; cp. xix. 8, and 2
Cln-on. xxxii. 9; Is. xxxvi. 2; xxxvii. 8).
Lachish is charged with being the beginning

Ladan

421

Lamb

of siu to the daughter of Zion, for the trans-
gressions of Israel were found in her (Mic. i.
13). Nebuchadnezzar again liesieged Lachish,
with other fenced cities of Juthih {Jer. xxxiv.
7). It was inhabited after tlie captivity (Neh.
xi. 30). The site isfonnd atTell el-Hesy, 16
miles east by north of Gaza and 11 miles
west-southwest of Beit Jibriu. Excavation
has laid bare the wall of tlu^ ancient city, as
well as later constructions believed to belong

La'el [devoted to God].
A Gershonite, father of Eliasaph (Num.
iii.24).

La'had [oppressed, oppression].
A son of Jahath, a man of Judah (1 Chrou.
iv. 2).
La-hai'-roi. See Beer-lahai-roi.

Lah'mam, in E. V. margin, Lahinas.

A village in the lowland of Judah (Josh.

Lachish assaulted by the Army of Sennacherib.

to the times of Rehoboam, A.sa, Jehoshaphat,
Uzziah, Jotham, and Jlana.sseh. Ten towns
seem to have occupied the place in succes-
sion. The lowest is called Amorite, and is
reported to be about a quarter of a mile
square. It was built on a bluff, about 60 feet
above the stream which flowed on the east,
and 40 feet above the level country on the
north. A ravine protected it on tlie south,
and another on the west. The northern wall
of the town stood on the edge of the blutf. It
was about 8 feet thick, with a great tower at
the northeastern corner, .")6 by 28 feet, with
rooms about 10 feet square, enclosed by a wall
9 or 10 feet thick. Other later walls, at least
twice as thick, were erected before the con-
quest of Canaan by the Hebrews. Flint,
copper, bronze, and iron implements, with
hronze weapons and large quantities of
pottery have been unearthed. There were
also two inscriptions found, one in old He-
brew characters, the other in cuneiform. The
latter dates from about the fifteenth century
B. c, and conveys the information that the
king then ruling at Lachish was called Zim-
rida.
La'dan, in A. V. Laadan [well ordered].

1. An Ephraimite in the ancestry of Joshua
(1 Chron. vii. 26).

2. A Gershonite in whom several fathers'
houses had their origin (1 Chron. xxiii. 7-9 ;
xxvi. 21).

XV. 40), thought to be possibly marked by
the ruined village of el-Lahm, 2^ miles south
of Beit Jibrin.

Lah'mi.

The brother of Goliath the Gittite. He
was slain by Elhanan the son of .Jair (1
Chron. xx. 5). The word Lahmi, however,
corresponds to the last part of the Hebrew-
word for Bethlehemite in 2 Sam. xxi. 19.
One or other text is corrupt. See Elhanan.

La'ish [a lion].

1. A manof Gallim, father of Palti (1 Sam.
XXV. 44).

2. A Canaanite city in the extreme north
of Palestine, " in the valley that lieth by
Beth-rehob." The Danites captured the city,
and rebuilt it, altering the name to Dan
(Judg. xviii. 7-29). See Dan 3.

3. A village (Is. x. 30). See Laishah.

La'i-shah, in A. V. Laish [a lion].
A village in Benjamin between Gallim and
Anathoth iTs. x. .30).

Lak'kum, in A. V. La'kum [obstruction].
A town of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). Site
unknown.

Lamb.

The flesh of lambs was early used as food
(Lev. iii. 7 with vii. In ; 2 Sam. xii. 4; Ajnos
vi. 4) ; and lambs and kids were largely
offered in sacrifice even before the promulga-

Lamecli

422

Lamentations

tion of the Mosaic law (Gen. iv. 4; xxii. 7).
Whcu the passover was instituted in Egypt,
a lamb or a kid of the first year was sacri-
ficed and eaten (Ex. xii. 3, 5). Under the
Mosaic law a male lamb of the first year was
oftered for a burnt offering every morning
and another every evening, while on the
Sabbath there were two (Ex. xxix. 39-41 ;
Num. xxviii. 4). On the first day of each
month (Num. xxviii. 11), during the seven
days of the passover (16, 19], at the feast of
weeks (26, 27), on the day of blowing of
trumpets (xxix. 1, 2), and on the day of
atonement (7, 8), seven male lambs of the
first year formed part of the special burnt
offering ; while at the feast of tabernacles
the lambs numbered fourteen during each
of the first seven days and seven on the
eighth day (13-36). For all the principal
sacrifices of ordinary occasions a lamb might
be used ; as a male lamb for a burnt oflfering
(Lev. ix. 3 ; xxiii. 12, 18 ; Num. vi. 14 ; vii.
15), a ewe lamb for a sin offering for others
than the nation or rulers tEev. iv. 27, 32 ;
Num. vi. 14), and a male or female lamb for
a guilt oflering (Lev. v. 6; xiv. 12, 21 ; Num.
vi. 12) or for a peace offering (Lev. iii. 6, 7;
xxiii. 19; Num. vii. 17;. In every case the
lamb must be without blemish. All this
jjoints to our Lord. He i-esembled a lamb in
his spotless purity (1 Pet. i. 19). He was
like a lamb al.so in his gentleness and in his
submission to unmerited suflering without
murmur or complaint (Is. liii. 7 with Luke
xxiii. 25; Acts viii.' 32; 1 Pet. ii. 21-23).
Finally, he, like a lamb, was sacrificed for
guilt not his own. Hence he is called the
Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of
the world (John i. 29, 36), the Lamb .slain
from the foundation of the world (Eev. xiii.
8), or simply the Lamb (Rev. v. 6, 8, 12 ; vii.
14, 17; xiv. 1, 4). Both in the O. T. and in
the N. T. the term lamb is at times used
figuratively for child (Is. xl. 11 ; John xxi. 15).

La'mech [possibly, a strong young man].

1. A son of Methusael, of the race of Cain.
He had two wives, Adah and Zillah. By
Adah he was the father of Jabal and Jubal,
and by Zillah he had a sou, Tubal-cain, and a
daughter. Naamah. His address to his wives,
in its Hebrew reproduction, is a fine specimen
of Hebrew poetry. There are two principal
interi)retatious of Gen. iv. 23. 1. Lamech de-
clares himself a murderer, saying: "I have
slain a man." Stung by remorse, he con-
fesses the rebuke of conscience. He had slain
another to his own wounding and hurt. Or
else he excuses himself for a murder com-
mitted in self-defense, having slain a man
for wounding him. 2. Lamech utters a
threat: "I will slay any man who wounds
me," his words being a song of exultation
on the invention of the sword by his son
Tubal-cain, sung in anticipation of the ad-
vantage he would have in avenging wrongs
done to him. The attempt has been Diade to

explain the poem as simply an expression of
Lamech' s determination to put the new
weapon to its lawful use ; but exjjositors
quite generally agree that Lamech is vaunt-
ing himself. If Cain, who slew a man, is
under God's protection and shall be avenged
sevenfold should one dare to slay him, surely
Lamech with the new weapon, a visible and
surer defense, shall be avenged seventy and
sevenfold (Gen. iv. 18-24).

2. An antediluvian patriarch of the race
of Seth. He was son of Methuselah and
father of Noah. He feared the Lord, rested
in God's promise for the removal of the curse
of sin, and on the birth of his son Noah gave
expression to the hope that this child would
lead men to a better and a happier life under
God's blessing, saying: " This same shall com-
fort us for our work and for the toil of our
hands, because of the ground which the
Lord hath cursed" (Gen. v. 25, 28-31).

La'med.

The twelfth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
English L comes from the same source, and
represents it in anglicized Hebrew names. It
stands at the head of the twelfth section of
Ps. cxix., in which section each verse of
the original begins with this letter.

Lam-en-ta'tlons.

Mournful s])eeches or compositions, elegies,
such as the lament of David over Saul and
Jonathan (2 Sam. i 17-27).

The Lamentations of Jeremiah are an O. T.
book placed in the English Bible between
Jeremiah and Ezekiel, but in the Hebrew
Scriptures among the Hagiographa or Sacred
Writings, between Ruth and Ecclesiastes.
Let the English reader take note of the fact
that of the five chapters of Lamentations,
i., ii., iv., and v. have each twenty-two
verses, and "lii. 22 X 3 = 66. There are
twenty -two letters in the later Hebrew
alphabet, and in chapters i., ii., and iv. the
verses are arranged aljihabefically, verse 1
beginning with aleph, verse 2 with beth,
verse 3 with gimel, and verse 4 with daleth,
and so on to the end. In chap. iii. the first
three verses begin with aleph, the second
three with beth, and so on to the end. The
fifth chapter has not an alphabetical ar-
rangement. The theme of the whole five
elegies or lamentations is the capture and
destruction of the Jewish capital, with dread-
ful suffering to its defenders by famine, the
sword, and outrage of every kind. The
catastrophe, it is admitted, was brought on
by the sins of the people, not omitting even
the prophets and the priests. In various
places the Jewish state is personified as a
man, and bemoans its hard fate (i. 9 ; ii. 1,
11, 22; iii. 1-51, etc.). In one pas.sage the
writer recalls what he himself had suffered
from the persecution of his countrymen (iii.
52-66). Notwithstanding that this book is
anonymous, in the Hebrew being named
only by its first word '"How," notwithstand-

Lamp

423

Lappidoth

ing also that it is arranged among the Hagiog-
rapha, critics, even of rationalistic tenden-
cies, attribute the first four chajjters to
Jeremiah ; the fifth or non-alphabetical
chapter may, they think, possibly have come
from another author. In the Septuagint
the following statement is prefixed to the
hook : " And it came to pass after Israel was
led into captivity and Jerusalem laid waste,
that Jeremiah sat weeping and lamented
this lamentation over Jerusalem, and said."
The ascription of the book to the prophet
is thus ancient ; and it has been commonly,
though not without exception, assigned to
him by both ancient and modern scholars,
the admission being general that the elegies
must have been written in or near the times
of Jeremiah. The prophet lamented for
Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 25). If his elegies on
the subject were committed to writing, they
have been lost, and are not our present book
of Lamentations.

Lamp.

A vessel designed to contain an inflamma-
ble liquid, which it is proposed to burn for
illuminating purposes, and a wick to lift the
liquid by capillary attraction to feed the
flame (Herod, ii. t)2). The seven lamps of
the golden candlestick of the tabernacle and
temple were made of gold (Ex. xxxvii. 23; 1
Kin. vii. 49) and burned olive oil (Ex. xxvii.
20). Tongs wei'e u.sed to trim the wick, and
dishes to receive the snufl" (xxv. 38). The or-
dinary lamp for domestic use was made of
earthenware. It might have a cover which

Ancient Lamps.

was either removable or made of one piece
with the rest of the lamp. Near the cen-
ter of the cover or top was a hole for in-
troducing the oil. There was another open-
ing at the margin of the cover, or else a
spout, for the wick.

The Hebrew word regularly rendered

lamp is Ner. It is translated light in 2 Sara,
xxi. 17, A. v., and candle in Jer. xxv. 10
and Zeph. i. 12. In the latter passage, R. V.
places lamp on the margin ; and everywhere
else in both O. and N. T., except in these
two passages, R. V. substitutes the word
lamp in the text where A. Y. has candle.
The Hebrew word Lappid is also often ren-
dered lamp in O. T. ; for example, Judg. vii.
16, 20, A. V. ,and Is. Ixii. 1 ; Dan. x. 6. But
it is of more general meaning. It is trans-
lated firebrand in Judg. xv. 4 ; and torch ia
Xah. ii. 4; Zech. xii. 6 ; and in R. V. of Gen.
XV. 17; Judg. vii. 16, 20; and lightning in
Ex. XX. 18. The Greek word rendered lamp
in Mat. xxv. 1 and Rev. iv. 5 is translated
lights in Acts xx. 8, and torches in John
xviii. 3 and margin of R. V. of Mat. xxv. 1.
The extinction of the lamp of any one
means figuratively the destruction of his
family (Prov. xiii. 9).
Lan'cet. See Spear.
Lan'guage. See Tongue.
Lan'tern.

Lanterns were carried by the band of
Roman soldiers who were sent with Judas to
arrest Jesus (John xviii. 3). The Romans
made the sides of lanterns out of bladder or
plates of translucent horn.

La-od-i-ce'a [pertaining to Laodice].
A city called originally Diospolis, city of
Zeus, which was enlarged and improved by
Antiochus II., and named by him Laodicea,
after his wife Laodice. It was the chief city
of Phrygia Pacatiana, in Asia
Minor, and was situated a little
south of Colossffi and Hierapolis,
on the river Lycos, a tributary
of the Meander. It numbered
many Jews among its inhab-
itants (Antiq. xiv. 10, 20).
Epaphras labored there (Col.
iv. 12, 13), and is regarded as
the founder of its Christian
church. Paul felt greatly de-
sirous of spiritually benefiting
the Laodiceans (ii. 1). He sent
them salutations ; and he wrote
them a letter, now lost (iv. 1.5,
16). Laodicea was one of the
seven churches in Asia ad-
dressed in the book of Reve-
lation. It is sharply rebuked
for lukewarmness (Rev. i. 11 ;
iii. 14-22). About the year 65
of the Christian era, Laodicea,
Colossje, and Hierapolis were
destroyed by an earthquake.
Laodicea was rebuilt by Mar-
cus Aurelius. Its ruins still exist at a place
called Eski Hi.ssar, near Denizlu, about 56
niiles east-southeast of Smyrna.

Lap'pi-doth, in A. V. Lapidoth [torches].
Husband of Deborah the iu'o])hetess (Judg.
iv. 4).

Lapwing

424

Laver

Lap 'wing.

The reudering of the Hebrew DuMphath in
A. V. of Lev. xi. 19; Deut. xiv. 18. The
lapwing {Vanellus cristatus), a member of the
sub-family Charadriinse, or true plovers, is
found in flocks in winter in Palestine. E. V.,
following the Septuagint and Vulgate, sub-

Hoopoe.

stitntes the hoopoe {Upupa epops), the type
of the Upupidse, a family of fissirostral birds
(birds with deeply cleft bills). The hoopoe is a
bird about a foot long, grayish-brown above,
with the wings and shoulders black, barred
with white, and a large crest of feathers upon
the head. It is found in central and southern
Europe, in Asia, and in northern and central
Africa. Tristram saj'^ that it apj)ears in Pal-
estine in March, spreading in small parties
over the whole country. On the approach of
winter it makes a short migration to Egypt
and the Sahara.

La-se'a.

A seaport of Crete, near the Fair Havens,
passed by the vessel which carried Paul (Acts
xxvii. 8). In ISiiG the Rev. G. Brown dis-
covered ruins which mark the supposed site
on the southern coast about 5 miles east of
the Fair Havens.

La'sha [a fissure].

A place mentioned with the cities of the
plain (Gen. x. 19). Jerome says it was at
Callirrhoe, a ravine east of the Dead Sea,
notable for its hot springs, which were visited
by Herod the Great during his last illness.
The gorge in which they rise is so narrow
that it may quite appropriately be called a
fissure. There is not room enough in it for
a village of ordinary size. The stream from
Callirrhoe, now called the Zerka Ma'in, en-
ters the Dead Sea at the eastern side, about
11 miles in a direct line from the mouth of
the Jordan. The springs are about 3 miles
lip the stream.

Las-sha'ron, in A. V. Lasharon [probably*
to Sharon].

A town whose king was one of those slain
by Joshua (Josh. xii. 18). The Hebrew test
may, however, be read king over Sharon.

The indications of the Septuagint are that the
original text of the verse was "the king of
Aphek [which belongs] to Sharon."

Las'the-nes [probably, very strong].

A Cretan who raised an army of mercenary
soldiers for Demetrius 11., by which the latter
effected a landing in Cilicia and set up the
standard of revolt against Alexander Balas
(Antiq. xiii. 4, 3). He was rewarded with
high oflice, perhaps the governorship of Coele-
syria. Demetrius calls him kinsman and
father (1 Mac. xi. 31, in A. V. cousin; 32).
The latter title implies that he was a man of
considerable age ; the former means either
that he was related to Demetrius, or that he
held a high position at court. He was noti-
fied by letter of the terms of peace agreed
upon between Demetrius and Jonathan Mac-
cabseus, and of the concessions made to the
Jews (32-37).

Latch'et.

The thong with which the sandal was
bound to the foot (Is. v. 27 ; Mark i. 7 ; cp.
Gen. xiv. 23).

Lat'in.

The language spoken by the Eomans.
Though from the first century B. c. on for
some hundred years the supreme power in
Palestine was in the hands of the Eomans,
whose vernacular language was Latin, yet it
did not root itself in that country. A few
words only were adopted, as prsetorinm and
cenfnrio, which are written in Greek letters
in Mark xv. 16, 39, 45. But since Latin was
the language of the Eoman officials, the in-
scription over the cross of Christ was written
in Latin as well as in Greek and Aramaic
(John xix. 20).

Lat'tice.

A network formed of crossed laths and
covering a window (Judg. v. 28; Prov. vii.
6, in A. V. casement ; 2 Kin. i. 2 ; Song ii. 9.)

La'ver.

A basin or trough in which to wash. A
laver of brass or copper was used in connec-
tion with the tabernacle services. It stood
upon a base of brass in the court between
the altar and the door of the tabernacle.
Both laver and base were made of the mir-
rors given by the women who assembled to
minister at the door of the tent of meeting
(Ex. xxxviii. 8 ; cp. xxxiii. 7). Women served
at the door of the tabernacle (1 Sam. ii. 22,
E. v.), as did the Levites (Num. iv. 23; viii.
24). They probably came at stated intervals,
as did the Levites and priests (Deut. xviii. 6 :
Luke i. 8, 23), to render various kinds of serv-
ice, such as the performance of sacred dances
and instrumental and vocal music (Ex. xv.
20; Judg. xxi. 21 ; Ps. Ixviii. 25). The priests
washed their hands and their feet in the laver
before ministering at the altar or entering the
sanctuary (Ex. xxx. 17-21 ; Lev. viii. 11). This
ceremony symbolized the holiness that is re-
quired in the service of God. In Solomon's-

Law

425

Law

temple there were a molten sea aud ten lav-
ors iuritead of one (1 Kin. vii. 23-2(), 38-40,
43). Some of the arrangements were after-
wards altered by Ahaz (2 Kin. xvi. 17).

Law.

Of tlie several meanings which the word
law possesses, two are employed in Scripture.

1. A uniformly acting force which deter-
mines the regular sequence of events; any
uniformly acting influence or motive which
controls the will (Rom. vii. 23).

2. A rule of conduct enjoined by a comyie-
tent authority and. if need be, enforced by
penalties. This is the principal meaning of
the word in Scripture. Manj- laws have com-
menced as customs, which, arising naturally
in the intercoui-se between members of the
siime society, ultimately gained such accept-
ance that the community tinally resolved to
enforce them as laws. But a law may be im-
jtosed by a ruler, human or divine, without
any reference to previous custom or legisla-
tion. In the English version law is mainly
the rendering of Hebrew Torah, insti'uction,
Aramaic Dath, perhaps meaning established,
and Greek Nomos, custom, law ; and it de-
notes, except as noted under 1, an authorita-
tive rule of conduct whether revealed from
within or from without. It may be imposed
by the constituted authorities of the state,
which are ordained of God (Ezra vii. 26;
Esth. i. 19; Dan. vi. 8), or proceed immedi-
ately from God, being revealed in a super-
natural manner audibly as at Sinai or through
the Spirit to prophets (Zech. vii. 12) or made
known in tUe constitution of our nature
(Rom. ii. 14, 15). They who fear God and
keep his commandments are wise ; and the
godly wisdom which thej- have acquired from
the study of the written law, from observa-
tion of the human heart, and from a life of
holiness, when given forth in instruction is
the law of the wise which is a fountain of
life (Prov. xiii. 14), and when taught by
l)areuts to children is the law of father aud
mother which to them that obey is a chaplet
of grace about the head (Prov. i. 8, 9). The
term law with the definite article, but with-
out other qualifying word, occasionally refers
to the whole O. T. in general ( John xii. .34 ; 1
C"or. xiv. 21 ; cp. .John x. 34 ; xv. 2.5), but it
is employed much more frequently as the
title of the Pentateuch (Josh. i. 8; Xeh. viii.
2. .3, 14; Mat. v. 17; John i. 17). The law
of Moses was given bv God through Moses
(Ex. XX. 19-22 ; Mat. xv. 4 ; John i. 17). It
is the law of God (Josh. xxiv. 26 ; 2 Chron.
xxxi. 3). It was written in a book (Josh. i.
7, 8), included the legislation contained in
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteron-
omy (Mark xii. 26 with Ex. iii. 6 ; Mark vii.
10 with Ex. XX. 12 ; xxi. 17 ; Luke ii. 22 and
John vii. 22. 23 with Lev. xii. 2. 3 ; Mat. viii. 4
with IjCV. xiv. 3 ; Mat. xix. 8 and xxii. 24 with
Dent. xxiv. 1 and xxv. 5), and was the title
of the Pentateuch, constituting the first di-

vision of the canon (Luke xxiv. 44) ; see
Pkntateuch. The legal portion consists of
the ten commandments, which form the fun-
damental law of tlie theocracy, aud statutes
based on them. It was given at Sinai. The
fundamental law was uttered audibly in the
hearing of the whole congregation. The
body of statutes controlled the general form
of worship, protected human rights, regulated
personal conduct, and prescribed sacred sea-
sons and sacrifice. It was given at the same
time as the ten commandments, but through
Moses. See Theocracy. When the taber-
nacle was erected, the legislation was enacted
which in detail regulated approach to God.
See Leviticus. Thirty and eight years later
Moses rehearsed the law publicly before the
new generation, placed the emphasis where
the experience of a third of a century had
taught him to be advisable, and introduced
modifications which the prospective change
in the circumstances of the people rendered
necessary. See Deuteronomy. It is gen-
erally held that when all that is local and
temporary is put away the remaining portion
of the commandments, constituting the es-
sential part, was designed for the Christian
as well as the Jewish dispensation, and will
not become obsolete at any future time (cp.
Ex. XX. 12 or Deut. v. 16 with Eph. vi. 2, 3).
The ten commandments, being the funda-
mental law and a summary of the whole
moral code, endure. They are founded in
the immutable nature of God and in the per-
manent relations of men on earth. Of the
fourth commandment Christ said : " The Sab-
bath was made for man," hence its principles
remain in force while man continues on earth.
Regarding the fifth commandment, the apos-
tle Paul evidently considers both the precept
and the essential part of the promise still in
force, though the local or temporary portion,
"the land" of Canaan, disappears, and "the
earth " takes its place (Eph. vi. 2, 3). The
ceremonial law apparently referred to in Heb.
viii. 7 as the first covenant, is there described
as decaying and waxing old, and being ready
to vanish away (13; cp. also chapters viii.
-X.). Hence the apostles declined to im-
pose it on the gentile converts (Acts xv. 23-
29, etc.). Its function has been to point, by-
means of its priesthood, its .sacrifices, its cere-
monies, and its symbols to Christ, our great
High Priest, and his atoning sacrifice for sin.
When the antitype came, the tM)cs were no
longer needful, though the memory of what
they had been rendered them objects of in-
terest, and will do so through all future ages.
The enactments constituting the civil and
criminal code of the Israelites were admira-
bly adapted to the state of civilization which
the people had then reached ; but these laws
were freely modified as the circumstances
contemplated by them changed. Moses him-
self was the first to introduce modifica-
tions, and David and others made addi-
tions.

Lawyer

426

Lead

Law'yer.

Oue versed in the law of Moses, of which
he was the professidiial iuterpreter, a scribe
(Mat. xxii. 35 with Mark xii. 28) ; see Sckibe.
In Luke xi. 44 tlic words" scribes aud Phari-
sees" are omitted iu R. V., and there is no
contrast between scribes and lawyers (45).
The lawyers joined the Pharisees in rejecting
the preaching of John the Bajitist (Luke vii.
30). They considered themselves above the
need of instruction from Jesus; and when
one of them did condescend to hold communi-
cation with him, it was to try to puzzle him
by means of a difficult question (Mat. xxii.
35 ; Luke x. 25 ; cp. Luke xiv. 3). Jesus de-
nounced them at last in severe language for
laying heavy burdens on the people, and
keeping back from them the key of knowl-
edge (Luke xi. 45-52).

Lay'ing on of Hands.

An act symbolizing dedication to a special
purpose. The Israelites placed their hands
on the heads of the Levites, dedicating them
to the service of the Lord at the tabernacle
in the stead of the firstborn of all the tribes.
They pressed down their hands upon the
heads of the Levites, doubtless with the in-
tention of signifying thereby that, with
God's permission and by his authority, they
transferred their own obligation to service to
the Levites (Num. viii. 5-20). The Israelite,
who brought an animal to the sacrificial altar,
placed his hands upon the victim's head,
thereby dedicating it to God and making it
his own representative and substitute (Lev.
i. 4 ; xvi. 21). The aged Jacob laid his hands
on the heads of Joseph's sons, giving them a
place among his own sons, and bestowing
upon them the covenant blessing, transfer-
ring it from himself as its past possessor to
them (Gen. xlviii. 5-20). The hands of pres-
bytery were laid upon the head of Timothy.
The young man was thereby set apart to of-
ficial service and grace was bestowed (1 Tim.
iv. 14). Imposition of the hands of presby-
tery denoted not only commission, but also
the bestowal, by those divinely authorized,
of official spiritual grace ; or at least it signi-
fied the authoritative recommendation of the
candidate to God as a recipient of grace.

Laz'a-rus [from Hebrew 'El'asar, God
hath helped].

1. The name of the beggar in the parable of
the rich man and Lazarus. He was laid at the
gate of the rich man desiring to be fed with
the crumbs which fell from the sumptuously
furnished table. He was also afflicted with
ulcers. Yea, even the dogs licked his sores.
Nothing is said of his and nothing of the rich
man's character ; but when they died Laz-
arus was carried by angels into Abraham's
bosom, while the rich man went to the place
of woe. At first sight it might appear that
the one was rewarded simply for being poor,
and the other punished for lieing rich ; but
the hint that the rich man's brothers, who

evidently lived exactly as he had done, did
not believe Moses and the prophets, and
as to their life needed repentance, shows that
a moral element entered into the case, and
that conduct, not ijosition, decided their ul-
timate destiny (Luke xvi. lii-31).

2. A member of the family of Bethany,
and brother of Martha and Mary. He was
an object »f deej) afl'ection not only to his
sisters, but to Jesus, which speaks well for
his character. He was chosen for the signal
honor of being raised from the dead, and
when he fell sick with a grievous disease
the sisters .sent word to Jesus, who was be-
yond the Jordan, but he did not respond at
once. Two days later, when Lazarus was
j dead, Jesus went to Bethany. Being met by
Martha outside the village, he had an im-
portant conversation with her in which he
called forth an expression of her faith in the
resurrection and in his power to do all
things, and declared himself to be the resur-
rection aud the life. When Mary had come,
Jesus went with the sisters and their friends
to the sepulcher, which was of the usual kind
then in use among the Jews, namely, a cave
either natural or artificial iu the face of a rock.
After the stone had been rolled away, Jesus
prayed to the Father. He did this for the
sake of the people that stood by, that in the
miracle they might discern proof that the
Father had sent him. Then he said in the
hearing of all present: "Lazarus, come
forth ! " and the clead awoke to life and came
forth (John xi. 1-44). The eflect of this
miracle was jirofound. It was the cause of
the enthusiastic reception of Jesus at Jeru-
salem. It also brought the sanhedrin to their
decision to put him to death ; for the people
were hailing him as king, and if they should
accept him and his undisguised doctrine of
the spiritual nature of Christ's kingdom, all
hope of their rising against the Eomans
and endeavoring to restore the theocracy
would vanish. The rulers decided that it
•was better for one man to perish, Avhether
he were guilty or not, rather than for the
whole nation to be lost (xi. 45-53 ; xii. 9-19).
Lazarus was present at a supper given in
honor of his great benefactor by Simon the
leper at Bethany six days before the pass-
over (xii. 1, 2). The extent to which his
restoration to life tended to bring new fol-
lowers to Jesus so irritated the Jewish
authorities that they plotted to put him
also to death (10, 11). This is the last
mention of Lazarus in Scripture. The plot
to take his life does not seem to have been
carried out, and indue time he doubtless died
a second death, the time, the place, and the
circumstances of which are all unknown.

Lead.

One of the metals known to the ancients,
in Hebrew 'Ophereth. It was taken as spoil
from the Moabites (Num. xxxi. 22), was used
by the Egyptians (con. Apion. i. 34), was ob-

Leaf

427

Lebanon

taiued in large quantities in the peninsula
of Sinai, was found in Egypt, and was im-
ported from Tarshisli ( Ezek. xxvii. 12). It
was used for weights (Zeeh. v. 7), for sinkers
on fish lines (Iliad xxiv. 80), and for tablets
on which inscriptions were written (Tacitus,
Annal. ii. tJ9; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiii. 21 ; Pau-
sanias ix. 31. 4). .lob xix. 24 has been under-
stood to refer to such tablets; but the words
probably mean that, since a book (23) is liable
to perish, .lob desires the letters to be cut in
the rock and then, to render them more dis-
tinct and dural)le, to be filled with molten lead.
It is questionable whether it was consciously
employed for cupellation (Ezek. xxii. 20).

Leaf.

1. Foliage of a tree (Gen. iii. 7 ; viii. 11).

2. Part of the wing of a folding door, when
each of the two wings was divided either
lengthwise or crosswise (1 Kin. vi. 34; Ezek.
xli. 24). The leaf as well as the entire door
is called tJeleth, because it turns on hinges or
pivots. In the former passage, the door of
the holy place in Solomon's temple is re-
ferred to. It was the fourth part of the wall
(1 Kin. vi. 33) ; and was probably oblong like
tlie wall itself, and measured 5 cubits in
width by 7i in height (cp. 2). The measure-
ment presumably includes the two doorposts
and the lintel, leaving an opening at least 4
cubits wide by 7 high. This was closed by two
doors, each of which was divided perpendicu-
larly or horizontally into halves. If divided
horizontally through the middle, the leaf
measured 2 by 3i cubits, or 3 by oj feet, and
was quite ample to afford ingress and egress
to the priests in their daily ministrations,
without requiring the entire door to be opened.

3. The page or column of a roll (Jer.
xxxvi. 23 : cp. 2).

Le'ah [wild cow].

The elder daughter of Laban. She was
less attractive than her younger sister,
Rachel, one chief defect being that her eyes
were tender. By a trick she was passed off
on Jacob as his bride, when he had served
seven years for Rachel. Leah became the
mother of Reuben, Simeon. Levi, Judah,
Issiichar, Zebuluu, and their sister Dinah
(Gen. xxix. 16-3.5 ; xxx. 17-21).

Leas'ing.

Lying, falsehood (Ps. iv. 2; v. 6, A. V.).
As the word is now obsolete. R, V. substitutes
falseliood and lies.

Leath'er.

The art of tanning and dying skins was
understood by the Hebrews (Ex. xxv. 5;
Acts ix. 43). Leather was used by them and
other nations of antiquity for numerous pur-
poses : for articles of clothing (Lev. xiii. 4S ;
Xum. xxxi. 20), coverings of tents (Ex.
xxvi. 14), bottles (.Tudith x. .5), shields. The
leather of the shield was oiled to keep it soft
and shining (2 Sam. i. 21 : Is. xxi. .5). Seal
or porpoise skin was used for making a su-
perior kind of sandal (Ezek. xvi. 10 ; in A.

V. badgers' skin). Elijah and John the Bap-
tist wore leathern girdles (2 Kin. i. 8; Mat.
iii. 4).

Leav'en.

A substance used to produce fermentation
in dough and make it rise (Ex. xii. l.j, 19;
xiii. 7). In Scripture times leaven generally
consisted of a little old dough in a high state
of fermentation. Its disadvantages were that
the bread thus produced had a disagree-
ably sour taste and smell. To obviate these
defects yeast or barm is now employed as
leaven. The use of leaven was forbidden in
all ofleriugs made by fire to the Lord (Lev.
ii. 11). But when the ottering was to be con-
sumed by man, leaven might be used (vii. 13 ;
xxiii. 17). The principal reason for the pro-
hibition was that fermentation is incipient
corruption, and was emblematic of corrup-
tion. It is used for corrupt doctrine (Mat.
xvi. 11 ; Mark viii. 1.5) and for wickedness in
the heart (1 Cor. v. 6-8) ; and it symbolized
moral influence generally, whether good or
bad, as when the kingdom of heaven is com-
pared to leaven which a woman hid in three
measures of meal till the whole was leavened
(ilat. xiii. 33). The Israelites were forbidden
to eat leavened bread or to have any leaven
in their houses during the passover festival.
The absence of leaven symbolized the incor-
ruptness of life which God's service requires,
reminded them of the haste in which they
had fled out of Egypt, their dough in their
troughs, and suggested the affliction of Egypt
bv the iusipiditv of the bread (Ex. xii. 39 ;
Dent. xvi. 3 ; 1 Cor. v. 7, 8).

Leb'an-a and Lebanah [white (this being
a poetic designation for the moon)].

Founder of a family, members of which re-
turned from cairtivity (Ezra ii. 45 ; Neh.
vii. 48).

Leb'a-non [white].

A snow-clad mountain range (Jer. xviii.
14), with hills of less elevation running from
it in every direction (Hos. xiv. 5). Itsstreams
rendered the rich soil of the valleys ex-
tremely productive. The lower zone was
covered with vines (6, 7), but the mountains
were most noted for their forests of gigantic
cedars. Fir trees or cvpresses also abounded
(1 Kin. v. 6-10; 2 Kin. xix. 23; Is. xl. 16;
Ix. 13; Zech. xi. 1). Lions and leopards
roamed in the woods (2 Kin. xiv. 9 ; Songiv.
8). The trees were felled, and the timber
was used not only in the construction of i)al-
aces and temples, but also by the Phwuicians
for the masts of ships (Ezra iii. 7 ; Ezek.
xxvii. 5). Lebanon was the northwestern
boundary of the promised land (Dent. i. 7 ;
xi. 24 ; Josh. i. 4 ; xi. 17 : xii. 7 ; xiii. 5). It is
of limestone formation. The mountains con-
sist of two ranges, running north and south,
separated by the valley of the Litany and
the Orontes. In the Grecian period the name
Lebanon became restricted to the western
range, while the eastern received the name

Lebaoth

428

Legion

Anti-Lebanon. This distinction still exists.
The intervening valley is called Coelesyria,
that is hollow Syria, or the Bekaa. The
chain may be considered to commence about
15 miles southeast of Sidon, and to run to
about 12 miles northeast by north of Tripoli,
a distance of about 100 miles. The greatest
elevation of Lebanon is at its northern end ;
of Anti-Lebanon, at its southern end in
mount Hermon. " For 10 miles the north-
ern end of this ridge [of Lebanon] is over
10,000 feet above the sea. For another 10
miles it is between 7500 and 8000 feet. Then
for 20 miles it sinks to an average of from
6500 to 7000 feet. Then it rises in the grand
truncated cone of Jebel Sunnin to over 8500
feet. Again it sinks to the plateau between
Sunnin and Keniseh, to about 6000 feet. The
highest peak of Keniseh rises again to nearly
7000 feet. Then comes the pass of the Da-
mascus road at Khan Muzhir, 5022 feet.
Then the ridge of Jebel Baruk and Jebel
Niha, over 40 miles long, abt)ut 6500 feet, the
latter ending in tbe pirtures(|ue Twins
(Tomat Niha). Finallj', Jebel Kihau, which
sinks gradually to the level of the plateau
of Mei'j 'Ayun. Jebel Keniseh, and Jebel
Sunnin, at the center of the chain, although
not the highest, are from their isolation far
the most imposing peaks " (Post, Qnar. State.
Exp. Fund, 1892). The highest peaks are
Jebel Makmal and Kurnat es-Sauda, each
about 10,200 feet. The present population
of Lebanon is estimated by Dr. Post at 200,-
000. The people live mostly in villages ro-
mantically situated on rocky platforms or
on the mountain slopes.

Leb'a-oth [lionesses].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 32). See Beth-lebaoth.

Leb-bae'us. See Judas 8.

Le-bo'nah [incense, frankincense].

A town north, of Shiloh (Judg. xxi. 19).
It has long been identified with Lubban, on
the road between Shechem and Jerusalem, 3
miles west by north of Shiloh.

Le'cah [perhaps, going, a journey]

A village of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 21), to
judge from the context. Site unknown.

Leek.

The rendering in Num. xi. 5, of the
Hebrew Hasir. which commonly denotes
grass. The leek (Allium porruin) is probably
intended in this passage : for it is mentioned,
along with onions and garlic, as eaten in
Egypt; the word is so rendered by the
Targum of Onkelos, Septuagint, Vulgate, and
Syriac ; and h'sir is used in Aramaic for the
leek.

Lees.

Dregs or sediment deposited from wine or
other liquor (Is. xxv. 6). The liquor was
allowed to stand on the lees that its color
and body might be better preserved (Is.
xxv. 6).

To settle on their lees is to settle down in
contentment with one's character and cir-
cumstances (Jer. xlviii. 11 ; Zeph. i. 12). To
driuk the lees of the cup of wrath means to
drain the cup, enduring the punishment to
the utmost (Ps. Ixxv. 8, rendered dregs).

Le'gion.

The chief subdivision of the Roman army
(War iii. 4, 2). It originally contained 3000
foot soldiers wdth a contingent of cavalry.

'^J-" -'|/^^

Soldiers of the Roman Legion.
From the Arch of Constaiitine.

From 100 B. c. to the fall of the empire the
number varied from 5000 to 6200, while from,
Augustus to Hadrian or during the N. T.

Lehabim

42!)

Leopard

period 6000 seems to have beeu the regular
complement and the cavalry was not con-
sidered as forming a constituent part of the
legion. At this time the legion consisted of
ten cohorts, each cohort of three mani])les,
and each maniple of two centuries (cp. Mat.
xxvii. 27, R. V. margin) ; and was officered
by tribunes and centurions (War iii. 5, 3;
Acts xxi. 31, 3-2, R. V. margin ; xxiii. 23),
numbering ten and sixty respectively. In
Scripture legion is used to denote any large
ho.st (Mat. xxvi. .53; Mark v. 9).

The military standard of the Romans was
at first a bunch of straw attached to a pole.
Later an eagle and four other animals formed
the standards of a legion, but after 104 B. c.
the eagle alone was employed (Pliny, Hist.
Nat. X. 4). It was committed to the custody of
the chief centurion. In addition to the eagle,
the standard also commonly bore a small im-
age of the emperor, and the introduction of
these images into Jerusalem by Pontius Pilate
caused an insurrection of the Jews (Antiq.
xviii. 3, 1 ; War ii. 9, 2). But while the great
standard of the whole legion was the eagle,
each cohort and century had its own standard,
and these minor ensigns assumed a variety
of forms.

Le'ha-bim.

A tribe sprung from or incorporated with
the Egyptians (Gen. x. 13 ; 1 Chron. i. 11),
probably the same as the Lubim (q. v.).

Le'M [cheek, jawbone].

A place in Judali (.Tudg. xv. 9), elevated
(11, 13), where the Philistines spread them-
selves when they advanced into Judah to
seize Samson. It may have been a ridge.
It received its name either from a series of
jagged crags resembling a jawbone, or from
Samson's exploit with the jawbone of an ass.
At any rate, that part of it where Samson
beat down the Philistines, who seem to have
been fleeing, and cast aside the jawbone which
had served him as a weapon, was remembered,
and it was pointed out as Ramath-lehi, height
of the jawbone (17). Guerin locates Lehi at
'Ain el-Lehi, northwest of Bethlehem, about
2 miles west-southwest of Malhah, and hence
not far from Etam (cp. 11). But the exist-
ence of 'Ain el-Lehi appears doubtful. The
survey map does not indicate it. Moreover,
Lehi is best sought near the southern Etam,
for Samson went from Timnah down, not up,
to the rock at Etam.

Lem'u-el [devoted to God].

The royal author of Prov. xxxi., who re-
produces what was taught him bv his mother
<ver. 1).

Len'tll.

A plant (2 Sam. xxiii. 11), boiled as pottage
(Gen. XXV. 29. 34) and in times of scarcity
made into bread (Ezek. iv. 9). The modern
Arabic name is identical with its Hebrew
designation '"fJnshim. The lentil (Ervnm
leu.i:) is a papilionaceous plant, allied to the
vetches. It has compound leaves, with five

to six pairs of oblong leaflets, white flowers
striped with violet, and small broad legumes.
Pottage made from it is red. It was this which
was given to Esau when he was famishing, and
it was from it that his second name Edom was

Lentils.

derived. The plant is wild in Moab, and is
cultivated in all parts of Palestine. The seeds
when boiled are thoroughly wholesome. It
is from them that Revalenta nrahica is made,
and they are of late quite familiar at most
vegetarian restaurants and in many house-
holds.

Leop'ard.

A wild animal ; in Hebrew Name); spotted
beast, in Greek Pardalix. It was, as its name
implied, a spotted animal (Jer. xiii. 23). It
was very swift (Hab. i. 8). Its appropriate
food was the kid (Is. xi. 6), but it sometimes
attacked man (Hos. xiii. 7, 8) ; lurking for
the purpose in the vicinity of cities or vil-
lages (Jer. V. 6), though its ordinary habita-
tion was among the mountains (Song iv. 8).
The leopard {Felis pardus or Leopardns) was
believed by the ancients and some moderns
to be a hybrid between the lion and the
panther ; hence its name, which is com-
pounded of leo and pardiis. lion and panther.
Now it is generally held that these are
merely varieties of the same species. The
appropriate habitat of the leopard or panther
is Africa and southern Asia. In Palestine it
now occurs chiefly in the region east of the
Jordan ; but it was evidently more common
in Scripture times than at present, in the
country west of the river.

In Dan. vii. 6 it symbolizes a fierce nation
and its king, doubtless Greece (viii. 21) ; and
in Rev. xiii. 2 the composite creature, which
combines the four beasts of Daniel and
typifies the united powers of this world, has
the body of a leopard.

Leper

430

Leprosy

Lep'er.

A person affected with the disease of lep-
rosy (2 Kiu. vii. 8 ; Mat. x. 8). The leper was
excluded from intercourse with his fellow-
men and from the sanctuary, was required to
exhibit the usual signs of mourning and to
give the warning cry to all that approached,
"Unclean! unclean!" (Lev. xiii. 45; Luke
xvii. 12, 13), and he was regarded as a dead
man (Num. xii. 12). Strangely enough, if
the leprosy was spreading, the sult'erer was
unclean ; but if it overspread the whole
man, he was adjudged clean (Lev. xiii. 6,
12, 13). Some expositors understand this to
mean that, while the disease manifested
activity, the law imputed pollution ; but
when it might be regarded as having run
its course, it lost its character as a curse
from God. Others undenstand the mean-
ing to be that only when the lepei' was
acknowledged to be defiled in every part by
this disease, which typified sin, could he be
admitted to the privileges of atonement.
Yet other interpreters believe that the rapid
eruption over the whole body was a sign
that the crisis had been passed and recovery
had set in. See Pueification.

Lep'ro-sy.

1. A dreadful disease, in Hebrew Sara'ath,
scourge. The symptoms are described in
Lev. xiii. 1-46. There were skin diseases
from which it required to be carefully
distinguished. It was not a superficial,
but was a deep-seated malady. It often
began as a rising, or' a scab, or a bright
spot, which tended to spread, turning white
the hair covering the parts affected (xiii. 2, 3,
7, 8, 10, 24, 25, 27, 35, 36). Eaw flesh tended
to appear (10, 14-16, 24). Among the parts
of the body specially liable to attack were
the scalp of the head, the beard, the top of
the head, or the forehead, after these had
become bald ; also any spot which had been
accidentally injured by fire (24, 29, 30, 42).
A leper was to be excluded from the camp ;
was required to let the hair of his head go
loose and his clothes be rent ; while he was
to cover his upper lip, and cry, " Unclean !
unclean!" (45, 46). He had to appear re-
peatedly before the priest, who was to pro-
nounce on the character of the disease (1-44) ;
and in the event of the malady departing, he
was to go through an elaborate process of
cleansing and sacrifice (xiv. 1-32). Iia the
description of the disease given in Lev. xiii.
there is no mention of the leper's hue chang-
ing to a snowy white, as was the case with
Miriam (Num. xii. 10) and Gehazi (2 Kin. v.
27), and momentarily with Moses (Ex. iv. 6).
Not even those whose circumstances were
comfortable were exempt from this disease.
Thus, it affected Naaman, when commander-
in-chief of the army of Syria (2 Kin. v. 1-14),
and Lfzziah during the later years of his
reign over Judah (xv. 5; 2 Chron. xxvi. 21).
The regulations about excluding the leper

from society were carried out among the He-
brews (Num. V. 1-4 ; xii. 10, 15 ; 2 Kin. vii. 3, 8,
10 ; XV. 5 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 21 ; cp. also Luke xvii.
12) ; but the fact that the king of Syria seems
to have leaned on Naaman's hand, even when
he was a leper, and that Naaman dwelt with
his family and was accompanied by servants,
shows that leprosy, though loathsome, was
not actually contagious (2 Kin. v. 18). The
disease to which the English word leprosy is
now confined is a formidable malady, techni-
cally called Elephantiasis Grxcorum, elephant
disease of the Greeks. It appears under two
forms. The tuberculated or black leprosy is
at ])resent the more common, and the name
is restricted to it by some authorities. It
affects primarily the skin and mucous mem-
branes. The antesthetic or white leprosy
affects the nerves principally, and produces
numbness. The symptoms of the two forms
are often united, and one form frequently
passes into the other. The coming of the
disease is preceded by lassitude for months
or years. Then circular spots or blotches of
irregular form and varying extent appear
on the forehead, the limbs, and the body.
After a time, the central portion of the spots
and blotches becomes white, and the parts
affected contract a certain numbness. In the
worst cases the joints of the fingers and toes
fall off one by one, and injuries to tlie other
parts produce mutilation and deformity.
Thomson says: "'The 'scab' comes on by
degrees in difierent parts of the body ; the
hair falls from the head and eyebrows; the
nails loosen, decay, and drop off; joint after
joint of the fingers and toes shrink up and
slowly fall away. The gums are absorbed,
and the teeth disappear. The nose, the eyes,
the tongue, and the palate are slowly con-
sumed." Again, he says, that when approach-
ing the Jaffa gate of Jerusalem he was start-
led by the sudden apparition of a crowd of
beggars, without eyes, nose, or hair. They
held up handless arms, and unearthly sounds
gurgled through throats without palates. This
loathsome and fatal disease is popularly be-
lieved to he identical with that of Leviticus
and the other books of the Bible (cp. Num.
xii. 12). But the disease mentioned in Scrip-
ture seems to have been curable (Lev. xiv. 3),
whereas EJephavtiasis Grxcorum is not, except
in the early stages. If not elephantiasis,
what was it? Sir Eisdon Bennett (Diseases
of the Bible, 15-52) and others believe prob-
ably Lepra t-iihiaris. now merged in the genus
Psoriasis, and called Psorinnis vulgaris, the
dry tetter. It is a non-contagious, scaly dis-
ease, generally commencing about the elbows
and knees, as small circular patches of silvery-
white scales, which spread till they become
the size of a quarter or a half dollar, by
which time the scales have fallen from the
central portion of the circle, leaving it red ;
other circles arising coalesce. Afterwards
the abdomen, the chest, and the hack become
affected, and in rare cases the disease extends

Leshem

431

Levites

at last also to the bead, face, and bands. Tbe
constitutional disturbance is trifling, and tbe
disease is curable, though it is liable to recur.
It is simply a skin disease, in nu way endan-
gering life. Or the white leprosy of tbe ().
T. may have been Ptiorianix (juttata, in which
the scattered patches are said to give an ap-
pearance to the skin as if it had been splashed
with mortar. Perbai)s the Hebrew term
fani'dth was a generic one, and the elephan-
tiasis and tbe psoriasis two of its species ;
and it is quite jtossible that ditl'ereut varieties
have i)revailcd at different times. If the
leprosy of tbe Old and that of tbe New Tes-
tament were identical, then confirmation is
given to the o])inion that the former was
psoriasis, for Luke (v. 12, 13), himself a phy-
sician, employs tbe Greek word lepni, which
was technically used of psoriasis. With this
Josephns' description of leprosy agrees, for
(Antitj. iii. 11, 4) he defines a leper to be a
man who has a misfortune in tbe color of his
skin, and makes no allusion to graver symp-
toms. He mentions also that among the
gentiles lepers were not excluded from so-
ciety, but were competent to discbarge im-
portant functions in the body politic.

2. The same word sara'ath was a])plied to
a greenish or reddish appearance in a gar-
ment and to hollow greenish or reddish
strakes in tbe wall of a bouse (Lev. siii. 47-
59 ; xi\^ 33-37). It may he some minute
cryptogamous plant, an algal or a fungal,
which has grown upon the garment or wall
after it has become wet in the rainy season.

Le'shem. See Dan 3.

Le-tu'sMm.

A tribe descended from Dedan (Gen. xxv.
3). They doubtless settled in Arabia.

Le-uin'mim [peoples, nations].

A tribe descended from Dedan (Gen. xxv.
3). They doubtless settled in Arabia.

Le'vi [adhesion, associate].

1. Third son of Jacob and Leah (Gen. xxix.
34). He took part with Simeon, Leah's sec-
ond son, in massacring Hamor, Shechem, and
the men of their city, in revenge for tbe in-
jury done by Shechem to their sister Dinah
(xxxiv. 2.5-31). Jacob on bis deathbed re-
membered with fresh abhorrence this deed
of blood, and, referring to Simeon and Levi,
said, " Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce ;
and their wrath, for it was cruel : I will di-
vide them in Jacob, and scatter them in Is-
rael" (xlix. 7). Levi had three sons : Ger-
shon or Gersbom, Kobath, and Merari (Gen.
xlvi. 11), and died in Egypt at the age of 137
(Ex. vi. 16). See Levites.

2 and 3. Two ancestors of Christ, one tbe son
of Svmeon, and tbe other a son of Melchi
(Luke iii. 24, 29, 30).

4. Another name for the apostle Matthew
(cp. Mat. ix. 9-13 ; Mark ii. 14-17 ; Luke v.
27-32).

Le-vi'a-than [one spirally wound].

A great aquatic animal mentioned only in

poetic passages. He was formed by God to
play in the sea (Ps. civ. 26). He^ has limbs,
head, neck, eyes, no.se, jaw, mouth, teeth,
and tongue (Job xli. 1, 2, 7, 12, 14, IH, 19, 22),
and is covered with scales and an impenetra-
ble bide (7, 15-17, 26-29). He lieth upon the
mire or maketh tbe sea to boil like a jxit (30,
31). He is too large to be taken by fisii hook
or harpoon (1, 26), is terrible of aspect (9),
and mighty in strength, i)ut comely of pro-
portion (12). He is poetically described as
breathing fire and smoke (19-21), as is God
in Ps. xviii. 8 and as are the horses in Rev.
ix. 17. When God worked salvation l)j- di-
viding the sea, he destroyed the sea monstei's
which inhabited it, broke the beads of levia-
than and left his carcass to be eaten by the
l)eople of the desert (Ps. Ixxiv. 14). As the
sea is tbe tyi)e of tbe restless, surging nations
of the earth, so leviathan which dwells there-
in, leviathan the flying serpent, leviathan
the swift serpent, leviathan the crooked ser-
pent, and the dragon symbolize the fierce
and terrible powers of the world which have
afHicted the peojjle of God, but whom God
will ultimately destroy (Is. xxvii. 1). Le-
viathan is commonly regarded as tbe croco-
dile (Job xli. 1, R. V. margin). As such the
imagery is apt. Egypt, its habitat, is tbe
typical oppressor of the kingdom of God,
and Egypt's power was broken and its king
thwarted when God divided the Red Sea for
tbe deliverance of his people. Leviathan
may, however, be merely a creation of the
popular fancy, an imaginary sea monster;
the inspired poets and prophets of Israel sub-
sidizing fable to serve in the illustration of
truth. In Job iii. 8 leviathan may be a fabu-
lous dragon which caused eclipses by swal-
lowing sun and moon, and the cursors of the
day may be conjurers who claimed the power
to produce eclipses by his aid. Or in this
passage leviathan may be the untamable, ter-
rible crocodile which only conjurers of high-
est skill claimed ability to summon to their
aid.

Le'vites.

1. The descendants of Levi, the .son of
Jacob. He had three sons : Gersbon or Ger-
sbom, Kobath, and Merari, each of whom
founded a tribal family (Gen. xlvi. 11 ; Ex.
vi. 16; Num. iii. 17; 1 Cbron. vi. 16-48).
Moses and Aaron were Levites of the house
of Amram and family of Kobath (Ex. vi. 16,
18, 20, 26).

2. The men of the tribe of Levi charged
with the care of the sanctuary.- Aaron and
his sons were set apart for tbe priesthood and
tbe office was made hereditary. But the
tabernacle and its service bad been projected
on a noble scale. Tbe care and transporta-
tion of the costly sanctuary and the prepara-
tion of materials for the elaborate service en-
tailed labors which no one man and no one
family was equal to. Helpers were needed.
Tbe charge of the tabernacle was an honor-

Levites

432

Leviticus

able work. Who should undertake it ? The
firstborn belonged to God. This conviction
was deepened by the circumstances connected
with the deliverance from Egypt. When the
firstborn of the Egyptians were slain, blood
on the lintel and side door posts was needed
to protect the Israelite firstborn males from a
similar fate. They had then become the
special property of Jehovah, and hence-
forth were consecrated to him as a memorial
(Ex. xiii. 11-lH). But instead of the first-
born of all the tribes, the Levites were chosen
for service in connection with the sanctuary ;
and the choice was made because, when the
people had broken the covenant with Jehovah
by making the golden calf, the Eevites alone
had voluntarily returned to their allegiance
and shown zeal for God's honor (xxxii. 26-29 ;
Num. iii. 9, 11-13, 40, 41, 45 seq. ; viii. 16-18).
It was their duty to transport the tabernacle
and its furniture when the camp moved ; and
when the camp rested to erect the tent, have
care of it, and assist the priests in their work
(Num. i. 50-53 ; iii. 6-9, 25-37 ; iv. ; 1 Sam.
vi. 15 ; 2 Sam. xv. 24). The age at which the
obligation of service began was thirty years
as carriers of the tabernacle (Num. iv. 3) ;
and twenty-fiveasassistants to the priests (viii.
24). As the sons of Aaron were Levites
as well as priests, they are frequently in-
cluded under the designation Levite (Dent,
xxxiii. 8-10; Josh. xiv. 3; xxi. 1, 4; Mai.
iii. 3) ; and also, either as higher oflScials or
as Levites, they might, if they saw fit, dis-
charge any service that pertained to the Le-
vites. No otficial dress was prescribed for
Levites, but on great occasions they drew on
festal raiment (1 Chron. xv. 27 ; 2 Chron. v.
12). It was an innovation when the Ijevitical
singers in the first century A. D. obtained per-
mission from king Agrippa, with the sanction
of the sanhedrin to wear linen garments
as constantly as did the priests (Antiq.
XX. 9, 6). They were not required to de-
vote their entire time to the sanctuary
nor to dwell continually near it ; but on the
allotment of Canaan they were distributed to
various towns (Josh. xxi. 20-40). Exclusive
of the towns allotted to the Levites who were
priests, all of which were in Judah, Simeon
and Benjamin, the Levitical towns numbered
thirty-five and were situated among the re-
maining tribes on the north and east (Josh.
xxi. 5-7). Since the Levites as a tribe were
"wholly given unto the Lord in behalf of
the children of Israel," and were appointed
to service at the tabernacle, it was natural
that in the northern districts, where no Le-
vitical priests dwelt, the lower order of the
Levites should be drawn upon by the idol-
ater Micah and after him by the idolatrous
migrating Danites to furnish a man for
priestly services (Judg. xvii. 8-13 ; xviii. 18-
20, 30, 31). In David's reign the Levites
were divided into four classes : 1. Assistants
to the priests in the work of the sanctuary ;
2. Judges and scribes ; 3. Gate keepers ; 4.

Musicians. Each of these classes, with the
possible exception of the second, was subdi-
vided into twenty-four courses or families to
serve in rotation (1 Chron. xxiv.-xxvi. ; cp.
XV. 16-24 ; 2 Chron. xix. 8-11 ; xxx. 16, 17 ;
Ezra vi. 18 ; Neh. xiii. 5). On the disrup-
tion of the monarchy, many Levites and
priests (out of Benjamin) quitted the north-
ern kingdom and came to Judah and Jerusa-
lem (2 Chron. xi. 13-15).

Le-vit'i-cus [relating to the Levites].

The third book of the Pentateuch. When
the tabernacle had been erected and a priest
appointed to minister at the altar, the next
step was to open and regulate access to God.
This is the object of the ordinances con-
tained in Leviticus. In order to approach
Jehovah : 1. Sacrifice is required ; hence,
laws concerning various kinds of sacrifice
(i.-vii.). 2. The ministration of a priest is
required who has been ordained by God and
to whom it pertains to offer sacrifice ; hence,
consecration of Aaron and his sons, and ac-
count of the punishment of Nadab and
Abihu for illegal approach (viii.-x.). 3. In-
tercourse with God requires the attainment
and maintenance of purity, both ceremonial
and moral ; hence, (n) Laws concerning foods
that defile, diseases or natural functions
that render unclean, and ceremonial national
purification (xi.-xvi.): and (6) Laws con-
cerning holiness of life (xvii.-xxvi.) ; fol-
lowed by an appendix on vows, tithes, and
things devoted (xsvii.). The legislation is
dated at the tabernacle (i. 1); and in each
section the place assigned, explicitly or im-
plicitly, is in the wilderness at mount Sinai
(vii. 38 with iv. 12, 21 ; and viii. 17 ; x. 4 ;
and XXV. 1 ; xxvi. 46 with xiii. 46 ; xiv. 8,
34; xvi. 1; xvii. 3; xviii. 3; xix. .23; xx.
22; xxiii. 10 ; xxiv. 10 ; and xxvii. 34). Oc-
casionally a law is repeated in a new connec-
tion and for a diflerent purpose. At times
also the legislation is interrupted by the nar-
rative of events (viii., ix. ; x. 1-7, 12-20;
xxi. 24 ; xxiv. 10-23). It would thus appear
that the regulations for the worship and life
of the jieople were written down in detail
just as they were enacted, and no attempt
was made to codify them as a whole.

Throughout the book but one sanctuary
(xix. 21 et passim) and one altar for all Israel
are recognized (i. 3 ; viii. 3 ; xvii. 8, 9), and
the sons of Aaron are the sole priests (i. 5).
The Levites are only incidentally mentioned
(xxv. 32, 33). Variations in the laws or
their statement as found in Leviticus and
Deuteronomy are intelligible when it is
remembered that 1. Leviticus is a man-
ual for the priests, to guide them through the
technicalities of the ritual ; while Deuteron-
omy is primarily not a law book at all, but a
popular address to instruct the people in their
own duties and to exhort them to fidelity.
Deuteronomy omits matters of detail which
concern priests only. 2. The laws of Le-

Libertines

Lily

viticus are dated at Sinai an entire generation
before the addresses contained in Denterou-
omy were delivered at Sliittiin. Accordingly
the legislation of Leviticus is presupposed iu
Deuteronomy. This is the standpoint of the
Bible.

The essentials of the legislation of Leviti-
cus are reflected in the history iu the early
recognition of the Aaronic priesthood. So far
as the evidence reaches, the priests were sons
of .A.aron exclusively (Deut. x. (5; Josh. xiv.
1 ; xxi. 4 and IS with 1 Kin. ii. 26 ; Judg.
XX. 27, 2S ; 1 Sam. i. 3 ; ii. 27, 28 ; xiv. 3 ;
xxi. 6 with 1 Chron. xxiv. 3 ; 1 Sam. sxii.
10, 11. 20 ; xxiii. (5 : and 2 Sam. viii. 17 with
Ezra vii. 3 and 1 Chron. xxiv. 3). The Le-
vites are sojourners and subordinate (Judg.
xvii. 7-9 ; xix. 1 ; 1 Sam. vi. l.i ; 2 Sam. xv.
24). Compare also the one house of the
Lord (Judg. xviii. 31 ; xix. 13 ; 1 Sam. i. 7,
24; iii. 3 ; iv. 3), and the feast of the Lord,
at the tabernacle visited bv all Israel (Judg.
xxi. 19 ; 1 Sam. i. 3 ; ii. 14, 22, 29) ; see fur-
ther the articles Prie-st, High Priest, Le-
viTES, Altar, Deuteronomy.
Lib'er-tines [freedmen].
A section of the Jewish community who
had a synagogue at Jerusalem, and were
among the foes of the first martyr, Stephen
(Acts vi. 9). Tiiey wei-e probably Jews,
who. having been taken prisoners in bat-
tle by Pompey and other Roman generals,
Lad been bondsmen at Rome, but were after-
wards restored to liberty.

Lib'nah [whiteness, pellucidness].

1. An encampment of the Israelites in the
•wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 20). Situation un-
known.

2. A city in the lowland between Mak-
kedah and Laohish (Josh. x. 29-31), captured
by Joshua (30, 39 ; xii. 15). It was situ-
ated in the territory allotted to Judah (xv.
42), and was subsequently assigned to the
descendants of Aaron (xxi. 13; 1 Chron. vi.
57). When Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat,
was king, Libnah revolted against Judah (2
Kin. viii. 22 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 10). .Sennach-
erib, king of Assj'ria, warred against it (2
Kin. xix. 8; Is. xxxvii. 8). The father of
Hamutal, the mother of Jehoahaz and Zede-
kiah, was from this place (2 Kin. xxiii. 31 ;
xxiv. 18 ; Jer. Iii. 1). Exact situation is un-
known.

Lib'ni [white, pure].

1. Son of Gershon, and grandson of Levi.
He was founder of a minor tribal familv or
father's house (Ex. vi. 17; Num. iii. 18,' 21 ;
xxvi. 58).

2. A Levite, familv of Merari, house of
Mahli (1 Chron. vi. 29).

Lib'y-a and Libyans.

A rendering of P>it (Jer. xlvi. 9 ; Ezek.
XXX. 5; xxxviii. 5 in A. V.) and Lnbim (Dan.
xi. 43). A country and its inhabitants in the
western part of Lower Egypt or on its bor-
ders. The people are said to be distinguished
28

by the Egyptians as Tehenit ; later Pit, Phninit,
probably equivalent to the Hebrew Put ; and
Jiebii or Lcbii. that is in Helirew Lubim, and
others. The Libya of the Romans was an
immense and vaguely defined tract extend-
ing from the Xile delta and valley westward
across the entire African continent. It com-
prised all north Africa west of Egypt, ex-
cept the small Greek settlements of C^rene
and Barca, and the Phcenieian colonies of
Carthage, Utica, and Hippo. It was nearly
all a sandy desert, studded here and there
with oases, on which palms grew. Its tribes
were brave, but were not very formidable,
owing to their being scattered and unable to
unite. The Romans divided the African re-
gion bordering the Mediterranean into two
provinces, Libya Marmarica and Libya
Cyrenaica or Pentapolis. The capital of the
latter was Cyrene, and it was from this west-
ern province that representatives were pres-
ent at Jerusalem on Pentecost (Acts ii. 10 ; cp.
Antiq. xvi. 6, 1).

Lice.

The rendering of the Hebrew Kinnum or
Kinnim (Ex. viii. 16-18 ; Ps. cv. 31), referring
to some small insect noxious to man. Jo-
sephus understood the word to mean lice
(Antiq. ii. 14, 3). The Septuagint renders it
by skuips, an aphis or other small insect that
sucks or gnaws. R. Y. margin translates it
sandflies or fleas.

Lieu-ten'ant. See Satrap.
Lign-al'oes [wood or tree aloes]. See
Aloes.

Lig'iire.

The rendering of the Hebrew Leshem. a
gem, the first stone in the third row of the
high priest's brea.stplate (Ex. xxviii. 19).
This translation is derived from the Sep-
tuagint, Vulgate and Josephus (War v. 5, 7) ;
but it is impossible to identify the ligurium
of the ancients with any known gem.

Lik'hi [characterized by knowledge].
A Manassite, familv of Shemida (1 Chron.
vii. 19).

LU'y.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew words
Shoshnn, Slioshannah. and Shi(sh(ni. The ])lant
so designated is found in pastures where
.sheep and gazelles feed (Song ii. 16; iv. 5;
vi. 3), and among thorns (ii. 2). besides being
cultivated in gardens (vi. 2). It was so much
at home in valleys that it was designated the
lily of the valleys (Song ii. 1). It was a
sweet-scented plant, dropping a myrrh-like
perfume (v. 13). The Hebrew word was ren-
dered kriiion by the Greek translators. The
krinon is a plant which grows be.side the
water (Ecclus. 1. 8) and among the gra.ss of
the field (Mat. vi. 28). It is often mentioned
in connection with frankincense and the rose
(Ecclus. xxxix. 13, 14). It is the type of a life
of beautiful deeds. The high priest, coming
forth from the sanctuarj^ is compared with

LUy

434

Linen

it (1. 8). It excels Solomon in his glorious
array (Mat. vi. 29).

The words shushan and krinon were not
always used with reference to the lily in its
modern scientitic sense; but included with

Scarlet Turk's Cap {Lilium chalcedonicum).

the true lily various plants that resemble the
lily. The lotus was known to the ancient
Egyptians by .the name of seshnin, and is
called by Herodotus krinon (ii. 92). The
ordinary word for a lily in Arabic is still
silsan ; l3ut it is used generically rather than

Red Anemone {Anemone coronaria).

specifically, including the tulip and even the
anemone and ranunculus. What varieties
of lily were anciently cultivated in the gar-
dens of Palestine is not known. In the
fields the scarlet Turk's cap {Lilium chalce-
dotucnm) grows sparingly. Besides the true
lily, other genera of the order Liliacese, as

hyacinths and tulips, grow in profusion in
the spring. A fine, dark violet flower,
known as silsan, is found far and wide
in the Hauran. Thomson describes a
splendid iris, which he calls the Huleh lily,
growing among the oak woods around the
northern base of Tabor and on the hills of
Nazareth. The flower is dark purple and
white. He believes that it is the lily re-
ferred to by Jesus. Eed anemones are so
marked a feature of the valleys of Palestine
in the spring that various travelers, Tristram
included, have suggested that Anemone coro-
naria, the red variety of which is very com-
mon, was probably the lily of the N. T.,
while others M'ould identify the anemone
with the rose of Sharon. See Eose.

Lime.

A material prepared by burning limestone,
shells, and other calcareous substances (Is.
xxxiii. 12; Amos ii. 1), and used for making
mortar and plaster, and for whitewashing
walls (Deut. xxvii. 2, in E. V. plaister ; Mat.
xxiii. 27 ; Acts xxiii. 3). See Mortar.

Lin'en.

1. Fine linen is the rendering of the Hebrew
word Shesh, white, applied to a stufi" of
which vestments were made. It was in it
that Joseph was arrayed by Pharaoh's order
(Gen. xli. 42). Of this material also were
made the curtains, vail, and door hang-
ings of the tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 1, 31, 36),
and the hangings for the gate of the court
and for the court itself (xxvii. 9, 16, 18).
The distinguishing attire of the high priest
consisted of the ephod, breastplate, robe of
blue, and the gold plate on the miter; and
of these the ephod and breastplate contained
fine linen (Ex. xxviii. 6, 1.5). Other official
garments were common to the high priest
and the ordinary priest, the tunic, girdle,
breeches, and headdress (Ex. xxviii. 40-42 ;
xxxix. 27-29 ; cp. Lev. xvi. 4). The head-
dress, however, of the high priest was a
miter or turban, while a simple cap appears
to have been worn by the ordinary priest.
Of these four articles of priestly dress, the
girdle was embroidered, consisting largely
of linen (Ex. xxxix. 29). The three other
garments were made of fine white linen ex-
clusively (xxviii. 39; xxxix. 27, 28). On
the margin of Gen. xli. 42 and of Ex. xxv. 4
the R. V. substitutes cotton. On the margin
of Ex. xxviii. 39 the E. V.. referring to the
coat and miter of the high priest, substitutes
silk. The same Hebrew word is translated
marble in Esth. i. 6 and Song v. 15 (where
the reference is to pillars), and silk in Prov.
XX xi. 22.

2. The Hebrew word Bad is a synonym for
s/ics7), but is more general in its meaning,
hence it is rendered merely linen (Ex. xxviii.
42 with xxxix. 28). It sufficiently described
the material of the priest's raiment, when
there was no need to explicitly state the
quality of the stuff (ibid. ; Lev. vi. 10; xvi.

Linen

435

Lizard

4). Of it was made the plain cphod worn by
the boy SamiU'l, by the priests at Nob, and
by David on the occasion of removing the
ai-k (1 Sam. ii. 18; xxii. IS; 2 Sam. vi. 14).
In it the man with the inkstand in Ezekiel's
vision, and Daniel's heavenly comforter were
clothed (K/ek. ix. 2; Dan. x. 5).

3. The rendering of the Hebrew Pishteh,
flax, the material of which the goods are
made being thonght of (Jer. xiii. 1). It is
used in contrast to woolen clothing (Lev. xiii.
47 ; Deut. xxii. 11). It describes the material
of the priestly garments, the headtires,
breeches, and girdles (Ezek. xliv. 17, 18).

4. The rendering of the Hebrew Bus, which
occui-s only in the later books, and of the
Greek Btissos. Of this material were made
the robe, not the ephod, which David wore
at the removal of the ark (1 Chron. xv. 27),
the vail of the temple in part, the other
stuffs employed being blue, purple, and crim-
son (2 Chron. iii. 14), the clothing of the Le-
vites who were musicians at the dedication
of the temple (v. 12), the cords which fas-
tened the hangings in Ahasuerus' palace
(Esth. i. 6), the state dress of Mordecai
(viii. 15), the garments of the rich man at
wlio.se gate Lazarus .sat (Luke xvi. 19), and
of the luxurious city of Bal)ylon (Rev. xviii.
16), and the bright and pure raiment of the
Lamb's wife (xix. 8).

Shesh is originally an Egyptian word, in
old Egyptian nhentl : &».? is the Aramaic equiv-
alent (cp. Targ. Ouk. Gen. xli. 42), and bussos
is etymologically the same word as bus. It
is interesting to note that Ezekiel uses shesh
for goods imported from Egypt, and bus for
stuffs that came from Syria. Whether the
words denote linen or fine cotton cloth, or
comprehend both, is much debated. Linen
and cotton were cmploj'ed in Egypt from the
earliest times for mummy cloths.

5. The renderingof the Hebrew word '£■((?»,
from 'at«)i, to bind (Prov. vii. 16; in R.V. yarn).
It was imported from Egypt, where the most
skillful manufacturers of linen lived.

6. Linen yarn is the rendering of the He-
brew word Mikveh in A. V. of 1 Kin. x. 28 ;
2 Chron. i. 16. R. V. renders it a drove.
Septuagint and Vulgate regarded the Hebrew
word as composite, and rendered it "and
out of Koe," which was a place near Egypt,
according to Eusebius.

7, 8. The rendering of the Greek word
F^indoH, a fine Indian cloth, muslin, later
linen. A tunic or perhaps a sheet might be
made of it (Mark xiv. 51), and in this ma-
terial the body of Jesus was wrapped for
burial (Mat. xxvii. 59). It is a synonym of
othouiui, though more special in meaning
(Luke xxiii. 53 with xxiv. 12; John xix. 40;
XX. 5, 7). In classical Greek the latter word
means either genuine linen or sail cloth.

9. The rendering of the Greek Lhwn, linen
(Rev. XV. 6, A. V. and margin of R. V.). The
text of R. y. has precious stones, from another
reading lithon.

Lin'tel.

The transvei"se piece of wood or other
material constituting the upper part of a
doorway or casement (Ex. xii. 22), called in
Hebrew Mashkoph.

1. Lintel is also the rendering of the He-
brew 'Ayil, a ram, in 1 Kin. vi. 31. It may
denote a projecting lintel or i)ost. The He-
brew word occurs eighteen times in an archi-
tectural sense in Ezek. xl. and xli., where it
is rendered post (ver. 9, etc.), with jamb on
the margin of R. V.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Kaphtur,
in A. V. of Amos ix. 1 and Zeph. ii. 14, which
is translated chajiiter in R. V. In Ex. xxv.
and xxxvii., where it occurs sixteen times, it
is rendered knop in both versions.

Li'nus.

A Christian at Rome who joined Paul in
sending salutations to Timothy (2 Tim. iv.
21). According to Irenseus and Eusebius, he
was the first bishop of Rome. See Bishop.
No lofty preeminence was attached to the
office, for he is mentioned without distinction
between two other members of the church at
Rome.

Li'on.

The Fells leo of naturalists. The lion is
difl'used over the whole of Africa and portions
of southern Asia, as far east as the province
of Guzerat in India. It was formerly found
in Greece, but does not now occur wild in
that country or anywhere in Europe. In
Scripture times it was common in Palestine.
The Hebrews had no fewer than six words
to designate it in different states or at suc-
cessive stages of growth. The ordinary words
were 'ari/eh and '"ri, which occur eighty times
in the O. T. Allusion is made to the lion's
strength (2 Sam. i. 23 ; Prov. xxx. 30) and
courage (2 Sam. xvii. 10; Prov. xxviii. 1), to
his teeth (Joel i. 6), to his tendency to crouch
before springing on his victim (Gen. xlix. 9),
to his tendency to prey on sheep, calves, and
other beasts (1 Sam. xvii. 34 ; Is. xi. 6, 7), or
upon man (1 Kin. xiii. 24; Jer. ii. 30), and to
his roaring (Job iv. 10; Prov. xx. 2; 1 Pet.
V. 8). He is represented as lurking in thick-
ets (Jer. iv. 7), forests (v. 6), or other coverts
(xxv. 38). A special haunt of his appears to
have been among the trees and bushes fring-
ing the Jordan (xUx. 19). Of the living
creatures .seen by Ezekiel in vision one had
the face of a lion (Ezek. i. 10; x. 14). The
first of the four living creatures seen by John
was like a lion (Rev. iv. 7). Our Lord is
called the Lion of the tribe of Judah (v. 5 ;
cp. Gen. xlix. 9).

Llz'ard.

Any small larertilian reptile. It was called
J'ta'oh by the Hebrews, and was regarded as
unclean ( Lev. xi. 30). The R. Y. understands
the four animals associated with it to be the
gecko, the land crocodile, the sand lizard, and
the chameleon ; but states on the margin that
the words are of uncertain meaning, but

Loaf

436

Lock

liiobably denote four kinds of lizards. Liz-
ards abound iu Palestine and the adjacent
countries. The number of species is very
great. In the woods and on cultivated ground
the green lizards are the most beautiful, es-
pecially Lacerta viridis and L. Isevis. Of the
same family {Lacertidas), but of a difterent
genus iZootica), are the wall lizards, which
appear in warm weather in multitudes, crawl-
ing over walls, rocks, and stony ground.
Other families of eriglossate lacertilians are
represented in Palestine, as the Scincidw,
Zonuridse, Agamidse, and Monitoridse. The
first of these contains the skinks or sand
lizards (Lev. xi. 30; in A. V. snail). They
chiefly inhabit desert districts, are generally
small and of the yellowish color of the desert,
are as common as the true lizard, but unlike
it do not climb, and hide themselves under
stones or by burrowing rapidly in the ground.
The family of Zonundx is represented by
the glass snake [Psendopus pallasi). Its hind
legs are rudimentary, so that it looks much
like a snake. It is black, and attains a
length of two or two and a half feet, of
which the tail forms two-thirds. Closely re-
lated to this family are the Aijamidie, con-
taining Uromastix spinipes. This reptile in-
habits the sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia,
and is common in the wilderness of Judsea.
It attains a length of two feet. Its body is
green in color, spotted with brown. It has a
powerful tail, encircled with roM's of strong
spines, which it uses as a weapon of defense.
The Hebrew name <vas sah, rendered great
lizard (Lev. xi. 29; in A. V. tortoise). The
Arabs still call it dabh. The family of Moni-
ioridx or Varanidx contains the monitors, of
which the land crocodile of the ancients
(Lev. xi. 30 ; in A. V. chameleon), commonly
known as the land monitor, the iimran el-'nrd
of the Arabs (Psammosaums scincns), is com-
mon in southern Jndsea, the peninsula of
Sinai, and the sandy parts of Egypt. It
attains a length of four or five feet, and has
a long snout, sharp, pointed teeth, and a long,
tapering tail. The water monitor, warai} el-
babr (Hi/drosatirns niloticus), is slightly larger
than its congener of the land, and is readily
distinguished from it by the high keel along
the whole length of its tail. Both reptiles
are extremely rapid in their movements, and
are strong, fully justifying their supposed
Hebrew name koah, strength. They feed on
small lizards and jerboas, and devour the
eggs and young of the crocodile with avidity.
They are eaten by the natives.

Loaf.

A mass of bread. It was made of the flour
of barley (2 Kin. iv. 42; John vi. 9) or wheat
(Lev. xxiii. 17 with Ex. xxxiv. 22), round in
shape (Ex. xxix. 23 ; Judg. viii. 5, in Hebrew
Icihl-ar, disc), and of a size convenient for
l)aking and carrying with one (1 Sam. x. 3;
Mat. xiv. 17 ; John vi. 9). See Bread and
Showbeead.

Lo-am'mi [not my people] .

The symbolic name of the prophet Hosea's
second son by his wife Gomer (Hos. i. 8, 9).

Loan.

Anything, especially money, that is lent.
In the early ages of the Hebrew nation loans
were not sought for the purpose of obtaining
capital, but for the necessaries of life. The
Israelites were commanded to ojien their
heart to their brother, who had fallen into
poverty, and to lend him sufficient for bis
need (Deut. xv. 7-11). They were forbidden
to charge interest for any loan to a poor Isra-
elite (Ex. xxii. 25 ; Lev. xxv. 35-37). But
unto a foreigner they might lend on interest
(Deut. xxiii. 20), and the poor Israelite might
sell himself as a servant (Lev. xxv. 39; 2
Kin. iv. 1). If a pledge was asked from a
poor Israelite for a loan, the creditor was not
to go into the debtor's house to obtain it, but
to remain outside and allow it to be brought
out to him. If the i)ledge was a garment, it
was to be returned to the owner before the
evening, as probably it might be ]iart of
his sleeping attire (Ex. xxii. 26, 27). No one
was to take the upjier or nether millstone as a
pledge, thus preventing the debtor and his
family from grinding corn for their daily
food (Deut. xxiv. 6). Nor could anyone take
a widow's garment (17). Finally, when the
seventh year, called the year of release, came,
the debt was to be forgiven (xv. 1-11). The
practice of suretyship, however, unfortu-
nately grew up (Prov. vi. 1), and in later
times interest was sometimes exacted for
loans, although the practice was condemned
by the prophets (Jer. xv. 10 ; Ezek. xviii. 13).
The benefice ut regulations of the law were
systematically ignored after the exile, and
Nehemiah took vigorous measures to termi-
nate the abuse (Neh. v. 1-13). The Eoman law
was a marked contrast in its severity to that
of Moses. By a law of the twelve tables a
creditor could put his insolvent debtor in
fetters and cords. Doubtless with allusion
to the ordinary procedure Jesus describes the
lord of a debtor as commanding that he, his
wife, his children, and all that he had, be
sold in liquidation of the debt (Mat. xviii.
25), and, when he had abused leniency
which was shown him on his appeal for
mercy, be delivered to the torturers till
he should pay all that was due (34). In
the time of Christ banking was a regular in-
stitution (Mat. xxv. 27: Luke xix. 23). A
public building was jtrovided in Jeru.salem,
where documents relating to loans, whether
interest-bearing or not, might be deposited
(War ii. 17, 6).

Lock.

A fastening for a door (J\idg. iii. 23), evi-
dently in ancient as in modern times, con-
sisting of a short bolt of wood, which .slides
through a groove in an upright piece attached
to the door and enters a socket in the door-
post. Above the groove in the upright are

Locust

437

Lord's Day

holes containing small iron or wooden pins.
When the bolt is thrust into the socket, these
pins drop into corres]>oudinf; holes in the bolt
and hold it in jjlace. The key is furnished with
II like number of jirojectious, and, when intro-
duced into a hollow in the bolt underneath the
pins, raises them and allows the bolt to be
shoved back. When the lock is inside, a hole
through the door admits the baud with the
key, and even the hollow in the bolt is often
large enough to admit the hand (Song v. 5).

Lo'cust.

The rendering of the Hebrew word 'Arbeh
and the Greek Akris. The insect referred to
is evidently the migratory locust ((Edipoda
mujratoria], or in some cases possibly au allied
insect, G^dijioda cinere^cens, Acridiam peregri-
ntim, or other species. The locust is two inches
or more in length. It is a winged, creep-
ing thing. Like other insects of the order
Orthoptera, it has four wings. Those of the
anterior pair are narrow, while those of the
posterior pair are broader, folded up when
not in use, and transparent. It has six legs,
on four of which it walks, while the hind-
most pair, which are much longer than the
others and equal to the body in length, it uses

Locust.

for springing (Lev. xi. 21, 22). The mouth
is furnished with cutting jaws, by means of
which it nips otf leaves and blades of grass.
They were clean insects (ibid.), and John
the Baptist ate them, as many Orientals did
before him and still do (Mat. iii. 4). They
are prepared by being slightly roasted, dried
in the sun, and salted. When used the head,
wings, legs, and intestines are commonly re-
moved, and only the fleshy portion is eaten.
The locust is exceedingly destructive to veg-
etation, and locusts blown into the valley of
the Nile by the east wind, constituted the
eighth Egyptian plague (Ex. x. 4, 5, 12, 15,
19). In some passages, as Judg. vii. 12 and
Jer. xlvi. 23, the A. V. renders 'arbeh grass-
hopper; the E. V. uniformly translates it
locust. The locust is distinguished from the
grasshopper by the shortness of its antennae.
It must not be confounded with the harvest
fly, which is commonly called locust in the
United States.

Many other words refer to different species
of locusts difiicult to identify, or some of
them may mean the migratory locust in dif-
ferent stages of development (Lev. xi. 22 ;
Joel i. 4). The egg of the various species of
locust is deposited in April or May, in a cy-
lindrical hole excavated in the ground l)y the
female, and it is hatched in June. The young

iu.sect emerges from the egg a wingless larva.
It enters the pupa state, when it has rudi-
mentary wings enclosed in cases. It is more
voracious in this stage of its development
than at any other period. In another mouth
it casts the pupa or nymph .skin, and has be-
come the imago or perfect insect.

Lod [perhaps, strife, contest].

A town of Benjamin, built by the sons of
Elpaal, a man of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii.
12), and generally mentioned in connection
with Ono (Neh. xi. 35). It was inhabited
after the Babylonian captivity (Ezra ii.
33 ; Neh. vii. 37), and is believed to have
been the Lydda of the Greek period (1 Mac.
xi. 34) ; see Lydda. It still exists as Ludd,
about 11 miles southeast of Joppa. In it are
the remains of the church of St. George, the
Christian martyr of Nicomedia and adopted
in the fourteenth century as the patron saint
of England, who was said to have been a
native of the place.

Lo-de'bar [perhaps, without pasture].

A place in Gilead (2 Sam. ix. 4, 5 ; xvii.
27), probably the same as Lidebir (josh. xiii.
26, E. V. margin). See Debik 4.

Lodge.

A shelter erected for the watchman of a
garden for occupation during the time of
ripe fruit (Is. i. 8 ; in xxiv. 20, A. V. cottage,
E. V. hut). Not improbably the structure
intended is the kind built among the branches
of a tree or, where trees are lacking, upon
posts, and consisting of a rude floor, a roof
of mats or branches, and sides of branches.

Log [depth].

A Jewish measure of capacity used spe-
cially for oil (Lev. xiv. 10, 12, 15, 21, 24).
The rabbins believe it to have contained
twelve bins, so that it equaled the 720th
part of an homer or about three gills.

Lo'is.

Timothv's grandmother, a woman of un-
feigned faith (2 Tim. i. 5).

Look'ing-glass. See Mirror.

Lord.

When used of God and printed in small
letters with only the initial a capital, it
is usually the rendering of the Hebrew
'Adon, master (Ex. xxiii. 17; Ps. cxiv. 7),
much more frequently of '"donay, properly
my master (Ex. iv. 10; Is. xl. 10), or of the
Greek Knrios, master, sir (Mat. i. 20). When
printed in small capitals, it represents the
Hebrew yhvh, Jehovah, the most .sacred
and incommunicable name of God, used of
himself alone (Gen. ii. 4) See Jehovah.

Lord of Hosts. See Host.

Lord's Day.

The daj' specially associated with the Lord
Jesus Chri.st. The expression occurs but once
in the N. T., where John says, " I was in the
Spirit on the Lord's day" (Rev. i. 10). Vari-
ous interpretations have been ofiered. 1.

Lord's Day

438

Lord's Supper

John, it is said, is speaking of the Sabbath
or seventh day of the week, which God liiui-
self has called "My holy day". (Is. Iviii.
13). But if he intended the seventh day, it
is strange that he did not use the customary
designation. 2. It is held to be the day of
Christ's birth. But that day is unknown,
and it was not known or observed by the
primitive church. 3. It is contended that
the expression Lord's day is the same as
the day of the Lord in 2 Pet. iii. 10, where
it undoubtedly means the day of the second
advent, and John would state that he was
rapt, in vision, to the day of judgment. But
John is apparently dating his vision. In the
preceding sentence he mentions the place
where he was at the time he received the
revelation, the isle of Patmos ; and declares
the cause of his being on that island. In
this sentence he states the day when he had
the vision. It is also to be noticed that he
does not speak of the day of the Lord, which
is tlie constant designation of the day of the
second advent, but uses the adjective
kuiiake : a distinction which was observed
ever afterwards between the day of the
second advent and the first day of the week
when Christ rose from the dead. 4. It has
been thought possible that John means the
anniversary of the resurrection. But none
of the early fathers can be quoted either for
this interpretation or for this use of the
designation Lord's day. 5. Friday or cruci-
fixion day, which, however, seems to have
had no special honor from the apostles,
this being reserved for 6. Sunday or resurrec-
tion day. On the resurrection day itself
our Lord appeared to his disciples (Mat.
xxviii. 1-15; Mark xvi. 1-14; Luke xxiv.
13-49; John xx. 1-26). After eight days
(John XX. 2()), which according to the or-
dinary usage meant a week later, our Lord a
second time honored the first day of the
week. The pentecostal festival being on the
day after a Sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 11, 15), it
is at least probable that the effusitm of the
Holy Spirit took place on the first day of the
week (Acts ii. 1). The Christians at Assos in
Paul's time seem to have regarded that day
as the stated one on which they were accus-
tomed to assemble to break bread (Acts xx.
7). On the same day of the week the Chris-
tians were to lay by them in store the money
which they designed to give in charity (1
Cor. xvi. 2). These jiassages. aided by reason-
ings on more general i)iiiiiiples, have led the
great majority of Christians to consider the
Lord's day a day set apart by the example
of our T.,ord and his apostles for sacred pur-
poses, and standing in a certain relation to
the Sabbath of the ten commandments : see
Sabbath. It may be added that some mem-
bers of the primitive church made no dis-
tinction between days, including Jewish
festivals and Sabbaths and ])ossibly the
first day, rightly or wi'ongly esteeming
every day alike. They were not to be

harshly judged, they were acting out of the
fear of God (Kom. xiv. 5). Some of the
Jewish converts continued to keep the sev-
enth day and the Jewish festivals. It was a
matter of liberty (Col. ii. 16), so long as the
convert did not regard the observance as
necessary to salvation (Gal. iv. 10).

Lord's Sup'per.

The name gi%'eu by Paul to the com-
memorative ordinance instituted by our Lord
on the evening preceding his crucifixion (1
Cor. xi. 20). Paul's account is the earliest
record of the institution of the supper by at
least twenty-seven years. It was written
probably early in A. D. 57, just twenty-seven
years after the supper was instituted. The
apostle had introduced it five years earlier,
when he organized the Corinthian church
and " delivered unto them " the ordinance
(23). He pledges his own truthfulness and
authority for the correctness of liis account
by saying, "I received and I delivered";
and he refers to the source of his information :
he had not been an ej'ewitness of the event,
he had not been present at the institution of
the supper, but he had received from the Lord
what he had delivered unto them. These
words are capable of two interpretations :
either Paul had been granted a special com-
munication direct from the risen Lord, or
else he had received the account from the
Lord through the Lord's apostles, participants
in the first supper. Matthew an eyewitness
and Mark, the companion of Peter who was
present at the institution of the supper, also
record the circumstances ; and so does Paul's
companion, Luke. Wishing to fulfill all right-
eousness and to honor the ceremonial law
whilst yet it continued. Jesus made arrange-
ments to eat the passover with his disciples
(Mat. xxvi. 17-19). As the paschal lamb was
killed in the evening, and its flesh eaten the
same evening, the paschal feast necessarily
took place in the evening (Mat. xxvi. 20).
Wine mixed with water had come into use on
such occasions, because that was regarded as
the best way of using the best wine (cp. 2 Mac.
XV. 39). When, thei-efore, our Lord was
about to follow up the supper by the com-
nuinion, there was wine mixed with water
on the table. So also was there unleavened
bread. He and his disciples were sitting
(Mat. xxvi. 20), by which is meant that,
after the custom of that time, they half sat,
half reclined on couches (Mark xiv. 18, E. V.
margin). When the paschal feast was fin-
ished, Jesus took bread and blessed it, at the
same time rendering thanks for it, and,
giving it to the discii)les, .said : " This is my
body which is given for you : this do in re-
membrance of nie.'' And the cup in like man-
ner after .supper, saying : " This cup is the new
covenant in my blood, even that which is
poured out for you " (Luke xxii. 19, 20,
R. v.), "which is shed for many unto remis-
sion of sins" (Mat. xxvi. 28, R. V.). The

Lo-ruhamah

439

Love Feasts

object for which the Lord's Supper was in-
stituted was to keep him in reuienihrance
(Luke sxii. 19). It was to show forth the
Lord's death till he come (1 Cor. xi. 2o, 26).
The feast was not con fined to the apostles
nor to the Jewish Christians, but was cele-
brated in the churches of the gentiles also,
for instance at Corinth (1 Cor. x. 15-21). It
was understood to be the privilege of the
•church for all time. The table on which the
bread was placed was known as the Lord's
table (X. 21) ; the cup of wine retained the
old name which it bore at the Jewish pass-
over, cup of blessing (x. 16), and was also
called the cup of the Lord (21 ; xi. 27).

Lo-ru'lia-inali [not having obtained
mercy] .

The symbolic name of the prophet Hosea's
daughter by his wife Gomer (Hos. i. 6, 8).

Lot, I.

The use of the lot to determine doubtful
questions was much in vogue among the na-
tions of antiquity (Esth. iii. 7; Jon. i. 7;
Mat. xxvii. 35). Stones or inscribed tablets
or the like were put into a vessel and, having
been shaken, were drawn out or cast forth.
The act was commonly preceded by prayer,
and was an appeal to God to decide the mat-
ter (Acts i. 23-26; Iliad iii. 316-325; vii.
174-181). In the early history of the Jewish
people God was pleased to use the lot as a
method of making known his will, so that
the weighty statement was made in Prov.
xvi. 33, " The lot is cast into the lap ; but the
whole disposing thereof is of the Lord."
The land of Canaan was divided among the
twelve tribes bj^ lot (Josh. xiv. 2 ; xviii. 6) ;
for the method, see Canaan. On one occa-
sion Saul and Jonathan stood on one
side and Jonathan cast lots against the
people. The king and his son being thus
singled out, they cast lots with each other,
Jonathan being finally pointed out by this
method of inquiry (1 Sam. xiv. 40-45). The
courses of the priests, etc., were settled by
lot (1 Chron. xxiv. 5, seq.). By casting lots
after prayer the question was decided
whether Joseph Barsabbas or Matthias should
be Judas Iscariot's successor in the apostle-
ship (Acts i. 15-26). This method of selec-
tion was not repeated by the apostles after the
descent of the Holy Spirit.

Lot, II. [covering, or myrrh].

Son of Haran, Abraham's brother, and
consequently nephew to the patriarch him-
self, whom he accompanied from Mesopo-
tamia to Canaan (Gen. xi. 31 ; xii. 5), and to
and from Egypt (xiii. 1). Like his uncle, he
became prosperous, on which his herdsmen
and those of Abraham began to quarrel over
the pasturage. Abraham proposed that he
and Lot separate, and with characteristic
generosity invited Lot to choose first. Lot
did what he thought best for his own inter-
est. Seeing that the hills were less fertile

than the valley of the Jordan, he chose the
latter, and became a resident in Sodom. He
did not take into account the character of
the people among whom he was going to set-
tle, and the probable elJ'ect of their evil
example on his family, though he main-
tained his own integrity among them and
was distressed at seeing and hearing from
day to day lawless deeds (2 Pet. ii. 8).
Dui'ing the invasion of Chedorlaonier and
his confederate kings. Lot was made pris-
oner, and owed his release to the courage
and skill of Abraham (Gen. xiii. 2-xiv. 16).
When two angels were sent to Sodom to warn
him of its approaching destruction, the con-
duct of the ruffianly mob when they knew
he had guests was such as to show how ripe
the city was for destruction. He was saved
from its overthrow ; but his wife, looking
back, was involved in the destruction and
became a pillar' of salt, and his married
daughters, deluded by their Sodomite hus-
bands, remained behind, and perished (xix.
1-29; Wisd. x. 7). A cloud rests on Lot's
later years. Drink on two consecutive eights
rendered him unconscious, so that he became
a participant in deeds which he would have
abhorred had he been sober. The Moabites
and Ammonites were his descendants (30-
38).

Lo'tan.

A tribe of Horites, dwelling in mount Seir
(Gen. xxxvi. 20) and governed by a chieftain

(29).

Love' Feasts.

The rendering of the Greek Aqapni in 2
Pet. ii. 13, E. V. (on margin and in A. V.
deceivings). In Jnde 12 the rendering is
feasts of charity. They were entertainments
held in churches in connection with the
Lord's Supper. Chrysostom states that after
the early community of goods had ceased, the
wealthier members brought contributions of
food and drink to the church, of which, at
the conclusion of the services and after the
celebration of the Lord's Supper, all partook,
the poorest not excepted, by this means help-
ing to promote the principle of love among
Christians. As the purity of the church de-
clined and ceremony increased, scandals
arose in connection with these feasts. The
council of Laodicea, a. d. 320, and that of
Carthage, A. D. 397, forbade them to be held
in churches ; so did the council of Orleans,
A. D. 541, that of Trullo A. D. 692, and that
of Aix-la-chapelle a. d. 816 ; but all these
councils together did not quite succeed in
extinguLshing the love feasts' excessive
tenacity of life in the western church,
while in the Greek church they still
continue to exist. Of more modern reli-
gious denominations, love feasts were revived
by the Moravians. John Wesley introduced
them into the great organization which he
founded. They exist also among the San-
demanians.

Lowland

440

Luke

Low'land or Sheph'e-lah ; variously reud-
ered iu A. V. by the vale, the valley, the low
country, the plain.

The region of low hills between the plain
of Philistia and the high t-eutral range of
Palestine. It is described by Eusobius (in
his Onomasticon under Sephela) as "all the low
countiy about Eleutheropolis [the modern
Beit Jibriu] toward the north and west : "
but in O. T. times the term comprehended
the low, hilly country lying to the east and
south as well. The hills rise to a height of
from 500 to 800 feet, with a few higher sum-
mits. On their slopes the olive flourishes.
The district is separated from the central
Judseau range by a series of valleys which
run north and south from Aijalou to near
Beer-sheba ; and it is itself cut by several
wide, fertile valleys which lead from the
Judsean ridge to the sea. It was assigned, as
part of their inheritance, to the tribe of
Judah ; and when they found that they had
too much territory, a small portion of it in
the north was allotted to Dan (Josh. xv. 33
seq. ; xix. 40 seq. ). It included such notable
plac'es as Adullam, Beth-shemesh, Gezer, Eg-
lon, Lachish, and part of the valleys of
Aijalou, Sorek, and Elah (33 seq. : 1 Sam.
xvii. 1, 2 ; 2 Chrou. xxviii. 18).

Lu'bim.

An African people fi'om whom Shishak,
king of Egypt, drew part of his army for the
invasion of Palestine (2 Chron. xii. 3; xvi.
8; cp. Dan. xi. 43; Nah. iii. 9), doubtless the
primitive Libyans.,

Lu'cas. See Luke.

Lu'ci-fer [the light bearer or bringer].

The planet Venus, as the morning star.
With the exception of the sun and moon,
Venus is the brightest object in the sky.
It appears as a morning or an evening
star according as it is west or east of the
sun, returning to the same position about
every nineteen months. As the former,
Venus is the harbinger of daylight. The
prophet likened the splendor of the king of
Babylon to Lucifer, son of the morning (Is.
xiv. 12), and Jesus calls himself the bright,
the morning star (Eev. xxii. 16). The appli-
cation of the name Lucifer to Satan, the
rebel angel hurled from heaven, has existed
in the church from the third century,
especially among poets. It is based on the
erroneous supposition that Luke x. 18 is an
explanation of Is. xiv. 12.

Lu'ci-us.

1. A Roman oflScial who in the year 174 of
the Seleucidan era, 139-8 B. c, issued letters
in favor of the Jews to various kings .subject
to Eome (1 Mac. xv. 16). He is entitled a
consul, which identifies him with Lucius
Calpurnius Piso, one of the consuls for the
year 139 b. c. It is possible, however, that
he was the praetor Lucius Valerius who con-
ducted the proceedings in the Eoman senate
which led to their making a league of

friendship with the Jews, to the issuance of
the aforementioned letters, and in the days
of Hyrcanus II. to action favorable to the
Jews (Antiq. xiv. 8, 5).

2. A Christian from Cyrene, who was a
teacher in the church at Antioch (Acts xiii.
1). He is commonly supposed to have beer*
the kinsman of Paul, who at Corinth joined
with the apostle in sending salutations to the
brethren at Rome (Eom. xvi. 21).

Lud.

1. A people classed among the Semites
(Gen. X. 22) ; believed to be the Lydians.
(Antiq. i. 6, 4 ; compare order of enumeration
in Gen.), occupying, however, a wider terri-
tory than Lydia in western Asia Minor. It
is not yet clear in what manner the Lydians
were related to the Semites. According to
Herodotus (i. 7), their first king was a son
of Ninus and grandson of Belus, that is he
was descended from the Assyrians.

2. A people related to the Egyptians (Gen.
X. 13), also the country which they inhabited.
They are mentioned as boM'men in the
armies of Egypt and Tyre (Jer. xlvi. 9 ;
Ezek, xxvii. 10 ; xxx. 5). Libyans is too
broad a translation (Jer. xlvi. 9, A. V.) ;
though the Ludim are doubtless to be sought
in northern Africa, west of the Nile.

Lu'dim [plural of Lud] ; see LuD 2.

Lu'hith [perhaps, made of planks].

A Moabite town approached by an ascent
(Is. XV. 5 ; Jei\ xlviii. 5) : according to Eu-
sebius and Jerome, Loueitha, between Are-
opolis, that is Rabbath Moab, and Zoar.

Luke, in A. V. once Lucas (Philem. 24)
[N. T. Greek Lotikas, probably an abbrevi-
ation of Latin Lncnnus or perhaps LuciUus].

A friend and companion of St. Paul, who
joined him in sending from Rome salutations
to the Colossian church (Col. iv. 14) and to
Philemon (Philem. 24). In the former place
he is described as "the beloved physician"
and in the latter place as one of the apos-
tle's fellow-laborers. He was also with
Paul in Eome at a later time when 2 Timothy-
was written (2 Tim. iv. 11), and then the
apostle gives a touching tribute to his friend's
fidelity in the words "Only Luke is with
me." These are all the notices of Luke by
name in the N. T., for he must not be iden-
tified with the Lucius of Acts xiii. 1 nor
with the one mentioned in Eom. xvi. 21 ;
see Lucius. We find, however, in the sec-
ond century the tradition already estab-
lished that Luke was the author of the Third
Go.spel and of The Acts, both of which were
certainly written by the same hand (Acts i.
1). Accordingly we may learn more of him
from The Acts, in which he intimates his
presence with Paul during certain portions
of the latter's missionary journeys by the
use of "we" or "us" in the narrative (Acts
xvi. 10-17; XX. 5-xxi. 18; xxvii. 1-xxviii
16). From these passages it appears that
Luke joined Paul on the second missionary

Luke

441

Luke

journey at Troas aud weut with him to
Philippi. Again on the third journey Luke
rejoined the apostle at Philippi and went
with him to Jenis;ileni. He api)ears to have
remained in Palestine during the two years
in whieli Paul was ini])risoned at Ciesarea,
for he sailed with the apostle from Csestirea to
Rome ; see Acts. In Col. iv. 14 Luke is
plainly distinguished from Paul's Jewish
comi)anions (cp. ver. 11). He was therefore
a gentile. Early tradition made him a
native of Antioch in Syria, and this is quite
probable. At any rate, his interest in and
familiarity with the ehurch of Antioch is
evident (Acts vi. 5 ; xi. 19-27 ; xiii. 1-3 ; xiv.
26-28 ; XV. 1, 2, 30-40 ; xviii. 22, 23). Ramsay,
however, considers him a Philippian {St.
Paul the Traveler, p. 202). The time and
manner of his death are unknown.

The Gospel according to St. Luke is the
Third Gospel according to the order of the
books of the N. T. as usually arranged. It
is addressed to a certain Theophilus, probably
a gentile Christian ; claims to be based upon
careful investigation of the apostolic testi-
mony ; and was intended to furnish The-
ophilus, as well as other readers, with assured
knowledge of the truth in which he had
been instructed. Its narrative may be
divided as follows: 1. Introductory verses
(i. 1-4). 2. The immediate preparation for
the appearance of Jesus, consisting of the
annunciations and births of John the Baptist
and Jesus, with some significant events from
the latter's infancy and boyhood (i. 5-ii. 52).
3. The inauguration of Christ's ministry,
including («) the ministry of John the Bap-
tist, (6) the baptism of Jesus, to which is
appended his genealogy, and (c) the tempta-
tion of Jesus (iii. 1-iv. 13). 4. The Lord's
ministry in Galilee (iv. 14-ix. 50). In this
part of his Gospel Luke often follows the
same order as Mark, but not always. He
also introduces more of the teaching of Jesus
than Mark does, in this often corresponding
with Matthew. He is, however, independent
of both Mark and Matthew even where he
covers the same ground, and he has some
material peculiar to himself. Tlie following
analysis will bring out the progress of this
portion of his narrative : (a) Introductory
desc-ription (iv. 14, 15). (6) Opening of the
Galilsean work, including the first visit to
Nazareth, miracles in Capernaum and tour
through Galilee, the call of four disciples
and the healing of the leper (iv. IH-v. 16).
(c) Rise of opposition, in the face of which
Christ vindicated his teaching, including the
cure of the paralytic. Levi's call and feast,
discourse about fasting, and the Sabbath con-
troversy (v. 17-vi. 12). id) Organization of
the disciples, including the appdintment of
the twelve and Christ's discourse on the
characteristics of true discipleship (sermon
on the mount) (vi. 1.3-49). (e) Incidents
illustrative of the gracious ministry- of Jesus,
including the healing of the centurion's ser-

vant, the raising of the widow of Nain's son,
the inquiry of John the Ba])tist, and Christ's
reply and di.scourse concerning John, the
anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman (vii. 1-
50). (/) The extension of Christ's work, in-
cluding his tours through Galilee with a com-
pany of disciples; his teaching by parables;
the visit of his mother and brethren ; the four
great miracles of stilling the tempest, healing
the Gadareiie demoniac, and the woman witli
the issue of blood, and raising Jairus' daugh-
ter; the sending out of the ajjostles; Herod's
desire to see Jesus and the latter's subsequent
retirement, followed by the feeding of the
5000(viii. 1-ix. 17). (y) Christ's instructions
to his disciples in view of the close of the
Galilsean ministry and his coming death, in-
cluding Peter's confession, Christ's prediction
of his death and resurrection, the transfigu-
ration aud the cure of the demoniac boy, warn-
ings against pride (ix. 18-50). 5. Tlie jour-
neyings of Jesus to Jerusalem (ix. 51-xix.
48). This part of Luke contains a large
amount of material peculiar to him. It is
probably not arranged in exact chronological
order, but rather in accordance with certain
topics. Some of the material given here
really belongs in the Galihean ministry (ix.
57-60; xiii. 18-21; i)robably xi. 14-xiii. 5).
But the section describes in the main a series
of journeys toward Jerusalem, ending in the
final ascent, with discourses appropriate to
the situation. It may be subdivided as fol-
lows: ia) The departure from Galilee and in-
structions concerning the true spirit of dis-
ciples, including Christ's rejection by a Sa-
maritan village, his replies to three inquirers,
the mission of the seventy, and their return,
the lawyer's question and the parable of the
good Samaritan, Christ in the house of
Martha and Mary, instructions about prayer
(ix. 51-xi. 13). (6) Denunciation of the
Pharisees and instructions concerning the
duty of confessing him, against covetousness,
and concerning watchftilness, etc. (xi. 14-
xiii. 5). (<•) Discourses illustrative of the
true Israel and of the true service ; the
former including the parable of the barren
fig tree, the woman with the spirit of in-
firmity, the parables of the mustard seed
and leaven, the warning against self-decep-
tion and the lamentation over Jerusalem ;
the latter including the healing of the drop-
sical man, and the beautiful parables of the
wedding feast, the great supper, the lost
sheep, the lo.st coin, the lost son, the unjust
steward, the rich man and Lazarus, the im-
portunate widow, interspersed with incidents
and teachings on the same general subject
(xiii. 6-xviii. 30). id) The final ascent to
Jerusalem, including a renewed prediction
of death and resurrection, the healing of
Bartimseus, the conversion of Zacchseus, the
parable of the pounds, and the triumphal
entry (xviii. 31-xix. 48). 6. The last week
in Jerusalem, including the final teachings
of Jesus in the temple and to his disciples,

Luke

442

Lycaonia

his arrest, trials, crucifixion, and burial
(xx.-xxiii. 5H). 7. ApiJcarauces of Jesus
after his resurrection, his last directions to
his disciples to jireach his gospel, and his
final departure (ascension) from them (xxiv.)-

St. Luke states (i. 3) that his narrative is
written "in order.'' This use of this phrase
elsewhere (Acts xi. 4 ; xviii. 23 ; and Greek
text of Luke viii. 1 and Acts iii. 24)
shows that he does not necessarily mean
exact chronological order. While chrono-
logical in general outline, his arrangement is
often topical. The book, however, is, like The
Acts, a careful and systematic presentation
of the life of the Founder of Christianity.
Luke also expressly disclaims personal ac-
quaintance with Je-sus, and bases his work
on the testimony of eyewitnesses (apostles)
whose reports he had accurately studied.
His Gospel shows a truly historical spirit.
This appears e. g. in the personal account of the
origin of John the Baptist and of Jesus, in
his dating by secular events the birth of
Jesus and the public appearance of John
(ii. 1, 2; iii. 1, 2), and his presentation of the
ministry of Christ in such a manner as to
bring out its leading religious ideas, its tri-
umph over opposition, and the historical
foundation which it laid for Christianity (see
the analysis above). It shows also the evan-
gelist's fondness for those aspects of the
Lord's teaching and Avork, whereby he re-
vealed himself as the divine-human Saviour
of men. Christ's gospel is here described
as universal in its mission (ii. 32; iii. 6; iv.
24-27; xxiv. 47, etc.), a gospel for the lost
and tlie lowly (vii. 36-50; xv. ; xix. 1-9, etc.),
a message of salvation to the poor and dis-
tressed (vi. 20-26; vii. 11-18; ix. 56; xii. 32,
etc. ) . It delineates the graciousuess of Christ's
personal character — his piety, compassion,
charity, prayerfulness, holiness, tenderness.
In recording the Lord's utterances about the
rich. Luke uses more unqualified language
than the other evangelists do (i. 52, 53 ; vi.
24, 25; xvi. 25, etc.), though he also makes it
clear that he did not understand Christ to
denounce rich men as such, but only so far
as they put trust in riches and were not rich
toward God (xii. 21). In what he reports
about Samaritans also (x. 33 ; xvii. 16) he
doubtless wished to illustrate the destruction
of national jirejudices by the gospel. In
short this Gospel presents Christ as establish-
ing a religion whfch seeks to uplift and save
s'llfering and sinful humanity. The writer's
medical vocabulary also occasionally ap])ears
and confirms the belief that he was Luke.
See iv. 35, " when the devil had throtm him ; ''
iv. 38, "holden with a (treat fever;" v. 18,
" taken with a palsy ; " vi. 19, " healed them ; "
viii. 44, "the iissue of her blood stanched;''
X. 34, "bound up his wounds, ponvhuj in oil
and wine" (see Hobart, Medical Languaae of
St. Lvl-e).

The date of the composition of this Gos])el
depends on that of The Acts. 1 Tim. v. 18,

however, seems to contain a quotation from
it. If so, it was certainly written before
A. D. 66. It xnay have been composed during
the two years (.58-60) during which Luke was
in Palestine while Paul was imprisoned in
Csesarea. Or the materials may then have
been gathered and the book written after-
wards in Rome. It is best to assign it, some-
what vaguely, to the years 58-65. The author
apparently intended it to be the first of a
series of works on the origin of Christianity,
for the preface evidently contemi)lated the
work of the apostles as well as the life of
Christ (i. 1, 2), and the brevity of the report
of Christ's parting instructions in the last
chapter was j)robably due to the author's in-
tention to resume the subject as he does in
the fir.st chapter of The Acts. There is abun-
dant evidence for its use in the churches of
the second century as an authoritative gospel ;
see Gospel. It was mutilated and then
used by the Gnostic Marcion, in the second
quarter of the second century, as the only
true gospel, which at least shows its authority
before that time. The first formal mention
of Luke as its author, so far as our extant
literature shows, occurs about A. D. 170 (in the
Muratorian Fragment), but there is no reason
to doubt that the tradition had been long es-
tablished and rested on good grounds.

G. T. P.

Lu'na-tic [insane, with lucid intervals].

The Greek word is derived from selene,
moon, as the English word is from the Latin
liiita, moon, for it was believed that the dis-
ease is affected by the light or by the jieriodic
changes of the moon. Lunacy is distinguished
from demoniacal possession (Mat. iv. 24), for
it was often due to other causes. Yet posses-
sion by a demon might give rise to lunacy
(Mat. xvii. 15 with Mark ix. 17). A com-
parison of these two passages has led to the
opinion that the Greek word denotes epilepsj-.
Hence R. Y. uses epileptic instead of lunatic.

Luz [almond tree].

1. A Canaanite town, afterwards Bethel
(Gen. xxviii. 19; xxxv. 6; xlviii. 3; Josh,
xviii. 13; Judg. i. 23). In Josh. xvi. 2 it is
distinguished from Bethel and located to the
west. See Bethel.

2. A town in the Hittite country, built by
an inhabitant of Luz in mount Ephraim, who
betrayed that town to the Israelites and was
allowed by them to depart with his family
uninjured (Judg. i. 22-26). Site unknown.
About 12 miles southeast by east of Sidon is
the town Luezeh, and 4' miles west by north
of Banias is the ruin Luweiziyeh.

Lyc-a-o'ni-a [popularly interpreted as per-
taining to king Lycaon or abounding in were-
wolves].

An elevated, rugged, inland district of
Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Gala-
tia, on the south by Cilicia and Isauria. on
the east by Cappadocia, and on the west by
Phrygia. It was mainly suitable for pastur-

Lycia

443

Lysias

age only. Its peculiar dialect, probably
mingled (ireok and Syriac, was still spoken
when Paul visited the district and preached
in three of its cities, Iconium, Deibe, and
Lystra (Acts xiii. 51-xiv. 23, especially 11).

Ly'ci-a [explained as pertaining to Lycus,
son of Fandiou (Herod i. 173)].

A i)roviuce of Asia Minor, jutting south-
ward into the Mediterranean Sea, and
bounded on the north by Caria, Phrygia,
and Paiuphylia. Paul on his last voyage to
Jerusalem passed Khodes, an island oti" its
western coast, and lauded at Patara, within
its limits, where he took ship for Phoenicia
{Acts xxi. 1, 2). On his voyage to Kome he
landed at Myra, another city of Lycia,
whence he sailed in an Alexandrian vessel
bound for Italj' (xxvii. o, 6).

Lyd'da.

A village of considerable size near Joppa
(Acts ix. 33; Antiq. xx. G, 2), probably the
town called Lod in the O. T. The gospel
€arly took root in it (Acts ix. 32). Shortly
before 153 B. c. the town with the district
about it formed a distinct government in
connection with Samaria, but in 145 B. C. it
was transferred to .Tudaea (1 Mac. xi. 34 ; cp.
28; X. 30, 38). Peter visited it, and his cure
of .lEneas through the name of Jesus re-
sulted in a large increase of disciples (Acts ix.
33-35). It was burnt by Cestius in the time
of Nero, but was soon rebuilt (War ii. 19, 1).
See Lod.

Lyd'i-a [nominally from Ludos, its reputed
founder (Herod i. 7)].

1. A region on the western coast of Asia
Minor, with Sardis for its capital. Thyatira
and Philadelphia were within its limits. It
was very fertile and had a mild climate, and
consequently it was densely populated. The
customs of its inhabitants were Semitic in
character, and their religion was apparently
a mingling of Syrian and Phrygian worship
(Duncker). The state rose to power about
689 B. c, under Gyges, when the Greeks on
the coast and the tribes of Asia Minor were
subdued. In 549 B. c. Crcesus, the last king,
was defeated by Cyrus, and Lydia became a
Persian province. It never regained inde-
pendence. Antiochus III., of Syria, was
forced to cede it to the Romans (cp. 1 Mac.
viii. 8). Many Jews dwelt there (Antiq. xii.
3, 4), and Christian churches were founded
(Rev. i. 11).

2. A woman of Thyatira, a town of Lydia,
though it is not known whether this was the
origin of her name. Thyatira was noted for
its dyeing, and Lydia made her living in
Philippi, to which she had removed, by sell-
ing purple dyes or dyed goods. She was a
"worshiper of God before Paul arrived at
Philippi. She received the gospel of Christ
gladly, and, though by birth an Asiatic, be-
came Paul's first convert in Macedonia and
Europe. When Paul and Silas were released
from prison, to which they had been con-

signed after a riot of which they were the
innocent cause, they were received into the
house of Lydia, who seems to have been a
woman of some wealth, and who doubtless
showed them all needed care (Acts xvi. 14,
15, 40).

Ly-sa'ni-as [ending sadness].

A tetrarch of Abilene in the fifteenth year
of Tiberius (Luke iii. 1). Some critics have
thought that Lysauias, son of Ptolemy, who
ruled Chalcis in Ccelesyria during the years
40 to 34 B. c. (Antiq. xiv. 13, 3; xv. 4, 1),
gave name to this tetrarchy, and that Luke
is in error. But the highest authorities ex-
plain the facts in a veiy diflerent manner.
Ly.sauias who ruled Chalcis is never called
tetrarch, and Abila nowhere appears in his
dominions. From Antiq. xv. 10, 1-3, it ap-
pears that the house or territory of Lysanias
was hired by Zenodorus about 25 B. c, be-
came known as the country of Zenodorus,
lay between Trachonitis and Galilee, chiefly
about Paneas and Ulatha, and hence appar-
ently did not include Chalcis in Cujlesyria,
and strictly speaking was distinct from Ba-
tanea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis. These
districts were bestowed on Hei'od the Great
and passed to his S(m Philip the tetrarch,
Augustus confirming to him Batanea, Tra-
chonitis, Auranitis, and part of the house of
Zenodorus (xvii. 11, 4) which included Paneas
(8, 1). In A. D. 37 the emperor Caligula made
Herod Agrippa king of the tetrarchy of
Philip and added the tetrarchy of Lysanias
(xviii. 6, 10). This latter tetrarchy had its
capital at Abila, some eighteen miles north-
west of Damascus, and was distinct from the
kingdom of Chalcis (xix. 5, 1 ; xx. 7, 1 ; War
ii. 11, 5). Although far north, it may have
been the remaining part of the country of
Zenodorus, which after his death and the
division of bis land, as before mentioned,
had been formed into a tetrarchy or kingdom
under a younger Lysanias, perhaps of the
same line as the former ruler of Chalcis.

Ly'si-as.

1. A general of the army of Syria during
the reigns of Antiochus Epiiibanes and An-
tiochus Eupator. When Antiochus Epiphanes
went to Persia about 165 b. c, he appointed
Lysias, who was of royal blood, viceroy dur-
ing his absence, with the duty of quelling
the .Jewish insurrection under the Maccabees
(1 Mac. iii. 32-37). After operating through
others, Lysias found it necessary to take the
field himself; but he was defeated by Judas
with great loss (.38-40 ; iv. 1-22, 2R-35). When
the news of Antiochus' death arrived in 163
B. C, Lj'sias seized the reins of government
and ruled in the name of the young Antio-
chus, although the late king had named
Philip for regent during the minority of the
heir to the throne (vi. 14-17). In this capacity
Lysias undertook another campaign against
the Jews. He gained a victory over Judas
and laid siege to Jerusalem ; but the news

Lystra

444

Maaseiah

that. Philip was on his way from Persia to
claim the regency, compelled him to make
terms of peace with the Jews and return to
Antioch (vi. 28-(J3). He maintained himself
successfully against Philip, but was put to
death in 162 b. f. by Demetrius I. (vii. 1-4).
2. Roman commandant at Jerusalem, who
rescued Paul from the mob of Jews (Acts
xxii. 24). See Claudius Lysias.

Lys'tra.

A city of Lycaonia, where Paul cured an
impotent man, and would have been wor-
shiped as a god had he not refused. It was
there also that he was stoned and left for
dead (Acts xiv. 6-21 ; 2 Tim. iii. 11). Either
at Lystra or Derbe he first met Timothy
(Acts xvi. 1, 2). The site is Khatyn Serai,
east of Icouium, as proven by an inscription
(Wolfe's Expedition, 142 ; Eamsay, Historical
Geography, 332).

M.

Ma'a-cah, iu A. V. often Maachah, and in
E. V. of Josh. xiii. 13 Maacath, the archaic
(Canaauite) spelling [compression, oppres-
sion].

1. A place in Syria (2 Sam. x. 6, 8), some-
times called Aram-maacah or Syria-maachah
(1 Chron. xix. 6, 7) ; see Aeam 2 (4). Its
inhabitants were descended from Nahor (Gen.
xxii. 24).

2. Wife of Machir, the son of Manasseh (1
Chron. vii. 15, 16).

3. A concubine of Caleb, the son of Hezron
(1 Chron. ii. 48).

4. Wife of Jehiel and ancestress of king
Saul (1 Chron. viii. 29 ; ix. 35).

5. Daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur.
She became one of David's wives and mother
of Absalom (2 Sam. iii. 3).

6. Father of Hanan, one of David's mighty
men (1 Chron. xi. 43).

7. Father of the ruler of the Simeonites in
David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii. 16).

8. Father of Solomon's royal contemporary
Achish of Gath (1 Kin. ii. 39) ; see Achish.

9. Wife of Eehoboam, and daughter, or in
view of 2 Chron. xiii. 2 perhaps, the grand-
daughter, of Absalom (1 Kin. xv. 2; 2 Chron.
xi. 20-22), and mother of king Abijah. After
the death of the latter, she remained queen-
mother (g'birah) ; but her grandson Asa took
this position from her because she had made
an abominable image for an Asherah (2 Chron.
XV. 16 R. v.). She is called Michaiah in 2
Chron. xiii. 2 ; but this is probably a textual
corruption, for in the seven other places
where her name occurs it is Maacah.

Ma-ac'a-thite in A. V. Maachathite, but
in Deut. iii. 14 Maachathi, the Hebrew form
instead of the English.

A descendant of a person named Maacah,
or a native or inhabitant of the Syrian king-

dom of Maacah or of the town of Beth-maa-
cah in Naphtali (Josh. xii. 5 ; 2 Sam. xxiii.
34).

Ma'a-chah. See Maacah.

Ma-ach'a-thi. See Maacathite.

Ma'a-dai [perhaps, wavering].

A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 34).

Ma-a-di'ah [ornament of Jehovah].

A chief of the priests who returned from
the Babylonian captivity (Neh. xii. 5, 7). In
the next generation, a father's house among
the priests, which occupies the same position
in the corresponding catalogue, bears the
name Moadiah (ver. 17). The reason for this
traditional variation is not yet clear. Per-
haps the name should always be pronounced
Moadiah.

Ma'ai.

A priest who blew a trumpet at the dedi-
cation of the second temple (Neh. xii. 36).

Ma'a-leh-a-crab'bim. See Akrabbim.

Ma'a-rath [a place bare of trees].

A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh.
XV. 59), doubtless north of Hebron and near
Halhul.

Ma'a-reh-ge'ba [place destitute of trees
at Geba].

A place adjacent to Geba (Judg. xx. 33,
E. v.). On the margin it is translated the
meadow of Geba or Gibeah ; in the text of
A. v., the meadows of Gibeah.

Ma-a-se'iah [work of Jehovah].

1. A Levite of the second degree, who
acted as porter in the reign of David (1 Chron.
XV. 18), and played a psaltery (ver. 20).

2. One of the captains of hundreds, who
cooperated with the high priest Jehoiada in
overthroM'ing Athaliah and placing Joash on
the throne of Judah (2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

3. An officer who seems to have acted with
Jeiel the Levite in keeping a list of the mili-
tary men in Uzziah's reign (2 Chron. xxvi.

11).

4. A prince of the royal house, a son of
Jotham more probably than of Ahaz, since
the latter was too young to have adult chil-
dren. He was slain during Pekah's invasion
of Judah (2 Chron. xxviii. 7).

5. The governor of Jerusalem in Josiah's
reign (2 Chron. xxxiv. 8).

6. Ancestor of Seraiah and Baruch (Jer.
xxxii. 12; Ii. 59, A. V.). The name is radi-
cally diflerent from that which is elsewhere
represented by Maaseiah. Sec Mahseiah.

7. Father of the false prophet Zedekiah
(Jer. xxix. 21).

8. A priest, father of the temple official
Zephaniah (Jer. xxi. 1 ; xxix. 25).

9. Son of Shallum and doorkeeper of the
temple (Jer. xxxv. 4). He was doubtless a
Levite (1 Chron. xxvi. 1). See Shallum.

10. A man of Judah, family of Shelah.
He lived at Jerusalem after the captivity
(Neh. xi. 5).

Maasai

445

Maccabee

11. A Benjaraite, whose descendants lived
at Jurusalem after the captivity (Xeh. xi. 7).

12-15. A man of the house of Pahath-
nioab and three priests, one a member of the
liouse of tlie high priest Jeshua, one of the
house of Harim, and the third of the house
of Pashhur, each of vvliom put away his for-
eign wife (Ezra x. 18, 21, 22, 30).

l(j. Father of that Azariah who repaired
the wall of Jerusalem beside his house (Neh.
iii. 23).

17. A chief of the people who signed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Xeh. x. 25).

18. A priest who marched in the pro-
cession at the dedication of the wall of Jeru-
salem (Neh. xii. 41), perhaps one of the six
who stood by Ezra when he read the law to
the people (viii. 4).

19. A Levite, probably, who marched in
the procession at the dedication of the wall
(Neh. xii. 42), perhaps one of the thirteen
who expounded the law as it was read to the
people (viii. 7).

Ma'a-sai, in A. V. Ma-as'i-ai [perhaps,
work of Jehovah].

A priest of the family of Immer (1 Chron.
ix. 12). The name may be an abbreviation
of Maaseiah by curtailment or possibly
another form of that word ; or perhaps it
is an accidental transposition of the letters
of Amasai.

Ma'atli.

An ancestor of Christ, who lived after the
time of Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 26).

Ma'az [anger].

A descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel
(1 Chron. ii. 27).

Ma-a-zi'ah [consolation of Jehovah].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family
had grown to a father's house by the time
of David and was made the last of the
twenty-four courses into which the priests
■were divided (1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 18).

2. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, sealed the covenant in the
days of Nehemiah (Neh. x. 8).

Mac'ca-bee.*

A family, also called Asmoua;an from one
of its ancestors, which ruled Judaui from
166 B. c. to 37 B. c. ; see Asmon^an. The
title Maccabaeus, in A. V. Maccabeus, was
first given to Judas, third son of Matta-
thias (1 Mac. ii. 4), but at an earlj' date it
was transferred to the entire family and to
others who had a part in the same events.
The origin and meaning of the term have
eluded research. It is usually derived from
makkabah, a hammer, in allusion to the
crushing blows inflicted by Judas and his
successors upon their enemies. It has also
been explained as composed of the initials
of the Hebrew words in the sentence, "Who
is like to thee among the gods, Jehovah ?",
or in the sentence, " What is like my
father?", or as being the Hebrew Avord
makhi, extinguisher. None of these inter-
pretations is, however, more than a con-
jecture. The first of the family mentioned
is Mattathias, an aged pi-iest, who, driven
to desperation by the outrages of Anti-
ochus Epiphanes, raised a revolt against him
and fled to the mountains, followed by those
who were zealous for the faith of Israel.
Mattathias died about two years afterwards,
but the revolt was carried on by his five
sons. Judas, the third son, was the firt-t
military leader, 166 B. c. By avoiding
pitched battles, and harassing the Syrians by
vigorous and per.sistent guerilla warfare, he
and his devoted band defeated and routed
every detachment of the Syrian army sent
against them. He retook Jerusalem, purified
the temple, and restored the daily sacrifice.
A feast to celebrate this restoration was in-
stituted and was kept annually thereafter.
This was the winter feast of dedication al-

*The Maccab.i:.4.n Family.

Mattathias.

1

L

Simon,
143-135.

1

1
Judas,
166-160.

Eleazar. Jonathan,
160-143.

Judas.

John Hyrcanus,
135-105.

1

Mattathias. Daughter.

1

jstobu

104.

us.

1
Antigonus.

1 1 1
Alexander .Tannaeus married Alexandra, Son. Son.

104-78. 1 78-69.

Hvrcanus,

"63-10.

1

Aristobulus,

69-63.

1

' 1
Alexandra married .\lexander

1

1

Antigonus,

40-37.

Mariamne, wife of Herod the Great. Aristobulus.

Macedonia

446

Machir

luded to in John x. 22. Judas fell in battle
160 B. c, whereupon his younger brother
Jonathan, who was already high priest, as-
sumed command of the army. About this. time
John the eldest brother was captured and
killed by the children of Jambri (1 Mac. xi.
36) ; and shortly before this another brother,
Eleazar, had been crushed to death under-
neath an elephant which he had wounded in
battle. During the leadership of Jonathan
the Syrians were occupied with civil war, so
that not only was Judiea left in peace, but the
favor of the Jews was sued for, and Jonathan
was able to strengthen his position. He
made a treaty with the Romans and also
with the Spartans. He was treacherously
slain by Tryphon, a Syrian general, in 143
B. c. On his death the leadership fell to
Simon, the last remaining son of Mattathias.
The most important event that fell under
his rule was the granting of Jewish in-
dependence by the Syrian king Demetrius
II. Coins were struck bearing the name of
Simon, and contracts were dated " in the
first year of Simon high priest and gover-
nor." Simon and two of his sons were
treacherously slain by his son-in-law Ptol-
emy, in Dok near Jericho 133 B. c. The
one son who escaped, John, assumed the
power and was known as John Hyrcanus.
He was a shrewd and vigorous ruler and
enlarged his province. He conquered the
Edomites and merged them in the Jewish
people. After a long and pro.sperous reign he
died a natural death, and was succeeded by
his son AristobuUis, a cruel and unprincipled
man who killed his mother and brother.
He changed the theocracy into a kingdom,
calling himself king, but retained at the
same time the high-priesthood. After a
reign of one year he was succeeded by a
brother, Alexander Jannseus, during whose
reign the country was torn by the dissen-
sions of the Sadducees and Pharisees. He
had a troubled reign of 27 years, and was
followed by his widow Alexandra, who
reigned for 9 years. She left two sons, Hyr-
canus and Aristobulus, who quarreled about
the succession. Hyrcanus was established as
high priest while Aristobulus seized the civil
authority. Civil war broke out. The Romans
interfered, and at first upheld Aristobulus, but
later deposed him and carried him to Rome.
Hyrcanus was nominally king, but the real
ruler was Antipas, or Antipater, an Idumfean.
who had been appointed procurator of Judfea
under Hyrcanus by the Romans. A period
of quarrels and dissensions among the mem-
bers of the reigning family followed, during
which time Antipater steadily grew in influ-
ence and power with the Romans, until, the
Maccabseans falling into disfavor, the crown
of Judiea was given to Antipater'sson, Herod.

For 1, 2. 3. and 4 ISIaccabees, see Apocrypha.

Mac-e-do'ni-a.

A country lying immediately to the north
of Greece. Little is known of it prior to 560

B. c, and for more than 200 years afterwards
it possessed no special interest. But under
Philip of Macedon (359-336 B. c.) and his
yet more celebrated son Alexander the Great
(336-323 B. c), it rose to world-wide power
and imperial importance ; see Philip 1 and
Alexander 1. Under his successors the em-
pire was divided, and the country declined,
till in 16b B. C. it was conquered by the
Romans, and in 142 b. c. became a Roman
province. Macedonia is not mentioned by
name in the O. T. ; but the Macedonian em-
pire is referred to in Dan. ii. 39 ; vii. 6 ; viii.
5, 8. In 1 Mac. i. 1 Chittini is Macedonia.
Paul, summoned in a vision by a man of
Macedonia, on his second journey, passed
from Asia into Europe, and jjreached the
gospel in that continent fir.st on Macedonian
soil. At this time he passed through the
Macedonian towns of Neapolis, Philippi,
Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thessalonica, and
Bercea (Acts xvi. 9-xvii. 14). When Paul de-
parted, Silas and Timothy continued the work
(xvii. 14, 15 ; xviii. 5). Paul revisited the
region (xix. 21, 22 ; xx. 1-3 ; cp. 2 Cor. ii.
13 ; vii. 5 ; 1 Tim. i. 3). Gaius and Aris-
tarchus, Macedonians, were Paul's com-
panions in travel, and were in danger on
his account during the riot at Ephesus
(Acts xix. 29). Secundus, also a Mace-
donian, was one of those who waited for
him at Troas, when for the last time he
was to leave Philippi on his way to Jerusa-
lem (xx. 4). Paul's converts in Macedonia
made a collection for the poor Christians of
the Jewish capital (Rom. xv. 26). They also
ministered to the wants of the apostle him-
self (2 Cor. viii. 1-5), the Philippians being
the most prominent in the work of charity
(Phil. iv. 15).

Mach-ban'nai, in A. V. Mach'ba-nai [per-
haps, clothed with a cloak].

One of the Gadite heroes who joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 13).

Mach'be-na, in A. V. Machbenah [a bond
or cloak].

A town of Judah, to judge from the con-
text (1 Chron. ii. 49). See Cabbox.

Ma'cM.

Father of the spy from the tribe of Gad
(Num. xiii. 15).

Ma'cMr [sold].

1. The firstborn and only son of Manasseh
(Gen. 1. 23 ; Josh. xvii. 1). His mother was
an Aramitess (1 Chron. vii. 14). He was the
founder of the family of the Machirites,
which would have been the sole family of
Manasseh. But as posterity increased, new
families were set apart from the main line
through the firstborn ; and thus Machir be-
came one among the families of Manasseh
(Num. xxvi. 29). The family, called col-
lectively Machir, was a man of war, and
sul)jugated Gilead. This district was ac-
cordingly as.signed to the family for its in-
heritance (Num. xxxii. 39, 40 ; Josh. xvii. 1).

Machmas

447

Magdala

and was given by Moses. The name of
Machir was once used poetically for the
whole tribe of Manasseh, west as well as east
of the Jordan {.Tudg. v. 14).

2. A son of Ammiel, in Lo-debar, east of
the Jordan (2 Sam. is. 4, 5), who brought pro-
visions to David during the rebellion of Ab-
salom (xvii. 27 >.

Machmas. See MicHMASH.

Mach-na-de'bai.

A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 40).

Mach-pe'lah [duplication, doubling].

A i)lace before Mamre, where was a field
with trees and a cave belonging to Ephron,
a Hittite (Gen. xxiii. 9. 17. 19). The place
was purchased by Abraham for 400 shekels
of silver in order to use the cave as a sepul-
cher for Sarah, his wife. He himself was
buried there by his sons, Isaac and Ishmael
(xxv. 9, 10). There also Isaac and Rebekah
were buried, so likewise were Leah and
Jacob (xxxv. 29; xlvii. 28-31; xlix. 29-33;
1. 12, 13), and perhaps others of whom we have
no record. ■ The cave is probably correctly
identified as that beneath the great mosque
at Hebron. Christians have all along been
excluded from the mosque and the cavern
beneath ; but the Prince of Wales on April
7th, 1862, the Crown Prince of Prussia in
November, 1869, and the sons of the Prince
of Wales in 1 882, were permitted to make an
imperfect examination of the sepulchral
vault. Not everything there is genuine, for
a shrine sacred to Joseph exists, whereas we
learn from Scripture that he was buried at
Shechem (Josh. xxiv. 32).

Ma'dai.

A people descended from Japheth (Gen. x.
2 ; 1 Chron. i. 5), doubtless the inhabitants of
Media.

(Josh. XV. 31 ; 1 Chron. ii. 49) ; perhaps iden-
tical with Beth-marcaboth (q. v.).

Mad'men [dunghill].

A town in Moab (Jer. xlviii. 2). Not iden-
tified.

Mad-me'nah [dunghill].

A town near Jerusalem and on the north
(Is. X. 31). Not identified.

Mad'ness.

1. Weakness or disorder of the intellect,
rendering a person void of right reason
(Deut. xxviii. 28). David, when feigning to be
mad, made marks on the doors of the gate
and let the spittle fall down upon his beard
(1 Sam. XXI. 13, 14, where the two principal
Hebrew synonyms are used). It may mani-
fest itself in hallucinations (Acts xii. 1.5), or
in wild raving (1 Cor. xiv. 23), or even in
violence, such as hurling about firebrands
and arrows (Prov. xxvi. 18). Its symptoms
are temporarily produced by drink (Jer. xxv.
16; li. 7).

2. A state of uncontrollable emotion, as in-
fatuation ( Jer. 1. 38) or fury (Ps. cii. 8 ; Luke
vi. 11 ; Acts xxvi. 11).

Ma'don [contention, strife].

A town of northern Canaan, whose king
was in confederacy with the king of Hazor
(Josh. xi. 1-12 ; xii. 19). Site unknown. On
the survey map it stands with a query at
Mad in, 5 miles west by north of Tiberias.

Mag'a-dan.

A locality into the borders of which Jesus
went after crossing the sea of Galilee (Mat.
XV. 39, in A. V. Magdala). It seems to have
been on the western shore of the lake
and may have included Magdala (cp. Mark
viii. 10).'

Mag'toish [congregating].

A person or town, it is uncertain which
(Ezra ii. 30). If a place, its site is unknown.

Mejdel and the Plain of Gt-nnesart't, looking North.

Ma'di-an. See Midi.\n.

Mad-man'nah [dunghill].

A town in the extreme south of Judah

Mag'da-la [probably, a towerj.
A town which, according to the Talmud,
stood on the western shore of the sea of

Magdalene

448

Mahalath

Galilee, near Tiberias and Hammath, and
within less than a Sabbath day's journey of
the water. It exists in the wretched village
€l-Mejdel, scarcely 3 miles north of Tiberias.
In Mat. XV. 39 the R. V., following the best
manuscripts, substitutes Magadan (q. v.). See
also Magdalene.

Mag-da-le'ne [of Magdala]. Mag-da-le'ne
is the Greek pronunciation, like Abilene;
Mag'da-lene is the English pronunciation,
like Damascene, Gadareue, Nazarene.

A designation of one of the Marys, imply-
ing that she came from some Magdala, prob-
ably from the village now called el-Mejdel,
on the western shore of the sea of Galilee,
about 3 miles north-northwest of Tiberias.
The word Magdalene makes no such imputa-
tion on the moral character of Mary as is now
conveyed by the term Magdalen.

Mag'di-el [honor of God].

A duke descended from Esau (Gen. xxxvi.
43 ; 1 Chron. i. .54).

Ma'gi [Greek 3fafioi, the plural of Magos ;
in Behistun in.scription Magnxhii?^.

The religious caste to which the wise men
l)elonged, as their title indicates, who came
from the ea.st to worship the infant Jesus
(Mat. ii. 1, E. V. margin). The Magi were a
priestly caste, numerous enough to be re-
garded as one of the six tribes of Media
(Herod, i. 101). When the Persians con-
([uered the Medes, the Magi retained their
influence in the new empire. An attempt
on their part to seize the crown led to a
dreadful slaughter of them, notwithstanding
which their power soon revived (iii. 79).
They worshiped the elements, fire, air, earth,
and water, especially the first. The only
temples they had were fire temples, generally
on house tops, where they kept the sacred
element burning night and day. What to do
with the dead was a question which, with
their views, involved much perplexity. The
corpse could not be burned, buried, cast into
water, or left to decay in the air without de-
filing an element. It was therefore exposed
to be devoured by carrion-loving birds or
beasts (Herod, i. 140, who probably errs in
speaking of its after-burial ; Strabo xv. 3, 20).
To do this in the least offensive manner they
erected towers called towers of silence, with
transverse bars at the top, on which vultures
and ravens might stand while they did their
melancholy work. The Magi wore as sacer-
dotal vestments a white robe, with a head-
dress consisting of a tall felt cap, with lap-
pets at the side which concealed the jaws.
The}' claimed to be mediators between God
and man, intervening in all sacrifices (Herod,
i. 132; vii. 43). They interpreted dreams
and omens and claimed the gift of prophecy
(i. 107, 120; vii. 19, 37, 113). They were
diligent in killing such animals as were re-
garded as belonging to the bad creation (i.
140). The foreigner was apt to observe the
religious doctrine and priestly functions of

the Magi less attentively than their incanta-
tions ; and in process of time the Greeks be-
stowed the epithet Magos on any sorcerer
who employed the methods and enchant-
ments of the East. The Jew Bar-jesus was
a Magus (Acts xiii. G, Greek text and R. V.
margin), and so was Simon, often called
Magus, of Samaria (viii. 9).

Ma-gi'cian [remotely from Greek Magoi,
Magi].

A man who pretends to have preternatural
powers, which he has obtained by the study
of an occult science or the practice of a black
art in connivance with evil spirits, and which
he calls magic (cp. Acts xix. 19) ; see Sor-
cerer. In the Bible magician is the render-
ing of hartom, one of the class of sacred
scribes, who were skilled in writing and ac-
quired vast information (Dan. i. 20), and who
often claimed occult knowledge, practiced
magic (Ex. vii. 11), and undertook to inter-
pret dreams (Gen. xli. 8; Dan. ii. 10). The
Egyptian magicians who withstood Moses
were two in number, and their names were
Jannes and Jambres (2 Tim. iii. 8).

Ma'gog.

A people descended from Japheth (Gen. x.
2), at one period inhabiting a northern land
(Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 15). Jo.sephus identified
them with the Scythians (Antiq. i. fi, 1), and
his identification is commonly accepted. The
final struggle of heathenism with the king-
dom of God is pro])hetically portrayed by
Ezekiel under the ligure of an invasion of
the land of Israel by the hordes of the king
of Magog and their overthrow. Ezekiel's
description is referred to and its imagery is
borrowed by John (Kev. xx. 8, 9). See Gog.

Ma-gor-mis'sa-bib [fear round about].

A pro])hetic name given to Pashbnr, a
priest and governor of the temple who ill-
treated the prophet Jeremiah (.Ter. xx. 3).

Mag'pi-ash [apparently moth slayer].

One of the chiefs of the people who with
Nehemiah sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 20).

Ma'ha-lah. See Mahlah 2.

Ma-ha'la-lel, in A. V. and in N. T. of R.
y. Ma-ha'la-le-el, in A. V. of N. T. Ma-le'-
le-el [praise of God].

1. An antediluvian patriarch in the line of
Seth (Gen. v. 12-17; Luke iii. 37).

2. One of the tri])e of Judah, family of
Perez, who lived in Jerusalem after the cap-
tivity (Neh. xi. 4).

Ma'ha-lath [sickness, anxiety, grief].

1. A nuisical term (Ps. liii. ; Ixxxviii.
titles) ; which, judged by Hebrew etymology,
refers to sadness. The words al mah''Iaih
I'ouvoih (Ps. Ixxxviii. title) then mean
"mournfully to chant."

2. Daughter of Ishmael and a wife of
Esau ((Jen. xxviii. 9). Called also Bashe-
math {q. v.).

3. Daughter of Jerimoth and one of Re-
hoboam's wives (2 Chron. xi. 18).

Mahali

449

Malachi

Ma'ha-li. See Maiili.

Ma-ha-na'im [two camps].

The iiaim- given by Jacob to a place east
of Jordan where the angels of God met him,
aitpareutly in two detachments, just after he
had finally i)arted from Laban and before he
crossed the Jabbok (Gen. xxxii. 2). It was
on the boundary line between the tribes of
Gad and Mauasseh (Josh. xiii. 26, 30). It
was afterwards assigned to the Merarite
Levites (xxi. 38; 1 Chron. vi. 80). Com-
mencing as a sacred spot, it ultimately be-
came a fortified city. It was Ish-bosheth's
capital (2 Sam. ii. ti, 12, 29). David retired
thither while his rebellious son Absalom was
in possession of Jerusalem (xvii. 24, 27;
xviii. 24, 33; xix. 32; 1 Kin. ii. 8). Ahin-
adab the son of Iddo was Solomon's purveyor
in the region (iv. 14). The site has not been
identified. Robinson and long before him
the Jewish traveler Moses hap-Parchi, about
1315, suggested Mahneh, about 4 miles east
of ed-Deir. Tristram prefers Birket Mahneh,
which he locates about 21 miles southeast of
Gadara and 22 southwest of Edrei.

Ma'ha-neli-daii [camp of Dan].

A place behind, that is west of, Kirjath-
jearim (Judg. xviii. 12), between Zorah and
Eshtaol (xiii. 25), so named when the Danite
spies encamped at the spot.

Ma'ha-rai [impetuous].

A Netophathite, one of David's mighty
men (2 Sam. xxiii. 28; 1 Chron. xi. 30). He
was David's captain for the tenth month
(xxvii. 13).

Ma'hath [seizing or instrument of seizing].

1. A Kohathite Levite, descended by the
line of Zephaniah, Tahath, and Abiasaph (1
Chron. vi. 35).

2. Another Levite, one of the overseers
who looked after the tithes and freewill
offerings in Hezekiah's reign (2 Chron. xxxi.
13).

Ma'ha-vite.

A designation of unknown meaning ap-
pended to the name of Eliel, one of David's
mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 46). The passage
is probably corrupt, for the word is plural
and yet joined to the singular.

Ma-ha'zi-oth [perhaps, vision of signifi-
cance].

A Levite, a descendant of Heman (1
Chron. xxv. 4). He obtained the twenty-
third lot among the singers (30).

Ma'her-sharal-hash'baz [spoil speedeth,
prey hasteth].

The words which Isaiah was directed to
display on a public tablet and have duly
witnessed, and a year later was told to give
as a name to his second son. They predicted
the speedy conquest of Damascus and
Samaria by the king of Assyria (Is. viii.
1-4). The preliminary formality drew pub-
lic attention to the enigmatical words and
29

attested that God was preparing and i-eveal-
ing the event a year before its occurrence.

Mali'lah, in A. V. once Mabalah (1 Cliron.
vii. 18) [disea.se].

1. Daughter of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi.
33; xxvii. 1).

2. Another Manassite, whose mother was
Hammoleketh (1 Chron. vii. 18).

Mah'li, in A. V. once Mahali (Ex. vi. 19)
[sick, weak].

1. A Levite, son of Merari and brother of
Mushi. He founded a tribal family or
house ( Exod. vi. 19 ; Num. iii. 20, 33 ; xxvi.
58).

2. A Levite, family of Merari, house of
Mushi (1 Chron. vi. 47; xxiii. 23; xxiv. 30).

Mah'lon [sickly].

Elder son of Elimelech and Naomi, and
husband of Orpah, a Moabitess.

Ma'hol [dancing, joy].

Father of Heman, Chalcol, and Darda,
three noted wise men (1 Kin. iv. 31).

Mah-se'iali, in A. V. Maaseiah [Jehovah
is a refuge] .

An ancestor of Jeremiah's friend, Baruch,
and of the chief chamberlain, Seraiah (Jer.
xxxii. 12; Ii. 59).

Ma'kaz [an end].

A town whence one of Solomon's purvey-
ors drew supplies (1 Kin. iv. 9). Site un-
known.

Ma'ked, in A. V. once Maged.

A town of Gilead, in which Jews were
shut up by the heathen (1 Mac. v. 26). It
was captured by Judas Maccabfeus, and the
Jews were released (36). Hitzig identifies it
with Makad, a town which he locates on the
border of the Hauran, near Edrei.

Mak-he'loth [assemblies, especially for the
worship of God].

An encampment of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 25, 26). Site un-
known.

Mak-ke'dah [perhaps, a place of shep-
herds].

A Canaanite town in the lowland, taken
by Joshua (Josh. xv. 41). Near it was a cave
(x. 16). The site has not been identified. Eu-
sebius located it 8 Eoman miles east of Elou-
theropolis. But as this location would be in
the mountains, his statement, if correct, must
be interpreted as meaning northeast or south-
east.

Mak'tesh [a mortar, a trough, a hollow].

A locality at Jerusalem (Zeph. i. 11). The
Targum identifies it with theKidron valley ;
another supposition is that it was the valley
separating the temple from the city.

Mal'a-cM [my messenger, or messenger
(of Jehovah)].

A prophet, the M'riter of the last book of
the O. T. (Mai. i. 1). Nothing is known of
his history except what may be learned from
his book. As the name means my messen-

Malcam

450

Mallothi

ger (so in iii. 1), some have supposed it to
be, not the proper name, but the title of a
prophet, perhaps of Ezra. But as each of the
eleven preceding minor prophecies has its
author's name prefixed, there is a strong
presumption that it is so in the present case
also, and that Malachi was the actual name
of the prophet who j)enned the book. It may
be divided into the following sections: 1. God's
special love for Israel, shown in his choice of
Jacob instead of Esau (i. 2-5), was not re-
quited: a. The priests and people (6,14) dis-
honored God by presenting blemished offer-
ings (G-14) ; j)unishment threatened for this
departure from the norm established by God
for the priesthood and once realized (ii. 1-9) ;
b. The people dealt treacherously against
their brethren, intermarrying with the
heathen (11) and putting away their own
wives (14, 16) and doing deeds of violence
(ii. 10-17). 2. Judgment imminent. God's
messenger is about to prepare the way, the
Lord himself will suddenly come to his tem-
ple, the messenger of the covenant shall come
as .judge and purify Levi from dross and
visit evil doers (iii. 1-6; cp. Ex. xxiii. 20-
23; Mat. xi. 10). 3. Call to repentance ; for
then the Lord will come in blessing and
judgment, putting to nought the complaint
that he makes no distinction between the
good and the evil. Those who have turned
from sin to God will be his peculiar treasure,
but the wicked shall be burned as stubble
(iii. 7-iv. 3). Exhortation to remember the
law of Moses, and announcement of the
mission of Elijah to prepare for the terrible
day of the Lord (iv. 4-6 ; Mat. xvii. 10-13 ;
Luke i. 17).

When the prophecy was delivered the Jew-
ish people were not under a king, but
under a governor (Mai. i. 8), doubtless one
appointed by the Persian emperor (Neh. v.
14). Zerubbabel's temple was standing, as
•was the altar, and sacrifices were being of-
fered as in the olden time (i. 7-10) ; hence
Malachi is later than Haggai and Zecliariah.
But the outburst of religious life which had
immediately followed the return from Baby-
lon, and had resulted in the rebuilding first
of the sanctuary and then of the fortifica-
tions of Jerusalem, had had time to expend
its force. Priests and people were corrupt.
This condition suits the time of Nehemiah
(Neh. xiii.). The generally accepted date,
which originated with Vitringa, is 420 B. c.
Davidson prefers 460 to 450 b. c.

Mal'cam, in A. V. Malcham [regnant,
rule].

1. A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim and
Hode-sh (1 Chron. viii. 9).

2. The chief deity of the Ammonites (Jer.
xlix. 1, 3, in A. V. their king ; Zeph. i. 5 ;
perhaps Amos i. 15, where it is rendered their
king). See Molech.

Mal-chi'ah, in A. V. once Melchiah (Jer.
xxi. 1) [Jehovah is king].

A royal prince, into whose dungeon the
prophet Jeremiah was cast (Jer. xxxviii. 6).
It is natural to identify him with the father
of the official Pashhur mentioned in ver. 1 and
xxi. 1.

For others, see Malchijah.

Mal'chi-el [God is king].

A son of Beriah and grandson of Asher,
and founder of a tribal family (Gen. xlvi.
17; Num. xxvi. 45).

Mal-chi'jah, in A. V. often Malchiah
[Jehovah is king].

1. A Levite, family of Gershom, house of
Shimei (1 Chron. vi. 40).

2. A descendant of Aaron. His family
had grown to a father's house in the time of
David, and became the fifth course when
David distributed the priests into divisions
(1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 9). Apparently mem-
bers of a subdivision of his family, viz., the
house of Pashhur, returned with Zerubbabel
fiom Babylon (Ezra ii. 38). He is also prob-
ably referred to in 1 Chron. ix. 12 and Neh.
xi. 12, where a priestly line is traced back
through Pashhur to one of this name. The
royal prince Malchiah of Jeremiah xxxviii.
6 (and hence probably of ver. 1) is a different
person.

3. A royal prince (Jer. xxxviii, 6). See
Malchiah.

4. 5. Two sons of Parosh, both induced by
Ezra to put away their foreign wives (Ezra
X. 25).

6. A son of Harim, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 31). He
joined with another Hebrew in repairing
part of the wall of Jerusalem and the
tower of the furnaces (Neh. iii. 11).

7. A son of Rechab. He also repaired
part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 14).

8. A goldsmith who repaired part of the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 31).

9. A priest who with others officiated at
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. xii. 42); perhaps, one of those who
assisted Ezra when the law was explained
to the people (Neh. viii. 4).

10. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, signed the covenant (Neh. x. 3).

Mal-chi'ram [the king, i. e. God, is ex-
alted].

A son of king Jehoiachin (1 Chron. iii. 18).

Mal-cM-shu'a, in A. V. Melchi-shua in
1 Samuel [the king, i. e. God, is salvation].

A son of king Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 49 ; 1
Chron. viii. 33 ; ix. 39). He was killed at
the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. xxxi. 2).

Mal'chus [Greek of Semitic malku, king].

The high priest's servant whose ear Peter
cut ofl' (.John xviii. 10).

Ma-le'le-el. See Mahalalel.

Mal'lo-thi.

A son of Heman (1 Chron. xxv. 4). He
obtained by lot the leadership of the nine-
teenth course of singers (26),

Mallows

451

Manasseh

Mai 'lows.

The rendering of the Hebrew MaUuah,
salt plant (Job xxx. 4, A. V.). Since genuine
mallows are nuicilaginous and not saline, the
R. V. alters the name of the plant to salt-
wort; sec Saltwort.

Mal'luch [reigning or counselor].

1. A Levite, family of Merari, house of
Mushi (1 Chron. vi. 44).

2. A chief of the priests, who returned from
Babylon with Zeruhbabel (Neh. xii. 2, 7). A
father's house bore his name in the next gen-
eration (ver. 14, R. V.). In the latter passiige
the form Malluchi, in itself an unessential va-
riation, is probably due to dittography. The
final letter of Malluchi is the initial letter of
the following word, and moreover is not found
in the Septuagint. The consonants of Mal-
luchi are written in the Hebrew text, but were
read Melicu (A. V. and margin of R. V.).

3. 4. A son of Bani and a son of Harim,
each of whom was induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 29, 32).

5, 6. A priest and a chief of the people
who signed the covenant (Neh. x. 4, 27).

Mal'lu-cM. See Malluch 2.

Mam'mon [Greek from Aramaic niamon,
mamona', wealth, riches].

A personification of wealth (Matt. vi. 24;
Luke xvi. 9, 11, 13).

Mam 're [fiituess, strength].

1. The town or more probably district of
Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 19; xxxv. 27), to the
west of Machpelah (xxiii. 17). A grove was
there, near Hebron, where Abraham several
times resided (xiii. 18 ; xiv. 13 ; xviii. 1,
etc.). In Jo.sephus' time an aged terebinth
was pointed out as Abraham's tree, 6 stades
or § of a mile from Hebron (War iv. 9, 7) ; in
the fourth century, one at Ramet el-Khulil,
2 Roman miles north of Hebron, which Con-
stantine enclo.sed within the walls of a basilica.
The remains of this building are called the
house of Abraham. The tree which now
claims the honor of being Abraham's oak,
and which was already celebrated as such
in the sixteenth century, is a genuine oak
{Quercus pseiidococcifera). Its trunk has a
girth of 26 feet at the ground, and its branches
extend over an area of 93 feet in diameter
(Thomson). It stands a little more than a
mile northwest of Hebron, near the head of
the wady Sebta.

2. An Amorite chieftain who dwelt at
Mamre and who with his brothers, Eshcol
and Aner, helped Abraham to retake the
captives and the spoil carried off by Chedor-
laomer (Gen. xiv. 13, 24). He was probably
designated by the name of the district over
which he ruled.
Man. See Adam.

Man'a-en [Greek form of Menahem, con-
soler, comforter] . Manahem is another Greek
form of the Hebrew name.

A Christian prophet or teacher in the
church at Antioch. He had been brought

up with Herod the tetrarch as his companion
(Acts xiii. 1, A. V.), or was his foster brotlier,
brought up at the same mother's breast (R.
v.). He may have been a descendant, or at
least a relative of Manahem, the Esscne, who
predicted to Herod the Great, when yet a
schoolboy, that he would obtain the king-
dom. When the prophecy was fulfilled,
Herod held him and his sect in high esteem
(Antiq. xv. 10, 5).

Man'a-hath [rest].

1. A son of the Horite, Shobal (Gen.
xxxvi. 23) ; perhaps even a place inhabited by
a branch of the trii>e of Shobal (1 Ghron. i. 40).

2. A place to which Benjamitcs of Geba
were carried captive by their fellow-tribos-
men (1 Chron. viii. 6). Descendants of Sal-
ma, of the family of Caleb, tribe of Judah,
probably formed half the population of it or
of another place of the name (ii. 54) ; .see
Manahathites.

Ma-na'hath-ites, in A. V. Manahethites.

The inhabitants of a place or the descend-
ants of a man Manahath (1 Chron. ii. rA). To
judge by the context, a place is intended. For
Manahethites in ver.52, A.V., seeMENUHOTH.

Ma-nas'seh, in A. V. of N. T. Manasses,
the Greek form [making to forget].

1. The elder son of Joseph. He was born
in Egypt, his mother being Asenath, daugh-
ter of Poti-phera, priest of On. In race,
therefore, he, like his brother Ephraim, was
half Hebrew, half Egyptian (Gen. xli. ,^)0, .^l).
When Jacob desired to bless the two boys,
Joseph took Ephraim in his right hand, to-
ward Jacob's left, and Manasseh in his left,
toward Jacob's right ; but the dying ])atriarch
crossed his arms, so as to lay his riglit hand
on Ephraim's head and his left on that of
Manasseh, intimating prophetically that while
both sons should become ancestors of great
peoples, Ephraim should excel (xlviii. 8-21).

2. The tribe which descended from Ma-
nasseh. It consisted of seven tribal families,
of which one was founded by his son Machir
and the remaining six sprang from his grand-
son Gilead (Gen. 1. 23; Num. xxvi. 28-34;
Josh. xvii. 1, 2). At the first census in the
wilderness the tribe numbered 32,200 fighting
men (Num. i. 34, 35) ; at the second, which was
taken thirty-eight years later, 52,700 (xxvi.
34). After Moses had defeated Sihon king
of Heshbon, and Og king of Bashan, one-
half the tribe of Manasseh joined with the
tribes of Reuben and Gad in requesting per-
mission to settle east of the Jordan, and ob-
tained the leave they sought, on condition
of going armed before their brethren, who
had not yet obtained settlements, and aiding
in the war west of the Jordan (xxxii. 33-42;
cp. 1-32 ; xxxiv. 14, 15; Deut. iii. 12, 13 ; xxix.
8; Josh. xii. 4-6; xviii. 7). They observed the
conditions laid down (Josh. i. 12-18; iv. 12) ;
and when the war had been successfully
fought out, were honorably dismissed to the
territory they had chosen. A temporary mis-

Manasseh

452

Mandrake

iinderstandiag about the buildiug of an altar
at one time threatened unpleasant conse-
quences ; but on explanation being given,
matters were amicably arranged (xxii. 1-34).
The region given to the half-tribe of Manas-
seh east of tbe Jordan comprehended part of
Gilead and all Bashan (Deut. iii. 13-15), Ma-
hanaim in one direction being on its bound-
ary line (Josh. xiii. 29-33). It is between 65
and 70 miles from east to west, by 40 or more
from north to south. It is mostly a table-land
of 2500 feet elevation, one of the richest
parts of Palestine, and to this day the gran-
ary of a large part of Syria. It is studded
with ruined towns. The other half of the
tribe crossed the Jordan and had their in-
heritance in central Palestine, west of the
river. It was bounded on the south by Ephra-
im, on the northwest by Asher, and on the
northeast by Issachar. Its southern boundary
ran through the town of Asher, near Tap-
puah, and along the northern bank of the
brook Kanah to its entrance into the Medi-
terranean (Josh. xvii. 5-10). But the children
of Ephraim had cities in the midst of the in-
heritance of the children of Manasseh (xvi.
9), and, on the other hand, Manasseh had
various towns, viz., Beth-shean, Ibleam, Dor,
En-dor, Taanach, and Megiddo, within the
territories of Issachar and Asher (xvii. 11 ;
cp. 1 Chron. vii. 29). The Manassites, how-
ever, failed to expel the Canaanite inhabi-
tants of the cities just named, but eventually
put them to tribute (Josh. xvii. 12, 13 ; Judg.
i. 27, 28). Levitical cities were allotted from
Manasseh as from the other tribes, including
Golan in Bashan in the region east of the
Jordan, one of the six cities of refuge (Josh.
XX. 8 ; xxi. 27). The hero and judge Gideon
"was a Manassite, and the most eminent man
the tribe produced (Judg. vi. 15 ; cp. 35 ; vii.
23). Some Manassites joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Chron. xii. 19, 20). No fewer than
18,000 offered him their services during his
reign at Hebron (31 ; cp. 37). The eastern
Manassites, in conjunction with the two
tribes east of the Jordan, waged war with
the Hagarites and took ])Ossession of their
country. They were themselves carried into
exile by Tiglath-pileser (v. 18-26). Some
Manassites came to Asa when they saw that
the Lord was with him (2 Chron. xv. 9) ; men
of the same tribe also attended the great pass-
over in Hezekiah's reign and also in Josiah's
reign (xxx. 1, 10, 11, 18 ; xxxi. 1 ; xxxiv. 6, 9).

3. An intentional modification of the name
Moses (Judg. xviii. 30, A. V.) ; see Jona-
than 1.

4. Son and successor of good king Heze-
kiab. He ascended the throne about the
year 698 b. c, when he was only twelve years
of age. He undid the work of reformation
W^hich had been carried out in the former
reign. He established the high places, built
an altar to Baal, and reared an Asherah ;
made altars for the worship of the host of
heaven within the two courts of the temi)le,

and caused one of his sons to pass through
the fire. Prophets warned him, but he paid
no attention to their threatenings. Instead
of listening, he shed much innocent blood
throughout every part of Jerusalem. The
victims were doubtless chiefly those who, re-
taining their fidelity to Jehovah, opposed
Manasseh's reactionary religious measures (2
Kin. xxi. 1-16). Tradition makes Isaiah one of
these, which is possible but doubtful. As a pen-
alty for his wickedness, God left him to his ene-
mies. Two kings of Assyria, Esarhaddon and
Ashurbauipal, report receiving tribute from
him. The Assyrian king by whom he was
carried captive to Babylon (2 Chron. xxxiii.
11) was probably Ashurbauipal, who crushed
his rebellious brother Shamash-shumukin,
king of Babylon, about 647 B. c. and placed
the forfeited crown on his own head. Ma-
nasseh repented, and was after a time re-
stored to his kingdom. He put away the
idols which had been his ruin, and restored
the worship of Jehovah. He also added to
the fortifications of Jerusalem (2 Chron.
xxxiii. 12-19). After a reign of fifty-five
years, a longer one than any other king of
Judah had enjoyed, he died about the year
642 B. c, leaving his son Amon to ascend the
throne (2 Kin. xxi. 17, 18 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii.
20). For the Prayer of Manasseh, see Apoc-
IJYPHA 12.

5 and 6. A son of Pahath-moab and a son
of Hashum, each of whom was induced
by Ezra to put awav his foreign wife (Ezra
X. 30, 33).

Mandrake {Mandragora officinalis).

Man 'drake.

The rendering of the Hebrew Duda'im,

Maneh

453

Maon

amatory plants. They were supposed to act
as a love philter (Gcii. xxx. It Hi; on mar-
gin of R. V. love apples). They are odorif-
erous (Song vii. 13). The niaiulrake {^[(lnd>■a-
gora officiixiUs) is a handsome phiiil <>f the
Solanaceous i night shade) order. It has wavy
leaves and pale violet, white, or deep blue
flowers. Its fruit is small and yellow. The
forked root bears a slight resemblance to the
human body. It is found in the Jordan
valley and along the rivers running into it,
in the plains of Moab and Gilead, and in
Galilee.

Ma'neh. See Weights.

Man'ger.

A feeding place for cattle, a crib or trough,
in Greek Phatne (Luke ii. 7, 12; in xiii. 15
rendered stall ; cp. Is. i. 3). Mangers are
ancient (Iliad x. 568 ; xxiv. 280 ; Herod, ix.
70). In Palestine the stable is usually in
the owner's house, a portion of the interior
being set apart for the cattle and furnished
with mangers built of small stones and mor-
tar in the shape of a box.

Man'na [what is it? or rather, it is manna,
since an article called mniuin was already
known to the Egyptians and was imported
from the peninsula of Sinai].

A food on which the Israelites mainly sub-
sisted during the forty years' sojourn in the
wilderness. It was first bestowed in the
wilderness of Sin, in the second half of the
second month, when the people murmured,
owing to the deficiency of food. The descent
of manna was described as a raining of bread
from heaven (Ex. xvi. 1-4, 12 ; Ps. Ixxviii.
24 ; cv. 40). In the morning, when the dew
was gone up, there lay upon the face of the
wilderness a small round flake, small as the
hoarfrost on the ground. When the children
of Israel first saw it they said one to another :
"What is ii?" or "It is manna," for they
wist not what it was. And Mo.'jes said unto
them : " It is the bread which the Lord hath
given" (Ex. xvi. 13-15; Xum. xi. 9). It was
white like coriander seed, with a yellowish
tinge and resinous appearance like bdellium,
and tasted like wafers made with honey or
like fresh oil (Ex. xvi. 31 ; Num. xi. 8). It
was ground in mills, beaten in mortars,
boiled in pots, and made into cakes (Num.
xi. 8). The people were directed to gather
an omer a day (about 5.8 pints) for each
member of their households, and not to at-
tempt to keep any till the morrow. Some
of the people disobeyed this injunction, but
the hoarded manna decayed and stank. On
the sixth day two omers were gathered for
each person, as none descended on the Sab-
bath (Ex. xvi. 22-30). An omerful, which
evidently was preserved from decay, was
kept by Aaron and his successors to show
future generations the nature of the food on
which the Israelites had sub.sisted in the
wilderness (32-34) ; see Hi(;h Priest. A year
after it was first given, at the same season, the

people are mentioned as having it, and again
toward the eiul of the forty years. It is re-
ferred to because the people were murniuriug
against the food (Num. si. 4-9 ; xxi. 5), but
tlie boon which they failed to appreciate was
not withdrawn. It was continued during the
whole of the forty years' desert wanderings
(Ex. xvi. 35; Dent. viii. 3, Hi; Neh. ix. 20 ;
Ps. Ixxviii. 24), and did not cease till the
day after the Israelites had crossed the Jor-
dan, encami>ed at Gilgal, and begun to eat
i of the })roduce of Oanaau (Josh. v. 10-
I 12). The question has been mooted. Was
manna a substance for the first time created
! in the wilderness, or was it a natural product
I miraculously multiplied? Various plants ex-
ude a manna-like substance, either emaua-
I ting spontaneously from the plant itself or
produced by the puncture of an insect. The
Tamarix mannifera, a variety of the Tamurix
gallica, does so, and grows in the peninsula
of Sinai. The exudation is dirty yellow in
color, but white when it falls on stones. It
melts in the heat of the sun. It is produced
during a period of from six to ten weeks, the
height of the season being June. Athagi
mauronim and A. deserturuni, two species of
camel's thorn, also exude a manna-like s\ib-
stance, and there are other manna-bearing
plants. The Arabs use plant manna of
different kinds as butter and honey. But
the present yield of the entire peninsula
is less than half a ton in the best years. It
is never made into bread. Moreover, if
taken in more than the most limited quanti-
ties it is purgative. So that even if it were
produced abundantly, there would be great
difficulty in identifjnng it with the manna
of Scripture.

Ma-no 'ah [rest, quiet].
A Danite belonging to the village of Zorah,
and father of Samson (Judg. xiii. 1-25).

Man'slay-er. See Murder.

Man 'tie.

The large, sleeveless, outer garment or, as
a rendering of the Hebrew M'^il, an occa-
sional garment worn between the tunic and
the outer garment. See Clothing.

Ma'och [oj)pression].

Father of Achish, king of Gath (1 Sam.
xxvii. 2). See Achish.

Ma'on [dwelling, habitation, abode].

1. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. .55), the residence of Nabal (1 Sam.
XXV. 2). now Ma'in. about a mile and a half
south from Carmel of Judah. and 8J south
of Hebron. In the wilderness in the vicinity
of Maon David and his men for a time took
refuge (1 Sam. xxiii. 24, 25).

2. Son of Shamniai, of the tribe of .Tndah,
and ancestor of the inhabitiints of Beth-zur
(1 Chron. ii. 45). Maon may indeed in tliis
passage possibly be used collectively for the
inhabitants of the town of this name (cp.
Bethlehem, ver. 54), and that Maon is immedi-

Maonites

454

Mark

ately called the father of Beth-zur may be
paralleled by 1 Chrou. i. 8, 9. 11, 13.

3. A people that oppressed Israel (Judg. x.
12). The English versions translate Maon-
ites. See Meunim.

Ma'o-nites. See Maon 3 and Meunim.

Ma'ra [bitter, sad of spirit].

The name chosen by Naomi to express her
bereavements (Kuth i. 20).

Ma 'rah [bitter, bitterness].

A fountain of bitter water in the wilder-
ness of Shur on the route to Sinai, at which
the Israelites halted when three days or a little
more had elapsed after their passage of the Red
Sea. The badness of the water, and perhaps its
scantiness, opened their eyes to the hardships
which they might expect ; and they mur-
mured. Moses was directed by God to cast a
certain tree into the waters, whereby they
were rendered palatable, either miraculously
or through the chemical and medicinal
properties of the tree (Exod. xv. 23-26 ;
Num. xxxiii. 8, 9). Since the days of Burck-
hardt, Marah has been generally located at
'Ain Hawarah, about 47 miles from Suez,
and a few miles inland from the Red Sea,
from which it is separated by a range of
hills. The well measures about 20 feet
across, but is much wider at the bottom.
Its depth is perhaps 25 feet. The soil of the
region abounds in soda, and the water of the
well is consequently salty and bitter. The
principal rival claimant to Hawarah has been
wady Ghurundel, which, however, is gen-
erally regarded as Elim. The recent identi-
fication of the site of Pithom with Tell el-
Maskhuta leads to the inference that Marah
may be 'Ayun Musa, the wells of Moses, a
group of springs "I miles south-.southeast of
Suez and 52 south-southeast of Pithom. The
water of some of these springs is drinkable,
but of others very bitter and nauseous. The
Arabs do not like their camels to partake
of it.

Mar'a-lah [trembling, reeling],

A frontier village of Zebulun toward the
sea (Josh. xix. 11). Not identified.

Mar-an ath'a, in A. V. Maran-atha. See
Anathema Maran-atha.

Mar'ble.

Limestone, especially in a crj^stalline con-
dition, which is capable of taking polish. It
was called in Hebrew shayish and shesh,
from its brightness, and in Greek marynaros.
It was used for columns and costly pave-
ments {Esth. i. 6; Song v. 15), and was em-
ployed in Solomon's temple (1 Chron. xxix.
2). Josephus, in describing the walls of this
edifice, mentions that they were built of
white stone, but does not specify the kind
of ■ stone (Antiq. viii. 3, 2). White, yellow,
and red marble is obtained in Lebanon, but
a choicer variety came from Arabia. Red
and white marble was employed in the
Greco-Roman period for palatial buildings in

Palestine, both east and west of the Jordan.
In Herod's temple the pillars of the cloisters
were monoliths of white marble, twenty-five
cubits high (War v. 5, 2).
Mar'cus. See Mark.

Ma-re'shah [at the head].

1. A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 44; cp. 1 Chron. iv. 21). Rehoboam
strengthened its fortifications (2 Chron. xi.
8). The great battle between king Asa and
Zerah the Ethiopian was fought in its vicinity
(xiv. 9, 10). In the Grecian period it was
an important town, inhabited by Edomltes,
and known as Marissa (Antiq. xiii. 9, 1 ; xiv.
1, 3, 9). It was plundered by Judas Maccabseus
(1 Mac. V. 66 ; 2 Mac. xii. 35 ; Antiq. xii. 8,
6). John Hyrcanus planted a Jewish colony
there (Antiq. xiii. 9, 1 ; 10, 2) ; but Pompey
made the town free in 63 (xiv. 4, 4). Gabinius
fortified it (xiv. 5, 3). It was finally de-
stroyed by the Parthians in 40 B. c. (xiv. 13,
9). According to Eusebius, its ruins ex-
isted 2 Roman miles from Eleutheropolis ; and
Robinson located them at Mer'ash, on a hill
about a mile .southwest of Beit Jibrin.

2. The father of Hebron (1 Chron. ii. 42).
The form of expression, in the light of its
context, suggests that Mareshah was the
progenitor of the inhabitants of Hebron ;
but the mention of Hebron's sons in the fol-
lowing verse makes it probable that Hebron
was a man. If so, he is not mentioned else-
where.

Mark, in A. V. of N. T. thrice Marcus
(Col. iv. 10 ; Philem. 24 ; 1 Pet. v. 13) [Latin
marcus, a large hammer].

The evangelist to whom is traditionally
assigned the Second Gospel. Mark was his
surname (Acts xii. 12, 25; xv. 37); his first
name was John, by which alone he is desig-
nated in Acts xiii. 5, 13. His mother, Mary,
was in comfortable circumstances, and her
house in Jerusalem was one of the meeting
places of the Christians (Acts xii. 12-17) ;
see Mary. There are several instances in
the N. T. of Jews with Latin surnames (Acts
i. 23 ; xiii. 9), so that the addition of Marcus
to John does not imply a mixed Jewish and
gentile descent. Mark was also the cousin
of Barnabas (Col. iv. 10, R. V., in A. V. sis-
ter's son). He accomjianied Barnabas and
Paul from Jerusalem to Antioch of Syria
(Acts xii. 25) and afterwards on their
missionary journey (xiii. 5) ; but, for some
unstated reason, he left them at Perga
(13) and returned to Jerusalem. Whatever
was the reason of Mark's conduct on that
occasion, Paul disapproved of it so much
that he refused to take him with them when
a second journey was proposed (xv. 38).
This caused a contention between the two
missionaries, so that they separated and
Barnabas, with Mark, sailed to Cyprus to
resume his evangelistic work. After this
Mark disappears from the history for about
ten years. We next find him in Rome with

%

Mark

455

Mark

Paul and joining with the aimstle iu sending
salutations (Col. iv. 10; Phileni. -24). It thus
appears that the former cause of variance be-
tween the two men had been removed ; and,
at a still later jjcriod, Paul speaks of Mark iu
highly commendatory terms : "Take Mark,
and bring him with thee : for he is useful to
me for ministering" (2 Tim. iv. 11, K. V.).
This last reference further implies that JEark
had been in the east, certainly iu Asia Minor
and perhai>s still further east With this
corresponds 1 Pet. v. i;5, according to which
he was with Peter iu Babylon, i)rovided
that Babylon is there to be understood lit-
erally. Peter calls Mark his sou, which,
if not a mere term of eudearment, may mean
that Mark had been one of Peter's converts.
The fact that Peter, when released by the
angel from pri.son, went to the house of
Mark's mother (Acts xii. 12) may indicate
his intimacy with the family. Tradition
varies on the point whether Mark had beeu
an immediate follower of Jesus. Many
think, however, that the youug man who
was present at the time of Christ's arrest
(Mark xiv. 51, 52) was Mark himself. The
incident is mentioned by no other evangelist,
and there would seem to be no motive for
recording it except the wish to give a per-
sonal reminiscence. The time and place of
Mark's death are unknown. Early tradition
represented him as " the interpreter of
Peter,'" which may mean that he accom-
panied Peter, in the later years of the apos-
tle's life, on his missionary journeys and
acted as his spokesman when addres.sing
gentile audiences; or the phrase may merely
describe Mark's work in writing down the
preaching of Peter in the Gospel which goes
by his name. There can be little doubt that
Mark was in Eome with both Paul and
Peter. Tradition also made him the founder
of the church in Alexandria, but the value
of the tradition is uncertain. The main
point to be observed is that Mark's early his-
tory and his later association with the chief
apostles fitted him to become the writer of a
gospel.

The Gospel according to St. Mark is the sec-
ond of our four gospels, though not neces-
sarily the second in order of composition. It
is the shortest of the four, and its narrative
moves rapidly without special division into
sections. It may. however, be divided as
follows : 1. Beginning of the gospel of Jesus
Christ, including the ministry of John the
Baptist and the baptism and temptation of
Jesus (i. 1-13). 2. The opening of the Galilaean
ministry ; giving the place and the message,
the call of the first four apostles, miracles in
Capernaum and Galilee (i. 14-45). 3. Christ's
triumph over rising opposition, including the
cure of the paralytic, Levi's feast and the
discourse on fasting, and the Sabbath contro-
versy (ii. 1-iii. 6). 4. Extensiou of Christ's
work amid increasing opposition, including
the description of the multitudes who fol-

lowed him ; the appointment of the twelve ;
replies to the Pharisees; the visit of his
mother and brethren ; the jiarables of the
sower, the seed growing secretly, and the
mustard seed, with remarks; the great mira-
cles of stilling the waves, the Gadarenc do-,
moniacs, the woman with a bloody issue,
and the raising of Jairus' daughter ; the
(secoud) rejection at Nazareth ; the sending
out of the twelve; Herod's iiuiuiry about
Jesus together with au account of the death
of Johu the Baptist; the feeding of the
5000; the walking on the sea; and Christ's
deuuuciatiou of Pharasaic traditionalism (iii.
7-vii. 23). 5. A period of coni]iarative re-
tirement, embracing the later Galilseau min-
istry (see Gospel) : including the healing
of the Syrophoeuiciau's daughter in the bor-
ders of Tyre and Sidon and of a deaf-mute
in Decapolis ; the feeding of the 4000 ; the
refusal to give the Pharisees a sign and the
warning of the disciples against them ; heal-
ing of a blind man near Bethsaida, followed
by incidents near Csesarea Philippi, in-
cluding the prediction by Christ of his death,
Peter's confession, etc., the transfiguration,
the cure of the demoniac boy, a renewed
prediction of Christ's death and, on return-
ing to Capernaum, special instructions to the
disciples (vii. 24-ix. 50). This period is
specially complete in Mark. (j. Christ's
closing ministry in Perpea : including the
question of the Pharisees about divorce ; the
blessing of the children ; the rich young
ruler ; and explanations to the disciples ; the
ascent to Jerussilem. including a third pre-
diction of his death, the request of James and
John, the healing of Bartimjeus (x.). 7.
The last week, including the triumphal
entry ; the blasting of the barren fig tree ;
the (second) cleansing of the temple ; the
visit of the deputation from the .sauhedriu ;
the i)arable of the wicked husbandmen ; the
questions of the Pharisees and Herodians,
of the Sadducees, and of the scribe i law;s'er) ;
Christ's question about the son of David : a
brief report of his denunciations of the
Pharisees and scribes (cp. Mat. xxiii) ; the
widow's gift; the discourse on the mount of
Olives; Judas' treachery and, in connection
with it, the supper at Bethany ; a brief ac-
count of the last evening with the disciples
and the institution of the Lord's Supper;
the agony in Gethsemane ; the arrest : the
trial of Jesus at night before the sanhedrin ;
Peter's denials ; the trial before Pilate, and
the crucifixion ; the burial : the announce-
ment of Christ's resurrection to certain
women by an angel seated in his empty
tomb (xi. 1-xvi. 8).

The last twelve verses of Mark's Gospel, as
found in A. V., are believed by most scholars
not to have formed the original close of the
book. Hence in E. V. they are separated
by a space from the preceding verses. They
were certainly added at a very early time,
perhaps at the beginning of the second cen-

Mark

456

Marriage

tury. They seem to have been formed in
part out of the other gospels aud they truth-
fully describe the beliefs of the apostolic
churches on the subjects with which they
deal. Chap. xvi. 8, however, is tooabru])t an
ending. The original close mnst have been
lost at a very early time, soon after the book
was finished. Some have su])posed that Mark
was prevented from finishing. The last
twelve verses of our Mark, when regarded
as an ancient addition to and completion of
the book, are powerful evidence for the ex-
istence and circulation of the other gospels
as well as for the reception of Mark's own
narrative.

Ancient and trustworthy tradition repre-
sents Mark's Gospel as in some degree con-
nected with Peter's preaching about Christ.
This is confirmed by the many vivid particu-
lars which it contains, which seem to be
due to the reminiscences of an evewitness
(e. (J. i. 40; ii. 1-4; iii. 5; v. 4-6; vi. 39, 40;
vii. 34; viii. 33; x. 21 ; xi. 20), This must
not be pres.sed, however, to the exclusion of
other sources of information. Its narrative
consists of a series of descriptive scenes, and
these proceed in a more chronological order
than in Matthew or Luke. The story moves
forward rapidly and with much pictorial
power. While Mark's is the shortest gospel,
this is not usually due to condensation of
material. What he does give, is generally
de.scribed with much detail. He lays espe-
cial stress on the deeds of Christ rather than
on his teaching. He relates only four para-
bles, but eighteen miracles. He depicts Christ
as the mighty Son of God, the conquering
Saviour. Unlike Matthew, he says nothing
of Christ's relation to the IMosaic law, and
but few allusions to the fulfillment of proph-
ecy are noted. Tradition states that Mark
wrote his Gospel at Eome either shortly be-
fore or shortly after Peter's death. If so, it
must be dated A. D. 6.5-fi8, On other grounds
also mo.st scholars now assign it to about that
period. In the ancient church Mark was
supposed by some to have abbreviated
Matthew. But this is impossi])le since he
adds many details which are not in Matthew.
Others believe that Matthew and Luke drew
from Mark, and so make Mark the oldest of
our gospels. The most probable view is that
all three of the synoptic gospels were inde-
pendent of one another, and that their verbal
agreements are to be explained by their all
using very largely the language in which
the apostolic reports of Christ's words and
deeds were circulated among the churches.
Mark's Gospel was evidently written pri-
marily for gentiles. This appears e. q. in
his explanations of places and customs and
terms (i, 9; iii. 17; v. 41; vii. 3, 4, 11, 34;
xii. 42; xiv. 13; xv. 22, 42, etc.). He uses
also a good many Latin words in Greek
form which may indicate that his book was
originally published, as tradition states, at
Eome. G. T. p.

Ma 'roth [bitterness, bitter fountains].
A town of Judah (Mic. i. 12). Site un-
known.

Mar'riage.

Marriage is a divine institution, constituted
at the beginning before the origin of human
society. The Creator made man male and
female, and ordained marriage as the indis-
pensable condition of the continuance of the
race (Gen. i. 27, 28). He implanted social
affections and desires in man's nature. He
made marriage an ennobling influence, pow-
erfully contributing to the development of a
complete life in man and woman. He de-
clared it to be not good for man to be alone
and provided a help meet for him (Gen. ii.
18). Abstinence from marriage is commend-
able at the call of duty (Mat, xix. 12 ; 1 Cor.
vii. 8, 26), but its ascetic prohibition is a sign
of departure from the faith (1 Tim. iv. 3).

Monogamy is the divine ideal. The Crea-
tor constituted marriage as a union between
one man and one woman (Gen. ii 18-24;
Mat. xix. 5 ; 1 Cor. vi. 16). He preserves
the number of males practically equal to the
number of females in a nation.

Marriage is a permanent relation (-Mat. xix.
6). The Creator has indicated the perma-
nence of the relation by making the growth
of aflfection between husband and wife, as
the years pass, to be a natural process, in-
variable under normal conditions. Moral
ends require that the relation be permanent :
the disciplining of husband and wife in
obedience to the obligations which spring
from their relations to each other, and the
adequate training of children to obedience
and virtue. It cannot be dissolved by any
legitimate act of man. It is dissolved by
death (Rom. vii. 2, 3). It may be dissolved
on account of adultery (Mat. xix, 3-9). Prot-
estants, following Paul, teach that it may
be dissolved by willful, deliberate, final de-
sertion (1 Cor. vii. 15). It is probable,
however, that in those times desertion was
accompanied by adulterous or marital con-
sorting with another person. The marriage
of persons divorced on improper grounds is
forbidden (Mat. v. 32 ; xix. 9; 1 Cor. vii. 10,
11). In the sight of God, a civil tribunal
cannot annul a marriage ; it declares whether
the marriage has been sinfully annulled by
one or both of the persons concerned.

Among the antediluvians, Adam, Cain,
Noah, and his three sons appear each as the
husband of one wife. But polygamy was
already practiced, Lamech having two wives
(Gen. iv. 19) ; and the purity of marriages
was impaired by men allowing themselves to
be governed by low motives in the choice of
wives (vi. 2). Polygamy was unwisely adopted
by Abraham, when he thought that he must
needs help God to fulfill his promise (Gen.
xvi. 4). Isaac had one wife. Jacob took
two wives and their maids. Moses, who was
correcting abuses, not suddenly abolishing;

1

Marriage

457

Marriage

them, permitted the Israelites, on account of
their dullness of sjdritiial perception and their
enslavement to the customs of the age, to
put away their wives for a less fault than
the gravest breach of marital fidelity ; and
he did not forbid polygamy, but discouraged
it. He regulated what he found ; but the
recoi'd of the primitive period showed that
the state of things among the Israelites was
not the ordination of the Creator. Moses'
service to the cause of matrimony consisted
in setting a higher ideal by establishing the
degrees of consanguinity and affinity within
which marriage is proper (Lev. xviii.), dis-
couraging polygamy (Lev. xviii. 18; Deut.
xvii. 17), securing the rights of inferior
wives (Ex. xxi. 2-11 ; Deut. xxi. 10-17), re-
stricting divorce (Deut. xxii. 19, 29 ; xxiv.
1), and requiring purity in the married life
(Ex. XX. 14, 17 ; Lev. xx. 10; Deut. xxii. 22).
Polygamy continued to be practiced more or
less by wealthy individuals after the time of
Moses, as by Gideon, Elkanah, Saul, David,
Solomon, Rehoboam, and others (Judg. viii.
30 ; 1 Sam. i. 2 ; 2 Sam. v. i:^ ; xii. 8 ; xxi. 8 ;
1 Kin. xi. 3). The evils of polygamy are
exhibited in Scripture by the record of the
jealousies of the wives of Abraham and
Elkanah (Gen. xvi. 6 ; 1 Sam. i. 6), and beau-
tiful pictures are presented of the felicity of
marriage between one man and one woman
(Ps. cxxviii. 3; Prov. v. 18; xxxi. 10-29;
P^cc. ix. 9; cp. Ecclus. xxvi. 1-27).

In the family to which Abraham belonged
marriage was permitted with a half-sister
and with two sisters (Gen. xx. 12 ; xxix. 26).
Marriage with a full sister was not rare in
Egypt, and was allowed in Persia (Herod.
iii. 31). Marriage with a half-sister by the
same father was permitted at Athens, and
with a half-sister by the same mother at
Sparta. The Mosaic law prohibited alliance
with persons so closely related by blood as
these and with others less near of kin (Lev.
xviii. 6-18) ; but in case a man died childless,
his brother took the widow (Deut. xxv. 5).
Such marriage was ordained, but it was not
compulsory. The Roman law was not unlike
the Hebrew. It declared marriages to be
incestuous, " when the parties were too nearly
related by consanguinity — that is, by being
of the same blood, as brother and sister ; or
by affinity— that is, by being connected
through marriage, as father-in-law and daugh-
ter-in-Liw."

The selection of a wife for a young man
devolved on his relations, especially on his
father (Gen. xxi. 21 ; xxiv. ; xxxviii. 6 ; 2
Esd. ix. 47), though sometimes the son made
known his preference and the father merely
conducted the negotiations (Gen. xxxiv. 4,8;
Judg. xiv. 1-10). Only under extraordinary
circumstances did the young man make the
arrangements (Gen. xxix. LSI. Likewise it
was the consent of the maid's father and
eldest brother that was sought, it not being
necessary to consult her (Gen. xxiv. 51 ;

xxxiv. 11). Occasionally a parent looked
out an eligible husband for a daughter or
otlered her to a suitable person in marriage
(Ex. ii. 21; Jo.sh. xv. 17; Ruth iii. 1, 2 ; 1
Sam. xviii. 27). Presents were given to the
parents, and sometimes to the maiden (Gen.
xxiv. 22, 53 ; xxix. 18, 27 ; xxxiv. 12 ; 1 Sam.
xviii. 25). Between betrothal and marriage
all communication between the alfianced par-
ties was carried on through a friend de}iuted
for the purpose and termed the friend of the
bridegroom (John iii. 29).

The marriage itself was a purely domestic
affair, without definite religious services,
though probably the espousal was ratified by
an oath (Prov. ii. 17 ; Ezek. xvi. 8 ; Mai. ii.
14). After the exile it became customary to
draw up and seal a written contract (Tob.
vii. 14). When the day appointed for the
wedding arrived, the bride bathed (cp. Judith
X. 3; Eph. v. 26, 27), put on white robes,,
often richly embroidered (Rev. xix. 8 ; Ps.
xlv. 13, 14), decked herself with jewels (Is.
Ixi. 10 ; Rev. xxi. 2), fastened the indispen-
sable bridal girdle about her waist (Is. iii. 24 ;
xlix. 18 ; Jer. ii. 32), covered herself with a
veil (Gen. xxiv. 65), and placed a garland on
her head. The bridegroom, arrayed in his
best attire, with a handsome headdress and a
garland on his head (Song iii. 11 ; Is. Ixi. 10),
set out from his home for the house of the
bride's parents, attended by his friends (Judg.
xiv. 11 ; Mat. ix. 15), accompanied by musi-
cians and singers and, if the procession moved
at night, by persons bearing torches (1 Mac.
ix. 39; Mat. xxv. 7; cp. Gen. xxxi. 27; Jer.
vii. 34). Having received his bride, deeply
veiled, from her parents with their blessing
and the good wishes of friends (Gen. xxiv.
59; Ruth iv. 11; Tob. vii. 13), he conducted
the whole party back to his own or his
father's house with song, music, and dancing
(Ps. xlv. 15; Song iii. 6-11; 1 Mac. ix. 37).
On the way back they were joined by maid-
ens, friends of the bride and groom (Mat.
xxv. 6). A feast was served at the house of
the groom or of his parents (Mat. xxii. 1-10;
John ii. 1, 9) ; but if he lived at a great dis-
tance the feast was spread in the house of
the bride's parents (Mat. xxv. 1), either at
their expense or the groom's (Gen. xxix. 22;
Judg. xiv. 10; Tob. viii. 19). The groom
now associated with his bride for the first
time (John iii. 29). In the evening the bride
was escorted to the nuptial chamber by her
parents (Gen. xxix. 23; Judg. xv. 1; Tob.
vii. 16, 17), and the groom by his companions
or the bride's parents (Tob. viii. 1). On the
morrow the festivities were resumed, and
continued for one or two weeks (Gen. xxix.
27; Judg. xiv. 12: Tob. viii. 19, 20).

■The spiritual relation between Jehovah
and his people is figuratively spoken of as a
marriage or betrothal (Is. Ixii. 4, 5; Hos. ii.
19). The apostasy of God's people through
idolatry or other form of sin is accordingly
likened to infidelity on the part of a wife

Marsena

458

Mary

(Is. i. 21; Jer. iii. 1-20; Ezek. xvi. ; xxiii. ;
Hos. ii.), and leads to divorce (Ps. Ixxiii. 27;
Jer. ii. 20; Hos. iv. 12). The figure is con-
tinued in the N. T. ; Christ is the bridegroom
(Mat. ix. 15; John iii. 29). and the church is
the bride (2 Cor. xi. 2; Eev. xix. 7; xxi. 2,
9 ; xxii. 17). The love of Christ for the
church, his solicitude for her perfection, and
his headship are held uj) as the standard for
imitation by husbands and wives (Eph. v.
23-32).

Mar'se-na.

One of the seven princes of Persia who
were permitted to see the king's face (Esth.
i. 14).

Mars' Hill. See Areopagus.

Mar'tha [lady, mistress].

Sister of Mary and Lazarus of Bethany
(John xi. 1, 2). The three were tenderly at-
tached to Jesus. Martha loved him and de-
sired to make him comfortable and show him
respect in her house. Mary gave evidence
of a deeper api)reciatiou by her hunger for
the words of truth that fell I'rom his lips;
and when Martha would have him rebuke
Mary for not assisting her to attend to his
external wants, Jesus taught that he himself
regarded the inward craving of his followers
for spiritual fellowship with him as more
essential than their concern for his external
honor (Luke x. 38-42}. Both sisters were
sincere believers (John xi. 21-32). The house
Avhcre Jesus was received is called Marthii's
(Luke X. 38) ; and the supper which was given
to him at Bethany, at which Lazarus was
]irescnt and Martha again served, where
Mary anointed his feet (John xii. 1-3) was at
the house of Simon the leper (Mat. xxvi. 6 ;
Mark xiv. 3). From these facts it has been
inferred that Martha was probably the wife
or widow of Simon.

Ma'ry [N. T. Greek Maria and Mariam,
from Hebrew Mh-yum, Miriam. Also Latin
Mari<C\ .

Six women mentioned in the N. T.

1. Mary the (wife) of Clopas or Cleophas,
a Mary so designated in John xix. 25. "Wife "
is not in the original Greek, but is properly
sup])lied both by A. V. and E. V. Clopas of
the E. v., Cleojihas of the A. V., is apparently
to be identified with Aljihseus (Mat. x. 3 ;
Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15), the two names
being variant forms of the same Aramaic
original. He and Mary were thus the parents
of the apostle James the Less, who had also
a brother Joses (Mat. xxvii. 56; Mark xv.
40; Luke xxiv. 10). Those who understand
the Lord's " brethren " to have been his
cousins on his mother's side, suppose that
this Mary was a sister of the Virgin, and that
John (xix. 25) mentions only three women
at the cross. But it is unlikely that two
sisters should have had the same name, and
other considerations make the cousin theory
im])robable ; see Bkkthken of the Lord.
In that case John mentions four women at

the cross. One of them was Mary the wife
of C!lopas ; but, beyond the fact that her
husband and sons were, like herself, disciples
of Jesus and that probably one of her sons
was an apostle, M^e know nothing more of
her. Besides being at the cross, Mary was
one of the women who followed the body of
Jesus to the tomb (JIat. xxvii. Gl), and on
the tliird day took sjnces to the sepulcher,
and to whom the risen Saviour appeared
(Mat. xxviii. 1 ; Mark xv. 47 : xvi. 1 ; Luke
xxiv. 10). See No. 2 of this article; also
AlphvEus, James.

2. Mary the Virgin ; the Virgin Mary. All
the authentic information about her comes
from Scri])ture. We are told that, in the
sixtli month after the conception of John
the Bajitist, the angel Gabriel was sent from
God to Nazareth, a city or village of Gali-
lee, to a virgin named Mary, who was resid-
ing there and who was betrothed to a car-
])enter named Jose])li (Luke i. 28, 27). Joseph
is explicitly declared to have been a de-
scendant of David. Mary is not so described ;
but many believe that she too was of Davidic
lineage, because she was told that her child
should receive "the throne of his father
David," also because our Lord is said to have
been of "the seed of David according to the
flesh" (Eom. i. 3 ; 2 Tim. ii. 8; cp. Acts ii.
30), and again because, in the opinion of
many scholars, the genealogy of Christ given
by I^uke (iii. 23-38) is through his mother,
in wiiich case Maiy's father is supposed to
have been Heli. However this may be,
Gabriel hailed Mary as a highly favored
one, and announced to her that she should
have a sou whose name she should call Jesus.
"He," said the angel, "shall be great, and
shall be called the Son of the Most High :
and the Lord God shall give unto him the
throne of his father David : and he shall
reign over the house of Jacob forever ; and
of his kingdom there shall be no end " (Luke
i. 32, 33, E. v.). When Mary asked how this
could be, since she was a virgin, she was told
that it would be wrought by the jiower of
the Holy Ghost, " wherefore also that which
is to be born shall be called holy, the Son of
God " (Luke i. 35, E. V.). These expressions
revealed to Mary that she was chosen to be
the mother of Messiah, and with humble
piety she accejited the honor which God was
mysteriously to confer upon her. For her
comfort she was informed by the angel that
her kinswoman Elisabeth was also to become
a mother, whereupon Mary hastened to the
village of Judah where Zacharias and Elisa-
beth lived. At her coming p]lisabeth was
made aware of the honor intended for Mary,
and broke out into an inspired song of praise.
Thereupon Mary also gave voice to a hymn
of thanksgiving (" The Magnificat," Luke i.
46-55). We learn from all this the profound
])iety and solenni joy with which the.se holy
women contemplated the power and grace of
God which was through their offspring to

Mary

459

Mary

fiiltill the autient promises to Israel and
bring salvation to the world. Mary remained
nnder the i)niteetion of Elisabeth until just
before the liirth of John, when she returned
to Nazareth. Soon after the eause of her
condition was revealed in a dream to Joseph,
who at first had thought of quietly putting
her away from him (Mat. i. 18-21). He was
directed to marry her and to call the name
of tiie child Jesus, " for it is he that shall
.save his people from their sins." It was
pointed out also to him that Isaiah had pre-
dicted that Jlessiah would be born of a vir-
gin. Jo.seph reverently obeyed. He "took
unto him his wife ; and knew her not till she
had brought forth a son : and he called his
name Jesus"' (Mat. i. 24, 2.3, E. V.). By this
marriage Mary was protected, her mysterious
secret was guarded, and her child was born
as the legal son of Joseph, and therefore
through him heir of David. The birth, how-
ever, took place at Bethlehem. A decree of
Augustus that all the world should be en-
rolled was being carried out in Palestine,
and compelled Jose])h, being of Davidic de-
scent, to repair to David's city to be enrolled,
^lary accompanied him. Finding no room
in the inn, or khan, they were compelled to
lodge in a stable, perhaps, however, one that
was then not being used by cattle. There
Jesus was born, and his mother " wrapped
him in swaddling clothes, and laid him in a
manger" (Luke ii. 7). With reverent, trust-
ful awe Mary heard the shepherds relate the
vision of angels which they had seen and the
song of peace which they had heard herald-
ing the Saviour's birth. Of course, she did
not know that her child was Clod made flesh.
She only knew that he was to be Messiah,
and with true piety she waited for God to
make his mission clear. On the fortieth day
after the birth Mary went, with Joseph and
Jesus, to Jerusalem to present the child to
the Lord and to oflTer in the temple the offer-
ing required by the law (Lev. xi. 2, 6, 8)
from women after childbirth. The fact that
her offering is said to have been that required
of poor people — a pair of turtle doves or two
young pigeons— indicates the humble cir-
cumstances of the family. When, however,
the parents brought in the child, they were
met by the aged Simeon who rejoiced over
the birth of Messiah, but foretold to Mary
that she should have great sorrow because of
what would happen to him (Luke ii. 35).
After this Joseph and Mary appear to have
returned to Bethlehem and to have lived in
a house (Mat. ii. 11). There Mary received
the wise men from the east who came to
worship .Jesus (Mat. ii. 1-11). Soon after she
fled with Joseph and the child to Egy))t, and
afterwards by divine direction they returned
to Nazareth. There she must have devoted
herself especially to the rearing of the child
of promise who had been committed to her
care and of whose future she must have
thought continually. One glimpse of Mary's

character is given ns when Jesus was twelve
years old. She was in the hal)it piously of
attending with Joseph the yearly passover
(Luke ii. 41), though this was not specifically
reipiired of .Jewish wonuMi (Ex. xxiil. 17).
With like piety .Joseph and Mary took Jesus
with them, as soon as he reached the age
wlien it was customary for children to attend,
and his delay in the temple and his words
when his parents found him with the drx'tors,
were the occasion of increased awe to his
parents. " His mother kept all tlu'se sayings
in her heart" (Luke ii. 51). JIary did not
understand how great her child really was
nor how he was to fulfill his mission. It was
hers reverently and trustfully to rear him
for God's service, and this she did so long as
he was under her. If the " l)rethren of the
Lord" (see Brethren of the Lord) were, as
is probal)le, the children of Josejjh and Mary,
born after Jesus, Mary was the mother of a
large family. We read also of t.'hrist's sisters
(Mark vi. 3). But nothing further is re-
corded of Mary until the beginning of Christ's
public ministry. She then appears at the
marriage in (Jana (.John Ii. 1-10). She evi-
dently rejoiced in her sou's assumption of
Messianic office and fully believed in him.
But she ventured improperly to direct his
actions, and thus elicited from him a re-
spectful but firm rebuke. Mary must under-
stand that in his work she could share only
as a follower. While as her son he gave her
reverence, as the Messiah and Saviour he
could only regard her as a disciple, needing
as much as others the salvation he came to
bring. A similar truth was brought out on
the next occasion on which she appears (Mat.
xii. 46-.50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke viii. 19-
21). While .Jesus was teaching on tlie great
day of parables, Mary witJi his brethren de-
sii'ed to see him. Perhaps they wished to
restrain him from a course which seemed to
be bringing upon him opposition and peril.
His reply again declared that the spiritual
bond between him and his disciples was more
important than any human tie. " For whoso-
ever shall do the will of my Father which is
in heaven, he is my brother, and sister, and
mother" (Mat. xii. "-50, R. V.). While Christ
pursued his miuistrj% Mary and his ))rethreu
appear to have still lived in Nazareth. As
no mention is made of Joseph, it is natural
to sui)]K)se that he had died. But at the
crucifixion Mary appears with otlier women
at the cross. Unlike his brethi-en (John vii.
5) she had always believed in her .son's Mes-
siahship, and therefore it is not strange to
find that she followed him on the last fatal
journey to .Jerusalem. With a mother's love,
as well as with a di.sciple's sorrow, she beheld
his crucifixion, and to her .Jesus spoke in the
hour of his suffering. He gave her to the
care of Iiis beloved disciple .John, and " from
that hour that disciple took her unto his own
home" (John xix. 25-27). After the ascen-
.sion she was with the apostles in the upper

Mary

460

Maschil

room in Jerusalem (Acts i. 14), and tliis is the
last notice of her in Scripture. We do not
know tlie time or manner of her death. Tlie
tomb of the Virgin is shown in the valley
of the Kidron, hut there is no reason to be-
lieve in its genuineness. Later legends were
busy with her name, but none contain trust-
worthy information. As presented in Scrip-
ture, she is simply a beautiful example of a
devoted and pious mother.

13. Mary Magdalene. The designation given
to this Mary (Mat. xxvii. 5(i, 61 ; xxviii. 1 ;
Mark xv. 40, 47; xvi. 1, 9; Luke viii. 2;
xxiv. 10; John xix. 2.5; xx. 1, 18) doubtless
indicates that she was a resident of Magdala,
oti the .southwestern coast of the sea of Gali-
lee. Out of her .Tesus had cast seven devils
(Mark xvi. 9 ; Luke viii. 2), and she became
one of his most devoted disciples. The old
belief that she had been a woman of bad
character, from which the current use of the
word Magdalen has arisen, rests merely
on the fact that the first mention of her
(Luke viii. 2) follows closely upon the a(;count
of the sinful woman who anointed the Sav-
iour's feet in a city of Galilee (Luke vii. 3(3-
50). This, however, is hardly sufficient proof.
What form her terril)le malady had taken
we do not know. She became a disciple
during the early Galilaian ministry, and was
one of those who joined the little company
of Christ's immediate followers, and minis-
tered to him of her substance (Luke viii. 1-3).
She was one of the women at the cross (Mat.
xxvii. 5(J ; Mark xv. 40 ; John xix. 25) and
observed the Lord's burial (Mat. xxvii. (il).
Early on the third day she, with Maiy
the wife of Clopas and Salome, went to
the sepulcher to anoint the body of Jesus
(Mark xvi. 1). Finding the stone rolled
away she quickly returned to the city and
told Pet(!r and John that the body of Jesus
had been taken away (John xx. 1, 2). Then,
following the apostles, she returned again to
the garden and lingered there after they had
gone. To her first Jesus appeared (Mark
xvi. 9; John xx. 11-17), and she reported
his resurrection to the otiier disciples (xx.
18). Nothing further is known of her his-
tory.

4. Mary of Bethany. A woman who, with
lier sister Martha, lived in "a certain vil-
lage" (Luke X. 38) which John reveals to
have been Bethany (John xi. 1; xii. 1), about
a mile east of the summit of the mount of
Olives. On the first oc(;asion when Jesus is
recorded to have visited their house (Luke
X. 38-42), Mary appears as eager to receive
his instruction. Martha requested Jesus to
bid Mary help her in serving the entertain-
ment, but he replied : " But one thing is
needful : for Mary hath chosen the good
part, which shall not be taken away from
her" (Luke x. 42, R. V.). John (xi.) further
relates that Mary had a brother named Laza-
rus whom the Lord raised from the dead.
When Jesus reached the house, after Lazarus

had been four days dead, Mary at first "still
sat in the house" (John xi. 20, R. V.), but
afterwards was summoned by Martha to meet
the Lord who had called for her (ver. 28).
As Martha had done, Mary exclaimed, " Lord,
if thou hadst been here, my brother had not
died," and the grief of the sisters deeply
moved the sympathetic Saviour. Afterwards,
six days before his last passover (John xii. 1),
Jesus came to Bethany, and a sujiper was
made in his honor in the house of Simon the
leper (Mark xiv. 3). While it was in progress
Mary brought an alabaster box of pure oint-
ment, very costly, and, breaking the box,
I)oured the ointment on the head of Jesus
(ibid.), and anointed his feet, wiping them
with iaer hair (John xii. 3). It was an act
of rare devotion, testifying both to her
gratitude and to her sense of the high dig-
nity of him whom she honored. Judas, and
some other of the disciples, were disposed to
find fault with the waste ; but Jesus com-
mended the act and declared that "whereso-
ever the gospel shall be preached through-
out the whole world, that also which this
woman hath done shall be spoken of for a
memorial of her" (Mat. xxvi. 6-13; Mark
xiv. 3-9). He looked upon her act also as a
loving, though doubtless unintentional, con-
secration of him to his approaching sacrifice
(John xii. 7, 8).

5. Mary the mother of Mark. The Chris-
tian woman in Mdiose house the disciples had
met to pray for the release of Peter, when
he was imprisoned by Herod Agrippa, and to
whi(;h Peter at once went when delivered by
the angel (Acts xii. 12). Her son was the
author of our Second Gospel ; see Mark. She
was evidently in comfortable circumstances,
and her house is supposed to have been one
of the principal meeting places of the early
Jerusalem Christians. According to A. V. in
Col. iv. 10 she was the sister of Barnabas;
but R. V. correctly translates "cousin" in-
stead of " sister's son," and it does not apjjear
whether Mark's relationship to Barnabas was
on his father's or his mother's side. Nothing
is told us of Mary's husband.

6. Mary of Rome. A Christian woman at
Rome to whom Paul sent his salutation (Rom.
xvi. 6). The A. V. reads "who bestowed
much labor on vs," implying that Mary at one
time had greatly assisted the apostle. Tlie
R. v., however, properly reads " who be-
stowed much labor on you." Mary had thus
been an active worker in the Christian cause
at Rome. Beyond this reference Me know
nothing of her.

G. T. P.

Mas'a-loth. See Mesaloth.

Mas'chil [attentive, intelligent, or render-
ing intelligent].

A Hebrew word occurring in the titles of
Ps. xxxii., xlii., xliv., xiv., Hi., liii., liv., Iv.,
Ixxiv., Ixxviii,, Ixxxviii., Ixxxix., and cxlii.
It doubtless means either a didactic poem

Mash

461

Mattattah

(cp. Ps. xxxii. 8, " I will instruct," same
word radically), or else a reflective poem.
Mash.

A brauch of the Aramaeans (Gen, x. 23).
Called in 1 Chron. i. 17 Meshech, and essen-
tially so in the Septuagint of Gen. x. 23. This
is due to its confusion by copyists with the
more familiar name ; or else, if the original
text, it points to an intermingling of Japhetic
and Semitic people in Meshech.

Ma'shal. See Misheal.

Ma'son.

A workman skilled to hew and saw stones
into shape for building purposes and erect
walls (2 Sam. v. II ; 1 Kin. vii. 9; 1 Chron.
xxii. 2 ; 2 Chron. xxiv. 12). The art made
great progress among the ancient Egj'ptiaus ;
as the pyramids, built under the fourth

Masons at Work in Ancient Egypt.

dynasty, and numerous temples show. The
Hebrews served in brick and mortar while
they were in bondage in Egypt (Ex. i. 11,
14) ; but there is no mention of their being
employed in shaping and laying stones. In
Solomon's time the Phoenicians had more
skill in the art than the Hebrews, who as
yet had not had occasion to erect great struc-
tures of stone, and Phcenician masons were
accordingly hired to build the temple and
Solomon's palace. They managed blocks of
stone 12 and 15 feet in length and even
longer, and proportionately broad and high
(1 Kin. vii. lOj. But they were doubtless
Hebrew workmen who afterwards erected
walls and fortresses, built aqueducts and
reservoirs, arches and bridges, and fashioned
columns (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14 ; Ezra iii. 10 ;
Song V. 15 ; Antiq. xv. 11, 2). They also un-
derstood the use of the plummet (Amos vii.
7; Zech. iv. 10; Is. xxviii. 17i.
Mas'o-retes and Masorites. See Old Tes-

T.VMENT.

Mas'pha. See Mizpeh 2 and 5.

Mas're-kah [a vineyard].
An Edomite city (Gen. xxxvi. 36 ; 1 Chron.
i. 47). Exact site unknown.
Mas'sa [carrying, a load, a burden].
A tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen. xxv.

14 ; 1 Chron. i. 30 ; cp. Prov. xxx. 1 and xxxi.
1, K. V. margin) ; generally identified with
the Masani, a tribe of the Arabian desert
near the Persian (lulf (Ptol. v. 19, 2), north-
east of Dumah. The Assyrian inscriptions
mention Mas'u, as the name may be read,
with Tem'u and Niba'atu, cp. Gen. xxv. 13,

15 (Delitzsch, Puradies, 301 seq.).
Mas'sah [testing, temptation].

A name given by Moses to the place at
Horeb where the smitten rock yielded water,
because the Israelites there in unbelief put
Jehovah to a test (Ex. xvii. 7 ; Deut. vi. 16 ;
ix. 22; xxxiii. 8). Called al.so Meribah (q.v.).

Ma-thu'sa-la. See Methuselah.

Ma'tred [driving forward].

The mother-in-law of Hadar, king of Edom
(Gen. xxxvi. 39 ; 1 Chron. i. 50).

Ma'tri [rainy].

A Benjamite family, from which sprang
Kish and his son king Saul (1 Sam. x. 21).

Mat'tan [a gift] .

1. A priest of Baal slain before the altar
of that god during the revolution which led
to the death of Athaliah and the elevation of
Joash to the throne of Judah (2 Kin. xi. 18 ;
2 Chron. xxiii. 17).

2. Father of Shephatiah (Jer. xxxviii. 1).
Mat'ta-nah [a gift].

One of the stations of the Israelites in or
near theMoabite territory (Num. xxi. 18, 19).
Exact situation unknown.

Mat-ta-ni'ah [gift of Jehovah].

1. A singer, son of Heman, in David'stime
(1 Chron. xxv. 4, 16).

2. A Levite, of the sons of Asaph, and
founder of a branch of the family (2 Chron.
XX. 14). Probably he himself is mentioned in
1 Chron. ix. 15, and Neh. xiii. 13 ; and the
representative of the house in Neh. xii. 8 ;
cp. Ezra ii. 41 ; Neh. xi. 17, 22 ; xii. 25.

3. A Levite descended from Asaph. He
was one of tho.se who aided king Hezekiah
in his work of religious reformation (2 Chron.
xxix. 13).

4. A son of king Josiah. He was placed
on the throne and his name was altered to
Zedekiah by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kin. xxiv.
17) ; see Zedekiah.

5-8. Four Hebrews, a son of Elam, a son of
Zattu, a son of Pahath-moab, and a son of
Bani, who were induced by Ezra to put away
their foreign wives (Ezra x. 26, 27, 30, 37).

Mat'ta-tha [gift of Jehovah].

A son of Nathan and grandson of king
David (Luke iii. 31).

Mat-tat'tah, in A. V. Mat'ta-thah [gift of
Jehovah].

A son of Hashum, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 33).

Mattathias

462

Matthew

Mat-ta-thi'as [Greek form of Mattithiah,
gift of Jehovah].

1 and 2. A name borne by two ancestors of
Christ, separated from each other by five
generations, who lived after the time of
Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 25, 26).

3. A priest, founder of the Maccabee family
(1 Mac. ii. 1-70). See Maccabee.

4. Son of Absalom, and a captain in the
armj' of Jonathan Maccabseus. He distin-
guished himself at the battle of Hazor by re-
maining at the side of Jonathan when all the
other captains save one had fled (1 Mac. xi.
70). He was perhaps a brother of Jonathan,
son of Absalom (xiii. 11).

5. Son of Simon Maccabseus. His father,
his brother, and he were treacherously mur-
dered by his brother-in-law in the castle of
Dok (1 Mac. xvi. 14). See Judas.

Mat'te-nai [bestowment].
1. A priest, head of the father's house
Joiarib in the time of Joiakim (Neh. xii. 19).

2 and 3. Two Hebrews, a son of Hashum
and a son of Bani, each of whom was in-
duced to put awav his foreign wife (Ezra x.
33, 37).

Mat'than [gift].

A near ancestor of Joseph, and in law of
Christ (Mat. i. 15).

Mat'that [gift].

A name borne by two ancestors of Christ ;
the one near, the other quite remote (Luke
iii. 24, 29).

Mat'thew [N. T. Greek Mntldhaios or
Matthaios, from either Aramaic Midiay,
manly, or Hebrew Mattithyah, gift of Jeho-
vah].

A publican or taxgatherer, in the service
either of the Eoman or Herodian govern-
ment, stationed at Capernaum. While sitting
at " the place of toll " (E. V.) he was called
by Jesus to become his follower and, leaving
his business, he immediately obeyed (Mat.
ix. 9 ; Mark ii. 14 ; Luke v. 27). He was
afterwards appointed one of the twelve apos-
tles (Mat. X. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15).
Mark and Luke give his name as Levi and
state that his father was named Alphseus.
Either he had originally two names, as was
not uncommon among the Jews, or he re-
ceived the name Matthew when he became a
Christian, as Simon did that of Peter. He is
always called Matthew in the lists of apostles
and as the author of our First Gospel. The
acceptance by Jesus of a publican as a dis-
ciple evidently led others of the outcast
classes to follow him and increased the oppo-
sition of the Pharisees. This appears at the
feast which Matthew gave to Jesus soon after
his conversion, when many " publicans and
sinners" were present, and when, in answer
to the criticism of the Pharisees, the Lord
made the famous reply, " I am not come to call
the righteous but sinners to repentance"
(Mat. ix. 10-13 ; Mark ii. 15-17 ; Luke v. 29-
32). Matthew himself does not say that the

feast was in his house (Mat. ix. 10), but Mark
(ii. 15) and Luke (v. 29) do, and Luke adds
that it was a great feast. Some have identi-
fied Matthew's father Alphseus with the
father of James the less; but Matthew and
James are not joined together in the lists
of apostles as other pairs of brothers are.
The identification is therefore to be rejected.
Matthew finally appears among the apostles
after (Christ's resurrection (Acts i. 13), but the
N. T. gives no further information about
him. Tradition states that he first preached
among the Jews, and from the character of
his Gospel, this is not improbable.

The Gospel according to St. Matthew is the
first of our four gospels. It was from the
beginning of the first apostolic age univer-
sally ascribed to this apostle. Its contents
may be arranged as follows :

1. The descent, birth, and infancy of the
royal Messiah (i. and ii.). The special object
of this section is to set forth Jesus as the son
of David and the Christ of prophecy.

2. Introduction to the public ministry of
Christ (iii. 1-iv. 17), relating the preparatory
work of the Baptist, the baptism and temp-
tation of Jesus, and thelatter's settlement in
Capernaum iir accordance with prophecy.

3. TheGalilsean ministry of Christ (iv. 18-
ix. 35). This important section begins with
Christ's call of the four leading disciples (iv.
18-22), and a summary description of his
teaching and healing, and of his fame
throughout Palestine (iv. 19-25). Then fol-
lows, as an example of his teaching, the ser-
mon on the mount (v.-vii.), to which is ap-
pended a collection of incidents, mostly
miracles, which illustrated his teaching (viii.
1-ix. 34).

4. The mission of the apostles (ix. 36-x. 42) ;
beginning with an account of Christ's com-
passion on the shepherdless people, his ap-
pointment of the twelve, and his instructions
to them.

5. Christ in conflict with increasing oppo-
sition (xi. 1-xv. 20), comprising the inquiry
of the Baptist and Christ's discourse concern-
ing John, together with other remarks occa-
sioned by popular unbelief; the opposition
of the Pharisees, beginning with the Sabbath
controversy and culminating in the charge
that Jesus was in league with Beelzebub, to-
gether with Chri.sfs reply and his refusal to
give them a sign ; the visit of his mother and
brethren ; a collection of the parables of
Jesus spoken at this time; his (second) rejec-
tion at Nazareth ; Herod's inquiry and the
death of the Baptist; the feeding of the 5000
and walking on the water ; Christ's final rup-
ture with the Pharisees in Galilee and his de-
nunciation of their formalism.

6. Christ's retirement from Capernaum and
instruction of his disciples (xv. 21-xviii. 35) ;
comprising the healing of the daughter of
the woman of Canaan, the feeding of
4000, refusal of a sign and warning against
the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees,

Matthew

463

Matthias

the confession and rebuke of Peter, Christ's
first prediction of his death, the transfigura-
tion and tlie cure of the demoniac boy ; the
return to (."apernauni, the provision of tribute
money, and instruction of the disciples con-
cerninu; the humble, self-denying, loving,
and forgiving spirit of true discipleship.

7. The closing ministry of Christ in
Perj¥a and Judaea (xix., xs.) ; comprising in-
structions about divorce, blessing the chil-
dren, the rich young ruler, the parable of
the laborers in the vineyard, the ascent to Je-
rusalem, with another prediction of his death,
the request of James and John, and the heal-
ing of Bartimaeus at Jericho.

8. The last week of Christ's ministry (xxi.
-xxviii.), comprising the triumphal entry
and the cleansing of the temple ; the wither-
ing of the barren tig tree ; the deputation
from the sanhedrin; the parables of the two
sons, the wicked husbandmen, and the mar-
riage of the king's son ; the questions of the
Pharisees, Sadducees, and a lawyer, with
Christ's question in reply concerning the son
of David ; woes against the scribes and
Pharisees ; the eschatological discourse on
Olivet, followed by the parables of the vir-
gins and of the talents and a description of
the last judgment. Then follow the treach-
ery of Judas, the last passover, the agony in
Gethsemane, the arrest and trial of Jesus be-
fore the sanhedrin, Peter's denials, the re-
morse of Judas, the trial before Pilate, and
the crucifixion and burial. The last chapter
relates the appearance of .lesus to the
women, the report of the Roman watch, and
the gathering of Christ with his disciples on a
mountain in Galilee, when he gave them the
commission to preach his gospel to the world
and promised to be always with them.

The arrangement of this Gospel is chrono-
logical only in general outline. In the sec-
ond half, indeed, it follows what is probably
the true order of events, but this is because
that order naturally agreed with the evange-
list's object. His primary motive was to ar-
range his matter topically. He wished espe-
cially to present the teaching of Christ con-
cerning the nature of the kingdou of heaven
and the character of its disciples, the mira-
cles by which he illustrated his teaching and
revealed his authority, and the fruitless op-
position to him of the Pharisees, represent-
ing current Judaism. Hence the large place
which he gives to the teaching of Jesus.
Hence, too, his habit of grouping together
both instructions upon certain subjects and
incidents which illustrated the teaching. He
sets forth Jesus as the royal Messiah, who
brought about the fulfillment of law and
prophecy, and established in the church, by
his redeeming work and spiritual teaching,
the true kingdom of God, which is meant to
embrace all nations. The fulfillment of
prophecy is frequently noted (i. 22, 23 ; ii. o,
6, 15, 17. 18. 23; iii. 3; iv. 14-16; viii. 17;
xi. 10 ; xii. 17-21 ; xiii. 14, 15, 35 ; xxi. 4, 5 ;

xxvi. 24, 31, 50 ; xxvii. !), 35), and there are
about a hundred quotations, more or less for-
mal, from the O. T. While Matthew wrote
from the Hebrew point of view, he brings
out the destination of the gospel for the gen-
tiles (e. g. viii. 10-12 ; x. 18 ; xxi. 4'.i ; xxii.
9 ; xxiv. 14 ; xxviii. 19), represents the op-
position to Christ of current Judaism (e. g.
v. 20-48; vi. 5-18; ix. 10-17; xii. 1-13, 34;
XV. 1-20 ; xvi. 1-12 ; xix. 3-9 ; xxi. 12-16 ;
xxiii., etc.), and shows by his explanations
of terms (i. 23 ; xxvii. 33), places (ii. 23 ; iv.
13), Jewish beliefs (xxii. 23) and customs
(xxvii. 15 ; see also xxviii. 15), that he wrote
not merely for Jews, but for all believers.

That the author of this Gospel was. really
the apostle JIatthew is attested by the unan-
imous tradition of the ancient church. It is
improbable that so important a book would
have been attributed to so obscure an apostle
without good reason. It has been observed
also that a publican would be likely to keep
records ; while the modest way in which he
speaks of the feast given by him to Jesus
(ix. 10 ; cp. Luke v. 29) is thought by many
to confirm the tradition of his authorship.
Ancient tradition also affirmed that Matthew
wrote his Gospel originally in Hebrew. At
the same time the tradition affirmed that our
Greek Gospel is Matthew's. Some scholars re-
ject the tradition of an original Hebrew ;
others suppose that the Greek is a translation,
or that Matthew issued two gospels, one in
Hebrew or Aramaic, the other in Greek.
Some think that Matthew wrote in Hebrew
merely a collection of the sayings of Jesus,
which are incorporated in our Greek Gospel
together with historical matter taken from
Mark ; but this theory is confronted by the
testimony of antiquity that our Greek Gos-
pel is by Matthew, and the dependence of
our Matthew on Mark is an unproved hy-
pothesis open to many objections. It is
utterly improbable also that an original gos-
pel did not contain historical matter. What-
ever therefore may be thought of the tradi-
tion that Matthew wrote in Hebrew, our
Greek Gospel must certainly be attributed to
him. The date of its composition is proba-
bly to be assigned to .\. d. 60-70. The most
ancient tradition, that of Irenfeus (about A. D.
175), assigns it to that period, and internal
considerations confirm the tradition. The
place of its composition is unknown. The
acquaintance with it shown by post-apostolic
writers in widely scattered localities proves
that it obtained, as soon as it was published,
general circulation. G. T. P.

Mat-thi'as [probably a variant form of
Mattathias, gift of Jehovah].

One of two Christians regarded by the
early church as suitable persons to make up
the number of the apostles diminished by the
apostasy and death of Judas Iscariot. The
question of the relative fitness of the two
candidates was submitted to lot, which was

Mattithiah

464

Meals

in favor of Matthias, who was at once num-
bered with the other eleven apostles (Acts i.
21-26). Nothing more is known of his his-
torj-.
Mat-ti-thi'ah [gift of Jehovah] .

1. A Levite, son of the singer Jeduthun
(1 Chron. xxv. 3), and himself one of the
musicians of the sanctuary who played the
harp (xv. 18, 21). He was afterwards made
head of the fourteenth of the courses into
which the musicians were divided by David
(xxv. 21).

2. A Levite of the sons of Korah, family
of Kohath. He was the eldest son of Shal-
lum, and was placed in charge over the
things that were baked in pans (1 Chron.
ix. 31).

3. A son of Nebo, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 43).

4. A priest or Levite who supported Ezra
when he addressed the returned exiles re-
garding the law (Neh. viii. 4).

Mat'tock.

An instrument for loo-sening the soil,
shaped like a pickaxe or hoe with two blades
in different planes, the cutting edge of one
resenibling that of an axe, and the other that
of an adze. It is used specially for grubbing
up the roots of trees. In the O. T. mattock
is the rendering of: 1. The Hebrew il/a/t^re-
shah, cutting instrument, in 1 Sam. xiii. 20,
21. Mak^resheth, a similar word from the
same root, occurs in ver. 20, and is believed
to denote the plowshare. Both of these im-
plements were made of metal. 2. The He-
brew 3Ia'ihr, dressing instrument. It was
used in digging and dressing vineyards (Is.
Tii. 25).

In 2 Chron. xxxiv. 6 the Hebrew is be-
lieved to be corrupt, and for mattock of the
A. v.. the E. V. substitutes ruins.

versions interprets it as the signs of the zodiac,
equivalent to the Hebrew Mazsaloth (2 Kin.
xxiii. 5, margin). The parallel passage.
Job ix. 9, suggests that the Mazzaroth are a
constellation of the southern sky, a cluster
among the stars that are chambered in the
south. Other interpretations have also been
proposed.
Mead'ow.

1. The i-endering of the Egyptian word
Ahu, in A. V. of Gen. xli. 2, 18. The word
denotes reed-grass or, as it is rendered in Job
viii. 11, flags.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Ma'''reh
(Judg. XX. 33, A. V.) ; see Maareh-geba.

Me'ali [a hundred].

A tower at Jerusalem not far from that of
Hananeel and the sheep gate (Neh. iii. 1 ;
xii. 39) ; see Jerusalem II. 3.

Meal Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Meals.

The Israelites ate in the morning and in
the evening (Ex. xvi. 12; 1 Kin. xvii. 6;
John xxi. 4, 12). This cu.stom did not forbid
a morsel at other hours. Laborers partook
of a light repast at noon (Ruth ii. 14). Later
the ascetic Essenes did with two meals, the
first at the fifth hour or eleven o'clock in the
morning, and the other in the evening (War
ii. 8, 5). Among the stricter Jews of the
time of Christ, the fast of the night was not
broken by a meal on an ordinary day before
nine o'clock, which was the hour of prayer
(Acts ii. 15) ; and on the Sabbath food was
not served before twelve o'clock, when the
service in the synagogue was over (Life 54).
The chief meal of the day took place in the
evening (War i. 17, 4 ; Life 44 ; cp. Gen. xix.
1-3 ; Ex. xii. 18 ; Ruth iii. 7). Feasts were
sometimes spread at noon by the Egyptians
and Syrians (Gen. xliii. 16 ; 1 Kin. xx. 16).

Romans at Meal.

Maul.

The rendering of the Hebrew Mephis,
breaker, a weapon of M'ar (Prov. xxv. 18).

Maz'za-roth.

A feature of the starry heavens (Job
xxxviii. 32). The margin of both English

As to the posture at meals, the ancient
Hebrews, like the ancient Egyptians and
Greeks (Iliad x. 578 ; Anab. vi. 1, 3) and modern
Arabs, were in the habit of sitting, proliably
on mats spread on the floor or ground (Gen.
xxvii. 19 ; Judg. xix. 6 ; 1 Sam. xx. 5, 24 ; 1
Kin. xiii. 20). Reclining on couches came

Meals

465

Meals

into use later (Esth. i. 6 ; vii. S ; Ezek. xsiii.
41 ; John xxi. 20), and probably prevailed
in the Greeo-Konian period (Mark vii. 1 ; in
A. V. tables). Three couches were ordinarily
placed about a table, being arranged so as to
form three sides of a square and leave the
fourth side open for the admittance of serv-
ants with the dishes. The couches were
designated highest, middle, and lowest re-
spectively, the highest being to the right of
the servants as they approached the table.
Generally, only three persons occupied a
couch, but occasionally four or five. The
body lay diagonally on the couch, the head
being near tlie table and the feet stretched
out toward the back of the couch. The left
<>lbow rested on a cushion and supported the
upper part of the body. The right arm re-
mained free. The head of the person re-
clining in front of another rested on or near
the breast of him who lay behind (John xiii.
23 ; xxi. 20). The three positions on each
couch were also termed highest, middle, and
lowest, the highest person being the one who
had nobody at his back. The po.sition of
honor (Mat. xxiii. 6, E. V.) was the highest
place on the highest couch. Women took
their meals with men, occasionally at least
(Ruth ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. i. 4 ; Job i. 4)'

the hollow hand into a dish. Occasionally-
separate portions were .served in tlie same
manner to each (Kuth ii. 14; 1 Sam. 1. 4;
John xiii. 26). Prayer after meal developed
out of Deut. viii. 10 (War ii. 8, 5).

UliLL,- L ^ii_J L _L

Washing the Hands before ur after a Meal.

The Hebrews and Greeks, like the modern
Arabs, washed their hands before eating
(Mat. xxvi. 23; Iliad x. .577; Odys. i. 136),
since generally there was a common dish into
which the hand of each was dipped. This
cleanly custom became a ritual observance
■with the Pharisees, and as such was con-
demned by Christ (Mark vii. 1-13). A bless-
ing was asked before the meal by Samuel (1
Sam. ix. 13), by Christ (Mat. xiv." 19 ; sv. 36 :
xxvi. 26). and by the early Christians (Acts
xxvii. 35). It was also customary among the
Jews in the time of Christ (cp. War ii. 8, 5).
A piece of bread served as a spoon and was
dipped into the bowl of grease or meat, or
the thick soup or pottage was ladled with
30

Modern Orientals at a Meal.

At pretentious meals on festive occasions,
when a large company of guests gathered
about the table, greater ceremony was ob-
served. It was courteous to receive the guest
with a kiss (Luke vii. 45), and indispensable
to provide water for him to wash his feet and
hands with (Gen. xviii. 4 ; xix. 2 ; Luke vii.
44 ; John ii. 6). He came in his best attire,
of course, and often with the hair, beard, feet,
and sometimes clothes, perfumed (Amos vi.
6 ; Wisd. ii. 7). Occasionally he was anointed
at the house of the host (Luke vii. 38 ; .John
xii. 3). The participants at the feast some-
times wore a wreath on the head (Is. xxviii.
1; Wisd. ii. 7, 8 ; Antiq. xix. 9, 1). They
were arranged according to rank (1 Sam. ix.
22; Luke xiv. 8 ; and so in Egypt. Gen. xliii.
33). Portions of food were placed before
each (1 Sam. i. 4), and the guest of honor re-
ceived a larger or choicer share (5 ; ix. 24 ;
so in Egypt, Gen. xliii. 34). A ruler was
sometimes appointed to preside at the feast,
taste the viands, and direct the proceedings
(Ecclus. xxxii. 1, 2: John ii. 9, 10). The
banquet was rendered merrier by music (Is.
V. 12; Ecclus. xxxii. 5, 6), singing (2 Sam.
xix. 35 ; Amos vi. 4-6). dancing (Mat. xiv. 6 ;
Luke XV. 25), and riddles (Judg. xiv. 12).
These customs receive illustration from the
manner of feasts among the Greeks. The
guests were apt to be placed according to
rank, and the guest of honor received the
choicest food (Herod, vi. .57: Iliad vii. .321).
At the conclusion of the meal garlands and
various kinds of perfumes were given to the

Mearah

466

Medeba

guests, and wine was served. Ordinarily a
governor, chosen from among the company
(Anab. vi. 1, 30), presided. His command
was law. He tasted the food and drink be-
fore they were placed on the taV)le, directed
the servants, tixed the proportion in which
the wine and water were mixed, and deter-
mined the quantitj' which each of the com-
pany should drink. He also proposed the
amusements. The ])leasure was heightened
by songs, and bj' the spectacle of dancing
(Plato, Sympos. ii., Legg. 671; Anab. vi. 1,
3-13).

A gruesome custom existed among the
Egyptians, according to Herodotus (ii. 78).
At the banquets of the wealthy the image of
a dead body in a cottin was carried round
and shown to each of the company with the
remark: "Look upon this, then drink and
enjoy yourself; for when dead you will be
like this."

Me-a'rah [a cave].

A place near Sidon (Josh. xiii. 4) ; com-
monly, but without certainty, identified with
a district of caves, on the top of Lebanon,
east of Sidon, known as Mughar Jezzim or
caves of Jezzim. Conder suggests Moghei-
riyeh, 6 miles northeast of Sidon.

Meas'ure.

I. Measures of Length.

The unit was the cubit, 18 inches or more ;
see Cubit.

4 fingers = 1 handbreadth ;
3 handbreadths = 1 span ;
2 spans = 1 cubit.

The finger, accordingly, was S inch.

In the Greco-Roman period di.stance was
measured by miles and stades. 5000 Roman
feet = 1 Roman mile = 1478.7 meters =
4851.43 English feet. Eight stadia (Luke
xxiv. 13, rendered furlong) were loosely reck-
oned to the mile ; although theoretically the
slfulion was 600 Greek feet or 625 Roman
feet, the length of the race course at Olympia.

II. Measure of Area.

Acre is the rendering of the Hebrew Semed,
yoke, and Ma^'nah, furrow (1 Sam. xiv. 14 ;
Is. V. 10). The Roman «c/«.s, furrow, was 120
Roman feet in length, and i\\c jxigernm, yoke,
was a piece of land two actus long by one
actus broad or less than § of an acre. Proba-
bly the Hebrew acre was not very diiferent.

III. Measures of Capacity.

The unit was the epbah for dry substances
and the bath for liquids, the eidiah and the
bath being of equal cai)acity (Ezek. xlv. 11),
and containing a trifle more than 3 pecks, 5
quarts, U. S. dry measure, or 8 gallons, 1
quart, 1§ pints, U. S. wine measure. See
Ephah.

Liquid Pleasure.

12 logs = 1 bin ;
6 bins = 1 bath ;

10 baths = 1 homer, or cor (Ezek.
xlv. 14).

The log, accordingly, contained a trifle
over .9 pint or about 3f gills, and the hiu
about 5 quarts, 1^ pints. A third part, He-
brew shalish (Ps. Ixxx. 5 ; Is. xl. 12, rendered
measure) was probably the third of a bath,
and hence corresponded to a seah. The Greek
measure metretrs (John ii. 6, rendered firkin)
contained in Athens 39.39 liters or 41.61 U.
S. liquid quarts.

Dry Measure.

6 kabs = 1 seah

3 seahs or measures \ 1 ephah (Ex. xvi.
or I = 36 ; Num. xv. 4,

10 omers or tenth parts j Septuagint).

10 ephahs= 1 homer (Ezek. xlv. 11).

The kab was equivalent to about 3f pints,
and the seah to 9§ quarts. The Greek choinix
(Rev. vi. 6, rendered measure) is estimated
at 1.094 liters or .99301 quart. The Roman
modius (Mat. v. 15, rendered bushel) con-
tained .948 imperial peck, or 7.82 U. S. dry
quarts.

Meat Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Me-bun'nai [built].

A Hushathite. one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 27). The name is probably to
be read Sibbecai, in accordance with xxi. 18
and 1 Chron. xi. 29 ; xxvii. 11.

Me-che'rath-ite.

A person related by birth or residence to
Jlecherah (1 Chron. xi. 36). No person or
place called Mecherah is known. The pas-
sage in Chronicles must be compared with 2
Sam. xxiii. 34.

Me-co'nah, in A. V. Mekonah [foundation,
place] .

A town in the territory of Judah (Neh. xL
28), named in connection with Ziklag and
other towns of the extreme south. Not-
identified.

Me'dad [love].

A man who, though not present at the
tabernacle when the Spirit was imparted to
the elders, yet received the gift (Num. xi.
26-29). SeeELDAD.

Me'dan.

A tribe descended from Abraham and
Keturah and mentioned in connection with
Midian (Gen. xxv. 2; 1 Chron. i. 32). Wetz-
stein observes that the Arabian geographer
Yakut mentions a wady ]\Icdan near the
ruined town of Dedan ({■]>. Gen. xxv. 3).

Med'e-ba, in 1 Mac. Medaba [water of
quietness].

An old ]\Ioabite town mentioned with
Heshbon and Dibon in Num. xxi. 30. It was

Mede

467

Medicine

allotted to the tribe of Eeuben (Josh. xiii. 9,
16). During the reigu of David it was held
for a time by the Aiumouites, who with their
Araiua'un allie.s were defeated there by Joab
(1 Chroii. xi.\. 7). It reverted to the Moab-
ites (.Moabite Stoue 30; Is. xv. 2). John
Maceabieus was seized and slain here by sons
of Jambri or Ambri, a powerful family of
the town. The act was revenged by his
brothers Jonathan and Simon (1 Mac. ix. 3(i-
42; Antiq. xiii. 1, 2 and 4). John Hyrcanus
took the town after a siege lasting nearly six
months (9, 1). The ruins are still called
^ladeba, and are situated about 16 miles east
by south of the mouth of the Jordan, and
6 to the south of Heshbon. They are on an
eminence, from which the city extended
eastward into the plain. There are remains
of a city wall, and of temples and other
buildings, with Greek, Roman, and Phce-
nician inscriptions. At the southeast angle
of the city is a fine tank or reservoir 120
yards square, and in the vicinity are many
caves which have been used as cisterns.

Mede, in A. V. once Median (Dan. v. 31).

A person belonging to the Median nation-
ality ; a native or an inhabitant of Media (2
Kin. xvii. 6; Esth. i. 19; Is. xiii. 17; Dan.

V. 28. 31).

Me'di-a.

A country in Asia lying east of the Zagros
mountains, s(mth of the Caspian Sea, west
of Parthia, and north of Elarn. Its length
was about 600 miles, its breadth about 250.
and its area about li50.000 square miles. But
when the empire was at the greatest it ex-
tended beyond these limits, especially in the
northwest. A great part of Media proper
was a table-land 3000 feet high. The rest
consisted of seven parallel mountain chains
running from the northwest to the southeast,
with fertile and well-watered valleys be-
tween. The pasturage was excellent, and
the country was noted for its horses. The
early inhabitants were in all probability a
non-Aryan and non-Semitic race, who were
conquered by Arvans, the Madai of Gen. x.
2 (cp. Herod'. 7, 62). The history of Media
begins to be known in the ninth century
B. c. Berosus the Babylonian, it is true,
makes the ^ledes, about 21.58 B. c. capture
Babj-lon and establish there a Median king-
dom, whicli lasted 224 years: but it is not
known on what authority his statement rests.
About 835 the country was probaldy invaded
by Shalmaneser.king of Assyria, and later by
Sharashi-Ramman his son. who reigned from
823-810, and by Rammannirari, who was
king from 810-781, with the result that
the Medes became tributaries of Assyria.
Tiglath-pilcser conquered and annexed dis-
tricts of Media. When Sargon captured
Samaria, 722 b. c, he placed Israelites in the
cities of the Medes (2 Kin. xvii. 6; xviii. 11).
About 710 the Medes themselves were more
thoroughly conquered by Sargon, who ex-

acted from them a tribute of the fine horses
for which Media was celebrated. Sennach-
erib also boasts of tribute received from
Media, and Esarhaddon jilaccd governors in
the country. In all this there is no trace of
the Medes forming a united nation under
one king (contrary to Herod, i. 96 seq.).
Under Phraortes, 655-633 b. c. Media becauje
a formidable power. About 625 his son
Cyaxares joined with Nabopola.ssar of Baby-
lon in besieging and capturing Nineveh,
thus terminating the great Assyrian empire
(cp. Antiq. x 5, 1). The victors divided the
spoil between them, the share of Cyaxares
being Assyria projier and the countries de-
pendent on it toward the north and north-
west. The marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, son
of Nabopolassar, with Amyites or Aniytis,
daughter of Cyaxares, cemented the alliance
between Babylonia and Media, and greatly
strengthened both monarchies. When Cy-
axares died, in 593, his son Astyages be-
came king. In his old age, about .5.58
the Persians, whose country lay south and
southeast from Media, successfully rebelled,
and Cyrus their leader became king of Media
and Persia. The conquerors and the con-
quered were both of the fine Aryan race,
and they became a dual nation, Medo-Pei>ia.
In 330 B. C. Media became a part of Alexan-
der's empire. After this conqueror's deatli it
was united to Syria (1 Mac. vi. 56), and later
it formed a part of the Parthian empire.

In the Hebrew Scri])tures the Medes are
introduced as at least one of the nationalities
which should take part in the capture of
Babylon (Is. xiii. 17, 18; cp. also Jer. li. 11.
28) ; and Elam and !Media are named as the
two countries from which the conquerors of
Babylon should come (Is. xxi. 2, 9). On the
capture of the great city by tlie Medo-
Persians under Cyrus in 5.39, Darius tlie
Mede took the kingdom of Babylon (Dan. v.
31 ; cp. 28). The Medo-Persian empire is the
second kingdom (Dan. ii. 39), the bear (vii.
5), and the two-horned ram (viii, 3-7, 20).
One horn was higher than the other, and
the higher came up last (ver. 3) ; in other
words, the Median power came first, but
the Persian, which followed, surpassed it in
strength.

Me'di-an. See Mede.

Med'i-cine.

Egyi>t was early renowned for medical
knowledge and skill. Cyrus of I'ersia sent
to Egypt for an oculist, and Darius had
Egyptian physicians at Susa (Herod, iii. 1,
129). For each disea.se there was a pnM-ti-
tioner (Herod, ii. 84). They embalnii-d
(Gen. 1. 2) : they treated diseases of the eye
and feet (Herod, iii. 1, 129) : women prac-
ticed midwifery (Ex. i. 15). They had many
medicines (Jer. xlvi. 11). Even the word
chemistry is perhaps derived from Kum-i,
the ancient name of Egypt. In Greece the
physicians of Crotona enjoyed the highest

Mediterranean Sea

468

Melchisedec

Tcputation, wliile those of Cyrene in Africa
stood next (Herod, iii. I'M).

The i)hysi(ian and his coadjutor the
apothecary are meutioued iu the writings
of the Hebrews, beginning as early as the
exodus from Egypt (Ex. xv. 26; 2 Chron.
xvi. 12 ; Jer. viii. 22 ; Mat. ix. 12 ; Mark v.
26; War ii. 8, 6; and Ex. xxx. 35; Neh. iii.
8; Ecc. X. 1 ; Ecclus. xxxviii. 8). The means
and medicines which they employed for
eti"ecting cures were bandages (Is. i. 6), a\>-
j)lications of oil and of oil mingled with
wine, and baths of oil (Is. i. 6 ; Luke x. IJ4 ;
Jas. V. 14 ; War i. 33, 5), salves and poultices
(2 Kin. XX. 7 ; Jer. viii. 22), roots and leaves
(Ezek. xlvii. 12; War ii. 8, 6), and wine (1
Tim. V. 23). "The Lord created medicines
out of the earth ; and a prudent man will
have no disgust at them " (Ecclus. xxxviii. 4).

Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an Sea [midland sea].

The sea which lies between Europe and
Africa. In Sci-ipture it is referred to simply as
the sea, since it was the chief one in the cur-
rent thought of the Hebrews (Num. xiii. 29;
Acts X. 6) ; or it is called the great sea (Num.
xxxiv. 6 : Josh. xv. 47), or the hinder or west-
ern sea (Deut. xi. 24 ; Joel ii. 20 ; in A. V. ut-
most and uttermost), or the sea of the Philis-
tines (Ex. xxiii. 31). The (ireeks and Romans
usually spoke of it as the sea or our sea ; after
the O. T. period they termed it the sea on
this side of the pillars of Hercules (Aristotle),
or the internal sea (Pliny). The designa-
tion Mediterranean is late. Its length is
2000 miles, and its nai'rowest part is between
Sicily and the African coast, where it is only
79 miles in width. In O. T. times the Phoe-
nician navigators were acquainted with it in
its entire extent from Syria to the straits of
Gibraltar or, using the Greek designation, to
the pillars of Hercules.

Me-gid'do, once Megiddon (Zech. xii. 11)
[place of troops].

An imjKn'tant town in Palestine, mentioned
as Mejedi among the towns captured by
Thothmes III. of Egypt in the twenty-second
year of his reign. When the Israelites en-
tered Canaan, Megiddo had a native king,
who was slain by Joshua (Josh. xii. 21). It
was within the limits of the tribe of Issachar ;
but was assigned to the Mauassites, who,
however, failed to drive out the Canaanite
inhabitants (xvii. 11; Judg. i. 27; 1 Chron.
vii. 29). It had waters, doubtless some
stream, in its vicinity (Judg. v. 19), and was
not far from Taanacii and Beth-shean (i. 27 ;
1 Kin. iv. 12). Solomon strengthened its
fortifications (ix. 15). Ahaziah, king of
Judah, wounded by the partisans of Jehu,
fled to Megiddo, and died there (2 Kin. ix.
27). In the plain near the city the battle was
fought between Pharaoh-necho and Josiah,
in whicli the latter was killed (xxiii. 29 ; 2
Chron. xxxv. 22 ; 1 Esdras i. 29). A great
mourning for the death of the good king
took place (2 Chron. xxxv. 25; Zech. xii. 11).

The name Megiddo enters into the composi-
tion of Armageddon (q. v.). Robinson, and
500 years before him Moses hap-Parchi, con-
sidered Megiddo to have been at el-Lejjiin,
about 9 miles west slightly north of Jezreel.
This identification is commonly accepted.
Thomson, however, locates the site at Tell el-
Mutasellim, less than a mile north of Robin-
son's site ; while Conder places it at Khurbet
el-Mujedda', 10 miles southeast of Jezreel and
3i southwest of Beth-.shean. The similarity
of name favors the last-named identification ;
while its remoteness from Taanach and the
Kishou (Judge v. 19, 21) are against it.

Me-het'a-bel, in A. V. once Mehetatoeel

(Neh. vi. 10) [God blesses].

1. The wife of Hadar, king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 39 ; 1 Chron. i. 50).

2. Father of a certain Delaiah (Neh. vi.
10).

Me-M'da [conjunction, union].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, members
of which returned from captivity (Ezra ii.
43, 52).

Me'hir [price].

A man of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 11).

Me-ho'lath-ite.

A native or inhabitant of a place called
Meholah (1 Sam. xviii. 19) ; perhaps Abel-
meholah, Elisha's native village.

Me-hu'ja-el.

Sou of Irad, and father of Methusael, of
the race of Cain (Gen. iv. 18).

Me-hu'man [faithful, a eunuch ; if the
name is related to Aramaic, m'hahnari].

One of the seven chamberlains who served
in the presence of king Ahasuerus (Esth.
i. 10).

Me-liu'niin, Mehunims. See Meunim.

Me-jar'kon [waters of the yellow color,
yellow waters].

A town in the territory of Dan near Joppa
(Josh. xix. 46). A place on the river 'Aujah
has been suggested (Kiepert, Conder). The
river flows from a swanij), through canes,
willows, rushes, and grass, and then in a
deeply-hollowed channel, whence it carries
away vegetable soil enough to render the
water yellow. Thus the name suits. The
stream is never dry, and iu winter is unford-
able. It falls into the Mediterranean 3|
miles north of Joppa.

Me-ko'nah. See Meconah.

Mel-a-ti'ah [Jehovah hath set free].

A Gibeonite who heljied to rebuild part of
the wall around Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 7).

Mel'cM [probably by contraction for He-
brew Mulhiyyah. Jehovah is king].

A name borne by two ancestors of Chri>t
who lived, the one before, the other after,
the time of Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 24, 28).

Mel-chi'ah. See Malchiah.

Mel-cMs'e-dec. See Melchizedek.

Melchishua

469

Memphis

Mel- cM-sliu'a. See Malchi-shv.v.

Mel-cMz'e-dek, in A. V. of N. T. MelcWs-
edec [king of righteousness or justice].

King of Salem and priest of the most high
God ^Geu. xiv. ISseq.). By Salem, Jerusa-
lem is probably meant ; for 1. The city was
in existence, bore the name of Jerusalem,
and was under a king before the conquest of
Canaan by the Israelites. 2. The name Je-
rusalem moans city or, to the Hebrew ear,
foundation of peace or siifety, so that Salem
is an appropriate abbreviation. 3. Salem is
used as the name of Jerusalem in Ps. Ixxvi.
2. 4. The comparison of David's Lord with
Melchizedek in Ps. ex. 4 appeal's most apt if
Melchizedek was king of the same city as
David. 5. Jerusalem is on the route from
Hobah and Damascus to Hebron, whither
Abraham was going.

Melchizedek, as described in Hebrews v. 10 ;
vi. 20 ; vii., was without father, without
mother, without genealogy. This statement
means that his pedigree is not recorded (cp.
Ezra ii. 59, 62). This mode of expression
was familiar to the Assyrian scribes, was used
by the Jewish rabbis, and is known to Greek
and Latin writers. He is further described
as having neither beginning of days nor end
of life, of whom it is testirted that he lives.
He suddenly emerges from the unknown and
as suddenly disappears ; it is not known
whence he came or whither he went, neither
birth nor death is assigned to him, he is a
type of undying priesthood.

Melchizedek was priest of God Most High.
El 'elyon appears late among the Phoenicians
as a title of Saturn, the begetter of heaven
and earth (Sanchoniathon quoted by Eusebius,
Praep. i. 10). If El 'elyon is not in Melchize-
dek's conception the absolutely only God, he
is the highest, the God of the gods ; a lofty
idea, even though not a pure monotheism.
Melchizedek came forth from his royal city
to welcome the returning benefactor of the
peoples of Canaan ; and Abraham recognized
him as a priest of the true God and publicly
testified to sharing the same or a kindred
faith by paying tithes to him who was repre-
sentative of God Most High, to the priest
who had ascribed the victory to the Creator
of heaven and earth (cp. Acts x. 35).

The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews
shows how great a personage Melchizedek
was, to whom even Abraham, and through
him virtually Levi, paid tithes, thus admit-
ting their inferiority. When thus our Lord
was made a high priest after the order of
Melchizedek, he held a higher office than the
Aaronic priesthood.

Me'le-a.

An ancestor of Christ, who lived shortly
after David (Luke iii. 31).

Me'lech [a king].

A son of Micah, a descendant of Saul and
Jonathan (1 Chron. viii. 35; ix. 41).

Mel'i-cu. See Malluchi.

Mel'i-ta.

The island where Paul was shipwrecked
(Acts xxviii. 1). Two islands bore this name
in ancient times. One, now called Melida,
lies in the Adriatic Sea off the coast of Dal-
matia, the other is now known as Malta. The
latter is now probably universally believed
to be the island where the ship of Paul was
wrecked. This opinion is strongly confirmed
by the fact that Mr. Smith, of Jordanhill,
who was accustomed to sail in a yacht on
the Mediterranean, investigated first the di-
rection from which the wind Euroclydon or
Euraquilo blew, then the course in which
the ship would drift, and her probable rate
of progress while she lay-to under storm
sails. The result was that he found she
would reach Malta just about the time which
the narrative in The Acts requires. The ves.sel
had been driven to and fro in the (sea of)
Adria (xxvii. 27); see Adria. The tradi-
tional site of the shipwreck is St. Paul's Bay,
on the northeast coast of the i.sland. In The
Acts the inhabitants of the island are called
barbarians because they were neither Greeks
nor Eomans.

Mel'on.

A succulent plant and its edible fruit, in
Hebrew '"battiah, which the Hebrews ate when
in Egypt (Xum. xi. 5). Melons of all sorts
were cultivated in Egypt, and the water-
melon (Cncnmis citndlus) is still called battiji
by the Egyptians, and is grown in immense
quantities.

Mel'zar [probably from a Persian word
meaning steward].

A man whom the chief of the eunuchs set
over Daniel and his companions (Dan. i. 11,
16, A. v.). But in Hebrew it has the article
before it ; the K. V. and the margin of the
A. V. therefore translate it steward.

Mem.

The thirteenth letter of the Hebrew alpha-
bet. English M comes from the same source,
and represents it in anglicized Hebrew names.
It stands at the head of the thirteenth sec-
tion of Ps. cxix., in which section each verse
of the original begins with this letter.

For Hebrew letters, whose similarity of
form to mem has caused difficulty to copy-
ists, see e. g. Beth.

Mem'pMs [Egyptian Men-nefer, place of
good, or. as it was interpreted to Plutarch,
haven of good].

An important Egyi^tian city, said by Herod-
otus to have been built by Menes, the first
historical king of Egj-pt, on land reclaimed
by him from the Nile. It stood in the plain
on the western side of the Nile, about 10
miles above the apex of the delta. It became
the metropolis and capital of Lower Egypt,
and the third, the fourth, the fifth, the sev-
enth, and the eighth dynasties were consid-
ered Memphite by Manetho. The deity spe-
cially worshiped in the city was Ptah. Mem-
phis remained a flourishing city even after

Memucan

470

Mephiboshetli

the capital was transferred to Thebes, and
did not lose its importance until Alexandria
was founded. To the Hebrews Memphis was
known as Noph, from the demotic Men-nofi,
and Moph, from Menf (Is. xix. 13 ; text of
Hos. ix. 6; c]). Assyrian Minpi). After the
fall of Jerusalem and murder of Gedaliah,
the Jews left in the laud fled to Egypt, and
some of them settled, at Memphis (Jer. xliv.
1). Judgment was threatened against the
city by Jeremiah and Ezekiel (xlvi. 19 ; cp.
also ii. 16 and xlvi. 14; Ezek. xxx. 13, 16;
cp. also Is. xix. 13 ; Hos. ix. 6). A consider-
able part of Memphis existed in the middle
ages, but materials from it were continually
carried away to be used for building purposes
in Cairo. Now it is all but gone, two Arab
villages occupying its site. But twenty pyr-
amids, which constituted its necropolis, and
the celebrated sphinx present the most im-
pressive memorials of its former greatness.

Me-inu'can.

One of the seven princes of Persia and
Media at the court of Ahasuerus who saw
the king's face. Memucan's counsel was ad-
verse to Vashti (Esth. i. 14, 15, 21).

Men'a-hem [comforter] .

A .son of Gadi who, when the news reached
Tirzah that Shallum had murdered king
Zechariah, went to Samaria, slew Shallum,
and reigned in his stead (2 Kin. xv. 14). The
town of Tiphsah refused to admit him within
its gates, so he captured it, and perpetrated
cruelties on the inhabitants (ver. 16). His
throne was unsteady; and when Pul, better
known as Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria,
invaded the land, Menahem purchased ex-
emption from devastation for his realm and
support for his own tottering throne by the
payment of 1000 talents of silver, nearly two
million dollars, which represented a much
greater purchasing value then than now.
The money was raised by a tax on the
wealthiest men in Israel, who had to pay
50 shekels, about $32.50, each. There must,
therefore, have been more than 60,000 Isra-
elites able to contribute this amount under
compulsion. Tiglath-pileser, as recorded in
the Assyrian sculptures, claims Minihimmu
(Menahem) of Samaria as one of his tribu-
taries. In religion the Israelite king ad-
hered to the calf worship of Jeroboam I.
He reigned ten years, from about 747 to 738
B. c. inclu.sive, and was succeeded on the
throne of Israel bv his son Pekahiah (2 Kin.
XV. 17, 22).

Me'nan. See Menna.

Me'ne.

The first word of the inscription written
by a hand on the wall at Belshazzar's feast:
Mp;nI';, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin (Dan. v.
25). These mysterious words are Aramaic.
They are rendered on the margin of R. V.
"Numbered, numbered, weighed, and divis-
ions;" Pharsin being the plural of the noun
p'rex, Mene being the regular ijassive par-

ticiple of its verb in the Peal species, and
Tekel being regarded as likewise a passive
participle, with the vocalization which is tra-
ditionally given to it changed from t'kil to
t'lfel to conform to the sound of m'ne\ These
letters were not vocalized as written on the
wall, and might have been pronounced in a
variety of ways. Even if the correct pro-
nunciation had occurred to one of the wise
men as among several possibilities, he had
DO means of establishing the correctness of
his reading or of interpreting the words.
Daniel solved the enigma (25-28). How
difficult it was to determine the true pronun-
ciation is illustrated by the proposal which
has been made by scholars to regard Mene as
the absolute state of the noun manya', maneh,
and to read the words " A maneh, a maneh,
a shekel and half manehs," or "Numbered
have been a maneh, a shekel, and half ma-
nehs." The words as thus read have been
sometimes understood as symbolizing under
the figure of weights that a worthy person
(Nebuchadnezzar, the virtual founder of the
empire) had been succeeded by an inferior
ruler (Belshazzar), and that the empire was
about to be divided into halves.

Me'ni [fate, destiny].

The name of the god of destiny, whom
idolatrous Hebrews worshiped (Is. Ixv. 11,
margin). In the text the English versions
prefer the alternative interpretation of the
word, regarding it as a common noun and
not a proper name.

Men'na, in A. Y. Menan.

An ancestor of Christ, who lived shortly
after the time of David (Luke iii. 31).

Me - nu ' hotli [apparently, the resting
places] .

A place, if the present Hebrew text is cor-
rect, of which half the inhabitants were
descended through Shobal from Caleb of the
tribe of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 52, R. V.). The
name, if vocalized as in the present Hebrew
text, would not give rise to the gentile ad-
jective of ver. 54, which is rendered Mana-
hathites. Perhaps, therefore, Menuhoth
should be read Manahath (q. v.).

Me-on'e-nim [augurs].

The augurs' oak or terebinth stood near
Shechem (Judg. ix. 37; not plain, as in A.
Y.). See remarks under Moreh.

Me-on'o-thai [my habitations].

A man of Judah, the father of the in-
habitants of Ophrah (1 Chron. iv. 14).

Meph'a-ath [beauty].

A town of the Reubenites (Josh. xiii. 18),
given to the Merarite Levites (xxi. 37; 1
Chron. vi. 79). In Jeremiah's time it was in
the hands of the Moabites (Jer. xlviii. 21).
Site unknown.

Me-pMb'o-sheth [destroying shame].

1. Son of king Saul by Rizpah, the daughter
of Aiah. He was executed at the instance
of the Gibeonites (2 Sam. xxi. 8, 9).

Merab

471

Mered

2. The sou of Jonathan. He was five
years old when the tidings came of his
father's and his grandfather's death at Gil-
boa. Under the influence of panic, the
nurse took him up in her arms and fled with
him ; but in her flight she let him fall, so
that he l)ecame lame in both his feet (2 Sam.
iv. 4). For a long time he lived at Lo-debar,
*ast of the Jordan, whence David called him
to court to show him kindness for his father
Jonathan's sake, restoring to him the estates
ot Saul and appointing him a place at the
r(jyal talile {ix. 1-13). Daring the rebellion
of Absalom he remained at Jerusalem, and
was accused by his servant Ziba of dis-
loyalty. David believed the accusation and
transferred 3Iephibosheth's estates to Ziba.
After the return of David, Mephibosheth at-
tempted to clear himself of the charge, and
David restored half the estates to him ; but
lie declared that he did not wish the prop-
erty, since he had his desire in the restora-
tion of the king (svi. 1-4 ; xix. 24-30). He
had a son Micha (ix. 12), through whom the
race of Jonathan was perpetuated. In 1
Chron. viii. 34 ; ix. 40 Mephibosheth is called
Merih-baal, a striver is the Lord or perhaps,
striver against Baal. This was probably his
original name, bosheth, shame, being substi-
tuted for baal. lord, by later writers when the
word Baal had become distasteful through as-
sociation with idolatry.

Me'rab [increase].

Saul's elder daughter (1 Sam. xiv. 49).
Her father promised her in marriage to
David, and then, breaking faith, gave her
as a wife to Adriel the Meholathite (xviii.
17-19).

Me-ra'iali [contumacy, stubbornness].

A priest, head of the father's house Seraiah
in the days of Joiakim, a generation after
the exile (Neh. xii. 12).

Me-ra'ioth [rebellions].

1. A priest, son of Zerahiah (1 Chron. vi.
6, 7, 52). He lived while the house of Eli
had charge of the tabernacle.

2. A priest, son of Ahitub and father of
Zadok (1 Chron. ix. 11; Xeh. xi. 11). He
seems to have lived about half a century be-
fore the exile.

3. A father's house among the priests in
the days of Joiakim (Neh. xii. 15). See
Mkremoth.

Me-ra'ri [bitter, unhappy].

Son of Levi, and founder of one of the
three leading Levitical families (Gen. xlvi.
11 : Ex. vi. 16; Xum. xxvi. 57).

Me-ra'rites.

One of the three great Levitical families.
They were descended from Merari. In the
wilderness they encamped on the north side
of the tabernacle (Num. iii. 35). and had
under their charge its boards, bars, pillars,
sockets, and vessels (36 ; i v. 29-33). To en-
able them to carry these there were assigned

to them four wagons and eight oxeu (vii. 8).
They were subdivided into the Mahlites and
the Mushites (iii. 20, 33) ; and at the first
census in the wilderness numbered 6200
males from a mouth old and upward (33,
34). Of these, 3200 were from 30 to 60 years
old (iv. 42-45). The cities a.s.signed to them
numbered twelve, of which four were in the
tribe of Zebulun, .four in that of Eeuben,
and four in that of Gad; one of them,
Ramoth-gilead, being a city of refuge (Josh.
xxi. 34-40; 1 Chron. vi. 63, 77-81). They
were reorganized by David (1 Chron. xxiii.
6, 21-23).

Mer-a-tJia'im [twofold rebellion].

A symbolical name for Babylon ( Jer. 1. 21).

Mer'cu-ry, in A. V. Mer-cu'ri-us.

A deity worshiped by the Komans and,
under the name of Hermes, by the Greeks
also. He was the herald of the gods, and
specially attended upon Jupiter. He was
quick in his movements, was a good speaker,
and was credited with having been the in-
ventor of letters, of music, and of other
arts. Paul and Barnabas were looked upon
as gods by the people of Lystra, when the
cripple was healed at the apostle's word ;
and as Paul was the chief speaker, they took
him for Mercury and Barnabas, whom he ac-
companied, for Jupiter (Acts xiv. 12).

Mer'cy Seat.

The covering of the ark ; called in Hebrew
Kappoveth, covering (especially if not exclu-
sively in the sense of atonement), and in
Greek 'Ihisterion, propitiatory (Ex. xxvi. 34;
Heb. ix. 5). Its name did not suggest a mere
lid, but brought to mind the act and place of
atonement and the accomplished atonement.
It was made of pure gold ; its length was
two and a naif cubits, and its breadth a cubit
and a half. On each side of it and wrought
as one piece with it stood a cherub with out-
stretched wings, so that a wing of each ex-
tended over the mercy seat and met that of
the other cherub. Between these cherubim
Jehovah's glory was manifested, and there
Jehovah communed with his people (Ex.
XXV. 17-22; xxx. 6; Num. vii. 89). There
was a similar arrangement in Solomon's
temple (1 Kin. vi. 23-28 ; viii. 6-11 ; 1 Chron.
xxviii. 11). Once a year, on the great
day of atonement, the high priest, after he
had ofi"ered a sin ofl'ering, entered the most
holy place and burnt incense, symbol (»f
accepted worship, in the presence of Je-
hovah, which rose and enveloped the mercy
seat in a cloud. He then sprinkled the blood
of the sacrificed bullock and goat on and
before the mercy seat and made atonement
for the sins of himself and the nation in the
presence of the covenant law, which was
written on the tables of stone and was lying
in the ark, and of Jehovah, who dwelt be-
tween the cherubim (Lev. xvi. 2, 13-17).

Me'red [rebellion].

Son of Ezrah, who was reckoned as be-

Meremoth

472

Merom

lougiug to the tribe of Judah. He had a
daughter of Pharaoh to wife aud probably
also a Jewess (1 Chrou. iv. 17, lb, K. V.).

Mer'e-moth [elevations] .

1. A chief of the priests, who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 3,
7). In the next generation a. father's house
among the priests, eaunieraied in the cor-
responding position in the catalogue, bears
the name Meraioth (ver. 15). One of the
two names is probably a misreading of mem
or jod.

2. A priest, son of Uriah. He was em-
ployed to weigh the silver and gold brought
by Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii. 33). He
repaired part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
iii. 4, 21), and is probably the person of the
name who sealed the covenant (x. 5).

3. A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 36).

Me'res.

One of the seven princes of Persia and
Media who saw the king's face in the reign
of Ahasuerus (Esther i. 14).

Mer'i-bah [contention, strife].

1. One of two names given by Moses to
the locality at Horeb and near Rephidim
where the people murmured and where
water was miraculously brought from the
rock (Ex. xvii. 1-7).

2. A second locality,- namely, Kadesh-bar-
nea in the wilderness of Zin, where also the
people murmured and water was miraculously
brought from the rock (Num. xx. 13, 14;
xxvii. 14 ; Deut. xxxii. 51 ; xxxiii. 8 ; Ps.
Ixxxi. 7). The waters of this Meribah are
the waters of strife of Ps. cvi. 32 and Ezek.
xlvii. 19. The R. V. in the text of the first
passage substitutes Meribah, and in the sec-
ond Meriboth-kadesh. It is to be noted that
there is nothing surprising, under the cir-
cumstances, in the outbreak of discontent at
the scarcity of water, which was experienced
more than twice or thrice. The localities
are different and quite far apart. The time
is different. The conduct of Moses is very
different on the two occasions.

Mer-ib-ba'al. See Mephibosheth.

Mer-i-both-ka'desh [contentions at Ka-
desh].

A station of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness (Ezek. xlvii. 19, R. V.). See Mer-
ibah 2.

Mer'o-dacli [Assyrian and Babylonian
Mardiik].

The patron deity of Babylon (Jer. 1. 2).
See Bel.

Mer'o-dacli-bara-dan, in 2 Kin. xx. 12
Berodach-toaladan [Merodach has given a
son] . Berodach may be a copyist's misspelling
for Merodach, or represent the approximation
of sound between m and b in Babylonian.

A king of Babylon, son of Baladan (2 Kin.
XX. 12), of the dynasty of Bit-Yakin. He

was a man of great ability, courage, aud en-
terprise. The dynasty had its capital at Bit-
Yakin, in the marshes near the mouth of the
Euphrates, a district which was the ancestral
home of the Chaldean tribe. Merodach-
baladan succeeded to this petty throne.
About 731 B. c. he did homage to Tiglath-
pileser, king of Assyria ; but when, in 722,
the Assyrian army was absent carrying on
the siege of Samaria, and news reached
Babylonia that the king of Assyria had died
or been murdered, Merodach-baladan took
the opportunity of becoming king of Ba)>y-
lon. Sargon, king of Assyria, recognized
him in 721. He reigned eleven years. In
712, or thereabouts, Merodach-baladan sent
the embassy to Hezekiah, which, traveling
with the ostensible object of congratulating
Hezekiah on his recovery (2 Kin. xx. 12-19 ;
2 Chron. xxxii. 31 ; Is. xxxix. 1-8), was
really designed to invite him to join in a con-
federacy with the rulers of Babylon, Susiana,
Phoenicia, Moab, Edom, Philistia, and Egypt
for a grand attack on the Assyrian empire.
Sargon suspected what was going on, attacked
his enemies individually before they had time
to unite, aud vanquished them one by one.
In 710 Sargon took Babylon, aud in 709 Bit-
Yakin, capturing Merodach-baladan at the
latter place. Some time after Sargon's death
Merodach-baladan was again free, and in 704
or 703 he reentered Babylon, and slew the
Assyrian viceroy, who was then its ruler.
But his second reign lasted only from six
to nine months. He. was defeated aud
driven from Babylon to Bit-Yakin by
Sennacherib, Sargon's son and successor.
In 700, in connection with the revolt of
a Chaldean called Nergal-ushezib or Shu-
zub, Merodach-baladan raised his head again.
Sennacherib took the road to Bit-Yakin,
but Merodach-baladan avoided battle and
fled to a town in the midst of the sea. Sen-
nacherib again prevailed, quelling the re-
volt in 698. In 697 he attacked the last
refuge of Merodach-baladan, which M'as a
fragment of territory given him by the Elam-
ites. The Assyrian king employed Phoeni-
cian ships for the purpose. Merodach's small
settlement, which he had abandoned, was
captured and burnt, and he was not able to
raise his head again. Though he may have
ultimately failed in his enterprises, yet he
had not lived in vain. The Chaldeans, whose
chief he was, and who seem to have been a
Semitic race, became from his days the
dominant caste in Babylon.

Me'rom [a height, a high place].

A lake on the .Jordan, 11 miles north of
the sea of Galilee. By it Joshua defeated
the northern Canaanite kings (Josh. xi. 5, 7).
It is 4 miles long by 3i broad, and is 12 miles
from the Banias source of the Jordan. It is
270 feet above the level of the Mediterranean.
It occupies the southern portion of a very
marshy basin about 15 miles long by 5 broad.

Meronothite

473

Mesha

Waters of Merom, now Late of Huleh.

The basin is now called the Huleh and the
lake Baheiret el-Huleh or lake of Huleh.

Me-ron'o-thite.

An inhabitant of Meronoth (1 Chron. xxvii.
30; Neb. iii. 7). Meronoth has not been
identified.

Me'roz [probably, a place of refuge].

A town which gave no assistance in the
fight with Sisera (Judg. v. 23). Its site is
unknown, though el-Murussus, a ruin about
4A miles northwest of Beth-shean, has been
suggested, or Kefr Misr, on the southern
slope of mount Tabor, 6i miles northwest of
el-5luru.ssus.

Mes'a-loth, in A. Y. Masaloth [perhaps,
from Hebrew m'sillofh. ascents, stuirs].

A place in the district of Arbela (1 Mac.
ix. 2). Josephus understood it to be the re-
gion of fortified caves at Arbela in Galilee,
which were only to be reached by steps
(Antiq. xii. 11, 1).

Me'sech. See Meshech.

Me'sha, I.

The limit in one direction of the region
occupied by the descendants of Joktan (Gen.
X. .30). Xot identified. Mouza, on the eastern
coast of the Red Sea, about 100 miles from
the straits of Bab el-Mandeb, Bischa in
northern Yemen, the district Mesene at the
northwestern end of the Persian Gulf, and
Massa (cp. Septuagint and Gen. xxv. 14) have
been suggested.

Me'sha, II. [perhaps, retreat, withdrawal].
A Benjamite, a son of .Shaharaim by his
■Rife Hodesh (1 Chron. viii. 8, 9).

Me'sha, III. [salvation].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Caleb. He was ancestor of the in-
habitants of Ziph (1 Chron. ii. 42).

2. A king of Moab, son of Chemosh-melech.
He rendered to king Ahab the tribute of
100,000 lambs and as many rams, namely
their wool (2 Kin. iii. 4). Ahab was slain at
the battle of Ramoth-gilead about 853 B. c,
which probably took place in the early
spring, "the time when kings go forth to
war," and Ahaziah thereby became sole king.
The discomfiture of Israel and Judah at
Eamoth-gilead and the death of Ahab were
the signal to Mesha to refuse the tribute of
this year, the second of Ahaziah (Antiq. ix.
2, 1), to Israel (2 Kin. i. 1). Jehoshaphat,
king of Judah, returned from Ramoth-gilead
to Jerusalem, say in May, and undertook a
religious reformation of the nation (2 Chron.
xix.). After this work of reform had begun
(xx. 1), the Ammonites and Moabites, in alli-
ance with the Edomites, who had been per-
suaded to revolt, invaded Judah. Jehosh-
aphat defeated the allies and reduced
Edom to its former subjection, and a time
of peace ensued (30). Ahaziah died at the
end of this year, perhaps in December or
January or later, and Jehoram his brother
succeeded him (2 Kin. i. 17). The next year,
852 B. c, or later, Jehoram, desiring to ren-
der Moab again tributary, asked aid of Je-
hoshaphat (iii. 7). The latter probably
wished to chastise the Moabites still further
for their invasion of .Judah. and, therefore,
although he had been rebuked for allying
himself with ungodly Ahab and Ahaziah,

Meshach

474

Meshullam

consented, for Jelioram had exhibited signs
of godliness by a considerable reformation (2).
Jehoram advanced with his confederates, Je-
hoshaphat and an unnamed Edomite king,
round the southern end of the Dead Sea.
The allied armies were almost perishing with
thirst when Elisha, who accompanied them,
predicted that water would be divinely sent,
and it came. As the roseate hues of the
morning sun fell upon it, the Moabite king,
doubtless Mesha, thought it was blood, and,
rashly inferring that the three invading
armies had quarreled and turned their swords
against each other, carelessly advanced with
his forces to take the prey. He was routed,
and the Israelites entered his laud and beat
down his cities (24, 25). At Kir-hareseth,
seeing that the battle was too sore for him
and failing in a desperate attempt to break
through the lines of the enemy, he took his
eldest son and heir apparent and olfered him
as a burnt offering to Chemosh on the city
wall. The besiegers airparently felt that they
were in part responsible for occasioning this
human sacrifice and that they had incurred
the wrath of God, and they raised the siege
and returned to the land of Israel without
resubjugating Moab (25-27). The Moabite
stone was erected partly for the purpose of
commemorating this revolt and its successful
issue ; see Moabite Stone.

Me'shach.

The name given by the prince of the
eunuchs at Babylon to Mishael, one of the
three faithful Jews afterwards saved from
the fiery furnace (Dan. i. 7 ; ii. 49 ; iii. 13-
30).

Me'shech, in A. V. once Mesecli (Ps. cxx. 5).

A i)eople descended from Japheth (Gen. x.
2). They traded in the Tyrian markets in
slaves and vessels of brass (Ezek. xxvii. 13).
They were allies of Tubal, and allies or sub-
jects of Gog, the prince of Rosh, Meshech,
and Tubal (Ezek. xxxii. 26; xxxviii. 2, 3;
xxxix. 1, E. v.). Meshech and Tubal are
associated together in the Assyrian inscrip-
tions as they are in the Bible. In the days
of Tiglath-pileser, about 1120 b. c, and
Shalmaneser, 859-825, the land of Muskn,
that is Meshech, lay in the mountains to the
north of Assyria and bordered on Tabal, that
is Tubal, in the west. They were gradually
driven northward to near the Black Sea.
Herodotus calls the two races the Moschoi
and Tibarenoi, and locates them in the
mountains southeast of the Black Sea (Herod,
iii. 94 ; vii. 78). The Moschoi dwelt between
the source of the Phasis and Cyrus rivers
(Pliny vi. 4).

Me-shel-e-mi'ah [Jehovah recompenses].

A Levite, family of Kohath, house of Izhar
and Korah. He and his sons were doorkeep-
ers of the sanctuary (1 C'hron. ix. 21; xxvi.
1). In xxvi. 14 he is called Shelemiah.

Me-shez'a-bel, in A. V. Meshezabeel [(lod
sets free].

1. Father of a certain Berechiah (Neh.
iii. 4).

2. One of those who sealed the covenant
(Neh. x. 21).

3. A man of Judah, family of Zerah (Neh.
xi. 24).

Me-sMl'le-mith [recompense, retribution].
See Meshillemotu 2.

Me-sMl'le-moth [recompen.ses] .

1. An Ephraimite, father of that Berechiah
who urged the release of the captives brought
from Judah by Pekah's army (2 Chron.
xxviii. 12).

2. A priest descended from Immer (Neh.
xi. 13), called Meshillemith in 1 Chron. ix.
12.

Me-shul'lam [a friend].

1. A Benjamite, descended from Shaharaim
through Elpaal (1 Chron. viii. 17).

2. A leading man among the Gadites in
the reign of Jotham (1 Chron. v. 13).

3. An ancestor of Shaphan the scribe (2
Kin. xxii. 3).

4. A priest, son of Zadok, and father of
the high priest Hilkiah who lived in Josiah's
reign (1 Chron. ix. 11 ; Neh. xi. 11). See
Shallum 7.

5. A Kohathite Levite who with others
helped faithfully to superintend the work-
men who re])aired the temple in Josiah's
reign (2 Chron. xxxiv. 12).

6. A priest, son of Meshillemith of the
house of Immer (1 Chron. ix. 12).

7. A son of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 19).

8. A Benjamite, father of Sallu (1 Chron.
ix. 7; Neh. xi. 7).

9. Another Benjamite, son of Shephatiah (1
Chron. ix. 8).

10. A chief man whom, with others, Ezra
sent from the river of Ahava to secure Le-
vites to go to Jerusalem (Ezra viii. 16).

11. One of those who busied themselves,
probably adversely, in the matter of in-
ducing the Jews who had married foreign
wives to put them away (Ezra x. 15).

12. A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
awaj' his foreign wife (Ezra x. 29).

13. A son of Berechiah. He helped to
repair two portions of the wall of Jerusalem,
at the second of which he had a chamber
(Neh. iii. 4, 30). Johanan, son of Tobiah
the Ammonite, married his daughter (vi. 18).

14. Son of Besodeiah. He with another
returned exile repaired the old gate of the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6).

15. One of those who stood on Ezra's left
hand while he read and explained the law
to the people (Neh. viii. 4).

16. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of
a father's house, sealed the covenant (Neh.
X. 7).

17. A chief of the people who did so (Neh.
X. 20).

IS. One of the princes of Judah who
marched in the procession at the dedication
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 33).

Meshullemeth

475

Mezobaite

19. A priest, head of the father's house
Ezra in tlio days of the high priest Joiakim
(Neh. xii. 13). '

20. Another priest at the same date, head
of the father's house Giuuethon (Neh. xii.
16).

21. A porter who lived at the same date
(Nell. xii. 25).

Me-shul'le-meth [a female friend].

Wife (if king Manasseh, and mother of
king Anion (2 Kiu. xxi. 19).

Me-so'ba-ite. See Mezobaite.

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a [land between rivers].

The rendering, borrowed from the Septua->
gint, for the Hebrew Aram-uaharaim ; see
Aram 2, (1). It isa Greek name which appears
after the time of Alexander the Great. The
Greek and Roman geographers used the term
for the whole country between the Euphrates
and llgris rivers, excluding the mountainous
region where the rivers take their rise and
ordinarily also the low-lying plain of Baby-
lonia in the other direction. Thus limited,
its u]>per portion is hilly and fertile and its
lower part, especially toward the Tigris, is a
salt desert. Mesopotamia is now called by
the Arabs Jezireh or the island.

Some of its inhabitants were present on
that day of Pentecost on which the Holy
Spirit descended (Acts ii. 9). Stephen in-
cludes Ur of the Chaldees in Mesopotamia
(vii. 2).

Mes-si'ah, in A. V. of X. T. Messias (John
1.41 ; iv. 25), the Greek form [anointed one].

A Hebrew word, to which the Greek word
Chrisios answers. It was applicable to any
person anointed with the holy oil ; as the
high priest (Lev. iv. 3, 5. 16 ; 1 Sam. xii. 3, 5,
Hebrew) or the king (2 Sam. i. 14, 16). The
title is given to the patriarchs Abraham and
Isaac and to the Persian king Cyrus, as
chosen ones to administer the kingdom of
God (Ps. cv. 15: Is. xlv. 1). When God
promised David that the throne and scepter
should remain in his family forever (2 Sam.
vii. 13), the title acquired a special reference
and denoted the representative of the royal
line of David ( Ps. ii. 2 ; xviii. 50 ; Ixxxiv. 9 ;
Ixxxix. 38, 51; cxxxii. 10. 17; Lam. iv. 20;
Hab. iii. 13). And when prophecy began to
tell of a king who should appear in this line
and be the great deliverer of his people (Jer.
xxiii. 5, 6), whose goings forth are from of old,
from everlasting (Mic. v. 2-5), and who should
uphold the throne and kingdom of David
forever (Is. ix. 6. 7), the title of the Messiah,
par excellence, naturally became attached to
him (Dan. ix. 2.5, 26; Targum Onkelos, Num.
xxiv. 17-19), and ultimately became a cus-
tomary de.signation of him, being as common
as the title s<m of David (John i. 41 ; iv. 25 ;
and in the form Christ, Mat. i. 1 et paf5sim).

The terra Messianic prophecy denotes all
prophecy which treats of the person, work,
or kingdom of Christ, whether it does so
with express mention of Christ or speaks of

the future salvation, glory, and consumma-
tion of God's kingdom without mention of
the mediator. The term Messianic times
does not refer exclusively to the period when
Christ lived on earth. It generally compre-
hends the dispensation which Clirist in-
augurated and conducts as mediatorial king,
whether viewed in its entirety or in some of
its aspects.

Met'als.

The metals used in ancient times were
gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, and tin
(Num. xxxi. 22) ; see the several articles.
Perhaps antimony was employed for color-
ing the eyelids and eyebrows. See Paint.

Me-theg-am'mah [probably, bridle of the
mother citv, ;'. e. jurisdiction of the metropo-
lis].

A town taken by David from the Philis-
tines (2 Sam. viii. 1). The reference ia
doubtless to Gath and its suburbs (1 Chron.
xviii. 1).

Me-thu'sa-el. See Methushael.

Me-thu'se-lah, in A. V. of N. T. Mathu-
sala [perhaps, man of a weapon].

Sou of Enoch and father of the Setliite
Laniech (Gen. v. 21-27). If the number of
years which are assigned to him refer to his
own individual life, he is notable for having
lived to a greater age than any other man
recorded in history. See Chronology.

Me-thu'sha-el, in A. V. Me-thu'sael [man
of God].

Son of Mehujael, and father of Lamech,
of the race of Cain (Gen. iv. IS).

Me-u'nim, in A. V. also Mehunim and
Mehunims [plural of the gentile adjective
from Maon, denoting the people of Maon].

A people whose capital was probably tlie
city of Ma'an, 12 miles southeast of Petra.
They inhabited mount Seir (2 Chron. xx. 1,
emended text, with 10 ; cp. Septuagint). A
body of them were smitten by the Simeon-
ites near Gedor, where they dwelt as
strangers (1 Chron. iv. 39-41). They are
mentioned in connection with Philistines
and Arabians (2 Chron. xxvi. 7). Some of
them, probably captives of war and their
descendants, served at the temple in Jerusa-
lem as Nethinim (Ezra ii. 50; Neh. vii. 52).
They are mentioned in Judg. x. 12, accord-
ing to the Hebrew text, where the Septuagint
has Midian. The Meunim are identified
by the Septuagint with the Minseans. If the
identification be correct, they are only a
northern settlement of that people.

Mez'a-hab [waters of gold].

An ancestress of the wife of the Edomite
king Hadar (Gen. xxxvi. 39; 1 Chron. i.
50) ; or perhaps a district, of which Matred
was a native.

Me-zo'ba-ite, in A. V. Mesobaite.

A word whicii .seems to represent a gentile
adjective, as the English and Greek versions

Miamin

476

Micaiah

make it (1 Chron. si. 47) ; but the Hebrew
text is evidently cornii)t.

Mi'a-min. See Mijamin.

Mib'har [choice].

One of David's mighty men, son of Hagri
or better a Hagrite (1 Chron. xi. 38) ; see re-
marks about the text under Bani.

Mib'sam [sweet odor].

1. A tril)e descended from Ishmael (Gen.
XXV. lo ; 1 Chron. i. 29).

2. A Simeonite (1 Chron. iv. 25).

Mib'zar [a fortification, a stronghold].

Au Edomite chieftain (Gen. xxxvi. 42; 1
Chron. i. 53).

Mi'ca, in A. V. Micha once Micah (1
Chron. ix. 15) [evidently, like Micali, an ab-
breviation of Micaiah, who is like Jehovah?
(cp. Mic. i. 1 with Jer. xxvi. 18 R. V., and 2
Chron. xxxiv. 20 with 2 Kin. xxii. 12)]. A
variant Hebrew spelling yields the English
form Micah, cp. 2 Sam. ix. 12 with 1 Chron.
viii. 34.

1. A son of Mephibosheth (2 Sam. ix. 12).
The interchangeable form of the name,
Micah, is given him in 1 Chron. viii. 34, 35 ;
ix. 40, 41.

2. A Levite who sealed the covenant (Neh.
X. 11).

3. A Levite descended from Asaph (1
Chron. ix. 15; Neh. xi. 17, 22; and xii. 35,
where the form Micaiah is used).

Mi'cah, in A. V. thrice Michah (1 Chron.
xxiv. 24, 25) [who is like Jehovah?]. See
Mica.

1. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Uzziel (1 Chron. xxiii. 20 ; xxiv. 24. 25).

2. An Ephraimite who stole from his
mother 1100 shekels of silver, about 725 dol-
lars, but afterwards gave them back again.
His mother dedicated 200 of them to the
Lord for images. A graven and a molten
image were made of them and placed in the
house of Micah, and Micah consecrated his
son to be priest. A Levite chanced to pass
that way, and Micah embraced the oppor-
tunity to secure an accredited minister at
the sanctuary. A Levite, though not a
prie.st, was better than the layman, Micah's
son. The Levite consented for hire to minis-
ter before Jehovah in a house of images,
contrary to the second commandment. Some-
time afterwards, migrating Danites passed
that way, allured the Levite to go with
them, and carried off Micah's images, despite
his protestations (Judg. xvii., xviii.).

3. A son of Merib-baal (1 Chron. viii. 34,
35; ix. 40, 41); see MicA 1.

4. A Reubenite who lived several genera-
tions before 730 b. c. (1 Chron. v. 5).

5. Father of Abdon. He was born before
Josiah's reign (2 Chron. xxxiv. 20 ; 2 Kin.
xxii. 12, where the form Micaiah is used) ;
cp. ACHBOR 2.

(j. A descendant of Asaph (1 Chron. ix.
15, A. V.) ; see Mica 3.

7. A Morashtite, a native apparently of
Moresheth-gath (Mic. i. 14), a town believed
to have been in Judah, near the Philistine
country. He prophesied in the reigns of
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (]\Iic. i. 1 ; and
Jer. xxvi. 18, where the form Micaiah is
used). He was a younger contemporary of
Isaiah and Hosea (cp. i. 1 with Is. i. 1 and
Hos. i. 1).

The book of Micah is the sixth of the minor
prophets. Its author, Micah the Morashtite (i.
1), prophesied under Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
kiah. Its contents also show that it was
written after the reigns of Omri and Ahab
(vi. 16), at the time when Assyria was the
power which the Israelites dreaded (v. 5, 6),
and in part at least while Samaria and the
northern kingdom were still in existence (i.
6, 14). Its genuineness, in whole or greater
part, is almost universally acknowledged.
The prophecy refers to both Judah and the
northern kingdom. It appears to he a sum-
mary of the prophet's utterances, not distinct
discourses. The expression "Hear ye," re-
peated three times, serves to mark three
divisions. 1. Judgment, first on Samaria,
then on Judah (i., ii.). 2. Denunciation
passes into prophecy of salvation and the
glorious reign of a Davidic king in Zion
(iii.-v.). 3. Description of the true religion
required by God, lament over the general
corruption, confidence in better times founded
on God's promises (vi., vii.).

Chap. iv. 1-3 is almost identical with Is. ii.
2-4, but more closely connected than in the
corresp(mding passage in Isaiah with the
verses which immediately follow. Joel ex-
presses a similar thought {Joel iii. 10). Isaiah
certainly quoted his words, as the introduc-
tion, "And it shall come to pass," shows;
and he may have cited them from Micah.
But the verbal variations between Isaiah and
Micah, and between these ]irophets and Joel,
may be exiilaiiicd 1)y su]i])(isiiig that each
adopted a traditional prediction current in
his day. At any rate God's people of old had
authoritative prophecy upon which they re-
lied, and favorite passages which they
quoted, just as Christians of to-day have.
Micah iii. 12 is expressly quoted by Jeremiah
(xxvi. 18), who dates it in the reign of Heze-
kiah. Micah V. 2 predicts the birth of
Israel's great ruler at Bethlehem (Mat. ii. 6).
The prophet refers to Nimrod (Mic. v. 6;
Gen. X. 8-12), to the covenant with the pa-
triarchs (Mic. vii. 20), to the exodus and to
Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (vi. 4, vii. 15),
and to the history of Balaam (vi. 5).

Mi-ca'iah, in A. V. Mlchaiali except in 1
Kin. xxii. 8-28 ; 2 Chron. xviii. 6-27 [who
is like Jehovah ?].

1. Daughter of Uriel of Gibeah, wife of
Rehoboam, and mother of king Abijah (2
Chron. xiii. 2). According to xi.20, Abi.jah's
mother was Maacah, daughter of Absalom.
Micaiah is probably a corruption of Maacah,

Micha

477

Michmash

for so Abijah's mother is always called else-
where, and she was probably graiiddavighter
of Absiiloni and daughter of Uriel by his
wife Tamar, Absalom's daughter. See Maa-
CAU 9.

2. A prophet, son of Imlah. Being desired
by Ahab to concur in the favorable prediction
given by the jirophets of Baal regarding
Abab's expedition against Ramoth-gilead, he
did what was required of him, but with such
transparent insincerity that he was adjured
to speak the truth, on which, in the name of
Jehovah, he predicted the death of Ahab in
the coming fight. The order was given to
make him a prisoner till the event should
prove his unfavorable vaticination to be un-
true (1 Kiu. sxii. 8-23 ; 2 Chron. xviii. (5-27).

3. One of Jehoshaphat's princes sent by
him to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 7i.

4. Father of Achbor. He lived before
Josiah's reign (2 Kin. xxii. 12); see Micah 5.

5. A son of Gemariah, who communicated
to the Jewish princes in the reign of Jehoia-
kim the contents of Jeremiah's book read by
Baruch (Jer. xxxvi. 11-13).

6. A descendant of Asaph (Neh. sii. 35) ;
see Mica 3.

7. A priest, one of those who blew trump-
et-; when the wall of Jerusalem was dedicated
by Xehemiah (Neh. xii. 41).

Mi'cha. See Mica.

Mi'cha-el [who is like God?].

1. A man of Asher, father of the repre-
sentative from that tribe on the commission
to spy out Canaan (Num. xiii. 13).

2. A Gadite, descended from Buz and head
of a father's house in Gilead (1 Chron. v. 13 ;
cp. 11. 14, 16).

3. Another Gadite, ancestor of the preced-
ing (1 Chron. v. 14).

4. A Levite. family of Gershom and ances-
tor of Asaph (1 Chron. vi. 40).

5. A chief man of the tribe of Issachar,
family of Tola, house of Uzzi (1 Chron.
vii. 3).

6. A Benjamite, family of Beriah (1 Chron.
viii. 16).

7. A Manassite captain who joined David
at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 20).

8. Father of Omri, who ruled the people
of Issachar in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii.
18).

9. A son of king Jehoshaphat (2 Chron.
xxi. 2).

10. Father of Zebadiah, of the sons of
.Sho])hatiah (Ezra viii. 8).

11. An archangel (Jnde 9), one of the chief
angelic princes who helped the man clothed
in linen against the spiritual being behind the
Persian empire, called thejirinceof the king-
dom of Persia (Dan. x. 13). who contended for
Israel (21; xii. 1), and who with his angels
wars victoriously against the enemies of the
people of God (Rev. xii. 7). When the doc-
trine of angels was wrought out by the Jews

after the exile, Michael was made one of
seven archangels (Tob. xii. 15), Gal)riel being,
of course, included in the number (Dan. viii.
16 ; ix. 21), and five others being added to
make up seven, namely, Kajdiael (Tob. iii. 17),
Uriel (2 E.sd. iv. 1), Chamuel, Jophiel, and
Zadkiel. The common belief that Michael dis-
puted with Satan about the body of Mo.ses, to
which Jude refers and upon which he bases
a lesson (Jude 9; cp. 2 Pet. ii. 11) is reflected
in the Targum of Jouatiian on Deut. xxxiv.
6, which ascribes the burial of Moses to
Michael and other angels. The form of ex-
pres.sion in Zech. iii. 1, 2 and Jude 9 may
have been derived from the current account;
but more jirubably the words of the i)roi)het
Zechariah determined the phraseology of the
narrative.

Mi'chah. See Micah.

Mi-cha'iah. See Micaiah.

Mi'chal [i)erhaps. a brook].

The younger daughter of king Saul (1 Sam.
xiv. 49). After Saul had failed to fulfill his
promise to give his elder daughter Merab to
David, he learned that Michal was in hive
with the young hero, and he gladly embraced
the opportunity which this afl'ection afforded
him to ex])0.se David to the risk of death.
He offered Michal to David on condition that
he should slay a hundred Philistines. David
accomplished the assigned task and received
Michal to wife (1 Sam. xviii. 27, 28). She
aided David in e.scaping from her father's
machinations, but after the former became a
fugitive Saul married her to another man,
regardless of the obligations she Avas under
to David (xxv. 44). When .-\bncr, Ish-bo-
sheth's general, sought to make U]i matters
with David, the king required that his wife
Michal should be restored to him, which was
done (2 Sam. iii. 15). But when David was
briuging the ark to Jerusalem and. in' the
intensity of his religious zeal, danced before
the Lord, Michal thought the hero and king
was acting in an undignified manner, and
she despised him in her heart, and rebuked
him with scornful and untrue words. But
David replied that he had humbled himself
before the Lord and would continue to do so,
but that he would be held in honor by those
in whose sight she falsely insinuated he had
acted in a lewd manner. After a time Michal
died childless (2 Sam. vi. 14-2-';).

Mich'mash, and twice Michmas (Ezra ii.
27; Neh. vii. 31), and so in A. V. of 1 Mac.
ix. 73 [something hidden away].

A town near the mount of Bethel (1 Sam.
xiii. 2). east of Beth-aven (5), and north of
Geba (xiv. 5, in A. V. Gibeah ; Is. x. 28, 29).
The Philistines encamped at Michmash to
war with Saul ; but through the valor of
Jonathan and his armor bearer at the craggy
pass near by a slaughter was begun among
them and they were routed by the army of
Israel (1 Sam. xiii. 5-7, 15 seq. : xiv. 1-23).
Exiles from Michmash returned from the cap-

Michmethath

478

Migdol

tivity (Ezra ii. 27 ; Neh. vii. 31). They were
Beujaniites (xi. 31). Jonathan Maccabteus
took up his residence at Michmash and exer-
cised judgeship (1 JIac. ix. 73, in A. V. Mach-
mas ; Antiq. xiii. 1, (i). The pass of Michmash,
still retaining the name of ]\Iukhmas, is 7h
miles north by east of Jerusalem, 2 north-
east of Geba, and 3 south by east of Bethel.
The village of Mukhmas is one of an humble
character ; the pass is probably, as Robinson
thought, the wady es-Suweinit, and the two
rocks of Bozez and Seneh which flanked the
pass (1 Sam. xiv. 4) are described by him as
two conical, or rather spherical, hills, with
rocky sides.

Micli'me-tliath, in A. V. Michmethah.

A town on the boundai-y line between
Ephraim and Mana.sseh. It lay " before
Shechem " (Josh. xvi. 6 ; xvii. 7). Site
doubtful.

Mich'ri [valuable].

A Benjamite (1 Chrou. ix. 8).

Mich'tam [engraving, inscription].

A word occurring in the titles of Psalms
xvi. ; Ivi.-lx. It has been understood as
meaning: 1. Concealed, secret, hence a mys-
tery or a hitherto unknown composition. 2.
Golden psalm. 3. Epigram, a poem intended,
like an inscription, to record memorable
thoughts, and often indulging in refrains.
The last opinion has most support.

Mid'din [extensions].

A village in the wilderness of Judah (Josh.
XV. 61). Site unknown.

Mid'i-an, in A. V. of N. T. Madian [strife,
contention].

1. A son of Abraham by Keturah, sent
away with gifts into the wilderness (Gen.
x.xv. 1-6). He became the progenitor of the
Midianites. The name is often used coNec-
tively for the tribe.

2. A region in the Arabian desert near the
.^lanitic gulf, occupied by the Midianites
(Gen. XXV. 6). It was bordered by Edom on
the northwest. Its boundaries were never
demarked, and doubtless shifted considerably
at different periods ; but all the region re-
ferred to in the O. T. as dominated by the
Midianites is found within an area which
measures about 17.5 miles from north to south.
About the time of the exodus Midian con-
trolled the pasture lands east of Horeb in
the i)eninsula of Sinai (Ex. iii. 1). A dis-
trict adjacent to Moab and near the Amorite
kingdom, whose capital was Heshbon, was
occupied by Midianites, who had been settled
there for some time (Gen. xxxvi. 3.5; Num.
xxii. 4 ; xxv. 1,6; Josh. xiii. 21). The in-
tervening region east of Edom to the Red
Sea doubtless belonged to Midian. The Mid-
ianites who were routed in the valley of
Jezreel fled in this direction, and Gideon in
pursuing them passed Succoth and the Gadite
town of Jogbehah (Judg. viii. 5. 10, 11 ; cp.
Gen. xxxvii. 2.5, 28). In David's time a
royal refugee from Edom found temporary

asylum in Midian, probably southeast of
Edom, before he went into Egypt (1 Kin. xi.
17, 18). The center of population was east
and southeast of the j5%lanitic gulf of the
Red Sea, where the name has lived from age
to age and is .still preserved in the ruins
called Madyan.

Mid'i-an-ites.

A j)eople of the desert (Gen. xxv. 2, 6 ;
Num. x. 29-31 ; Is. Ix. 6 ; Hab. iii. 7 ; Judith
ii. 26). Five families of them sprang from
Midian (Gen. xxv. 4). Of these five, the
name of Ephah has been identified with
much probability with a name on the As-
syrian inscriptions of the 8th century be-
fore Christ, which denotes a tribe of northern
Arabia. Midianite merchants, who were
with the caravan of Ishmaelites coming from
Gilead, bought Joseph and carried him to
Egypt (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28). The father-in-
law of Moses was a Midianite (Ex. iii. 1).
Midianites joined with Moabites in hiring
Balaam to curse the Israelites and after-
wards seduced the people to idolatry and
licentiousness (Num. xxii. 4,6; xxv.). The
Israelites were conseciuently directed to make
war on them. They did so, killing the five
kings of Midian with all the male popula-
tion of the district and the married women
(xxxi.). These kings were allies or vassals
of Sihon, king of the Amorites (Josh. xiii.
21). In the period of the judges, Midianites,
in conjunction with the Amalekites and the
children of the east, entered Canaan, with
their cattle and their tents, like locusts for
multitude, everywhere appropriating the
crops, and reducing to the greatest distress
those who had sown them. After the op-
pression had lasted for seven years, God
raised up Jerubbaal, or Gideon, to deliver
the now repentant people. The decisive
battle was fought in the plain of Jezreel. It
resulted in the complete defeat of the foreign
oppressors. Their two princes, Oreb and
Zeeb, were taken and put to death ; and later
their two kings, Zebah and Zalmunna, shared
the same fate. The land had rest, then, for
the normal period of forty years (Judg. vi.-
viii. ; ix. 17; Psalm Ixxxiii. 9-12; Is. ix. 4 ;
X. 26).

Mig'dal-el [tower of God].

A fortified city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. .38).
Its identification with el-Mejdel, that is Mag-
dala, on the sea of Galilee, is contrary to the
order of enumeration. Its site is probably
Mujeidil, 12J- miles northwest of Kades, r. e.
Kcdesh, and 11 miles north-northwest of
Yarun, i. e. Iron.

Mig'dal-gad [tower of Gad or fortune].

A town in or near the lowland of Judah
(Josh. XV. 37). El-Mejdel has been suggested,
inland 2\ miles east, slightly north, from
Ashkelon. This location would be in the
country of the Philistines.

Mig'dol [tower; in Egyptian mdkihal,
tower] .

Migron

479

MiU

An encampment of the Israelites while
they were leaving Ejiypt. It was near the
sea (the Red Sea aocordiug to Ex. xv. 4, 22 ;
Deut. xi. 4) ; was before Pi-hahiroth and be-
fore Baal-zephon (Ex. xiv. 2; Num. xxxiii.
7). After the capture of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar. .lews fled to Egypt and
took up their abode in a place called ^[igdol
(Jer. xliv. 1 ; xlvi. 14). If the marginal
reading of Ezek. xxix. 10; xxx. 6 is correct,
Migdoi was in the extreme north of Egypt.
Ancient authors mention a Migdol or Mag-
dolon 1'2 miles distant from Pelusium, on the
northeastern frontier of Egypt, and the
Malcthal most fi'equently mentioned on the
Egyjitian monuments was situated near the
^Mediterranean Sea (El)ers). Brugsch identi-
fies this place with Tell es-Samut, and re-
gards it as the site of the encampment of
the Israelites. But this situation does not
harmonize with the location of the camp on
the Red Sea. as the term Red Sea is under-
stood. Other fortresses on the frontier, how-
ever, went by the name of Migdol (Ebers).
Naville has expressed the opinion that
Migdol was at the present station of the
Serapeum, midway between lake Timsah
and the Bitter Lakes ; while Ebers locates it
at the southern end of the Bitter Lakes,
near the Persian monument. Here the gulf
of Suez at the time of the exodus was nar-
row and probably shallow. It was also liable
to be driven back by an east wind, so as
temjiorarily to leave a dry way at a particu-
lar SJiOt.

Mig'ron [possibly, a precipice].

A village of Benjamin near Gibeah. Saul
once encamped in its vicinity (1 Sam. xiv.
2). It was south of Aiath and north of
Michmash (Is. x. 28), and the site is marked
by the ruins Makrun. If the site of
Oibeah is Tell el-Fiil, as is commonly be-
lieved, and if the text of 1 Sam. xiv. 2 is
pure, there would seem to have been two
^ligrons, one north and the other consider-
ably south of Michmash.

Mij'a-mln, in A. V. sometimes Miamin
[from or on the right hand].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house by the time of
David, and became the sixth of the twenty-
four courses into which David distributed
the priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 1. 6, 9).

2. A chief of the priests who returned with
Zerubbabel from Babylon (Neh. xii. 5, 7).
In the next generation a father's house among
the priests bore the name Miniamin (ver. 17).
Tlic difference between tliese names is unes-
sential, being wholly external ; in one form
the letter nun is assimilated, in the other it
is not.

3. A son of Parosh, induced by Ezra to
pnt away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 2o).

4. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house (cp. number 2). sealed the
covenant in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. x.

7). Perhaps it was he who was one of the
trumpeters at the dedication of the wall
(xii. 41) ; see Mixiamin 3, and for form of
the name see under 2 of this article.
Mik'loth [rods].

1. A military cajitain in David's reign,
who was on duty with another captain in the
second month (1 Chron. xxvii. 4).

2. A Benjamite, of the family of Jeiel of
Gibeon (1 Chron. viii. 32 ; ix. 37, 38).

Mik-ne'iah [po.ssession of Jehovah].

A Levite of the second degree, a gate
keeper of the ark, who played the harp in
David's reign (1 Chron. xv. 18, 21).

Mil'a-lai [eloquent].

A Levite who played a musical instrument
at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. xii. 36).

Mil'cah [counsel or counselor].

1. A daughter of Haran and sister of Lot.
She became the wife of Nahor and the
mother of Huz, Buz, Kenuiel, Chesed, Ilazo,
Pildash, Jidla])h, and Bethuel ((ien. xi. 29 ;
xxii. 20-23). She was the grandmother of
Eebekah (xxii. 23; xxiv. 15, 24).

2. A daughter of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi.
33).

Mil'com. See Molech.

Mile [thousand (paces)].

In the only jiassage of the Bible in which
the word occurs (Mat. v. 41) the Roman mile
is intended, containinglOOOpacesof 5 Roman
feet each, and equivalent to 4851.43 Eng-
lish feet, or about ^| of an English mile.

Mi-le'tus, in A. V. once Miletum.

A seaport to which Paul came a day after
he had been at Trogyllium (Acts xx. 15).
Thither he summoned the elders of the
church at Ephesus, togive them exhortations
and bid them farewell (17-3*^). At Miletus
Trophimus was once left when he was sick
(2 Tim. iv. 20, in A. V. Miletum). The city
was on the seacoast of Ionia, about 36 miles
south of E]>hesus, and near the boundary
line between that region and Caria. It had
a celebrated temple of Apollo, and was the
birthplace of the philoso])hers Thales and
Anaximander, and perhaps of Democritus.
Scarcely any relics of the city now remain.

Milk.

An important article of diet, especially in
the East. The milk of cows (2 Sam. xvii.2n;
Is. vii. 22), sheep (Deut. xxxii. 14), goats
(Prov. xxvii. 27), and camels (cp. Gen. xxxii.
15) was and is still used. The milk of the
camel is excellent, being rich and strong, but
not very sweet. Milk was used in its natural
state and as curds and as cheese (Deut. xxxii.
14 ; Judg. V. 25 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). It was
kept in skin bottles, and served in dishes
(Judg. iv. 19; v. 25).

Mm.

In Palestine and neighboring lands the
mill was a simple machine, consisting of two-
round millstones (Deut. xxiv. 6). In the

Millet

480

Minister

mill in use among the people to-day, the stones
are generally made of basalt, about a foot and
a half in diameter and from two to four inches
thick. The nether stone is slightly convex
on the top. It has a i)eg in the center, about
which the upper stone revolves. This upper
stone is slightly concave on the under side in
order to fit on the nether stone, and isjiierced
by a hole in the center which receives the
peg and into which the grain is dropped by
hand. It is turned by means of an upright
handle near the circumference. The meal
falls over the edge of the nether stone into a
cloth si)rcad underneath or into a j)latter.
The work of grinding is laborious and

Women at the Mill.

menial. It was performed by the women (Ecc.
xii. 3, E. V. margin ; Mat. xxiv. 41), slave
women (Ex. xi. 5 ; Is. xlvii. 2), and x'risoners
(Judg. xvi. 21). In ordinary Jewish house-
holds, however, it was not regarded as at all
degrading for the female portion of the
family to grind meal every morning for a
day's consumption, rising up for the purpose,
at least in winter, long before daybreak. If
the millstone was taken away, the family
was left without ground grain till it was re-
turned, on which account it was forbidden
by the Mosaic law to take the mill or the
upper millstone to pledge, for he taketh (a
man's) life to pledge (Deut. xxiv. (>). The
cessation of the sound of grinding betokens
utter desolation (Jer. xxv. 10 ; Kev. xviii.
22).

A larger mill, constructed on the same
principle, but turned by an ass, was also in
use (Mat. xviii. 6, R. V. margin).

Millet.

A cereal {Pmiicnm miliaceum), in Hebrew
dohan, in Arabic duln. Ezekiel was bidden
to use it as an ingredient of the bread which
he was ordered to prepare (Ezek. iv. 9). It is
extensively used in western and southern
Asia, northern Africa, and southern Europe.
The stalks make an excellent fodder for cat-
tle, while the grain is fed to poultry, and af-
fords a nutritious and palatable food for man.
It is i)ossit)le that under the Hebrew dohan
other allied species of cereals may lie in-
cluded, and especially Sorghum rnlriare. the
Indian millet, a taller grass much cultivated

in India and southwestern Asia, and known
to the natives as doura.
Mil'lo [filling, terrace].

1. A house, i. e. probably a fortress, at
Shechem (Judg. ix. 6, 20).

2. A bastion at Jerusalem, in existence in
the time of David, rebuilt by Solomon, and
strengthened by Hezekiah as a precaution
against the expected siege by the Assyrians
(2 Sam. V. 9 ; 1 Kin. ix. 15, 24 ; xi."27 ; 2
Chron. xxxii. 5). Its site is unknoM'u. It
was in or at the city of David, apparently
intended to cover the old Jebusite strong-
hold (2 Chron. xxxii. 5). General considera-
tions lead to the conjecture that it may have
stood on the southwestern hill, on the north-
eastern corner, on the spur that overlooked
the Tyropceou valley and faced the temple.

Mine.

The operation of mining, by which gold,
silver, iron, copper, and precious stones were
obtained, is graphically described in Job
xxviii. 1-11. The Egyptians carried on
mining operations from an early period. As
early as the fourth dynasty they discovered
coi)])er in wady IMagharah, in the peninsula
of Sinai, and commenced mining and smelt-
ing operations, which continued for many
years. Work was suspended during the
domination of the Hyksos, but was resumed
under Thothmes III., and was carried on un-
der Ramses II., who is commonly believed to
have been the Pharaoh of the oppression.
The miners were criminals, prisoners of war,
and slaves, working under the whij) of the
taskmaster and often in fetters. The mines
had broad, low openings. The shaft pene-
trated to a considerable depth. The roof was
supported by ])illars of stone which the
miners left and by timber of acacia wood.
The gold and silver mines of Spain were
celelnated (1 Mac. viii. ,3). Canaan was de-
scribed to the expectant Israelites as a land
whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills
thou mayest dig bra.ss (Deut. viii. 9) ; but
there is no account of their having carried
on mining operations in Palestine. That the
Hebrews understood how to drive shafts is
shown by the tunnel which they cut from the
fountain of the Virgin to the i)ool of Siloam.
Iron mines now exist on Lebanon.

Min'i-a-min [from or on the right hand].

1. One of those who, under the direction
of a Levite, Kore, took charge of the free-
will offerings in the temple and distributed
them to the Levites during Hezekiah's reign
(2 Chron. xxxi. 15).

2. A father's house among the priests in
the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh.
xii. 17)'; see Mijamin 2.

3. A ]iriest, one of those who blew trumpets
at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neb. xii. 41) ; see MuAMlN 4.

Min'is-ter.

1. A personal attendant and helper, not a
menial, in Hebrew m'shnreth, in Greek

Ulinni

481

Miracle

^uperelrs. Joseph, the slave, when raised to
a position of honor and trust in iiis master's
household, ministered unto him ((ien. xxxix.
4). Ahishag was given honorahle and influ-
ential place hy David, and she ministered
unto him (1 Kin. 1. 4, 15). Joshua attended
Moses, took charge of the first tent of meet-
ing, and succeeded Moses in office (Ex. xxiv.
13; xxxiii. 11; Josh. i. 1). Elisha attended
Elijah, poured water on his hands, and suc-
ceeded him (1 Kin. xix. 21 ; 2 Kin. iii. 11).
The attendant of the synagogue aided the
officiating teacher in the service (Luke iv.
20). The disciples attended Jesus and were
eyewitnesses (i. 2 ; Acts xxvi. 16). John
Mark attended Paul and Barnabas during a
part of the first missionary journey (xiii. 5).

2. A public functionary in the service of
the state or of God, in Hebrew lu'xhareth, in
Oreek leitoiinjos ; as the priests and Levites
in the performance of the duties of the sanc-
tuary (Ex. xxviii. 43 ; Num. iii. 31 ; Deut.
xviii. 5 ; Is. Ixi. 6 : cp. Septuagint ; Luke i.
23 ; Heb. ix. 21), Christ as high priest in the
heavenly sanctuary (Heb. viii. 2), Paul in
administering the gos]>el unto the gentiles
(Rom. XV. 16). The epithet is applied to the
civil magistrate as a public official (xiii. 6).
It designates an attache of the royal court
(1 Kin. X. 5), often a person of high rank (2
Chron. xxii. 8 ; Esth. i. 10) ; and it is used of
the angels (Ps. ciii. 21 ; civ. 4).

3. One engaged in the service of another,
and regarded primarily as the master's own
representative and servant, and not as acting
in behalf of others, in Greel? diakonos ; for
example, a magistrate as the representative
of God, an avenger for wrath to him that
doeth evil (Eora. xiii. 4). It is used espe-
ciallv for God's minister in the gospel ; as
Timothy (1 Thes. iii. 2), Paul and Apollos (1
Cor. iii. 5), Tychicus (Eph. vi. 21), Epaphras
(Col. i. 7). The term dialuiios was also used
in a restricted .sense for deacon, a church
officer with specified duties distinguishing
him from a bishop.

Min'ni.

A people of Armenia (Antiq. i. 3, 6) in-
habiting the district near lake Van, prob-
ably between that and lake Urumiah, and
adjacent to the kingdom of Ararat on the
Araxes. In 830 B. v.. Shalmaneser, king
of Assyria, pillaged the country of the
Minni. In 716 B. c. and again in 715 the
king of Minni revolted against Assyria, but
in 714 he was anew subdued. The Minni
continued to give trouble at intervals, espe-
ciallv during the reign of the A.ssyrian king
Ashiirbanipal (668-626) ; till at length about
606 B. c. they took part with the Medes,
Cimmerians, and other natif)nalities in cap-
turing Nineveh and ending the Assyrian
empire. In Jer. li. 27 (R. V.) the kingdoms
of Ararat, Minni, and Ashkenaz are de-
scribed as uniting for the destruction of
Babvlon.
31

Min'nith.

A town of the Ammonite country (Judg.
xi. 33). It exported wheat to Tyre (Ezek.
xxvii. 17). According to Eusebius, there was
a village called Manith 4 Roman miles from
Heshbon in the direction of Philadelphia.

Min'strel.

A musician (Rev. xviii. 22, in A. V. musi-
cian) ; especially one who sings to the accom-
paniment of an instrument.

1. The Hebrew word M'nactcien, which is
rendered minstrel in 2 Kin. iii. 15, signifies a
player on a stringed instrument, as harp or
lyre. Music was employed by the Hebrews
to still excitement ; and when Saul was
troubled by an evil spirit, David was sum-
moned to the court to act as minstrel (1 Sam.
xvi. 14-23). Music, sometimes at least,
formed part of the religious exercises of the
prophets (1 Sam. x. 5-10) ; and Elisha sum-
moned a minstrel to play before him while
he waited for God to speak to him (2 Kin.
iii. 15). The nuisic calmed the prophet's
mind, recalled his thoughts from the outside

I world, and gladdened his .spirit. " Prophecy,"
says JIaimonides, " dwelleth not in the midst
of melancholy nor in the midst of apathy,
but in the midst of joy."

2. The minstrels hired by Jairus (Mat. ix.
23, A. V.) were flute players (R. V.), who
with singers and wailing women M'ere em-
ployed as professional mourners (2 Chron.
xxxv. 25; Jer. ix. 17-20; xlviii. 31 with 36).

Mint.

An herb of the genus Mentha, of which
there are several species. It is called in
Greek 'ediiosmnn, sweet smelling (Mat. xxiii.
23). Hor.semint {Mentha sylresfris) is tlie
mo.st common species in Syria, and grows
wild on all the hills. It is not known cer-
tainly which sort the ancient Israelites cul-
tivated.

Miph'kad, in R. V. Hammiphkad, incor-
porating the Hebrew article [appointed
place].

A gate at Jerusalem, probably of the tem-
ple (Neh. iii. 31) : see Jbkus.\^lem II. 3.

Mir'a-cle.

Miracles are wonder.s, signs, tyjies, powers,
works of God (Deut. xi. 3; xxix. 3; Ps.
Ixxviii. 7. 11, 12, 43; xcv. 9; Mark ix. 39;
Luke xxiii. 8; John ii. 11, 23 ; ix. 3 ; Actsii.
22; vi. 8; viii. 13; see R. V.). They arc not
merely wonderful events ; but are also signs,
types, powers, works of God. They are not
merely supernatural events, like the creation
of the world ; for God is not represented as
bringing the universe into existence as a
sign of attestation. Nor are they merely
extraordinary providences, which men some-
times term miracles of providence, and which
are brought about by secondary means and
are not signs; such as the storm which dis-
persed the .Spanish Arnuida. The locusts
which Avere blown into Egypt by the strong
east wind and blown away again by the west

Miriam

482

Mirror

n

■wind (Ex. x. 13, 19), and the arrival of
quails, which migrate in the spring and sup-
plied the camp of Israel with meat for an
evening (xvi. 13) were extraordinary provi-
dences, but with additional elements. They
were foretold and were intended as signs.
The plague of locusts was one of the signs
and wonders wrought at Zoan (Ps. Ixxviii.
42, 46), and the quails were sent that Israel
might know that Jehovah is God and their
God (Ex. xvi. 12). In the strict biblical
sense, miracles are events in the external
world, wrought by the immediate jiower of
God and intended as a sign or attestation.
They are possible because God sustains, con-
trols, and guides all things, and is personal
and omnipotent. Perhaps the manner of
working these deeds in the realm of the
physical universe is illustrated by the power
of the human Avill. Man wills, and mus-
cular force is exerted which controls or
counteracts nature's laws ; as when one
hurls a stone into the air against the law
of gravitation. Miracles are not to be credu-
lously received, but their genuineness must
be tested. The tests are : 1. They exhibit
the character of God and teach truths con-
cerning God. 2. They are in harmony with
the established truths of religion (Deut. xiii.
1-3). If a wonder is worked which contra-
dicts the doctrines of the Bible, it is a
lying wonder (2 Thes. ii. 9 ; Eev. xvi. 14).
3. There is an adequate occasion for them.
God does not work them except for great
cause and for a religious purpose. They be-
long to the history of redemption ; and there
is no genuine miracle without an adequate
occasion for it in God's redemptive revela-
tion of himself. 4. They are established,
not by the number of witnesses, but bj' the
character and qualifications of the witnesses.

The miracles of the Bible are confined
almost exclusively to four periods, separated
from each other by centuries; the time of
1. The redemption of God's people from
Egypt and their establishment in Canaan
under Moses and Joshua. 2. The life and
death struggle of the true religion with
heathenism under Elijah and Elisha. 3. The
exile, when Jehovah afforded proof of his
power and supremacy over the gods of the
heathen, although his people were in cap-
tivity (Daniel and his companions). 4. The
introduction of Christianity, when miracles
attested the person of Christ and his doc-
trine. Outside of the.se periods miracles are
rare indeed (Gen. v. 24). They were almost
totally unknown during the many centuries
from the creation to the exodus.

The working of miracles in the apostolic
age, although not confined to the apostles
(Acts vi. 8 ; viii. 5-7), were the signs of an
apostle (2 Cor. xii. 12; Heb. ii. 4 ; cp. Acts ii.
43 ; Gal. iii. 5).

Mir'i-am [obstinacy, rebellion].

1. Sister of Aaron and of Mo.ses (Ex. xv.

20; Num. xxvi. 59). It was probably she
who watched over the ark M'hich contained
the infant Moses (Ex. ii. 4-8). After the
l)assage of the Red Sea, she took a timbrel
and led the Israelite women with timbrels
and with dances, saying : " Sing ye to the
Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously ; the
horse and his rider hath he thrown into the
sea" (xv. 20, 21). She was a prophetess
(ibid.), and she and her brothers were chosen
by God to be leaders of the Hebrew people
(iv. 15, 29, 30 ; Mic. vi. 4) ; but she insti-
gated Aaron, and they made Moses' marriage
with a Cushite woman the occasion of mur-
muring against his superior position and in-
fluence. They claimed that God had spoken
by them as well as by Moses. For this in-
subordination to the will of God, she was
made a leper as white as snow, but owing to
the intercession of Moses was speedily healed
(Num. xii. 1-16 ; Deut. xxiv. 9). She died,
and was buried in Kadesh (Num. xx. 1).

2. A man of Judah, descended from Ezrah
(1 Chron. iv. 17).

Mir'niah, in A. V. Mirma [deceit].

A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim by his
wife Hodesh (1 Chron. viii. 10).

Mir'ror.

A polished surface intended to reflect ob-
jects, especially the face (Wisdom vii. 26 ; 2
Cor. iii. 18 ; Jas. i. 23). Ancient mirrors were
made of molten brass (Ex. xxxviii. 8 ; Job
sxxvii. 18), and were provided with a
handle. If they acquired rust spots, they
were polished anew (Ecclus. xii. 11). They
lacked the perfection of the modern glass.

Ancient Mirrors.

and the image in them was less clear and
true (1 Cor. xiii. 12). As the material was
metal, R. V. substitutes mirror for glass,
which is the rendering of A. V. Opinion is
divided as to whether mirrors or transparent
garments are referred to in Is. iii. 23.

Later, in the West, mirrors were sometimes
made of tin. Praxiteles, in the time of
Pompcy, is said to have been the first to
make them of silver. They were even made
of gold.

Misgab

483

Mizpah

Blls'gab [high place, the high fort].

An uuideutitied Moabite city (Jer. xlviii. 1).

Mish'a-el [who is God?].

1. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Uzzicl (Ex. vi. 22; Lev. x. 4).

2. One of Daniel's three companions, called
by the Babylonians Meshach (Dan. i. 6, 7, 11,
19 ; ii. 17 : "l Mac. ii. oH).

3. One of those who stood by Ezra when
he preached to the people (Neh. viii. 4).

Mi'shal, in A. V. once Misheal (Josh. xix.
2(Jj [prayer].

A village of Asher (Josh. xix. 26), given
with its suburbs to the Levites of the Ger-
shouite family (xxi. 30). It is called in 1
Chrou. vi. 74 Mashal. Not identified.

Mi'sham [swiftness].

A son of Elpaal, who with his brothers
built Ono and Lod (1 Chron. viii. 12).

Mi'she-al. See Mishal.

Mish'ma [hearing].

1. A tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen.
XXV. 14 ; 1 Chron. i. 30). The name perhaps
lingers either in Jebel Misma', midway be-
tween Damascus and Jauf, or in the other
Jebel Misma', about 150 miles due east of
Taima.

2. A descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 25).
Mlsh-man'nali [fatness].

One of the Gadites who came to David at
Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 10). •

Mish'ra-ites.

A family or the inhabitants of a town
called Mishra (1 Chron. ii. 53).

Mis'par, in A. V. Mizpar ; but the original
edition of A. V. had the correct spelling,
Mispar [a narrative, a number].

One of those who returned with Zerub-
babel from captivity (Ezra ii. 2). In Neh.
vii. 7 the feminine form is used, Mispereth.

Mis'pe-reth. See Mispar.

Mis-re-photli-ma'iin [burnings or eleva-
tions at the waters].

A place to which Joshua pursued the kings
defeated at the waters of Merom (Josh. xi.
8), on the frontier of the country of the
Zidouians (xiii. 6). It is now commonly,
and probably correctly, identified with the
ruins and the fountain el-Musheirifeh, 11
miles north of Acre, and i mile from the sea,
at the foot of Ras en-Nakurah.

Mite.

A small coin, worth about ^ cent (Mark
xii. 42). See Money.

Mi'ter.

The headdress or turban, called in He-
brew inunepheth, which was worn by the
high priest. It was made of fine linen.
Its distinguishing characteristic was a golden
plate inscribed with the words Holiness
to the Lord, and affixed in front by a blue-
colored lace I Ex. xxviii. 4, 36-39; Ezek.
xxi. 26, in A. V. diadem) ; sec High Priest,
and for Zech. iii. 5, see Diadem.

Mith'kah, in A. V. Mitncah [sweetness].
An ciicamjiment of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 28, 2{)).

Mith'nite.

Probably iin in-habitant of a town called
Methen (1 Chron. xi. 43).

Mitli're-dath [given by Mithra, the ani-
mating spirit of fire].

1. Treasurer under Cyrus, king of Persia,
through whom the sacred vessels were re-
stored to the Jews (Ezra i. 8).

2. One of those who ^n the reign of Arta-
xerxes Longimanus complained that the
Jews were rebuilding the walls of Jeru-
salem (Ezra iv. 7).

Mit-y-le'ne.

A city between Assos and Chios visited by
Paul (Acts XX. 13-13). It was the capital of
the island of Lesbos in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, and was noted for being the birth-
place of the poet Alca^us, the statesman
Pittacus, and the poetess Sappho. It is still
called Mitylen.

Mi'zar [smallness].

A hill on the eastern side of the Jordan,
probably within sight of the peaks of Her-
mou (Ps. xlii. 6). Exact situation unknown.

Miz'pahand Mizpeh [watchtower].

1. The name given to the cairn north of
the Jabbok, called Galeed or heap of witness,
to indicate the special thing to which it bore
witness, namely, that God is the watcher be-
tween the covenanting parties (Gen. xxxi.
44-49) ; see Galeed.

2. A town in Gilead, east of the Jordan
(Judg. x. 17; xi. 11); probably identical
with Mizpeh of Gilead (xi. 29) and with
Ramath-mizpeh or height of Mizpeh (Josh,
xiii. 26), otherwise known as Kamoth in
Gilead or Ramoth-gilead (Deut. iv. 43 ; 1
Kin. iv. 13) and Ramah (2 Kin. viii. 28, 29).
It was situated in the territory of Gad, on
the boundary (Josh. xiii. 26), a.ssigned to the
Levites (xxi. 38), and appointed a city of
refuge (Deut. iv. 43; Josh. xx. 8). Jephthah
dwelt here (Judg. xi. 34), and it was the resi-
dence of the taxgathercr for one of the twelve
districts into which Solomon divided the
country (1 Kin. iv. 13). To gain and hold
possession of it battles were fought between
Israel and the Syrians (1 Kin. xxii. 3 seq. ;
2 Kin. viii. 28). It was taken and burned
by Judas Maccabseus (1 Mac. v. 35, in A. V.
Maspha). According to Eusebius, it lay 15
Roman miles west of Philadelphia, on the
Jabbok. It is commonly identified with es-
Salt, about 10 miles east of the mouth of the
Jabbok and the crossing of the Jordan at
Damieh ; but the ruined town of .Tal'ud,
about 6 miles north of es-Salt, has strong
claim to be the site.

3. A place at the foot of mount Hermon
(Josh. xi. 3), not identified. The land of
Mizpah is probablv the same as the valley of
Mizpeh (8).

Mizpar

484

Moab

4. A village ia or near the lowland of
Judah (Josh. xv. 38), comniDiily identified
with Tell es-Safi, 7^ miles nortii-uorthwestof
Beit Jil)rin. Eusebius located it north of Eleu-
theropolis, that is, Beit Jibrin, in the direc-
tion of Jerusalem.

5. A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 26),
not far from Ramah (25; 1 Kin. xv. 22) and
over against Jerusalem (1 Mac. iii. 46, in
A. V. Maspha). The tribes were summoned
to it at times for conferences (1 Sam. vii. 5-
17; X. 17; Judg. xx. 1-3; xxi. 1, 5,8). It
was fortified by Asa aS a defense against the
northern tribes (1 Kin. xv. 22; 2 Chron.
xvi. (>). After the destruction of Jerusalem,
the Babylonian governor fixed his residence
here (2 Kin. xxv. 23-25 ; Jer. xl. 6-16; xli.
1-16). It was inhabited after the captivity
(Neh. iii. 7, 15, 19). Robinson believed its
site to have been either at Neby Samwil,
which means prophet Samuel, or at Tell el-
Ful, conspicuous eminences north of Jerusa-
lem ; but he decides in favor of the former.
This identification has received cordial ac-
ceptance. The place is 2935 feet above the
sea level, and about 4 miles north-northwest
of Jerusalem, from which it is distinctly
seen.

6. An unidentified place in Moab (1 Sam.
xxii. 3).

Miz'par. See MispAR.
Miz'peh. See Mizpah.

Miz'ra-im [dual form of mi.mi,, probably,
defen.se, defensed land].

Egypt, the dual form pointing to the two
countries of Upper and Lower Egypt, settled
by descendants of Ham (Gen. x. 6) ; see
Egypt.

Miz'zah [possibly, fear].

Tlie chief of a tribe in the land of Edom,
a descendant of Esau, and also of Ishmael
(Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13, 17; 1 Chron. i. 37).

Mna'son.

An early disciple from Cyprus, who accom-
panied Paul on his last journey from Csesarea
to Jerusalem, and with whom the apostle
was to lodge (Acts xxi. 16).

Mo'ab [scarcely, water of a father ; prob-
ably, desire].

1. Son of Lot by an incestuous union with
his elder daughter (Gen. xix. 37).

2. The descendants of Moab, Lot's son,
closely related to the Ammonites (Gen. xix.
37, 38). Tliey had become numerous before
the time that the Israelites crossed the Red
Sea (Ex. xv. 15) : had taken possession of the
country from the plain of Heshbon unto the
wady Kurahi, which emerges at the southern
end of the Dead Sea, and formed the boundary
of Moab toward Edom ; and with their kin-
dred the Ammo7iites had absorbed and de-
stroyed the remnants of the gigantic race
whidi had previously occupied the country
ea,st of the Jordan (Deut. ii. 10, 11, 19-21 ;
Cf). Gen. xiv. 5). Shortly before the arrival

of the Israelites, Sihon, king of the Amorites,
had wrested from them the pasture land
north of the Arnon, though the country was
still remembered as the land of Moab, con-
fining Moab for a time to the country south
of the Arnon (Num. xxi. 13-15, 26-30). The
Moabites showed a commercial friendliness to
the migrating Israelites (Deut. ii. 28, 29), but
refused them jierniission to pass through their
land (Judg. xi. 17; cp. Deut. xxiii. 4). Be-
cause, doubtless, of the kinship between the
Moabites and Israelites, Moses was forbidden
to attack them (Deut. ii. 9; cp. 19). Never-
theless, the king of Moab, alarmed when the
Israelites encamped in his vicinity, sent for
Balaam to curse them (Num. xxii.-xxiv. ;
Josh. xxiv. 9). For this hostile attitude the
Israelites were commanded to exclude them
from the congregation to the tenth genera-
tion, and to maintain a coldness and indifler-
ence toward them forever (Deut. xxiii. 3-6;
Neh. xiii. 1). The last encampment of the
Israelites before they crossed the Jordan was
at Shittim in the plains of Moab (Num. xxii.
1-Josh. iii. 1). While they were there, Moab-
ite and Midianite women seduced them to
licentious idolatry (Num. xxv.; Hos. ix. 10).
Early in the time of the judges Eglon, king
of Moab, invaded Canaan, established his
seat of government at Jericho, and oppressed
Israel 18 years until he was assassinated by
Ehud (Judg. iii. 12-30; 1 Sam. xii. 9). p:iim-
clech*sojouined in Moab, and thence came
his two daughters-in-law, Orpah and Ruth.
Ruth married Boaz and became the ances-
tress of David (Ruth i. 22 ; iv. 3, 5, 10, 13-
17; Mat. i. 5-16). Saul warred with the
Moabites (1 Sam. xiv. 47), and David, when
a fugitive from Saul, put his father and
mother in charge of the king of Moab (xxii.
3, 4). After David became king, he over-
came the Moabites, and doomed a large pro-
portion of them to death (2 Sam. viii. 2-12 ;
1 Chron. xviii. 2-11). The Moabites were
subject to Omri and his son ; but on the
death of Ahab they rebelled, and neither of
Omri's grandsons, Ahaziah, who was inca-
pacitated for the attempt by a fall, nor Jeho-
ram was able to subdue them (2 Kin. i. 1;
iii. 4-27; Moabite Stone). Jehoshaphat was
king of Judah at that time, and the Moabites
formed a confederacy with the Ammonites,
Edomites, and others for the invasion of
Judah, but the allies turned their weapons
against each other, and Judah did not need
to strike a blow (2 Chron. xx. 1-30 ; cp. Ps.
Ix. 8; Ixxxiii. 6; cviii. 9). The year that
Elisha died, bands of Moabites invaded the
kingdom of Israel (2 Kin. xiii. 20), and they
entered Judah in the reign of Jehoiakim
(2 Kin. xxiv. 2). Many of the towns noi'th
of the Arnon reverted to Moab (cp. Is. xv.).
The prophets denounced the ^loabites often as
typesof the enemiesof the kingdom of God (Is.
x V. ; X vi. ; XX V. 10 ; Jer. ix. 26 ; xxv. 21 ; xxvii.
3: xlviii. ; Ezek. xxv. 8-11; Amos ii. 1, 2;
Zeph. ii. 8-11). Some of the Jews, who fled

Moabite Stone

485

Moabite Stone

from Jerusalem when Nebucliadnezzar in-
vaded Judah, took refuge iu Moab, but re-
turned when Gedaliah was appointed gov-
ernor (Jer. xl. 11). Nebucliadnezzar subju-
gated the Moabites (Antiq. x. 9, 7). They
disappear henceforth from history as a nation,
though still existing as a race (Ezra ix. 1 ;
Neh. xiii. 1, 23; Antiq. i. 11, 5). Alexander
Jannaeus placed them under tribute (Antiq.
xiii. 13, 5).

3. The country occupied by the Moabites.
It was bounded on the west by the Dead
Sea. It was separated from Edom on the
south by the wady Kuiahi, known in its
upper course as the wady el-' Ahsy. This fact
is learned from the towns which are men-
tioned as situated in Moabite territory. On
the east lay the desert (Xum. xxi. 11). The
northern boundarj^ which the Amorites and
Israelites recognized was the Arnon (Num.
xxi. 13 ; Dent. ii. 36 ; iii. 12 ; Josh. xii. 1 ;
Judg. xi. 18), but the Moabites at an early
date possessed (Num. xxi. 26), and always
regarded as theirs and frequently occupied, a
considerable district north of the river.
Moab is chiefly a rolling j)lateau, about 3200
feet above the level of the sea, and is well
adapted for pasturage. The western edge
descends abruptly to the Dead Sea, and the
face of the bluff is cut by deep valleys.
The shore of the Dead Sea is comparatively
fertile from the great abundance of springs.

Mo'ab-ite Stone.

An inscribed stone found within the ter-
ritory of Moab, and recording Moabite

The Moabite Stone.

history. On the 19th of August, 1868, the
Rev. F. Klein, a German in the employ
of the Church Missionary Society, was en-

camped at Dhib&n, the ruins of the ancient
^Moabite town of Dibon, wlien lie was in-
formed bj^ a sheik that within ten miiuitcs'
walk from his tent there lay an inscri))ed stone.
Proceeding to the spot, he found lying on
its back a slab of black basalt, three feet ten
inches high, two feet broad, and a foot and
two and a half inches thick, rounded at the
top and the bottom to nearly a semicircle.
The inscription consisted of thirty-four lines
of writing in an unknown character, run-
ning across the stone, about an inch and a
quarter apart. He at once set on foot negcj-
tiations for its transferto the Berlin Museum.
Unhappily, M. Clermont-Ganneau, of the
French Consulate, also attempted to obtain
it for the Paris Museum. This ran it up to a
nearly prohibitory price. Then the Anils
fell to fighting over the expected money.
The dispute settled nothing, so kindling a tire
under the stone, and pouring water on it when
it was hot, they broke it into fragments,
which they distributed among the several
granaries, to act as blessings to the grain.
Prior to the destruction, a messenger from
M. Clermont-Ganneau had obtained a squeeze
of the inscription ; but having to escape pre-
cipitately on horseback and crumpling up
the paper while it was still wet, it broke into
seven pieces, and was not of much use.
Better squeezes of the two larger p(]rlions (if
the broken stone were afterwards obtained liy
a messenger from Sir Charles Warren and by
another from M. Clermont-Ganneau ; and
finally a number of fragments of the stone
itself reached Jerusalem, and are now some
in Paris and others in London. With the
aid of the squeezes the pieces were put to-
gether. It was found that of about 1100
letters, 669 in all, or le.ss than two-thirds,
had been recovered, and that the language
was akin to Hebrew. The inscription is as
follows :

1. I am Mesha, son of Chemoshmelech, king of

Moab, the D-

2. ibonite. My father reigned over Moab for

thirty years, and reign did

3. I after my father. And I have made this

high place for Chemosh in Krhh on ac-
count of the deliverance of Me-'

4. sha, because he saved me from all the kings

and because he let me see my pleasure on
all that hated me. Omr-

5. i was king of Israel, and he afflicted Moah

many days, becau.se Chemosh was angry
with hisla-

6. nd. And his son succeeded him; and he

also said: "I will afflict Moab." In my
days he spake thus.

7. But i saw my pleasure on him and on his

house, and Israel perished with everlast-
ing destruction. Now Omri had taken
possession of all the [la-]

8. nd of Medeba, and dwelt in it during his

days and half the days of his sons [or his
son], forty years ; but resto-

9. re it did Chemosh in my days. And I built

Baalmeon and I made in it the reservoir (?)
and I built
10. Kiriathen. And the men of Gad had dwelt
in the land of Ataroth from of old, and
built for himself had the king of I-

Moabite Stone

486

Moladah

11. srael Ataroth. And I fought against the city

and took it and slew all the [people of]

12. the city, a sight unto Cheraosh and to Moab.

And I brought back from there the altar
hearth of Daudoh (?) and drag-

13. ged it before Chemosh in Kerioth. Andlset-

tled the men of Srn in it and the men of

14. Mhrth. And Cheraosh said tome : "Go, take

Nebo against Israel." And I

15. went by night and. fought against it from

break of dawn until noon, and to-

IG. ok it and slew all of them, seven thousand

men and boys and women and gir-

17. Is and maidservants ; for I had devoted it to

Ashtor-Chemosh. And I took thence the
altar-hear-

18. ths of Jehovah and dragged them before

Chemosh. Now the king of Israel had
built

19. Jahaz ; and he abode in it while he fought

against me. But Chemosh drove him out
from before me. And

20. I took two hundred men of Moab, all its

chiefs; and led them against Jahaz and
took it

21. to add to Dibon. I built Krhh, the wall of

the woods and the wall of'

22. the mound. And I built its gates and I built

its towers. And

23. I built the king's palace, and made the en-

closures of the [ for the wat] ers

in the midst of

24. the city. And there was no cistern in the

midst of the city, in Krhh. And I said to
all the people : " Make for

25. yourselves, every one a cistern in his house."

And I cut out the cutting for Krhh with
the help of prisoner-

26. s of Israel. I built Aroer and made the

highway on the Arnon.

27. I built Beth-bamoth, for it was pulled down.

I built Bezer, for ruins

28 Dibon fifty, for all Dibon was obedient.

And I reigned

29. over one hundred in the cities which I added

to the land. .\nd I built

30. Medeba and Beth-diblatheu and Beth-baal-

meon, and took thither the [herdsmen]
31 the sheep of the land. And as

for Horonen, there dwelt in it the so[n]

of De[d]an. And De[dan] said
32 Chemosh said to me: "Go

down, fight against Horonen ; " and I went

down and ....
33 and Chemosh [resto]red it in

my days. And I thence ten (?)

34

To judge from Mesha's own words, the
stele was a memorial commemorative not
merely of his recovery of independence for
Moab from Israel, but of his glorious and
successful reign as a whole (1. 4, 'M) ; erected
late in his reign, ;i ftcr the death of Ahab, after
the humiliation of that house also, and not im-
probably after the extinction of the line of
Omri by Jehu, and the entrance of Israel
into its period of dire distress (I. 7).

The Hebrew records date the revolt of
Moab after the death of Ahab (2 Kin. i. 1 ;
iii. 5) : a date which conflicts with a u.sual
understanding of the inscription, to the
effect that the revolt occurred in the middle
of Ahab's reign. But the statements of the
stone maybe readily interpreted in harmony
with tlie Hebrew account, and that in one
of two ways:

1. The two accounts may be combined.
The capture of the frontier town of Medeba
was eflFected by Mesha about the middle of
Ahab's reign (1. 8) ; but the Moabite king
did not attempt actually to throw off the
Israelitish yoke until after Ahab's death.

2. Or, better, in accordance with the well-
known custom of the times, whereby the royal
descendants of Omri, as of other founders
of dynasties, were designated simply as his
sons; in view of the ascription of round
forty years to the occupation of Medeba by
the Israelites ; in view of Moabite grammar,
whereby the collocation beth nun he in line 8
may be properly rcTidered his sons; and in
view of the probability which arises from
Mesha's own words that he was acquainted
with the final overthrow of Omrl's sons ;
lines 7 and 8 of the inscription may be trans-
lated : "Now Omri had taken possession of
all the land of Medeba, and [Israel] dwelt
therein during his daj's and half the days of
his sons, forty years." This is the same story
as told by the Hebrew writers. The revolt
of Moab did actually occur midway in the
reign of Omri's sons, as it were dividing
their reign in twain, and lending in Moab-
itish eyes an aspect to the latter half of their
rule far different from the former. See Omri
and Mesha.

Mo-a-di'ah [perhaps, host of Jehovah],

A father's liouse among the priests in the
time of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. xii.
17) ; see M.^adiah.

Mo'diu [informers or prognosticators, prog-
nostication (cp. Is. xlvii. 13)].

The native town of the Maccabees (1 Mac.
ii. 1), with tl'.o family tomb where Mattathias
and two of his sons, Judas and Jonathan,
were buried (ii. 70: ix. 19; xiii. 25). It
stood on the edge of the plain of Philistia
(xvi. 4, 5), and the tomb was vi.sible from
the sea (xiii. 29). The town was still in ex-
istence in the time of Eusebius and Jerome,
in the vicinity of Diospolis, that is I^ydda.
The Talmud states its distance from Jerusa-
lem at 15 Roman miles. The site is disputed.
Hitzig located it at el-Burj, 2^ miles south of
Midieh ; and Robinson, following mediseval
pilgrims, at Latrun. The more recent sug-
gestion of Forner has been favorably re-
ceived, that the site is Midieh, hard by the
road to Jeinisalem via Beth-horon, about 6
miles from Lydda and 18 from Jerusalem.
One half mile north of the ruined village of
Midieh, and about the same distance west of
the modern village rises a hill, from the
summit of which vessels on the sea are
visible and where the foundations of a stately
tonil) have been found.

Mol'a-dah [lurth, origin].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 2fi), assigned to the Simeonites
(xix. 2 : 1 Chron. iv. 28). It was inhabited
after the captivity (Neh. xi. 26). It is doubt-
less the town known in the Greek period

Mole

487

Money

as Malatha, in Idiimpea, to wbicli Herod
Agripjia I., diiriiif? the earlier and less pros-
perous period of his life, retired in debt and
iu depression of spirits {Antiq. xviii. 6, 2).
The Onomastieon locates Malatha 4 Roman
miles from Arad and on the road from
Hebron to Aila, that is Elath. Robinson is
commonly followed in his identification of
it with Milh, on the Roman road 7^ miles
southwest of Arad, where there are vestiges
of an extensive town with important wells.
It is about 14 miles east by south from Beer-
sheha, and 22 south by west from Hebron.

Mole.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Tinshe-
meth (Lev. xi. 30, A. V.). See Chameleon.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew words
H"phor peroth, digging of holes or digging of
rats (Is. ii. 20). The two words are better re-
garded as one, H''phafp(iroth, diggers. These
may be rats or moles. It is believed that no
species of Talpn. the genus to which the
common mole (T. enropxa] belongs, exists iu
Palestine, its place being taken bj^ the mole
rat {Spala.i- t!/i)hlHf!), which is probably the
animal intended by Isaiah. This animal is
very common iu the Holy Land, living un-
derground in small societies. It resembles
the mole iu appearance, but is not of the
same order, being a rodent feeding on vege-
tables, chiefly bulb.s, whereas the mole is
insectivorous. It is larger than the mole,
being eight or more inches long. It is silvery
gray in color, is tailless, and has only minute
or rudimentary eyes.

Mo'lech, in A. V. twice Moloch, a spelling
introduced into the English version through
the Greek text of Amos v. 26 and its quota-
tion by Stephen in Acts vii. 43. The Hebrew
text and R. V. have "your king" in place
of Moloch [reigning one, king].

A deity worshiped by the children of Am-
mon (1 Kin. xi. 7). The article is prefixed
to his name where it occurs in the Hebrew,
indicating that the word is not a proper
name, but an a])pellative preserving its
meaning of reigning one. He was known
also as Milcom (1 Kin. xi. .5, 33) and Malcam
(Jer. xlix. 1, 3, R. V. : Zeph. i. 5), proper
names formed by the familiar terminations
om and am. He was an aspect of Baal (Jer.
xxxii. 35), whose name is a common noun
likewise and signifies lord. Baal was wor-
shiped with human sacrifices at Tyre under
the name of Melcarth. king of "the city ;
and an exceedingly detestable feature of
Molech"s worship was the burning of chil-
dren to him in the fire. The practice was
in vogue early ; and when the Israelites were
at Sinai and expected soon to be neighbors
of the Ammonites, the law was enacted that
if ally man made or permitted his children
to " pass through the fire to Molech " he was
to be put to death (Lev. xviii. 21 ; xx. 1-.5).
Nevertheless Solomon in his old age erected
an altar to Milcom, being led into this idol-

atry by the Ammonite wives whom he loved ;
and in the following centuries children
were burnt to Molech in the valley of Hin-
nom at the high place of Topheth (Ps. cvi.
33; Jer. vii. 31: xix. 4, .5; Ezek. xvi. 21;
xxiii. 37, 39; cp. Is. xxx. 33). Ahaz burnt
childi'en of his there (2 Chron. xxviii. 3), and
Manasseh made at least one of his sons to
pass through the fire (2 Kin. xxi. 6). The
northern Israelites were also guilty of this
hideous rite (2 Kin. xvii. 17 ; Ezek. xxiii.
37). Josiah destroyed the altars which Solo-
mon built on the mount of Corruption to
this false divinity and other heathen gods,
and defiled the high place of Topheth (2 Kin.
xxiii. 10, 13).

Mo'lid [begetter].

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 29).

Moloch. See Molech.

Mol'ten Sea or Bra'zen Sea.

A great basin made by Solomon of brass
which David had taken as booty (1 Chron.
xviii. 8). It stood in the inner court of the
temple between the altar of burnt offering
and the sanctuary, somewhat toward the
south ; and was intended for the priests to
wash their hands and feet in before entering
the sanctuary or ajiproaching the altar (1
Kin. vii. 39 ; 2 Chron. iv. 6 ; Antiq. viii. 3, 6 ;
cp. Ex. xxx. 18-21). It was round, 10 cubits
in diameter and 5 in height, and held 2000
baths (1 Kin. vii. 23, 26 ; in 2 Chron. iv. o in-
correctly .3000). The brim curved outward
like a cup, and the sides were ornamented
with two rows of knops underneath the brim
(1 Kin. vii. 24, 26). It was not an exact hem-
isphere, but its sides bulged out like a tulip,
as appears from the statement of its capacity
and from the comparison of it to a lily. It
stood upon twelve brazen oxen, in four
groups of three each, facing the four quarters.
Ahaz took it down from the oxen (2 Kin.
xvi. 17) ; and finally, when Nebuchadnezzar
captured Jerusalem, he broke the basin in
pieces (xxv. 13, 16; Jer. xxvii. 19-22).

Mon'ey.

Money was early coined by the Greeks and
the peoples of Asia Minor within the sphere
of Greek influence. Staters, made of an alloy
of gold with silver called electron, were
struck in Lydia in Asia Minor and silver
coins at ^Egina as early as 700 to 650 b. c.
In the rest of western Asia and in Egypt
people were content to use gold and .silver in
bars, rings, and other forms, probably
stamped with the value, but not issued by
authority (Josh. vii. 21 ; and cp. name of
talent, kikkar. circle). In business transac-
tions reliance was not placed on the stanlp,
but the quantity was determined by weigh-
ing (Gen. xxiii."l6; xliii. 21) ; cp. Weights.
Counting was rarely resorted to (2 Kin. xii.
11), and then only to form a general estimate.
Shekel in the early period does not mean a
coin bearing an authoritative stamp, but a

Money

488

Money

certain weight {shekel) of silver. The weights
formed a series iu the denomination of talent,
maneh, shekel, gerah, and beka or half
shekel ; see Weights. Darius Hystaspis,
521-486 B. c, is credited with the introduc-
tion of coinage into Persia (Herod, iv. 166),
whereby the Jews became acquainted with

Gold Daric.

coins. The ordinary daric (Ezra ii. 69 ; in A.
Y. dram) was a thick gold coin, showing on
one side the king, kneeling and holding a
bow and a javelin. On the reverse was an
irregular square, doubtless the mark of the
punch with which the lump of metal was
driven into the die. It was worth about five
dollars ; see Daric. After the fall of the
Persian empire, the Greek system came into
vogue in Palestine, and money was reckoned
by talents and drachmas (1 Mac. xi. 28 ; 2
Mac. iv. 19).

Silver Half Shekel of Year 1.

In the year 141-140 b. c, Simon Maccabaeus
obtained the right to coin money for his nation
with his own stamp (1 Mac. xv. 6), and issued
silver shekels and half shekels and perhaps

Shekel of Year 2.

copper half, quarter, and sixth shekels. The
silver coins show a vase on the obver.se with
the date above and the legend "shekel (or
half shekel) of Isi-ael ; " and on the revei\se
a branch bearing flowers encircled by the
words "Jerusalem the holy." The small
copper coin of John Hyrcanus, which is rep-
resented in the accompanying cut, bears on
the obverse within a wreath of olive the in-
scription, " Jehohanan the high priest, head

and friend of the Jews." The reverse has a
Greek symbol, the united cornucopias, be-
tween which is a pomegranate. Herod the

Copper Coin of John Hyrcanus.

Great and his successors down to Herod
Agrippa II. issued copper coins, but only with.
Greek legends.

Copper Coin of Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of
Galilee.

The money of the Greeks, however, con-
tinued to circulate along with the Jewish
coinage. The coins consisted of drachmas
and tetradrachmas. The silver drachma (Luke
XV. 8, R. Y. margin) in the time of the Herods-
and the procurators was equivalent to the
Roman denariusand worth about 16 cents : the
silver stater or tetradrachma (Mat. xvii. 27,
margin), struck by the Greek cities of Syria
and Phoenicia, was worth about 66 cents, but
soon afterwards became much debased. The
Iffjiton was a small copper coin (Luke xii. 59 ;
xxi. 2, rendered mite), not the lepton of the
Greek system, but the smallest copper coin in
circulation, worth about ^ cent and equal to
half the quadrans (Mark xii. 42). The name
denotes small. It was a Jewi.sh coin, for only
Jewish money was allowed to be oflered in
the temple ; and it was probably a cojiper
coin issued by John Hyrcanus or other Mac-
cabfean jjrince. The didrachma, which corre-
sponded to the half shekel [Mat. xvii. 24, mar-
gin), was probably not in circulation or but lit-
tle u.sed in Palestine. The talent employed
in Palestine (1 Mac. xi. 28 ; ]\Iat. xviii. '24)
was the Attic talent, which Alexander had
made the lawful standard throughout his
empire and which afterwards maintained its
supremacy. It was not a coin, but money of
account ; was divided into niinas (1 Mac. xiv.
24 ; Luke xix. 13-25, rendered pound) ; and
it consisted of 60 niinas or 6000 drachmas.
It suffered great doiu-cciation, the drachma
falling off from altout (J7.5 grains to about 55
grains or 16 cents under the early Ca?sars.

With the advent of the Romans in Pales-
tine, the money of the Romans had also come
into circulation. The denarius (Mat. xviii.
28; rendered penny) was a silver coin. In
the time of the empire its obverse almost in-
variably bore the head of the reigning sov-
ereign or of some member of the imperial

Money

489

Money

family. From the time of Augustus to that
of Nero, its standard weiglit was (jO grains,
equivalent tu alwut 17 cents. It was the
tribute money payable by the Jews to the

Denarius with Image and Superscriiition of Ti-
berius Caesar.

imperial treasury (Mat. xxii. 19). The assa-
riou (x. 29 ; Luke xii. 6, rendered tiirthing),
the Greek name of the Roman as, was a
small copper coin, the value of which was
reduced in 217 B. c. to ^ of a denarius or to
about 1 cent. The quadrans (Mat. v. 26 ;
Mark xii. 42 ; rendered farthing) was the

Procurator's Copper Coin.

fourth part of an as, or J cent. The pro-
curators of Judsea were also accustomed to
coin money. They Lssued copper pieces in
the name of the imperial family and with the
legend in Greek letters. The coin which is
represented in the accompanying cut bears
the name of Ti. Claudius Ca!sar Germauicus
written in Greek on the margin, and in the
center two palm branches laid crosswise with
the date, "year 14," between them. The
reverse contains the name of the emperor's
wife, Julia Agrippina. It was struck in A.
D. .54, during the ])rocuratorship of Felix.

The gold coin which was current in Pales-
tine during the N. T. period was the Koman
denarius aureus, generally termed simply
aureus (.\ntiq. xiv. 8, .5, rendered ]>ieces of
gold>, which passed for 2o silver denarii.

The national coinage of Israel was revived

Shekel of Simon, Prince of Israel.

by Eleazar, the priest, and Simon, the prince,
during the first revolt, A. d. 66-70. Silver

shekels and quarter shekels and copper coins,
with various devices and old Hebrew in-
scriptions were issued. The shekel of Simon,
of which a copy is here given, shows on the
obverse a palm tree and the legend "Simon,
prince of Israel," and on the reverse a vine
and " Year one of the red(-uiption of Israel."
On the suppression of this revolt and the
capture of Jerusalem, coins were struck in
Eome with the image and name of the em-
peror Vespasian on the obverse, and a female

Silver Coin of \'c.sijat.iun, cumuiuniorating the
Capture of Jerusalem.

captive under a palm tree, with the inscrip-
tion "Judaea subdued" or "' Juda-a captive"
on the reverse ; cp. medal, article Jerusalem.
Herod Agrippa II., king of part of Galilee
and the region to the east, continued to issue

Copper Coin of Ilerocl Agrippa II.

copper coins after the fall of Jerusalem. The
one depicted dates from the reign of Titus.
It bears the head of the emperor, his name
and titles, on the obverse ; and on the re-
verse a winged victory holding a wreath and
a ])alm branch, and the date, "year 26 of
king Agrippa." During the second revolt,
which was headed by Bar-cocheba, A. D. 132-
1:5.5. shekels and quarter shekels of silver
and also of cojiper, with old Hebrew inscrip-

Shekel of Bar-cocheba.

tions, were again coined. The shekel shows
a tetrastyle temple on the obverse, probably
a conventional representation of the beauti-
ful gate of the temple at Jerusalem. At the

Money Changers

490

Moon

sides of it appears the word Simon, perhaps
the personal name of the leader of the re-
volt ; while above it a star is introduced,
doubtless in allusion to the surname of the
leader, Bar-cocheba, sou of a star. To obtain
quarter shekels the Eoman denarius was re-
struek, which at this time so nearly equaled
the quarter shekel in value that it could be
substituted for it without inconvenience.

Mon'ey Chan-gers.

When a cei>sus was taken every Israelite,
whether rich or poor, who had reached the
age of twenty years, was required to pay
half a shekel into the treasury of the Lord
as an otiering to make atonement (Ex. xxx.
13-13). Later it was customary, according
to Maimonides, to pay this poll tax annually.
Besides this tax, pious Israelites made free-
will offerings, which they cast into chests
placed in the court of the women (Mark xii.
41). This money must be in native coin;
and as several currencies circulated in Pales-
tine in the time of Christ, and as multitudes
of Jews from foreign lands visited Jerusalem
at the passovcr, bringing the coin of their
country with them, need arose of facilities
for exchanging foreign for native money.
The business of the money changer sprang
up. They had stalls in the city ; and as the
feast approached they were admitted to the
precincts of the temple and placed their
tables in the court of the gentiles. The pre-
mium paid for half a shekel was, according
to the Talmud, a kolliiboft, equal to twelve
grains of silver and worth about three cents.
From this premium the money changer was
called a koUnbififrs (Mat. xxi. 12), and from
the table at which he .sat a trapezHes (Mat.
XXV. 27). On two diti'erent occasions Jesus
overturned the tables of the money changers
and drove the cattle dealers from the court,
because their presence and too often their
dishonesty and avarice were incompatible
with the sanctity of the place and with the
quiet which is necessary for worship (John ii.
14-16; Mat. xxi. 12, 13).

Month.

In Egypt the Israelites were acquainted
with a year of twelve months of thirty days
each, with five additional days to produce
confoi'mity with the solar year of 365 days
(Herod, ii. 4), and in the account of the
flood the months are reckoned at thirty days
each (Gen. vii. 11, 24; viii. 3, 4). After-
wards, however, the Hebrews ai)pear to have
used a lunar month. This may be gathered
(1) from the two words for month which de-
note respectively new moon and lunation
and indicate the original measurement; (2)
from passages like Gen. i. 14; Ps. civ. 19;
Ecclus. xliii. 6-8; (3) from the observance of
the day of the new moon by .special offerings
to Jehovah (Num. x. 10; xxviii. 11-14; 2
("hron. ii. 4); and (4) from the coincidence
between the ])assovcr, which was always cele-
brated on the evening of the fourteenth day

of the month, and the full moon (Ps. Ixxxi.
3-5) ; see further Antiq. iii. 10, 3 and 5 ; iv.
4, 6, and article Year. A lunation requires
a little more than twenty-nine days and a
half. The months would accordingly aver-
age twenty-nine and thirty days alternately.
When, however, a month is spoken of gener-
ally, thirty days are meant (cp. Num. xx. 29;
Deut. xxxiv. 8 with xxi. 13). The months
were commonly distinguished by number.
The names of only four Hebrew months are
found in Bible narratives relating to the
period before the captivity. They are the
first month, Abib (Ex. xiii. 4, etc.); the sec-
ond month, Zif (1 Kin. vi. 37) ; the seventh,
Ethanim (viii. 2) ; and the eighth, Bui (vi.
38). After the captivity the names in com-
mon use among the Babylonians and other
Semites were emjjloyed. See Year.

Moon.

The jirincipal luminary of the night (Gen.
i. 16 ; Ps. cxxxvi. 9), relied upon to measure
time, marking off moons or months, and
regulating the day of the passover, and thus
aiding in regulating the feasts of the year
(Gen. i. 14; Ps. civ. 19; Ecclus. xliii. 6,7;
Antiq. iii. 10, 5). Almost all the nations
with which the ancient Hebrews came into
contact worshiped the moon. Ur of the
Chaldees, from which Abraham emigrated,
and Haran, where he settled for a time and
where Jacob dwelt for twenty years, were
noted seats of the moon's worship. When
Abraham removed to Ganaan, he had neigh-
bors who worshii)ed the two-horned Ashto-
reth (Gen. xiv. 5). The Egyptians sacrificed
to the moon (Herod, ii. 47), and the goddess
Isis bore the lunar disk on her head. In the
time of the Assjrian and Babylonian inva-
sions of Palestine, the Hebrews came again
into contact with people who regarded the
moon as one of the great gods. At this time
the worship of the moon and other heavenly
bodies made serious inroads on the religion
of Jehovah (2 Kin. xxi. 3; xxiii. 4, 5; Jer.
vii. 18; viii. 2). The moon was adored by a
kiss of the hand (Job xxxi. 26, 27), with the
burning of incense (2 Kin. xxiii. 5). In
heathen tem])les the moon was often repre-
sented by the crescent as a symbol and by an
image in the form of a human being. This
heathenism had its check in the sublime
doctrine of Jehovah. The sun and moon
were made by the God of Israel, were cre-
ated for the useful purjjose of giving light,
and were serviceable to man in aflbrding a
convenient measurement of time.

Different from the worship of the moon
was the childish conception that the varying
appearance of the moon from night to night
at its rising, during its course across the sky,
and at its setting, which are due to atmos-
pheric and astronomic conditions, presaged
political occurrences. The aspect of the moon
may indicate weather probabilities ; but the
folly of basing predictions of national events

Moph

491

Moreli

on such phenomena was pointed out by tlie
prophets (Is. xlvii. 13). The Helnews seem
to have shari'd in the widespread belief, ap-
parently justified by the statements of trav-
elers in equatorial regions, that the moon
may atfect the health and under eircuni-
stances produee evil consequences to muscles
and nerves. But the child of God can safely
intrust himself to the watchful care of Je-
hovah (Ps. cxxi. 6).

As the months were lunar, the new moon
marked the beginning of the month ; and the
daj' of the new moon, being the commence-
ment of a natural division of time, was ob-
served as a holy day. No set convocation
seems to have been prescribed ; but additional
sacrifices were offered (Num. xxviii. 11-14),
trumpets were blown (Num. x. 10 ; Ps. Ixxxi.
3), ordinary labor was suspended (Amos viii.
5), and the day offered favorable opportunity
for religious instruction (2 Kin. iv. 2.3 ; Ezek.
xlvi. 1, 3). It was kept with joy and feasting
(1 Sam. XX. .5 ; Judith viii. 6). The new moon
of the seventh month marked the beginning
of the seventh recurrence of a fixed portion
of time, and consequently fell under the
Sabbath law. and was observed as such in
addition to the usual worship on the day of
the new moon (Lev. xxiii. 24, 25; Num.
xxix. 1-6). After the exile this celebration
assumed the character of a new year's fes-
tival.

The advent of the new moon was calcu-
lated at an early period (1 Sam. xx. .5, 18).
The Babylonian astrologers watched for it
on the evening when it was expected to be
seen, in order to take note of its ap]iearance.
According to the Talmud, the .sanhedrin as-
sembled seven times a year early in the
morning of the thirtieth day of the month.
Watchmen were stationed on the heights
about Jerusalem to watch for the new moon
and report it as soon as seen. When the evi-
dence of its appearance was deemed sufli-
cient, the sanhedrin pronounced the word
M'knddash, it is consecrated, and the day be-
came the first of the new month, leaving
twenty-nine days for the preceding mouth.
If fogs or clouds prevented the moon from
bei*ig discerned, the day was reckoned as
the thirtieth and the new mouth began on
the morrow. The announcement of the new
moon was made to the country at large by
lighting a beacon fire on the mount of Olives,
which was repeated by similar signals from
other mountain tops. The Samaritans are
said to have thwarted this plan by kindling
fires prematurely. In consequence the sig-
nals were discontinued, and the announce-
ment of the new moon was made by mes-
sengers.

Moph. See Memphis.

Mo'ras-tliite.

A native or inhabitant of Moresheth, as
was the prophet Micah (i. 1: Jer. xxvi. 18) ;

see MORESHETH-GATH.

Mor'de-cai [perhaps, Persian, signifj'ing
little man, or a Babylonian name, meaning
a worshiper of Merodach].

1. A Benjamite, son of Jair, son of Shimei,
son of Ki.sh (Esth. ii. 5). Hi.s great-grand-
father Kish, to whom and not to Mordecai
ver. 6 probablj- refers, was carried captive to
Babylon with king Jeconiah in 598 B. u. He
brought up Hadassah or Esther, his uncle's
daughter, adopting her as his own after her
father and mother had died. She acted
under his direction in the series of events
which ended by making her queen of Persia
as wife of Ahasuerus (Esth. ii. 7-20). This
king was Xerxes, who reigned from 486 to
466 B. c. Through Esther Mordecai informed
the king of a plot against his life, and the
two conspirators were executed (21-23). When
Haman was the king's favorite, Mordecai de-
clined to prostrate himself before him, re-
fu.sing to pay the customary civilitj' because
of Haman's unprincipled character or perhaps
because Haman was an Agagite. The in-
sulted dignitary determined to wreak ven-
geance not on Mordecai alone, but on the
entire Jewish people, and the king granted
him leave (iii. 5-11). One night Ahasuerus
could not sleep, and to relieve the tedium of
his waking hours, he desired that the book
recording the chronicles of the kingdom
should be read to him by his attendants.
The con.spiracy came up in the part read,
and the king remembered that he had done
nothing for his deliverer. When morning
dawned he requested Haman, who had come
to ask permission to hang ^Mordecai, to take
that faithful subject, array him in royal
apparel, and conduct him through the streets
of the city (Susa) mounted on a horse belong-
ing to the sovereign, and to proclaim before
him as he went along: "Thus shall it be
done to the man whom the king delighteth
to honor." This was the commencement of
Haman's fall, and of a series of events
wliich resulted in the death of Haman and
his sons, and the promotion of Mordecai to
be the second man in the empire (Esth. vi.-
X.). Some interpreters would identify Mor-
decai with the eunuch Matacas or Natacas,
who, according to Ctesias, was the chief fav-
orite of Xerxes.

2. A Jew who returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2; Neh. vii. 7).

Mo'reh [archer, orthe first rain, or teacher] .

1. A terebinth or oak tree and grove near
Shechem (Gen. xii. 6; Deut. xi. 29, 30),
which most probably took its name from an
archer or teacher who at one time or other
dwelt there. Abraham encamped by.it when
he arrived in Canaan from Mesopotamia, and
erected an altar there to Jehovah who ap-
peared unto him. It was probably the tree
under which Jacob buried the amulets and
idols that his family had brought with
them from Haran, and where Joshua erected
a. stone to commemorate the covenant which

Moresheth-gath

492

Moses

the people renewed there, and whither the
men of Shechem went to make Ahimelech
king (Gen. xxxv. 4 ; Josh. xxiv. 26, though
slightly diflereut words are used for tere-
binth in these two })assages from that em-
ployed in Gen. xii. 6; Judg. ix. 6). The
identity of the tree with the oak or terebinth
of the augurs near Shechem is not so obvious
(Judg. ix. 37).

2. A hill in the valley of Jezreel to the
north of the spring of Harod (Judg. vii. 1).
Not positively identified. Jehel Duhy, or
Little Hermou, about 8 miles northwest of
mount Gilboa and 1 mile south of Nain, has
been suggested.

Mor'esli-eth-gatli [possession of Gath or
of a wine press].

A town mentioned in connection with
places in Judah, and therefore evidently
situated in the same region (Micah i. 14).
Jerome located it in the vicinity of Eleu-
theropolis. Gath in the name is generally sup-
posed to denote the Philistine city and to
indicate that Moresheth was near it. Per-
haps the town was the home of the prophet
Micah (i. 1).

Mo-ri'ah [the meaning is unknown. The
definite article ])refixed to the word shows
that it is not a proper name and that it does
not contain the divine name Jehovah ; and
the orthography further shows that the word
does not mean " appearance or provision of
Jehovah "].

1. A district of country, on one of whose
hills Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac;
probably the region lying round about the hill
of the same name on which the temple was
afterwards built, and taking its name from
that hill or from some circumstance common
to both it and the hill (Gen. xxii. 2; Antiq.
i. 13, 1 and 2). The Samaritans, and after
them a few modern scholars like Bleek, Tuch,
Stanley, identify Moreh near Shechem with
Moriali (see Samaritan text) and Gerizim
with the scene of Abraham's sacrifice. The
Samaritan identification doubtless rests on
the fact that Abraham did build an altar at
Moreh (Gen. xii. 6, 7), and the identification
was encouraged by the desire to enhance the
religious glory of their country. But the
etymology of Moreh and Moriah is diflVrent.

2. The hill on which was the threshing
floor of Oman the Jebusite. David pur-
chased the floor and erected an altar on it.
and Solomon made it the site of the temple
(2 Sam. xxiv. 18 seq. ; 2 Chron. iii. 1). The
original hill has been much altered arti-
ficially and part of its slopes are hidden
beneath accumulated rubbish and embank-
ments, but its general contour has been
determined. Mount Moriah stood between
the Kidron and Tyropoeon valleys, and lifted
its summit directly opposite the mouth of
that ravine which forms the western branch
of the latter valley. On the north a sliglit
depression separated it from the narrow neck

of land which connected it with the main
plateau. It is diflicult to state exact dimen-
sions ; to call its original area 600 feet from
north to south by 300 from east to west may
be not fiir from the truth. Its highest point
is now, according to Warren, 2448 feet above
the ocean. Other platforms are 2430 and
2420 feet, from which the east and west
slopes very rapidly fall.

Mor'tar I.

A vessel in which grain and spices are
pounded with a pestle (Num. xi. 8; Prov.
XX vii. 22). The Arabs of the present day
use stone mortars in which to pound wheat
for making Mbhy, their national food, and
the sound of l)raying the grain with the
pestle may be heard at all hours in the
towns.

Mor'tar II.

A substance used to bind bricks or stones
together in a wall. Various materials were
used. 1. Mud or claj^ without lime (Nah.
iii. 14), frequently employed by peasants in
Palestine. 2. Mortar properly so called, con-
sisting of sand and lime mixed with water,
which was employed in building the better
class of houses (cp. Ezek. xiii. 10). Palestine
is a limestone country, and lime is easily ob-
tained (Is. xxxiii. 12). 3. Bitumen in regions
like Babylonia where clay and lime are
scarce (Gen. xi. 3, E. V. margin). The walls
of houses were (Lev. xiv. 42) and still are
daubed or plastered with mud or mortar,
often mixed with straw and pebbles, to pro-
tect them against the weather. The mortar
used for this purpose in Egypt consists of one
half clay, one quarter lime, and the rest ashes
and straw.

Mo-se'rah, in A.\. Mosera [bond, fetter].

All encampment of the Israelites in the
wilderness near Bene-jaakan (Deut. x. 6). In
Num. xxxiii. 30, the plural form Moseroth is
used as the name of the place. The site is un-
known; but it was near mount Hor, by the
border of Edom (Num. xx. 23; xxxiii. 37;
with Deut. x. (i), in the country of the Hor-
ites (cp. Gen. xxxvi. 20, 27 with 1 Chron. i. 42).
Jebel Madara sounds much like Mosera ; but
is not the exact equivalent, if the Arabic
spelling has been correctly reported by travel-
ers. See Hoe.

Mo-se'roth. See preceding article.

Mo'ses [from the Egyptian mes or mesu,
extraction, a son].

The great Hebrew leader and legislator.
He was a Levite, family of Kohath, house
of Amram (Ex. vi. 18, 20). Jochebed is called
the mother of Moses (ver. 20) ; but this ex-
pression is doubtless to be understood in the
sense of ancestress, Amram and Jochebed
being foundersof the tribal house into which
Moses was born ; see Egypt. The edict re-
quiring the Hebrew male children to be cast
into the Nile brought Moses into imminent
peril of his life. But his mother saw that

Moses

493

Moses

he was a goodly child, or, as Stephen words
it, exceeding fair (Acts vii. 20) ; and she
hid liim three months in her house. When
she could hide him no longer, she placed him
within an ark of bulrushes, which had been
daubed witii bitumen and pitch to render it
water-tight: put it among the flags on the
river's hank ; and posted Miriam, then a
young girl, to watch the result. By and by
Phai-aoh's daughter, attended by her maid-
ens, came to the river to bathe. Her name
was Thermuthis. according to Josephus
(Antiq. ii. 9, 5). Eu.sebius calls her Merris,
whicli sounds like Meri, one of the younger
daughters of Ramses II. The rabbins iden-
tify her with Bithiah (1 Chron. iv. 18). She
espied the ark, and had it opened. She saw
by the features and color of the infant that
he was a Hebrew. He wept and she was
touched with pity. At this critical moment
Miriam stepped forward, and with admirable
tact asked : "Shall I go and call thee a nurse
of the Hebrew women, that she may nurse
the cliild for thee ? " The princess bade her
go, and the child's mother was called and
the infant committed to her care. When he
was weaned he was taken to Pharaoh's
daughter, who adopted him and called him
Moses. The name was doubly fitting, the
child having been d^a\^^l from the water and
being adopted as a son (Ex. ii. 1-10). The
adopted son of a princess required a princely
education, and Moses became instructed in
all the wisdom of the Egyptians (Acts vii.
22), who were then unsurpassed in civiliza-
tion by any people in the world. This was
designed to fit him for high office under the
government, if not even for the Egyptian
throne. But in God's intention it was to
prepare him for the leadership of the
Hebrews. He was po.ssessed of great natu-
ral ability, and the training which he re-
ceived schooled him for the great work for
which he was destined. He became familiar
with court life and intercourse with princes,
with the grandeur and pomp of religious
w'orship and with ritualistic conventionali-
ties and symboli.sm, with letters and the
literary ideas of the time. He witnessed
the administration of justice, and he ac-
quired a general acquaintance with the arts
which were practiced in civilized life. He
remembered, however, his origin, believed
the promises which had been made to the
Hebrew people, and before the close of his
sojourn in Egypt he had discovered the call
of God to him to be the judge and the de-
liverer of the Israelites. Going out to ob-
serve the state of his countrjanen, he saw
one of them struck by an Egyptian. Moses
killed the opitressor, and hid iiis body in the
sand. Another day he tried to reconcile two
Hebrews who were striving together, on
which the one who was in the wrong inso-
lently asked : " Who made thee a prince and
a judge over us ? intendest thou to kill me, as
thou killedst the Egyptian?" Moses was

alarmed to find that his deed of the previous
day had become known, and on learning
that it had reached the ears of I'haraoh,
who said that he would kill him for it, fled
from Egypt to the land of Midian. He had
refused to be called the son of Pharaoh's
daughter, had cast in his lot with the people
of God, and bad assumed the position of de-
liverer and judge (Ex. ii. 11-1.5; Acts vii.
24-28; Heb. xi. 24, 25). He was now forty
years old (Acts vii. 2.3). On arriving in
Midian, Moses aided the daughters of Jethro
to water their flocks. This act introduced
him to Jethro, who was a priest. Jethro
showed him hospitality, furnished him
with employment, and gave him one of
his daughters to wife. She bore Moses two
sons, Gershom and Eliezer (Ex. ii. 22 ; iv. 20 ;
xviii. 3, 4). He remained in Midian forty
years (Acts vii. 30). This period was like-
wise a time of preparation. He enjoyed in-
timate association with a leading man of the
Midianites, a man of sound judgment (Ex.
xviii.). and a priest, although not of the reli-
gion of the Israelites. Here Moses widened his
acquaintance with religious thoughtand forms
of Avorship. He learned the roads of the wil-
derness, its resources, its climate, and the
mode of life of its inhabitants. In its soli-
tude he had opportunity for reflection. At
the close of this period he was astonished to
see a bush burning and yet remaining un-
consumed. As he turned aside to look more
narrowly at a sight so unique, he received
an authenticated call from Jehovah, and the
objections were overcome which he rai.sed on
the ground of insutficiencj' for the work
(Ex. iii. 11), inability to tell the ]>e(ii>le in
what character God would manifest himself
for their deliverance (13j, lack of credentials
to secure the recognition of the people (iv. 1),
and lack of eloquence to persuade (10). These
difficulties were removed ; and Moses ac-
quiesced, but unwillingly. God was dis-
pleased, and promised that Aaron should
help Mo.ses (14). Moses took his wife Zip-
porah and his sons to return to Egypt (20).
Two sons had been born to him. One of
them, doubtless the younger, he had not
circumcised, because Zipporah regarded the
rite as bloody. In yielding to her in this
matter Moses had shown himself unfaithful
in his own household and unfit for his high
commission. God was displeased with this
neglect of the sign of the covenant; and
now, as Moses was returning to Egypt with
his family, God brought him nigh unto death
at the inn. But Zipporah discerned the
cause and, desirous of saving her husband's
life, at once took a knife and performed the
operation, saying, " A bridegroom of blood art
thou to me" (Ex. iv. 24-26). Arriving in
Egypt, Moses repeatedly, in conjunction with
Aaron, conveyed to Pharaoh the divine com-
mands, the rejection of which brought on
the obstinate king and his people the suc-
cession of judgments known as the ten

Moses

494

Moses

plagues (v.-xiii. 16). When the departure
from Ejivpt took phice, it was Moses who,
under divine guidance, led the people. At
Sinai he was admitted to intimate relations
with God. God allowed all the people to
hear his voice in articulate words ; but he
permitted Moses to see him manifested and
he spake unto Moses face to face, as a man
speaketh unto his friend (Ex. xxiv. 9-11 ;
xxxiii. 11, 17-23; xxxiv. 5-29), and he re-
vealed his will to Moses from time to time
for the instruction of his people, as he did
afterwards to the successive prophets. Moses
received from God the two tables of stone ;
but on finding that in his absence the people
had taken to worshiping a golden calf, he
dashed the tablets to the ground and broke
them in his righteous indignation and in
token of the fact that the covenant, of which
they were the fundamental law, had been
annulled by the sin of the ])eople. Moses in-
terceded for the people, and God promised
that his angel should accompany the host.
Moses was again called into the mountain,
and received two other tables inscribed like
the first (xix., xx. ; xxxii.-xxxiv.). On each
of these occasions he fasted forty days and
nights (Ex. xxiv. 18; xxxiv. 28; Deut. ix. 9,
18), as Elijah afterwards did (1 Kin. xix. 8),
both in this respect foreshadowing the simi-
lar fast of our Lord (Mat. iv. 2). The name
of Moses is forever associated with the laws
given at Sinai and during the subsequent
desert wanderings. When Moses came dowu
from mount Sinai the second time, with the
tables of the law in his hand, the skin of his
face shone, sending forth beams (Hebrew,
horns), and the people were afraid to come
nigh him (Ex. xxxiv. 29, E. V. margin).
Moses called to them, and they returned to
him ; and he spake with them and gave to
them all that the Lord had spoken with him.
"And till Moses had done speaking with
them, he put a veil on his face. But when
Moses went in before the Lord to speak with
him, he took the veil off, until he came out"
(33, 34, A. v.). The E. V., following the
Septuagiut and Vulgate and correctly ren-
dering the Hebrew, says just the contrary:
" And when Moses had done speaking with
them, he put a veil on his face." He did
not wear the veil while speaking either with
the people or with the Lord. He wore the
veil, not to hide the splendor (A. V.), but to
conceal the vanishing away of the splendor
(E. V.) ; and he wore it until he returned to
the presence of the Lord, where the light of
his countenance was rekindled. Moses " put
a veil upon his face, that the children of
Israel should not look steadfastly on the end
of that which was i)assing away " (2 Cor.
iii. 13, E. v., cp. 7).

In the second year of the sojourn of the
Israelites in the wilderness, Moses is men-
tioned as having married a Cushite woman
(Num. xii. 1). Zipporah may have died dur-
ing the preceding year, although her death

is not recorded (cp. Ex. xviii. 2). Among
the later Jews the story ran that the Cushite
woman was an Ethiojiian princess named
Tharbis, who had fallen in love with Moses
on the occasion of his leading an Egyptian
army into Ethiopia, while he was still a
member of Pharaoh's household (Antiq. ii.
10, 2). The tale is evidently a fabrication.
The marriage took place in the wilderness,
when Miriam and Aaron were jealous of
Moses' superiority in public afiairs. They
were leaders of the host, directors of the
national life, and prophets as well as Moses ;
and on this ground they claimed that their
opposition to Moses' marriage with the for-
eigner should have been heeded by him.
The Cushite woman was probably one of the
mixed multitude which accompanied the
Israelites in the flight from Egypt (Ex. xii.
38).

Shortly after leaving Kadesh, Korah and
other princes rebelled against the authority
of Moses and Aaron, but were signally pun-
ished by God (Num. xvi.) ; see Korah. At
the second encampment at Kadesh, Moses
and Aaron grievously sinned (Num. xx.).
When bidden by God to speak unto the rock
that it give forth its water, Moses said to the
assembled people: "Hear now, ye rebels;
shall we bring you forth water out of this
rock V " The brothers failed to observe their
subordinate position. They claimed to be
the leaders and providers of the people,
whereas it was God wiio had led the Israel-
ites from Egypt and had fed them for forty
years in the wilderness. They took to them-
selves the honor which belonged to God alone.
When called upon to act for God, they acted
in their own name, and used for their own
glory the power delegated unto them. For
this sin of treason they were denied the
privilege of conducting the people into the
promised land. It was a sore chastisement
to Moses, but it made no change in the fidelity
of this great servant of the Lord. After the
condemnation he was faithful, as he had been
before. He started the people once more on
their march to Canaan. He led Aaron up
mount Hor, stripped him of his ofiicial robes,
and transferred his olfice to Eleazar, thus
himself aiding in carrying out the death
sentence. When the people were bitten by
the fiery serpents, he interceded with God
for them, and at God's bidding erected the
brazen serpent and bade his dying country-
men look and live. He led the armies of
Israel into the territory of Sihon and Og,
and conquered it for Israel. When the camp
was pitched in a valley in the mountains of
Abarim, and glimpses of the land of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob were obtained, the pent-up
emotionsof Moses' soul again, as on other unre-
corded occasions since his transgression found
relief in prayer : " O Lord God, thou hast be-
gun to show th J' servant thy greatness, and thy
strong hand : . . . . Let me go over, I pray
thee, and see the good land that is beyond

Moses

495

Mourning

Jordan, that goodly mountain, and Lebanon."
But the answer eanie : " Let it suffice thee ;
speak no more untu me of this matter . . . .
for thou shalt not go over Jordan " (Deut.
iii. 24-27). The camp was moved and
pitched at Shittim in the valley, and Moses
put his house in order that he might die. He
delivered a parting address to the peojjle ; see
Deuteronomy. He led Joshua, whom God
liad appointed to succeed him, before the
high priest in the presence of the congrega-
tion, placed his liands upon him, and, giving
him a charge, transferred to him the office
which he himself had so honorably and
efficiently filled for forty years. He after-
wards led Joshua to the door of the taber-
nacle to receive a charge from God. Then
he taught the people a song that they might
have words of religious wisdom in their
memory and on their tongues, bestowed his
farewell blessing on the several tribes, as-
cended mount Xebo and viewed the promised
land from its summit, and died. He was 120
years old, yet was his eye not dim nor his
natural force abated. God buried him near
by (Deut. xxsiv.).

It was during the forty years in the wil-
derness that the principal literary work of
Moses was done. He kept a record of the
encampments (Num. xxxiii.), made a note of
events, such as the battle with Amalek (Ex.
xvii. It), connuitted the .statutes founded on
the covenant law to writing (.xxiv. 4-7), pre-
served a copy of his farewell address (Deut.
xxxi. 24). He had also the richness, vivid-
ness, and depth of thought requisite for
writing Hebrew poetry, which is verj^ simple
in its structure and a ready vehicle for fervid
utterance. The most spontaneous of his
poems, written under the intense feeling of
the moment, was the song which he uttered
when Pharaoh was overthrown in the Red Sea
(Ex. XV. 1-lS). Moses ascribes the glory to
Jehovah (1-3), describes the event (4-12),
anticipates its effect upon the enemies of Is-
rael (13-1.5), and discerns in it a guarantee
that Jehovah will bring Israel into the prom-
ised land (1()-18). The song may h-ave been
compo.sed in a few moments. Ps. xc. is the
product of a quieter mood and of reflection.
His didactic song, embodying the religious
lessons of the preceding forty years, was
prepared with the design of its being com-
mitted to memory by the people (Deut. xxxii. ;
cp. xxxi. 19, 22). His farewell blessing of
the tribes, like the farewell words of Jacob
to his sons, was also cast in poetic form
(Dent, xxxiii.). Mo.ses had literary ability ;
he had also the stimulus aflorded bj- the
literary ideas of the Egyptians and the ex-
ample of their histories, and the incentive
of the awakened national life of the He-
brews, and the stirring events amid which
he lived to lead him to write a connected
history of his peojile, such as is found in the
Pentateuch. For his authorship of that work
see Pentateuch.

Moses had the wisdom of a statesman. lie
observed the opposition to him which was
manifested in his own family, the jealousy
of other tribes, the worldly considerations
by which the people were actuated, their
lack of faith in Jehovah at critical monu-uts,
and their readiness to lapse into i(i<platry.
He meditated on these weaknesses wliich
threatened the national existence ; and when
he came to prepare his farewell address he
insisted upon the law of the one altar and
upon the spirituality of religion as the great
means under God of overcoming these de-
fects by deepening the moral life on the one
hand, and on the other hand by preserving
purity of worship and doctrine, binding the
people together as one nation, and making
their own religion a greater spectacle than
the ceremonies at heathen shrines ; see Altar
and Deuteronomy. After his death the
greatness of Moses was universally recog-
nized, and his reputation grew as the cen-
turies went by. He had, moreover, the
distinguished honor of being i)ermitted to
reappear as the representative of O. T. law,
with Elijah, the representative of O. T.
'prophecy, to hold converse with Jesus on the
mount of transfiguration (Mat. xvii. 3, 4).

Moth.

An insect proverbial for its destruction of
clothing (Job xiii. 28 ; Mat vi. 19 ; Jas. v. 2).
Its larva feeds upon wool (Is. li. 8), and out
of the same substance builds itself a house
or case, in which it lives (Job xxvii. 18), pro-
truding its head while eating. The clothes
moth {Tinea) is intended, of which several
species, as T. pellionella and vestianeUa, feed
on fur and wool.

Mount.

1. A mountain. The word is now used
almost exclusively in poetry or as part of a
compound name, as mount Carmel, mount
Tabor, mount Zion, mount of Olives (1 Kin.
xviii. 19 : Ps. xlviii. 2 ; Zech. xiv. 4) ; see
Carmel, Zion, etc.

2. A mound, especially one raised against
the wall of a besieged city by the assailing
army (Jer. vi. 6 ; Dan. xi. 15 ; and R. V. of
2 Sam. XX. 15 ; 2 Kin. xix. 32), and on which
the battering ram was placed (Ezek. xxvi.
8, 9) ; see illustration xinder Lachish. In
Is. xxix. 3 a different Hebrew word is used,
which R. V. renders fort.

Moun'tain.

Gf the mountains in or near Palestine the
loftiest was mount Hermon. Then followed
the Lebanon range. Compared with those
towering elevations such hills as mount Zion,
mount Moriah, mount Carmel, mount Tabor,
etc., were very inferior eminences (Deut.
iii. 25).

Mourn 'ing.

The mourning of the oriental was and is
ostentatious. Public expression was given to
grief principally by removing ornaments and
neglecting the person (Ex. xxxiii. 4 ; 2 Sam.

Mouse

496

Mule

xiv. 2; xix. 24; Mat. vi. 16-18), rending
the clothes hy slitting the tunic at the throat
or tearing the coat or the outer mantle (Lev.
X. 6; 2 .Sam. xiii. 31; Joel ii. 13), shaving
the head or plucking out the hair (Ezra ix.
3 ; Jer. vii. 29), putting on sackcloth (Joel i.
8), sprinkling ashes or dust on the head (2
Sam. XV. 32), fasting (Ps. xxxv. 13), weeping
and lamenting (Joel i. 8, 13). Several of
these modes were usually combined (Gen.
xxxvii. 34; 2 Sam. iii. 31, 32; xiii. 19; xv.
32; Ezra ix. 3, 5; Job i. 20; Jer. xli. 5).
Friends came to the house of mourning, and
flute players and professional mourners,
chiefly women, were also employed, who
made loud lamentations (Jer. ix 17, 18 ;
Mat. ix. 23 ; Acts ix. 39) ; see Minstrel. As
at the present day, funeral feasts were given
to the crowds that assembled at the funeral
{Jer. xvi. 7; Baruch vi. 32). After the
funeral women came forth very early in the
morning to visit the grave, as they are still
accustomed to do, and to pray, weep and sob or
chant hymns or beat their breasts (Mark xvi.
1, 2). Many of them are professionals ; but
others are sincere mourners, relatives of the
deceased and their sympathizing friends'
(John xi. 31). Customs, in general similar,
prevailed in Egypt, Persia, and Scythia
(Herod, ii. 66, 85 ; iv. 71 ; viii. 99 ; ix. 24).

The period of mourning varied. It was
thirty days for Aaron and Moses (Num. xx.
29 : Deut. xxxiv. 8), and seven days foi feaiil
(1 Sam. xxxi. 13). The Egyptians obseived
seventy days for Jacob, and seven more days
were devoted to public mourning for him at
the threshing floor of Atad (Gen. 1. 3, 10)

Mouse.

A small rodent quadruped, 3Ius vintcxlHs
and other allied species of the family iTii} uJx
It was an unclean animal (Lev. xi. 29), but
was eaten by Israelites in Isaiah's time -nho
gave themselves up to heathenism and piid
no attention to the Mosaic law (Is. Isvi 17)
The field mouse (Arvicola arralis) was d(
structive to crops (1 Sam. vi. 5). The H(
brew word for mouse, 'akbar, is a compie
hensive one, including not merely the genus
Mus, but most of the family Muridse, vMth
many animals from other families haviii
either an affinity or an analogy to the t^yi
cal mice. ' The Arabs include the jeiboi
under the designation 'akhar, and they eat
it, and various other mouse-like animals,
such as sand rats, which belong to the sub-
family GerhilUnse, and dormice, of the related
family Myoxidae.

Mo'za [a going forth, issue].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 46).

2. A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron.
viii. 36, 37).

Mo'zah.

A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 26). Not
identified. The name is etymologically dif-

ferent from Beit Mizza, a ruined village,
about .5 miles west-northwest of Jerusalem.

Mul'ber-ry Tree.

A tree of the same order as the fig. It is
cultivated in Syria for the sake of its leaves,
on which the silkworm feeds. A cooling
drink is made from its berries, the juice
being expressed, sweetened with honey, and
flavored with spices. The juice of the ber-
ries was shown to elephants to prepare them
for battle (1 Mac. vi. 34 ; cp. 3 Mac. v. 2). A
mulberry is mentioned in N. T. under the
name of sycamine.

Mulberry is the rendering of the Hebrew
BahC, weeping, distilling ; a tree which grew
near Jerusalem and of which the leaves
rustled in the wind (2 Sam. v. 23, 24 ; 1
Chron. xiv. 14, 15). In the.se passages and in
Ps. Ixxxiv. 6 the margin of E. V. has balsam
tree. Royle suggested that the tree intended
is that called hak by the Arabs, or rather
fihajrat al-bak, the gnat tree, which he iden-
tifies with the poplar. Two species of poplar
are common along the banks of streams and
in moist soil in Palestine, the white poplar
and the Euphrates poplar; but there is no
etymological connection between bak and
baka' .

Mule.

A graminivorous animal, called in Hebrew
pered (1 Kin. xviii. 5). The mule is a hybrid

Mule in Ancient Assyria.

between the horse and the ass. It is often
mentioned with horses (Ps. xxxii. 9), and
was much used for riding and for carrying
burdens (2 Sam. xiii. 29; 2 Kin. v. 17; 1
Chron. xii. 40). It is not mentioned before
the time of David, but was in common use
fnmi his days onward. The Tyrians obtained
mules in Armenia (Ezek. xxvii. 14).

In A. Y. of Gen. xxxvi. 24 the Hebrew

Muppim

497

Music

plural yeiiiim is translated mules; but it
should rather be rendered hot springs, as it
is in the Vulgate and in K. V. In A. V. of
Esth. viii. 10, 14 rekesh is rendered mule, in
1 Kin. iv. 28 dromedary. E. V. substitutes
swift steed.
Mup'pim.

A sou of Benjamin (Geu. xlvi. 21) ; see
Shephupham.

Mur'der.

Just after the deluge it was enacted that
whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall
his blood be shed : for in the image of God
made he man (Geu. ix. ti). The avenger of
blood had the right to put the murderer to
death (Num. xxxv. 19) ; but if the man-
slayer reached a city of refuge he was tem-
porarily safe. The cities of refuge were not
instituted for the benefit of the deliberate
murderer ; they were designed for the man
who had accidentally committed manslaugh-
ter (Num. XXXV.). Even if the deliberate
murderer had fled for asylum to the altar,
and probably taken hold of its horns, he was
to be taken from it and put to death (Ex.
xxi. 14; cp. 1 Kin. ii. 28-34). At the city of
refuge the mauslayer was given a trial. The
concurrent testimony of at least two wit-
nesses was required to convict him of murder
(Num. xxxv. 30; Deut. xvii. 6). If guilty
of deliberate murder, no ransom was ac-
cepted (Num. xxxv. 31), he was delivered to
the avenger of blood to be slain (19; Deut.
xix. 12). If acquitted, he was granted asy-
lum in the city. See City of Refuge.

Mu'shl.

A Levite, sou of Merari, and the founder
of a tribal family or house (Ex. vi. 19 ; Num.
iii. 20 ; xxvi. 58 ; 1 Chron. vi. 19, 47 ; xxiii.
21, 23; xxiv. 26, 30).

Mu'sic.

Music is ancient (Gen. iv. 21). Among
the Hebrews, Miriam and her companions
took timbrels and danced and sang praises to

on musical instruments, and danced (.Ter.
XXV. 10; 1 Mac. ix. 39; Luke xv. 25). Mar-
riage processions, as they passed through the
streets, were accompanied with music and
song (Jer. vii. 34). Women and maidens
welcomed the victorious warrior on his re-
turn home with music, song, and dance
(Judg. xi. 34; 1 Sam. xviii. (j). Kings had
their court musicians (2 Chron. xxxv. 25;
Ecc. ii. 8). The accession of a king and his
marriage and his feasts were made joyous
with music (2 Sam. xix. 35; 1 Kin. i. 40; Ps.
xlv. 8, E. v.). The shepherd might have his
harp (1 Sam. xvi. 18). The mind might be
quieted and refreshed by music (1 Sam. x. 5;
xvi. 16 ; 2 Kin. iii. 15). P.salms might be sung
to the accompaniment of the harp (Ps. xcii.
1-3; cxxxvii. 2; cp. Amos vi. 5).

The musical instruments of the Hebrews
were of three classes: stringed instruments,
wind instruments, and instruments of per-
cussion. Stringed instruments consisted of
a body of wood with strings of gut, and
were played with the fingers of one or both
hands or were struck w'ith a plectrum of
wo(jd. ivory, or metal. They were chiefly
the harp and psaltery. The harp was in
general use among the people both for worldly
and sacred music ; the psaltery was commonly,
though not exclusively, reserved for religious
purposes. The p.saltery was tuned to the
soprano register, the harp an octave lower
(1 Chron. xv. 20, 21). The wind instruments
were chiefly flutes or pipes and horns. The
pil)e was often played wdth other instruments
(1 Sam. X. 5; 1 Kin. i. 40; Is. v. 12; xxx.
29; Ecclus. xl. 21), was employed to lead
dancing (Mat. xi. 17), and was played at
weddings (1 Mac. iii. 45; Eev. xviii. 22). It
was specially the instrument of lamentation
(Jer. xlviii. 36; Mat.ix.23, R.V.; War iii. 9, 5).
The Bible does not mention its use in the
temple service, not even in 1 Mac. iv. 54 ; but
it was used in sacred music (1 Sam. x. 5) and
was heard in processions of worshipers march-

Band of Musicians in Assyria.

the Lord for his deliverance of the Israelites
at the Eed Sea (Ex. xv. 20). The people
danced and sang in idolatrous worship about
the golden calf (Ex. xxxii. 6, 18). In family
feasts and religious festivals they sang, played

ing to the house of God (Is. xxx. 29), and in
the later temple it had an assigned place,
especially at the passover and feast of taber-
nacles. The ram's horn, or an imitation of
it, was sometimes used to increase the noise

Music

498

Music

of other instruments (1 Chron. xv. 28; 2
Chrou. XV. 14 ; Ps. xcviii. 6, rendered trumpet),
but was generally blown by itself. Its prin-
cipal employment was not in music, but for
military purposes and to make proclamations.
Straight, narrow, silver trumpets, about a
cubit in length, and called hasofrah, were used
by the priests to anuouuce ifestivals, to call the
congregation, and on advancing to battle
(Num. X. 1-10). They were rarely blown by
laymen (Hos. v. 8 ; perhaps, 2 Kin. xi. 14
and 2 Chi'on. xsiii. 13). Of the instruments
of percussion the timbrel or tabret was the
popular instrument; it was usually played
by women and was employed on festive occa-
sions, esjiecially to beat time at the dances
and for singers (Gen. xxxi. 27 ; Ex. xv. 20 ;
Judg. xi. 34 ; Ps. Ixxxi. 2). Cymbals of brass
were used in the temple service (1 Chron.
XV. 19).

Music was cultivated by the companies
which gathered about the prophets (1 Sam.

288 were trained musicians, who were de-
pended upon to lead the less skilled body of
assistants (1 Chron. xxv. 7, 8). They were
divided into twenty-four cour.ses, containing
twelve trained musicians each. Of these
courses four belonged to the family of Asaph,
six to that of Jeduthun, and fourteen to that
of Heman. The orchestra which accompa-
nied the singing consisted of stringed instru-
ments, but cymbals were also used, being
probably struck by the chief musician to
beat time (1 Chron. xv. 19-21). It appears
from this passage that the proportion of
psalteries to harps was eight to six. In
Herod's temple there were ordinarily two
psalteries, nine harps, and one cymbal, and
on certain days pipes were added. The par-
ticipation of priests with trumpets in the
orchestra of stringed instruments was ex-
ceptional (2 Chron. v. 12, 13; vii. 6). In the
second temple the trumpets, when blown in
connection with the regular orchestra, were

^C=

Band of Musicians in Ancient Egypt accompanying the Ministrations of a Priest.

X. .5), various instruments being employed as
an orchestra. It is not mentioned as belong-
ing to the service of the tabernacle in the
early period. David introduced it into the
worship at the sanctuary, and Solomon pro-
moted it (2 Sam. vi. 5, 14 ; 1 Kin. x. 12 ; 1
Chron. XV., xvi.). Hezekiah and Josiah paid
special attention to its restoration (2 CJhron.
xxix. 2.5; xxxv. 1.5). David was assisted in
his work by Asaph, Heman, and Ethan or
Jeduthun, three masters of music. A choir
of singers and musicians, with Asaph at its
head, was formed of Levites, and stationed
before the ark at the tabernacle on Zion,
while Heman and Jeduthun, with their
choirs, were assigned to the old tabernacle at
Gibeon (1 Chron. xvi. 4-6, 39-42). These
three choirs were afterwards united in the
temple. In David's reign they numbered
4000 members (1 Chron. xxiii. 5), of whom

heard only in the pauses or as responsive
music (Ezra iii. 10, 11). The musicians stood
on tlie east of the great altar (2 Chron. v. 12).
In Herod's temple they occupied a broad
staircase, which led from the court of Israel
to the court of tbe priests. In this later
temple a choir of boys, standing at the foot
of the stairs, lent their higher voices to the
song of the Levites.

Little is known of the character of the
music. The Hebrews had a scale of eight
tones. Their sacred choirs probably sang in
unison the same simple melody, divided into
two parts, the one an octave higher than the
other, and representing the male and female
voices, and were accompanied by the instru-
ments in the same tones (1 Chron. xv. 20, 21).
Melodies are probably named in the titles of
Ps. ix., xxii., xlv., Ivi., Ivii., and others.
Antiphonal and responsive singing was prac-

3

Mustard

499

Mystery

ticed (Ex. xv. 21 ; Xeh. xii. 31-43) and was
often lioard in the tenipk- service (Ezra iii.
10, 11; Jer. xxxiii. 11); several psalms were
arranged for this purpose, e. </., xxiv. 7-10 ;
exxxvi. The congregation seldom, if ever,
joined in the singing in the first tenijjle, but
at its close they united in saying amen (1
Chron. xvi. 7, 36). In the Herod ian temple
the i)eople sometimes participated by singing
responses.

Mus'tard.

A garden herb (Luke xiii. 19), which in
comparison with other herbs becomes a great
tree (Mat. xiii. 32; Jfark iv. 32), on whose
branches the birds rest for the sake of obtain-
ing its seeds. Its seeds are, hyperbolically
speaking, less than all seed.s (Mat. xiii. 32).
The largeness of the plant grown from seeds
so small illustrates the increase of the king-
dom of heaven from a very small beginning.
The nnistard seed was employed provei'bially
by the Jews, just as it was by Jesus (Mat. xvii.
20; Luke xvii. 6), to denote anything very
minute. The common mustard of Palestine
is Sinapis nigra or black mustard. It grows
wild, attaining the height of a horse and
rider, as travelers have noticed. It is also
cultivated in gardens for its seed, which is
used as a condiment. Those who seek another
identification generally consider the mustard
of Scripture to have been Siilvadora persica,
the type of the natural order Salvadoracex
or Salvadorads. Royle, who supported this
view, says that it has a succulent fruit, tast-
ing like garden cress. It is, however, small,
and apparently confined to the low valley of
the Jordan ; and it is not an herb.

Muth-lab'ben [die for the son].

An expression of doubtful meaning in the
title of Ps. ix. It probably indicates a famil-
iar melody.

Myn'dos, in A. V. Myndus.

A small town of Caria, situated on the sea-
coast (Herod, v. 33). It was not far from
Halicarnassus, for Alexander led a detach-
ment of troops across the intervening country
in one night. In the time of Simon Macca-
baeus it was subject to Rome (1 Mac. xv. 23).
Its site is probably marked by the small
sheltered port of Gumishlu.

My'ra.

A city of Lycia, where Paul, when a pris-
oner on liis way to Rome, changed ships
(Acts xxvii. 5. fi). Myra was one of the
principal cities of Lycia. It stood some two
miles from the sea, and was built on and
about a cliff, at the mouth of the gorge leading
into the interior mountain region. It is now
called Derabra.

Myrrb.

1. A fragrant substance, called in Hebrew
mor, in Greek smitnia. It was an ingredient
in the oil with which Aaron and his succes-

sors were anointed (Ex. xxx. 23). Reds and
garments were perfumed with it (Ps. xlv. .M ;
Prov. vii. 17 ; Song iii. (i), and an oil of
myrrh was used in the purification of women
(Esth. ii. 12). The magi brought it from the
east to present to the infant Jesus (Mat. ii.
11). At the crucifixion it was offered to him
in wine, probably to deaden pain (Mark xv.
23), and was an ingredient in the spices de-
signed for anointing his body (John xix. 39).
It was used for embalming the dead (llerod.
ii. 86). The tree which produced it grew
in Arabia (iii. 107; Pliny xii. 16). The
plant which produced it was probably Bul-
samodemJyon myrrha. It is a small tree, with
odoriferous wood and bark, short spiiiy
branches, trifoliolate leaves, and pluni-likc
fruit. It grows in Arabia Felix, and fur-
nishes the myrrh of commerce.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Lot (Gen.
xxxvii. 25; xliii. 11). Myrrh is not a hapi)y
translation ; it should have been ladanum
(R. V. margin), called by the Greeks ledon
and ladanon, and by the Arabs ludan, which
is cognate with the Hebrew lot. It is a
highly fragrant resin, containing a volatile
oil. and is produced by Cistnn creticus and
various other species of rock rose. It grow-s
in parts of Syria.

Myr'tle.

A tree, called in Hebrew h"dns. It grew
in the mountains near Jerusalem, and booths
were made of its branches at the feast of
tabernacles (Neh. viii. 15). It is mentioned
also in Is. xii. 19 ; Iv. 13; Zech. i. 8, 10, 11.
The tree is undoubtedly the common myrtle
{Myrtns communis), which grows in Palestine.

My'si-a.

A province in the extreme northwest of
Asia Minor ; bounded on the north by the Pro-
poutis, now sea of Marmora, on the south by
Lydia, on the east by Bithynia, and on the
west by the Hellespont. The Troad lay
within its limits. Paul and Silas passed
through it to Troas, one of its cities (Acts
xvi. 7, 8>. Assos, to which Paul sailed to
meet his associates, was another (xx. 13). A
third was Pergamos, one of the seven churches
in Asia (Rev. i. 11 ; ii. 12-17).

Mys'ter-y.

A word borrowed from the heathen reli-
gion, in which a mystery was a secret and pe-
culiar doctrine, which distinguished one re-
ligion from another, and found expression in
rites, ceremonies, and purifications to which
only initiated persons were admitted. The
word does not imply that the doctrine is in-
comprehensible. In the N. T. it denotes a
secret hidden from the world till the ap-
pointed time (Rom. xvi. 25), or until man
has been prepared by the Spirit of God to re-
ceive and appreciate it (Mark iv. 11), which
forms a characteristic and essential doctrine
and finds expression in the life (1 Tim.
iii. 16).

Naam

500

Nabal

N.

Na'am [sweetness, pleasantness].
A son of the celebrated Caleb (1 Chron. iv.
15).
Na'a-mah [sweet, pleasant].

1. Daughter of Lamech, and sister of Tubal-
cain (Gen. iv. 22).

2. An Ammonitess, Uiother of king Eeho-
boam (1 Kin. xiv. 21, 31 ; 2 Chron. xii. 13).

3. A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 41). Not identified.

Na'a-man [pleasantness, delight].

1. A grandson of Benjamin, a son of Bela
and founder of a family (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num.
xxvi. 40).

2. A Syrian commander-in-chief under
king Benhadad. He was an able and a brave
man, and a leper. In Syria leprosy did not
exclude from human society, as it did in
Israel, tliough it was a loathsome disease. In
one of the Syrian raids into the Israelite ter-
ritory, the soldiers had brought away a little
maid, who became a slave to Naaman's wife.
This girl expressed to her mistress the wish
that Naaman were with Elisha in Samaria,
as the pi-ophet would heal him of his leprosy.
The speech of the maiden was reported to
her master, who resolved to seek a cure from
Eli.sha. His sovereign, the king of Syria,
wrote a letter of introduction for him, and
sent him to the king of Israel to be cured.
When the Israelite ruler received it he
thought that the real intention of his corre-
spondent was to pick a quarrel and declare
war. Elisha reassured the king, and desired
that Naaman should be sent to him, when he
■would learn that there was a prophet in Is-
rael. When he came with his horses and
chariot to Elisha's door, the proi)het in order
to humble his pride and teach him that he
owed his cure not to man, but .solely to the
power of God, did not appear, but sent out a
message that he was to dip seven times in
Jordan, and he should be cleansed.' Naaman,
feeling atfronted, declined the prescription,
saying, "Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers
of Damascus, better than all the waters of
Israel? may I not wash in them and be
clean?" He went ofi' in a passion, but his
servants soothed his ruffled temper, and
begged him to dip in Jordan, which he did,
and was at once miraculously cured. Now
thoroughly softened in heart, and filled with
gratitude, he wished to reward Elisha. The
prophet desired to impress upon the Syrian
the freeness of (Jod's blessings, and refused
all recompense ; but Gehazi, his servant,
acted in a very different spirit. Naaman re-
nounced idolatry, and became a worshiper
of Jehovah ; and he carried home two mules'
burden of earth to build an altar to Jehovah.
He lived, however, in a heathen community
and could not altogether escape outward par-
ticipation in heathen customs. His king was

an idolater, a worshiper of Rimmon ; and it
was Naaman's official duty to support him
when he entered the temple and bowed be-
fore the god. The prophet of Jehovah per-
mitted Naaman to fulfill his secular duties,
even though to do so involved his assisting his
king to i)erform heathen worship (2 Kin. v.).

Na'a-ma-thite.

A native or inhabitant of Naamah ; as
Zophar, Job's friend (Job. ii. 11 ; xi. 1 ; xx.
1 ; xlii. 9). The place was probably in
Arabia.

Na'a-rah [a girl].

1. A wife of Ashhur, the ancestor of the
inhabitants of Tekoa (1 Chron. iv. 5, 6).

2. A town on the boundary line of E-
l)hraim, east of Bethel, and not far from Jeri-
cho (Josh. xvi. 7). In A. V. the name is
written Naarath. The final th is archaic,
and is probably due in the text to the pres-
ence of the local ending. The town is doubt-
less one with Naaran (1 Chron. vii. 28).
Archelaus diverted half the water supply of
Neara to irrigate the palms of his palace at
Jericho (Antiq. xvii. 13, 1). Eusebius men-
tions a village Noorath, 5 Roman miles from
Jericho. A plausible conjecture for the site
is on the Nahr el-'Aujah, with its plentiful
water; perhaps at the ruin el-'Aujah.

Na'a-rai.

One of David's valiant men (1 Chron. xi.
37 ; apparently a diverse reading, perhaps
the correction, of Paarai, 2 Sam. xxiii. 35).

Na'a-ran. See Naaeah 2.

Na'a-rath. See Naaeah 2.

Na'a-shon. See Nashon.

Na-as'son. See Nashon.

Na'bal [foolish, wicked].

A sheepmaster, resident in Maon, who pas-
tured his ffocks around the village Carmel in
Judah, on the confines of the wilderness.
His wife's name Avas Abigail. David and his
followers had dwelt for some time in the
neighborhood, and had nsed their might to
protect the projierty of the people from ma-
rauding bands of robbers. When Nabal was
shearing his sheep, David sent ten young
men to .solicit assistance for himself and his
followers. Nabal sent back a churlish re-
fusal, which so irritated David that he i)ut
his men in motion with the intention of cut-
ting off Nabal and every other male ))clong-
ing to the household. Abigail, who was a
clever and judicious woman, made ready a
])resent for David, and, starting promptly,
apologized for her husband'sconduct, allayed
the resentment which it had caused, and
j)revented the gathering storm from breaking
on her home. Returning to her abode, .she
found a great feast in progress, and her lord
completely intoxicated. Next morning, when
he was sober, she told him how narrowly he
had escaped destruction. He wasjirofoundly
affected by the intelligence, and never recov-
ered from the shock which it caused, but

Nabathseans

501

Nahash

died in ten days. After a time, Abigail be-
came one of David's wives (1 Sam. xxv.
1-42).

Nab-a-thse'ans, in A. V. Na'bath-ltes.

Sec Nekaioth.

Na'both.

An inliabitant of Jezreel, who had a vine-
yard at that town near one of Ahab's palaces.
The king wished to buy it, but its owner
would not sell it because it bad descended to
him from his ancestors. At the instance of
Jezebel, Naboth's life was sworn away by
suborned witnesses, he and his sons (2 Kin.
ix. 26), to whom the vineyard would have
descended, were stoned to death, their bodies
were left to be devoured by the dogs, and the
vineyard was seized by Ahab. This act of
violence called down the judgment of God on
the guilty king and his yet guiltier wife
(1 Kin. xxi. 1-24 ; xxii. 34-;i8 ; 2 Kin. ix.
30-37).

Na'chon. See Xacon.

Na'chor. See Nahoe.

Na'con, in A. V. Nachon [prepared, ready].

The designation of a threshing floor at
which Uzzah was struck dead for touching
the ark (2 Sam. vi. 6), and hence called
Perez-uzzah. i e. breach of Uzzah (8). It is
not certain that Nacon is the original spelling
of the name ; see Chidon.

Na'dab [of one's freewill, liberal].

1. The eldest of Aaron's four sons (Ex. vi.
23; Num. iii. 2; xxvi. 60; 1 C'hron. vi. 3 ;
xxiv. 1). With his brother Abihu, he was
granted the privilege of a near approach to
Jehovah at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1), and was sub-
sequently appointed to the priesthood (xxviii.
1), but both of them afterwards offered
strange fire to God, and as a penalty were
consumed by fire (Lev*, x. 1-7; Num. xxvi.
61). From the fact that a command was im-
mediately thereafter given to Aaron not to
drink wine or strong drink when he entered
the tabernacle, it may be inferred that Nadab
and Abihu had done so, and were under the
influence of liquor when they committed the
sin which cost them their lives (Lev. x. 9).
They both died childless (Num. iii. 4 ; 1
Cbron. xxiv. 2).

2. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Jerahmeel (1 Cliron. ii. 28, 30).

3. A Benjamite. a son of Gibeon and
Maachah (1 Chron. viii. 30 : ix. 36).

4. Son of Jeroboam I., and his successor on
the throne of Israel. He began to reign about
910 B. c. He followed the evil example of
his father with respect to calf worship. He
led the forces of his kingdom to besiege Gib-
bethon, but was murdered with bis relatives
by Baasha, who then mounted the vacant
throne. This massacre fulfilled the threaten-
ings of Jehovah against .Jeroboam and his
house. Nadab reigned less than two full
years (1 Kin. xiv. 10, 11, 30; xv. 25, 30).

Nad'a-batb, in A. V. Na-dab'a-tha.

A place, probably a village, in or near
Moab (1 Mac. ix. 37 ; in Antiq. xiii. 1, 4
Gabatha).

Nag'gai, in A. V. Nagge.

An ancestor of (lirisi (Luke iii. 25).

Na'ha-lal and Nahalol (Judg. i. .30), in A.
V. once Nahallal (Josh. xix. 15) [pasture].

A village of Zebulun (.Josh. xix. 15), froni
which, however, that tribe failed to drive
out the Canaauite inhabitants (Judg. i. 30).
It was assigned to the Merarite Levites (Josh.
xxi. 35). The Jerusalem Talmud says that
it was afterwards called Mahlul. Schwarz
and Van de Velde identify this with the vil-
lage of Ma'lul, 3i miles west of Nazareth.

Na-ha'li-el [valley and brook of God].

An encampment of the Israelites, between
Beer, in the desert east of Moab, and Bamoth,
which lay between Dibon and Baal-meon
(Num. xxi. 19), and hence probably on one
of the northern tributaries of the Arnon.
Not identified ; although the name is possi-
bly preserved in Encheileh, the valley of the
Arnon from the Balua eastward to the mouth
of the Sell Sa'ideh, a distance of about 2
miles.

Na-hal'lal. See Nahalal.

Na'ha-lol. See Nahalal.

Na'liam [solace, consolation].

Brother of Hodiah's wife (1 Chron. iv. 19,
E. v.). The translation of A. V. is impossi-
ble.

Na-ham'a-ni [compassionate].

One of those who returned with Zerub-
babel from Babjion (Neh. vii. 7).

Na'ha-rai, in A. V. once Nahari (2 Sam.
xxiii. 37), a misspelling of late editions from
which the original edition of 1611 was free
[snoring, snorting].

A Beerothite, Joab's armorbearer (2 Sam.
xxiii. 37 ; 1 Chron. xi. 39).

Na'hash [serpent].

1. Father of Abigail and Zeruiah, David's
sisters (2 Sam. xvii. 25; cp. 1 Chron. ii. 16).
Probably his widow, the mother of Abigail
and Zeruiah, married Jesse and became the
mother of David. This exi)lanation is better
than the assumption that Nahash was the
name of Jesse's wife ; or, as the later Jews
interpreted the passage, that Nahash was an-
other name of Jesse.

2. An Ammonite king who besieged Jabesh-
gilead, and when its inhabitants offered to
surrender and liecome tributary, would not
accept the jn-oposal unless every man in the
place consented to lose the right eye. He
determined to put a reproacli upon Israel.
A week's time was given in which to seek
help. Before it expired, Saul, just before
elected king. a})peared with a relie\'ing army,
totally defeated the Ammonites, and saved
Jabesh-gilead and its defenders (1 Sam. xi.
1-11). Either this Nahash or a son of his

Nahath

502

Nain

bearing the same name treated David kindly,
jHuhaps because he was at variance with Saul
(2 Sara. X. 2).

3. A man who lived in Kabbah of the Am-
juouites (2 Sam. xvii. 27). He may have been
the king aforementioned, or an Israelite who
had settled in Kabbah after its capture by
David (2 Sam. xii. 29).

Na'hath [descent or quiet].

1. A descendant of Esau and also of Ish-
mael. He became a chieftain of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 3, 4, 13, 17 ; 1 Chron. i. 37).

2. A Kohathite Levite (1 Chron. vi. 26) ;
probaldy the person elsewhere called Tohu
and Toah (1 Sam. i. 1 ; 1 Chron. vi. 34).

3. A Levite, one of those who had charge
of the tithes and ofleriugs under Hezekiah
(2 Chron. xxxi. 13).

Nah'bi [concealed].

The representative spy from the tribe of
Naphtali (Num. xiii. 14).

Na'hor, in A. V. twice Nachor (Josh. xxiv.
2; Luki iii. 34) [breathing hard, snorting].

1. A son of Serug, and grandfather of
Abraham (Gen. xi. 24, 25).

2. A .son of Terah, and brother of Abraham
(Gen. xi. 27). He married his niece Milcah,
daughter of Haran and sister of Lot (29).
He is not mentioned as emigrating from Ur
■with Terah, Abraham, and Lot ; but later he
is found in Mesopotamia at Haran (xxiv. 10 ;
sxvii. 43). Eight sons were boru to him by
Milcah, from whom sprang Aramjean tribes.
Four othere traced their descent from his
concubine (xxii. 21-24). One of his sons by
Milcah was Bethuel, who became the father
of Kebekah and Laban (xxiv. 15, 29).

Nah'shon, A. V. has once Naashon (Ex. vi.
23), and in N. T. Naasson [enchanting,
ominous].

A jirince of the tribe of Judah in the
early period of the wilderness wanderings
(Num. i. 7; ii. 3; vii. 12, 17; x. 14). His
sister was married to Aaron, who was of the
tribe of Levi (Exod. vi. 23). Nahshon was
the grandfather or remoter ancestor of Boaz,
Ruth's husband, and the fifth backward in
the genealogy of David (Kuth iv. 20-22; 1
Chron. ii. 10-12). This placed him in the
ancestry of our Lord (Mat. i. 4 ; Luke iii. 32,
33).

Na'hum [compassionate].

A i)ro])het born at Elkosh, doubtless a vil-
lage of Palestine. He proi)hesied to Judah
(i. 15), not to the ten tribes in captivity.
The position of the book among the minor
l)roi>hets, after Micah and before Habakkuk
and Zephaniah, is evidence that it was writ-
ten between the commencement of Heze-
kiah's and the dose of Josiah's reign (Mic. i.
1; Zeph. i. 1); and that the prophet cites
the destruction of No-amon in Egypt (iii. 8-
10), which was overthrown by the Assyrians
in 664 B. c, and jiredicts the fall of Nineveh
(7), which occurred about 606 b. c, narrows

the limits within which the composition of
the book must be sought to the fifty-eight
years intervening between the.se events. It
was a time when the people of Judah were
despondent by reason of the persistent inva-
sions of the Assyrians and the captivity of
their king.

The theme of the prophecy is the burden
of Nineveh (i. 1). The prophet insists on
the familiar truth that Jehovah is a jealous
God, whose vengeance is certain to fall on
his adversaries, but who is a stronghold to
those that trust in him (2-8), urges the
people to turn a deaf ear to the counsel of
those w'ho were s]>eakiug against Jehovah's
tardiness and advising the abandonment of
his service (9-11), declares the unalterable
purpose of the Lord to deliver his people
(12-14), and exhorts them to unswerving
loyalty to their God and the faithful ob-
servance of his worship (15). On the basis
of this truth, the prophet proceeds to describe
the overthrow of the worldly power which
was then oppressing the kingdom of God.
He pictures the siege of the city (ii. 1-10), and
takes occasion to taunt the city which had
been as a den of lions (11-13). Keturning to
the description of the siege, he attributes
the judgment which befalls the city to its
whoredoms (iii. 1-4). This allusion leads to a
change of the figure, and he depicts the pun-
ishment as the punishment of a harlot (5-7).
He draws attention to the fact that Nineveh
is not better than No-amon, which went into
captivity (8-10), and he predicts that like
No-amou Nineveh shall be destroyed (11-19).

2. An ancestor of Christ, born scarcely
three centuries earlier (Luke iii. 25). A. V.
uses the Greek form of the name, Naum.

Nail.

1. The horny scale at the end of the finger
(Deut. xxi. 12 ; Dan. iv. 33).

2. A tent pin (Judg. iv. 21), which was of
large size and commonly made of wood.
Those used to fasten the curtains of the
tabernacle were of brass (Ex. xxvii. 19).

3. A pin, commonly of metal, used for
driving into wood or other material to hold
sejiarate pieces together, or left projecting
for hanging things on. It might be made of
iron (1 Chron. xxii. 3), or of gold, or be gilded
(2 Chron. iii. 9). It was sometimes driven
between the stones of a wall (Ecclus. xxvii.
2). Idols were fastened securely in place by
nails (Is. xli. 7 ; Jer. x. 4), and victims were
often affixed to the cross by means of a nail
driven tlirough each hand and the feet (John
XX. 25).

Na'in.

A town where our Lord raised to life the
only son of a widow woman (Luke vii. 11-17).
It is still called Nain, and is in the northwest
corner of the eminence called Jebel Duhy,
or Little Hermon, 2 miles west-southwest
of En-dor, and 5 miles south-southeast of
Nazareth. It is a small hamlet, little more

Naioth

503

Naphtali

than a duster of ruins ; with ancient sepul-
chral caverns chiefly on the east of the vil-
lage.

Na'ioth [habitations].

The quarter in Ramah where the prophets,
who gathered about Samuel to work under
his direction, dwelt as a couimuuity (1 Sam.
xix. 18-xx. 1).

Name.

English names, such as James, Robert,
Anno, have a meaning, but it is known only
to those who have studied the etymology.
In biblical times it was ditlerent. The names
of persons were not only significant, but as a
rule everybody knew the meaning as soon
as the name was heard. Sarah, Jacob, Miriam,
Jehoshaphat, Martha, Ehoda, Dorcas were
intelligible to all.

The name was probably given by the
Hebrews on the eighth day after birth (Gen.
xvii. 12; xxi. 3, 4 ; Luke i. 59 ; ii. 21). The
•child might he given the name of a natural
object ; as Terati, wild goat, Leah, wild cow,
Jonah, dove, Tamar, palm tree, Tabitha,
gazelle. It might receive a name expressive
of its physical condition ; for example,
Shiphrah, beauty ; or of the parents' hope
regarding it, as Noah, rest (Gen. v. 29).
Some names were given prophetically, as
that of Jesus because he should be a saviour
(Mat. i. 21). Many names testified to the
piety or gratitude of the parents, as Simeon,
hearing (Gen. xxix. 33), or Nethaniah, Jeho-
vah hath given, or Elizur, God is a rock. Others
were commemorative of national events, as
Ichahod (1 Sam. iv. 21) ; yet others were
family names (Luke i. 59-61 ; cp. iii. 23-38).
When character had developed, a new name
was sometimes given as expressive of it ; as
Israel and Cephas. In the later period,
when several languages were spoken in Pal-
estine, a name was often translated and the
person was known by two names, as Cephas
after the Aramaic, and Peter after the Greek,
Thomas and Didymus, both names meaning
twin, Messiah and Christ, both meaning
anointed. At this time also names were
transformed, the Hebrew Jehohanan became
in Greek Joannes, and Josei)h became Joses.

Surnames were lacking among the He-
brews ; persons were designated by adding
to the personal name the name of their city,
as Jesus of Nazareth, Joseph of Arimathsea,
Mary Magdalene, Nahum the Elkoshite ; or
by a statement of their descent, as Simon
son of Jonah ; by their disposition, trade, or
other characteristic, as Simon Peter, Nathan
the prophet, Joseph the carpenter, Matthew
the publican, Simon the zealot, and Dionysius
the Areopagite. Every Roman had three
names ; a prxnomen, which was his personal
name and stood first, a nomen, which was that
of his gens or house and stood second, and a
cognomen or surname which was that of his
family and came last. Thus M. Antonius
Felix, the procurator, was Marcus of the

clan Antonia and the family called Felix.
Frequently only the nomen and cognomen
were given, the personal name being omit-
ted ; as Julius Caesar, Pontius Pilate, Claudius
Lysias.

Name is often used in Hebrew in the sense
of revealed character and essence. God
swears by his great name to carry out bis
jnnpose (Jer. xliv. 26), that is, he swears by
his attested power to accomplish his word.
The name of God which is excellent in all
the earth (Ps. viii. 1), is that expression of
his being which is exhibited in creatiou and
redemption. The name of the God of Jacob
which sets the king on high (Ps. xx. 1) is the
manifested power of Israel's God. The name
of God was in the angel which led Israel
through the wilderness (Ex. xxiii. 21), be-
cause in him the revealed might and majesty
of God himself dwelt. The name of God
dwelt an his sanctuary (2 Sam. vii. 13), the
place where he manifested himself. To
know the name of God is to witness the
manifestation of those attributes and appre-
hend that character which the name denotes
(Ex. vi. 3, with 7; 1 Kin. viii. 43; Ps. xci.
14 ; Is. Iii. 6; Ixiv. 2 ; Jer. xvi. 21).

Na-o'mi [pleasant].

Wife of Elimelech, Elimelech went with her
and his two sons to sojourn in Moab, because
famine prevailed in Judah. The sons married
Moabite women. Elimelech and his sons
died, and Naomi accompanied by her daugh-
ter-in-law Ruth returned to Bethlehem of
Judah (Ruth i.-iv.).

Na'pMsh, in A. V. once Nephish (1 Chron.
V. 19) [respiration].

Son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15 ; 1 Chron. i.
31), and founder of a clan with which the
Israelite tribes east of the Jordan were at
one time in conflict (1 Chron. v. 18-22).

Naph'ta-li, in A. Y. twice Nephthalim
(Mat. iv. 13, 15), once Nepthalim (Rev. vii.
6) [obtained by wrestling].

1. Sixth son of Jacob, and second by Bil-
hah, Rachel's maidser%'ant. Rachel gave
him this name because she had wrestled in
prayer for God's favor and blessing (Gen.
XXX. 8).

2. The tribe descended from Naphtali. It
was subdivided into four great families which
sprang from the four sons of Naphtali (Gen.
xlvi. 24 ; Num. xxvi. 48, 49). The prince of
the Naphtalite tribe early in the wilderness
wanderings was Ahira, son of Enan (Num. i.
15: ii. 29; vii. 78, 83; x. 27): at a later
period it was Pedahel, son of Ammihud
(xxxiv. 28) ; its representative spy was Nah-
bi, son of Vophsi (xiii. 14). At the first cen-
sus in the wilderness its fighting men were
5.3,400 (ii. 29, 30); at the second they were
45.400 (xxvi. 50). The tribe of Naphtali
pitched on the north side of the tabernacle,
beside those of Dan and Asher (ii. 29). Ar-
riveil in Canaan, they were one of the six
tribes which stood upon mount Ebal to pro-

Naphtuhim

504

Nathanael

nouiice curses on transgressors of the law
(Deut. xxvii. 13 ; cp. Josh. viii. 33). The
territory allotted to them was in northern
Palestine. It was bounded on the east by
the upper Jordan and the sea of Galilee, on
the south by Is.sachar and Zebulun, and on
the west by Zebulun and Asher (Josh. xix.
34). It was a long, narrow strip of land,
about 50 miles from north to south, and vary-
ing from about 10 to 15 from east to west. It
is mostly mountainous (Josh. xx. 7), and is
quite fertile. Its boundary ran by mount
Tabor (xix. 34), and it numbered Ramah,
Hazor, Kedesh, Iron, and Beth-anath among
its fortified cities (36-38). The Gershonite
Levites had three cities allotted them within
its limits ; they were Kedesh, Hammoth-dor,
and Kartan. The first of them was a city
of refuge (Josh. xx. 7 ; xxi. 6, 32 ; 1 Chron.
vi. 62, 76). Up to the early period of the
judges the Naphtalites had not succeeded in
expelling the Canaanites from Beth-shemesh
and Beth-anath ; they had, however, made
them tributary. The Naphtalites took a
large share in the fighting under Deborah
and Barak, being mentioned with Zebulun
as having jeopardized their lives unto death
in the high places of the field (Judg. iv. 6,
10 ; v. 18). They also responded to the sum-
mons to arms issued by Gideon (vi. 35 ; vii.
23). A thousand captjiins, with 37,000 fight-
ing men, came to David at Hebron, to aid
him in the contest with Ish-bosheth (1 Chron.
xii. 34 ; cp. 40). Their ruler some time after-
wards was Jerimoth, son of Azriel (xxvii. 19 ;
cp. Ps. Ixviii. 27). Ahimaaz was Solomon's
purveyor in Naphtali (1 Kin. iv. 15). Hiram,
not the Tyrian king, but the skillful worker
in metal, was a widow's son of the tribe of
Naphtali (vii. 14). The land of Naphtali was
ravaged by Benhadad, king of Syria (1 Kin.
XV. 20 ; 2 Chron. xvi. 4), and many of its in-
habitants were subsequently carried into
caiitivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria
(2 Kin. XV. 29). To these calamities Isaiah
alludes, and comforts the afflicted people by
intimating in the name of the Lord that the
territory now ravaged should one day receive
special privilege, so that they who walked in
darkness should see a great light (Is. ix. 1-7).
This prophecy was fulfilled when our Lord
made the region on which the invasion had
fallen the special seat of his ministry (Mat.
iv. 12-16). Chorazin, Capernaum, and Ti-
berias were within the limits of what had been
Naphtali.

Naph'tu-him [plural of nnphttihi].

A tribe of Egyptian descent, mentioned
between the Libyans of Lower and the Path-
rusim of Upper Egypt (Gen. x. 13; 1 Chron.
i. 11). Ebers derives the name from tia-ptah,
the [people] of Ptah, or inhabitants of Mid-
dle Egypt, in the district about Memphis, the
seat of Ptah's worship. Najjata, an ancient
ca])ital of Ethiopia, on the Nile near the
fourth cataract, has also been suggested.

Nap'kin. See Handkerchief.

Nar-cis'sus [the narcissus or daffodil].

A Ivomau, whose household was in the
Lord and was greeted by Paul in his letter to
the cliurch (Rom. xvi. 11).

Na'sor. See Hazor.

Na'than [he has given].

1. Sou of Attai, and father of Zabad, be-
longing to the house of Jerahmeel, family of
Hezron, tribe of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 36j.

2. A distinguished prophet in the reign of
David and Solomon. The proposal to build
the temple was submitted to him by David.
At first he was favorable to the project, but
afterwards received a message from the Lord
directing that not David, but his successor
was to have the honor of building the holy
house (2 Sam. vii. 1-17 ; 1 Chron. xvii. 1-15).
Nathan Avas afterwards sent to David to
bring him to a sense of his great sin in the
matter of Uriah the Hittite. This the
prophet did by the parable of the ewe lamb
(2 Sam. xii. 1-15 ; cp. Ps. li. title). In his
official capacity as prophet of the Lord he
named the young Solomon Jedidiah (2 Sam.
xii. 25). With his and Gad's concurrence, or
possibly at their instigation, David arranged
the musical service for the sanctuary (2
Chron. xxix. 25). When Adonijah aspired
to the throne in lieu of Solomon, he sent no
intimation of his intention to Nathan, be-
lieving probably that the prophet was too
loyal to David to be seduced from his alle-
giance (1 Kin. i. 8-10). Nathan advised Bath-
sheba to go at once and tell David what had
occurred, arranging that he would come in
and confirm her Avords. The plan was car-
ried out, and David gave orders to Zadok
the priest, Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah,
chief of the bodyguard, to proclaim Solomon
(11-45). Nathan wrote a history in which he
described the reign of David and part at least
of that of Solomon (1 Chron. xxix. 29; 2
Chron. ix. 29).

3. The father of one and brother of an-
other of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii.
36 ; 1 Chron. xi. 38) ; see Igal.

4. The third of those children of David
who were born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 14).
He. or possibly the prophet, was father of
Solomon's officials, Azariali and Zabud (1
Kin. iv. 5). His family is mentioned in Zech.
xii. 12. Through him David and Jesus Christ
are connected by natural lineage (Luke iii.
31) ; while it is through Solomon that Joseph,
the husband of Mary, is connected with
David (Mat. i. 6).

5. A chief man with Ezra at the brook of
Ahava (Ezra viii. 16).

6. A son of Baui, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 39).

Na-than'a-el [God hath given].

A native of Cana in Galilee, wliom Jesus
declared to be an Israelite indeed in whom
was no guile. His attention was directed by
Philip to Jesus as the Messiah of O. T. proph-

Nathan-melech

505

Nazareth

ecy. But as Nazareth is not mentioned in
O. T. prophecy and besides had a question-
able reputation, he felt difficulty in accept-
ing the Messianic claims of one who had
been brought up in that towu ; but he at
once yielded to the evidence which the su-
perhuman knowledge of Jesus furnished
(John i. 45-51). He was in the boat with
Simon Peter when the miraculous draught
of fishes was brought in (xxi. 2). The name
does not occur iu the lists of the apostles given
in the first three gospels, but he was prob-
ably the same person as Bartholomew.

Other persons of the name are mentioned
iu O. T., but there the original Hebrew form
is used. See Xethaxel.

Na-than-me'lech [the king hath given].

A chamberlain who lived in Josiah's time
within the precincts of the temple (2 Kin.
xxiii. 11).

Na'um. See Xahtjm 2.

Naz-a-rene' [belonging to Nazareth].

1. One born or resident in Nazareth (Mat.
ii. 23 ; E. Y. of xxvi. 71 ; Mark xvi. 6). In
Is. xi. 1 the Messiah is called neser or shoot
out of the roots of Jesse ; an oflTspring of the
royal family indeed, but of that family .shorn
of its glory and reduced to its original hum-
ble condition. He is frequently called the
Branch also ( Jer. xxiii. 5 ; xxxiii. 15 ; Zech.
iii. 8 ; vi. 12). On the most probable inter-
pretation of Mat. ii. 23, the evangelist sees a
fulfillment of Isaiah's prophecy in the provi-
dence which led the parents of Jesus to take
up their residence iu Nazareth again and re-
sulted in Jesus being a Nazarene. If Naz-
areth means protectress or guardian, Matthew
finds the fulfillment merely in the similarity
of sound and in the low esteem in which the
town and its inhabitauts were held ; but if
the name is derived from the same root as
neser (see Nazareth), then Matthew finds
the fulfillment in the meaning chiefly (Mat.
xxvi. 71, E. V. ; Mark xvi. 6, E. V.).

2. An adherent of the religion founded by
Jesus ; a Christian. It is used contemptuous-
ly (Acts xxiv. 5).

Naz'a-reth [verdant, ofiFshoot ; or perhaps
protectress (see below)].

A town of Galilee (Mat. ii. 23), where
Joseph and Mary lived (Luke ii. 39), and
where Jesus was brought up (iv. 16) and
spent the greater part of thirty years (iii. 23
with Mark i. 9). He was accordingly known
as Jesus of Nazareth Olat. xxi. 11 ; Mark i.
24). He was held in favor there (Luke ii.
52; iv. 16) ; but after he entered on his mis-
sion, he was twice rejected by his fellow
townsmen (iv. 28-31 ; cp. Mat. iv. 13 ; and
xiii. 54-58: Mark vi. 1-6). Nazareth stood
upon a hill (Luke iv. 29). The town was
either small and unimpoitant or of recent
origin ; for it is not mentioned in the O. T.
or in the Apocrypha or by Josephus. It is
still called en-Nasirah. It lies in a secluded
valley in'Lower Galilee, a little north of the

great plain of Esdraelon, and is about l.'>
miles west-southwest of Tiberias, 20 south-
west of Tell Hum, the reputed site of (Caper-
naum, and 19 southeast of Aci'e. The valley is
about a mile from east to west and, on an
average, a quarter of a mile from uorth to
south. The hill on the northwest rises about
500 feet above the valley, and is cut into
ravines on its eastern slope. On that eastern
declivity stands the village of Nazareth.
The houses are better than those iu many
other villages in Palestine, being made of
the white limestone which is conspicuously
displayed along all the higher parts of the
investing hills. They are prettily situated
among fig trees, olive trees, and some cy-
presses, while down below in the valley are
gardens surrounded by hedges of prickly
pear. In the midst of the gardens is the
fountain of the Virgin, from which Nazareth
derives its water, and whither doubtless
Mary frequently went to obtain water for
her household. Nazareth now contains 4000
or more inhabitants. A considerable major-
ity of them belong to the Greek church ; a
smaller proportion are Roman Catholics ;
about one-fifth of all the inhabitants are
Mohammedans, and there are also a number
of Protestants. There is a fine Franciscan
convent. The monks point out many sacred
sites in Nazareth, but only the fountain of
the Virgin rests on good evidence. The site
of the attempted precipitation was probably
near the Maronite church, where there are
two or three bare scarps, 20, 30, 40, or 50
feet high.

The name Nazareth is written in several
forms in the manuscripts of the N. T. Naz-
areth aud Nazaret are the best attested, but
the Alexandrian text has Nazarath, and in
Mat. iv. 13 and Luke iv. 16 the Sinaitic and
Vatican texts have Nazara. The different
forms probably represent popular variations
of the name in Palestine itself; the towu
having been called in Aramaic Nas^ra', or
with the feminine ending t (th) retained, as
was frequently the case in the names of
towns (Zarephath, Daberath, Bozkath, Tim-
nath), and pronounced under Hebrew influ-
ence, Nasereth (cp. Aramaic 'irig'ra' and
'iggereth, a letter). As thus explained, the
word is a feminine participle. It is rare for
the Semitic sound s to be represented by z in
Greek, as this explanation of Nazareth
requires ; but it is not unparalleled (cp.
Zilpah, Hebrew Ijfilpah, Greek Zelpha).
The Syriac preserves s, using the form
Ndfrath. The Arabs who conquered the
country heard the emphatic sibilant and per-
petuated the name in the form en-Nasirah.
The Arabic name signifies helper or victor.
The derivation of the original name is fre-
quently .sought in the Hebrew root nasar,
watch, protect, guard, so that Nazareth
means protectress or guardian But this root
in Aramaic, including S.yriac, is u'iar. Prob-
ably, therefore, the name Nazareth is de-

Nazareth.

Fuuiituiu uf tlic N'iigiu, at Nazareth.

Nazirite

507

Nebo

rived from the root which appears in Hebrew
neser and Aramaic )i(s»-<j', sprout (Tar<;iim,
Job xxxi. 8), Xazaretli accordingly signifying
verdant i)lace or otlshoot.

Naz'i-rite, in A. V. Nazarite [separated,
consecrated (to God)].

A person, male or female, who was spe-
cially consecrated to God. Nazirites probably
exi.sted of old among the Hebrews, but their
mode of life was brought under the regula-
tions of the law at Sinai. The Nazirite vowed
to separate himself unto the Lord for a cer-
tain specified period. He did not, however,
become a hermit ; he continued to live in
human society. Nor was he necessarily an
ascetic. By the law he must not drink wine
or strong drink nor eat any product of the
vine during the days of his separation ; for
from the time of the nomadic patriarchs the
vine was the symbol of a settled life and
culture, which were quite right in themselves,
but were removed from the ancient .simplicity
of life and manners. See Jonadab. Nor
must the Nazirite shave his head. The long
hair was the visible sign of his consecration
to God ; the hair was the glory of the head
and the product of the body he had devoted
to God ; and the cutting of the hair, which
God made grow, was popularly regarded as
rendering the head in a measure common
(cp. Ex. XX. 25 ; Num. xix. 2 ; Dent. xv. 19).
Finally, the Nazirite must not render him-
self ceremonially unclean by touching a dead
body, even if the corpse .should be that of a
near relative. When the time approached
for his vow to expire, he appeared before the
priest, made certain prescribed offerings,
shaved off his hair and burned it, after
which he might again drink wine (Num. vi.
1-21). One might be a Nazirite for life in-
stead of for a limited period, and might be
dedicated to that mode of existence at or
even before his birth. This was the case
with Samson (Judg. xiii. 4, 5) and with
Samuel (1 Sam. i. 11, 28). Samson, however,
permitted deviations from not only the law
of the Nazirite, but at the same time from
other laws and ancient customs and the dic-
tates of refinement. In the time of Amos
profane people tempted the Nazirites to break
their vow of total abstinence from wine, even
offering it to them to drink (Amos ii. 11, 12).
After the exile Nazirites became comparative-
ly numerous (1 Mac.iii. 49; War ii.15, 1). John
the Baptist was consecrated a Nazirite from
his birth (Luke i. 15). The prophete.ss Anna
was not unlikely a Nazirite (ii. 36, 37). It
seems to have been the Nazirite vow that
Paul was induced to take to allay the storm
which his friends saw to be gathering against
him on his last visit to Jerusalem (Acts xxi.
20-261. Wealthy persons often bore the legal
expenses of poor Nazirites (Antiq. xix. 6, 1).

Ne'ah [emotion].

A place on the boundary line of Zebulun
(Josh. xix. 13). Site unknown.

Ne-ap'o-lis [new city].

The seaport of Philippi, and the first place
in Europe at which Paul touched (Acts xvi.
11 ; implied also in xx. 6). It was situated
on the Strymonian Gulf, 10 miles east-south-
east of Philippi. It is now called Kavalla,
and is a Turkish city with Greek and Roman
ruins in its vicinity.

Ne-a-ri'ah [perhaps, Jehovah hath shaken
out (cp. Nell. V. 13 ; Ex. xiv. 27)].

1. A Simeonite captain, who took part in a
successful war against the Amalekites near
mount Seir during the reign of Hezekiah
(1 Chrou. iv. 42).

2. A descendant of Shecaniah (1 Chron. iii.
22, 23).

Ne'bai. See Nobai.

Ne-ba'ioth, in A. Y. of Genesis Nebajoth
[to the Hebrew ear probably high places].

A tribe descended from Ishmael (Gen. xxv.
13, 16; xxviii. 9; xxxvi. 3; 1 Chron. i. 29)
and rich in flocks (Is. Ix. 7). They are be-
lieved to be identical with the Nabathsean
Arabs who, as early as the fourth centui-y
before Christ, took possession of mount Seir,
and spread thence northeastward into the
country east of the Jordan (1 Mac. v. 25 ; ix.
35) as far as the Hauran and Damascus
(Antiq. xiii. 15, 2). The entire country from
the Euphrates to the iElanitic gulf of the
Eed Sea became known as Nabatene (Antiq.
i. 12, 4). They were conquered by Pompey
in ()2 B. c, and in a. d. 105 Trajan converted
their kingdom into a Roman province. Their
capital was Petra. the ancient Sela. One of
their kings, Aretas, is mentioned in 2 Cor.
xi. 32.

Ne-bal'lat.

A town of Benjamin inhabited after the
captivity (Neh. xi. 34), now Beit Nebala,
about 4 miles northeast of Lydda and 1^
north of el-Haditheh, i. e. Hadid, and west
by north of Bethel.

Ne'bat [look, aspect] .

Father of Jeroboam I. (1 Kin. xi. 26).

Ne'bo [as name of a deity, is Semitic Baby-
lonian Nabfi, announcer ; as a geographical
name it may indicate that the place was a
seat of Nebo's worship, or correspond to
Arabic naba\ and denote elevation].

1. A Babylonian god (Is. xlvi. 1), who
presided over knowledge and literature. The
special seat of his worship was at Borsippa,
near Babylon. In Isaiah's time images of
Nebo were used as objects of worship (Is.
xlvi. 1).

2. A peak of the Abarira mountains over
against Jericho (Num. xxxiii. 47; Deut.
xxxii. 49), and the summit, apparently, of
Pisgah (Deut. xxxiv. 1). Its probable site is
Jebel Neba, 8 miles east of the mouth of the
river Jordan. From its summit, especially
from the elevation called Ras Siaghah, there
are visible in the clear atmosphere of spring
Hermon, at the foot of which lay Dan ; and

Nebuchadrezzar

508

Nebuzaradan

the mountains of Naphtali ; and the hill
country of Ephraini and Judah, which are
bounded, and at Cai-mel washed by, the
hinder sea ; and the depression which marks
the soutli country ; and the Dead Sea and
the Jordan valley.

3. A Moabite town near or on mount Nebo
(Num. xxxii. 3). It was rebuilt by the Reu-
benites (xxxii. 37, 38 ; xxxiii. 47 ; cp. 1
Chron. v. 8), but came again into Moabite
hands (Moabite Stone, 14; Is. xv. 2; Jer.
xlviii. 1, 22). The site is generally believed
to be marked by the ruins which are called
Nebbeh, and are situated 6 miles southwest
of Heshbon.

4. A town mentioned just after Bethel
and Ai (Ezra ii. 29; Neh. vii. 33). Not iden-
tified. Neither Beit Niiba, 13 miles west-
southwest of Bethel, nor Nuba, about 7 miles
northwest by north of Hebron, is etymologi-
cally identical with it.

Neb-u-chad-rez'zar and Nebuchadnezzar

[Nabu-kudiirri-imir, Nebo, defend the bound-
ary]. The two forms represent ditferent
Hebrew methods of reproducing the name.

Son of Nabopolassar and king of Babylon.
His father headed a successful revolt of the
Babylonians against Assyria and founded the
Babylonian empire in 625 b. c. Pharaoh-iiecho,
who ascended the throne of Egypt in 610 B. c,
finding the power of Assyria weakened,
marched into northern Syria about 608 b. c,
and encroached upon Assyria (2 Kin. xxiii.
29 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 20). But Nineveh, the
capital of Assyria, was taken by the allied
armies of Media and Babylon about 606 B. c,
and the Egyptians had to reckon with the
new claimants of the Assyrian dependencies.
Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadnezzar to
meet them. The prince defeated them in
605 B. c. with great .slaughter at the battle
of Carchemisli, drove them back to their
own land, and subjugated the intervening
regions (2 Kin. xxiv. 7; Jer. xlvi. 2). But
news arrived that his father was dead. Com-
mitting affairs in the west to his generals, he
hastened back to Babylon and ascended the
throne in 605 b. c. (con. Apion. i. 19). In-
formation regarding his reign is derived
chiefly from the Jewish sacred writers, in-
cluding Nebuchadnezzar's contemporaries
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, supplemented
by notices on inscribed bricks, and the state-
ments of the Babylonian historian Berosus,
who lived about 250 years after Nebuchad-
nezzar. After its subjection, Judah rendered
tribute to him for three years and then re-
volted (2 Kin. xxiv. 1). Nebuchadnezzar re-
turned to Palestine after a while, suppressed
the revolt, threw one king in fetters, pres-
ently ordered the new king to be carried
captive to Babylon, and placed yet another
king on the throne (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 10) ;
see Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah.
Zedekiah remained professedly loyal for
about eight years; in the ninth year he

struck for independence, being assisted by
the advance of an Egyptian army (Jer.
xxxvii. 5). The ultimate result was that
Jerusalem was besieged and taken, 587 b. c,
the temple burnt, and the leading inhabit-
ants of the capital and the country carried
into captivity (2 Kin. xxiv. ; xxv. ; 2 Chron.
xxxvi. 5-21 ; Jer. xxxix. ; lii.). About this
time, probably in the seventh year of the
Tyrian king Ithobalos and not of Nebu-
chadnezzar, Nel)uchadnezzar began the siege
of Tyre, which lasted thirteen years (Ezek.
xxix. 18; con. Apion. i. 21; Antiq. x. 11, 1).
In his twenty-third year, 582 b. c, he warred
against Ccelesyria, Moab, and Ammou, and
deported several hundred Jews (Jer. lii. 30;
Antiq. x. 9, 7). Afterwards he chastised
Egj^pt for the part it had taken in the Jewish
war. About 572 B. c. he invaded Egypt {cp.
Ezek. xxix. 19), and in his thirty-seventh
year, 569 or 568 B. c, he again led his army
against the Egyptians. It is probable that
Nebuchadnezzar carried on other military
campaigns, though the record of them is
lost. He acted on the policy of transporting
the inhabitants of conquered countries to
other parts of the empire, and had thus at com-
mand much servile labor, which enabled him
to carry out important works. He built the
great wall of Babylon, erected a magnificent
palace for himself, and repaired the great tem-
ple of Merodach at Babylon, the temple of
Nebo at Borsippa, and many other sanctuaries.
He is said to have built hanging gardens to
remind his wife Amuhia of her native Median
hills (con. Apion. i. 19; Antiq. x. 11, 1), and
to have constructed near Sippara a huge res-
ervoir for irrigation, reputed to have been
140 miles in circumference and 180 feet in
depth, besides canals across the land, and
quays and breakwaters on the Persian Gulf.
The form of madness from which he suffered
when pride overthrew his reason was that
called lycanthropy, in wliich the patient
fancies himself one of the inferior animals,
and acts as such. Nebuchadnezzar imagined
that he had become an ox, and went forth to
eat grass like other cattle (Dan. iv.). He
reigned nearly forty-three years and died
after a brief illness in the year 561 b. c,
leaving his son Evil-merodach to ascend the
throne.

Neb-u-shaz'ban, in A. V. Nebushasban

[Nubu-shisibonni. Nebo, .save me].

A Babylonian prince who held the oflice of
rab-saris under Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxix.
13).

Neb-u-zar-a'dan [Xiihu-sir-iddina, Nebo
hath given ofi"spring].

The captain of the guai'd in the army of
Nebuchadnezzar, which captured Jerusalem.
He was chief in command of the troops
which comijleted the destruction of the city
and burnt the temple (2 Kin. xxv. 8-11, 18-
21; Jer. xxxix. 9, 10; lii. 12-30; cp. xli. 10;
xliii. 6). To the prophet Jeremiah, who had

Neco

509

Nehemiah

recommended his coimtrymeii to submit to
the Babylouians, he, by express orders from
the victorious sovereign, sliowed all kindness
(Jer. xxxix. 11-14: xl. 1-5).

Ne'co and Necoh, in A. V. Necho and
Neclioli [Egyptian Xeku, Nekaii, Xekliao]. See
Phakaoh.

Ned-a-bi'ah [Jehovah hath impelled or is

bountiful].

A son of king Jeconiah (1 Chron. iii. 18).

Neg'i-nah and plural Neginotti [playing
on a stringed instrument ; a stringed instru-
ment].

A musical term occurring in the title of
many psalms, where it denotes a stringed in-
strument, and is so rendered in E. V. (Ps.
ixi.). Elsewhere the word often means song,
music.

Ne-hel'a-mite.

The designation of the fal.se prophet She-
maiah (Jer. xxix. 24). It may be derived
from his native place or from an ancestor, it
is uncertain which. On tiie margin of the
A. V. it is rendered dreamer.

Ne-he-mi'ah [Jehovali hath consoled].

1. (Jue of the chief men who returned
with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra ii. 2 ;
Neh. vii. 7).

2. Son of Azbuk and ruler of half the dis-
trict of Beth-zur. He repaired part of the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 16 1.

3. A Jew of the captivity, son of Hacha-
liah (Xeh. i. i). He was discharging his
duty of cupbearer to Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, king of Persia, when the king ob-
served that he looked sad, and questioned
him as to the cause of his sorrow. Nehemiah
frankly told him it was the state of ruin in
which the city of his fathers' sepulchers,
Jerusalem, was Ijnng. He therefore begged
permission to go and build again the wall of
the city. The king accorded him an es-
cort of cavalry for the journey, gave him
letters commending him to the diiierent
Persian governors by the way, and appointed
him governor of Judah, as Zerubbabel had
been i Neh. i. 1-ii. 9; v. 14). He arrived at
Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Arta-
xerxes' reign, 44.5 B. c. Ezra the priest was
then at the Je^ash capital, having come
from Babylonia thirteen years previously.
Nehemiah, on reaching the ca]iital, made a
journey by night around the city and viewed
the ruined walls. He now intimated to the
people his intention of rebuilding the walls,
and solicited their active aid. They gave it
with good will, each notable man under-
taking a part of the wall (Neh. iii.). The
neighboring gentile tribes did not like to
hear that Jerusalem was being rebuilt, and
three of their representatives, Sanballat, the
Horonite, Tobiah, an Ammonite, and Gesliem,
an Arab, i)ut forth active efforts to stop the
building. But they could neither circum-
vent nor intimidate Nehemiah, who reso-

lutely held on his course. The builders also
guarded against sudden attack by working
with one hand while with the other they
carried a weapon (ii, 10 ; iv.-vi. ; Ecclus.
xlix. 13). The wall was rebuilt in fifty-two
days (vi. 15), in the year 445 B. c, 75 years
after the temple had been completed. Atten-
tion was nest turned to the instruction of
the people (viii. ), and a religious revival fol-
lowed, which led to all the leading men,
both of priests and people, sealing with Ne-
hemiah a covenant to worship Jehovah (ix.,
X,). After governing Judah for twelve years,
Nehemiah, in 433 B. C, returned to Susa. He
asked for further leave of absence (xiii. 6),
and, returning to Jerusalem, seen)s to have
governed it for the remainder of his life,
trying to enforce the law of Closes against
all who in any way departed from its pro-
visions (xiii. 8-31). For his connection with
the formation of the canon, see C'anox.
Josephus states that he died at a great age
(Autiq. xi. 5, 8).

The Book of Nehemiah stands " m the
Hagiographa, or third divi.sion of the He-
brew Scriptures, immediately after Ezra and
before Chronicles, In counting the books of
Scripture, the Jews reckoned Ezra and Ne-
hemiah as one book : see Ezra,

Nehemiah, informed of the wretched con-
dition of Jerusalem (i), obtains permission
of the Persian king Artaxerxes to visit Jeru-
salem temporarily as a royal commis-sioner
(ii, ; cp. 6), He incites the people to rebuild
the walls (17), The names of the builders
(iii.). He finds it neces-sary to arm the
builders because of the opposition of the Sa-
maritans (iv.). While the wall is in process
of construction he corrects abuses among
the people (v,). The wall is finished not-
withstanding all attempts of Sanballat and
Tobiah to terrify Nehemiah, and the secret
aid furnished these foreigners by nobles of
Judah (vi.). The city being large, but the
population scanty, Nehemiah desires to in-
crease the number of the inhabitants (vii. 4).
To this end he gathers together the nobles,
the rulers, and the people with the view first
of reckoning them by genealogy and then of
drafting some to dwell in Jerusalem. The
register of them that came up at the first
with Zerubbabel (vii. 6-73). It is the regis-
ter of Ezra ii. 1-70. Before the registration
was accomplished, the seventh month ar-
rived, which brought the populace to Jeru.sa-
lem to the feast. The people ask that the
law of Moses be read. The reading results
in, first, their building booths in which to
dwell during the feast (viii.), and, second,
in repentance of their sins and of their guilt
in inteiTuarriage with foreigners (ix,). They
subscribe or seal a covenant to obey God's
law and to abstain from intermarriage with
the heathen. A list of those who sealed (x.).
These religious acts having been performed,
the original intention of making a registra-
tion of the people and securing additional

Nehemiali

510

Nepheg

inhabitants for the city is carried out. Lots
are cast to draft one in ten from the country
people to dwell in Jerusalem in addition to
those already inhabiting the city (xi. 1, 2).
A list of the families who dwelt at Jerusalem
(3-24). A list of the priests and Levites who
returned at the first with Zerubbabel (xii.
1-9). List of high prie.sts from Jeshua to
Jaddua (10, 11). A list of the heads of the
priestly houses in the generation after the
return (12-21). A list of the heads of the
Levites at the same time and shortly after
(22-2G). The dedication of the wall (27 seq.).
In the interval during which Nehemiah was
absent at the Persian court abuses had grown
up : the Levites had been illy provided for
(xiii. 10), the law of the Sabbath was observed
with laxity (15), and intermarriages with
foreigners had not entirely ceased (23). These
abuses Nehemiah corrected.

Not only does the title assign the author-
ship of the book to Nehemiah (i. 1), but
throughout the book Nehemiah speaks in the
first person, except (1) when state documents
and their dockets are inserted (x. 1 ; xii. 26) ;
(2) incidentally in the midst of the account
of Ezra's religious work, where the presence
of Nehemiah as civil governor lending his
oflficial sanction, with other persons of au-
thority, is briefly recorded (viii. 9 ; and (3)
after an allusion to the days of David and
Asaph and to the days of Zerubbabel, the
days of Nehemiah are mentioned (xii. 47).
In this last-mentioned passage the third per-
son was in better taste in this connection
than the first person would have been ; and
besides, the passage is a retrospect, taken after
Nehemiah's return from the Persian court,
and refers to what took place during tlie
twelve years of his former administration.

It is universally admitted that Nehemiah
wrote the main portion of the book. And
the prayer of ix. 6-38, which in the Septna-
gint is introduced by the words, "and Ezra
said," and which in fact bears traces of be-
ing an utterance of Ezra (cp. 10 with Ezra
ix. 7, 15 ; 30 with Ezra ix. 1, 2, 11 ; and 8,
36 with Ezra ix. 9, 15), would be properly in-
serted without change of phraseology by Ne-
hemiah in his historical work. But the nar-
rative in viii. 9 and x. 1 gives to Nehemiah
the title of Tirshatha. Tirshatha is doubtless
the Persian equivalent of pehnh, governor
(Ezra ii. 63 with Hag. i. 1). The use of the
third per.son in these and other passages is
compatible with the theory of Nehemiah's
authorship; but the title of Tirshatha given
him is not so readily explained on the supposi-
tion that Nehemiah wrote the passages, for
he elsewhere styles himself, and is referred
to as, the pehah (v. 14, 18 ; xii. 26). Most
modern critics believe that traces of another
hand are discernible. Still the use of the first
person plural in x. 30, 32, 34, a part of the
section viii.-x., suggests an eyewitness of the
events. If another than Nehemiali had a hand
in compiling the book, the question whether

this writer was contemporary with Nehemiah
or later depends chiefly upon whether the
genealogies (xii. 10, 11, 22) are brought down
to the reign of Darius Codoniaunus, king of
Persia from 336 to 330 B. C, and to the high-
priesthood of Jaddua, who was oiiiciatiug
when Alexander the Great visited Jerusalem
(Antiq. xi. 8, 4). If they are brought down
to this date, neither Nehemiah nor a con-
temporary could have penned the words ; but
if the references to Jaddua merely name him
as a youth, and include him because he
was the heir to the office of high priest, the
passages easily fall within the lifetime of
Nehemiah and the reign of Darius Notluis,
king of Persia from 424 to 405 B. c. It wil 1 be
observed that the enumeration of families
is assigned to the time of Joiakim, son of
Jeshua and great-great-grandfather of Jaddua
(xii. 12, 26), and the latest recorded events
occurred in the generation before the high-
priesthood of Jaddua (xii. 23 ; xiii. 28). The
book was originally reckoned one with Ezra ;
see Ezra.

Ne'hi-lotli [wind instruments] (Ps. v.
title).

Ne'hum [consolation].

One of those who returned from the Baby-
lonian captivity (Neh. vii. 7). Called in Ezra
ii. 2 Rehum (cp. 3 Esdras v. 8), for which
Nehum may be a copyist's error.

Ne-hush'ta [bronze].

Daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem. She
became the wife of Jehoiakim and mother of
Jehoiachin (2 Kin. xxiv. 8).

Ne-hush'tan [piece of brass] . See Brazen
Sekpent.

Ne-i'el.

A frontier village of Asher (Josh. xix. 27).
Not identified.

Ne'keb [a hollow, perhaps a pass or a cav-
ern].

A frontier village of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
33). The R. V. joins the name with the pre-
ceding word, calling the place Adami-nekeb.
The Jerusalem Talmud calls Nekeb Siada-
tha. This name Conder finds lingering, in a
corrupted form, in Seiyadeh, a ruin 3J miles
west by north of the exit of the Jordan from
the sea of Galilee.

Ne-ko'da [perhaps, distinguished, a herd-
man].

Founder of a family of Nethinim (Ezra ii.
48, 60).

Nem'u-el.

1. A Reubenite, brother of Dathan and
Abiram (Num. xxvi. 9).

2. A son of Simeon (Num. xxvi. 12) ; see
Jemuel.

Ne'pheg [a sprout, an offshoot].

1. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar (Ex. vi. 21).

2. One of the sons born to David in Jerusa-
lem (2 Sam. V. 15 ; 1 Chron. iii. 7 ; xiv. 6).

Nephish

511

Nethaniah

Ne'pMsh. Sec Naphiph.

Neph'i-sim, or Ne-phu'sim ; while in
Nephisliesini nr Nephusliesini, two spellings,
one with sh, tlie other with s, are appareutly
combined in the same word [exi)anded ones].

A family of Nelhiuim (Ezra ii. 50; Neli.
vii. 52), perhai)s originally captives taken
from the Irilie Xaphish (q. v.).

Neph'tha-lim. See Naphtali.

Neph'to-ah [an opening].

A fountain on the boundary line between
Judah and Benjamin, to the west of Jerusa-
lem (Josh. XV. 9 ; xviii. 15). It is generally
located at 'Ain Lifta, 2 miles northwest of
Jerusalem. Porter prefers 'Ain Yalo, 3 miles
southwest of Jerusalem. Conder points out
that the Jerusalem Talmud identified Neph-
toah with En Etam, which he identifies with
'Ain 'Atan, 2A miles southwest of Bethlehem ;
but his suggestion has not found favor.

Ne-phu'she-sim and Ne-phu'sim. See
Np;phisim.

Nep'tha-lim. See Naphtali.

Ner [a lamp].

1. A Benjamite, son of Abiel and father of
Abner (1 Sam. xiv. 51). He or Abner was
Saul's uncle (50). If Abner was Saul's uncle,
\er was Saul'sgrandfather and identical with
the following.

2. A Benjamite, son of Jeiel and father or
remoter ancestor of Saul's father, Kish (1
Chron. viii. 33 ; ix. 35, 36). See Kish 2.

Ne're-us [a sea god who, under Poseidon
or Neptune, ruled the Mediterranean Sea].

A Roman Christian to whom Paul sent a
salutation (Rom. xvi. 15).

Ner'gal.

A heathen deity worshiped by the Baby-
lonians (2 Kin. xvii. .30). The chief seat of
his worship was Cuthah. He was ruler of the
nether world, and god of war and pestilence ;
and was represented under the form of a
colossal winged lion with a human face.

Ner-gal-sha-re'zer [Babylonian Nergal-
shani^nr, Nergal, protect the king].

One of Nebuchadnezzar's princes, who
held the office of rab-mag (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13).
He is supposed to be Nergalsharusur, known
to the Greeks as Neriglissar or Nerigasolasar,
who married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar,
murdered his brother-in-law Evil-merodach,
and ascended the throne as the latter's suc-
cessor (con. Apion. i. 20), reigning from 559
to 556 B. c.

Ne'ri.

An ancestor of Christ and somehow gene-
alogically the fatherof Shealtiel (Luke iii. 27).

Ne-ri'ah [lamp of Jehovah].

Son of Maaseiah, and father of Baruch
and Seraiah (Jer. xxxii. 12 ; xxxvi. 4 : li. .59).

Net.

The net was used by the Hebrews in fowl-
ing (Prov. i. 17). Doubtless, as in Egypt,
the clap net was used, a familiar form of

which consisted of two half hoops or frames
covered with netting and attached to a com-
mon axis. The trap was spread open Hat,
and the bait placed in the center. The mo-
tion of the bird at the bait released a spring,
the two sides closed suddenly, and the bird
was caught.

The net was also used in hunting (Is. 11.
20). It was cast about the game (Job xix. 6)
or over it (Ezek. xii. 13; xix. 8), or laid to
catch the feet (Ps. ix. 15; xxv. 15; Ivii. 6;
Lam. i. 13). Throughout the ancient world,
as sculpture and narrative reveal, it was usual
to extend nets on stakes so as to inclose a
large space as by a fence, a single ojiening
being left as an entrance. Through this gate-
way various kinds of game were driven, such
as hares, boars, deer; and once within the
inclosure, they were under control and easily
dispatt'hed. Small nets were used to close
gaps between bushes or to bar a path. Purse
nets were laid, that animals might run into
them as into a tunnel and find no exit.

In fishing both drag nets (Hab. i. 15 ; Mat.
xiii. 47, 48) and casting nets (iv. 18; John
xxi. 6 ; Herod, i. 141) were used. The He-
brews were acquainted with the common
drag net of Egypt (Is. xix. 8). It was quite
large, its cords were made of flax, the lower
edge was weighted with lead and sunk to the
bottom of the river or sea, and the upper
edge was floated by pieces of wood ; see illus-
tration, article Fishing. This form of net
was widely used throughout the world
(Homer, Odvssey xxii. 384-387 ; Pliny, Hist.
Nat. xvi. 8, 13).

Neth'a-nel, in A. V. Ne-than'e-el [God
hath given]. The Greek form is Nathanael.

1. Prince of the tribe of Issachar at an
earlv period of the wilderness wanderings
(Num. i. 8; ii. 5; vii. 18, 23; x. 1,5).

2. Jesse's fourth son, and David's brother
(1 Chron. ii. 14).

3. One of the priests who blew trumpets
when the ark was brought up to the city of
David (1 Chron. xv. 24).

4. A Levite, father of Shemaiah (1 Chron.
xxiv. 6).

5. A son of Obed-edom in David's reign (1
Chron. xxvi. 4).

6. One of the princes whom Jehoshaphat
sent to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 7).

7. A chief of the Levites in Josiah's reign
(2 Chron. xxxv. 9).

8. A son of Pashhur, induced by Ezra to
put away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 22).

9. A priest, head of the father's house of
Jedaiah in thedavsof the high priest Joiakim
(Neh. xii. 21).

10. A priest's son who blew a trumpet at
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
xii. 36).

Neth-a-ni'ah [Jehovah has given].
1. A son of Asaph (1 Chron. xxv. 2), the
head of the fifth course of singers (12).

Nethinim

512

New Testament

2. A Levite sent with others by .leliosha-
phat to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

3. Father of Jehudi (Jer. xxxvi. 14).

4. Father of that Islimael who assassinated
Gedaliah (2 Kin. xxv. 23, 25).

Neth'i-nim, in A. V. NetMnims [given].

Temple servants or slaves given by David
and the princes for the service of the Levites
(Ezra viii. 20). Prior to their appointment,
similar functions seem to have been dis-
charged by the Midianites, whom Moses gave
over to the Levites (Num. xxxi. 47), and at
a subsequent period by the Gibeonites, whom
Joshua assigned as hewers of wood and
drawers of water for the house of God (Josh,
ix. 23). Even after the Nethinim were as-
sociated with them or superseded them, the
number of the Nethinim may liav^e been too
small for the elaborate temple services insti-
tuted by David's son and successor, and been
increased ; for we find in the books of Ezra
(ii. 55-58) and Nehemiah (vii. 57-60) the chil-
dren of Solomon's servants, i. e. slaves, men-
tioned after and numbered with the Neth-
inim. Although they were organized by
David, it was probably under a different name ;
for the word Nethinim occurs only in the
books of Ezra and Nehemiah, with a solitary
passage in 1 Chronicles (ix. 2). They dis-
charged the more meUial duties required by
the temple worship. Of the Nethinim and
the children of Solomon's servants, 392 re-
tunied from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 58 ; Neh. vii. 60), and 220 more with Ezra
(Ezra viii. 17-20). The Nethinim seem to
have been naturalized foreigners rather than
people of true Israelite descent (1 Chron. ix.
2; Ezra ii. 59; Neh. vii. 61), and several of
the names on the list of their leading men
have a foreign aspect (Ezra ii. 43-54 ; Neh.
vii. 46-56). They were pi'obably descendants
of the Midianites and Gibeonites, who have
been already mentioned, and of various
bands of captives taken in war ; they con-
tinued to be designated by the name of the
prince or tribe from whom they were taken,
as the children of Sisera, of Rezin, of Meu-
nim. and of Nephisim (Ezra ii. 48, 50, 53 ;
with 1 Chron. v. 19-21 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 7).
The children of Tabbaoth and Keros, and of
Solomon's servants the children of the Soph-
ereth (Ezra ii. 43, 44, 55), which mean the chil-
dren of the rings, of the weaver's comb, and
of the scribal office, apparently denote the
official duties in the temple which the men of
these classes discharged. Other names are
those of progenitors ; and yet others seem to
be the names of the native places of the cap-
tives, as perhaps Nckoda, Harliur, Harsha
(ver. 48, 51. 52). Some of them lived on Ophel,
a southern prolongation of the temple hill
(Neh. iii. 26, 31 ; xi. 3. 21), others in the vil-
lages round about Jerusalem (Ezra ii. 70 ;
Neh. vii. 73). They seem to have adopted
with some cordiality the covenant made at

the i7i stance of Nehemiah to worship Jehovah

(x. 28, 29).

Ne-to'phah [dropping, falling in drops].

A town of Judah, evidently near Bethle-
hem (1 Chron. ii. 54; Ezra ii. 21, 22; Neh.
vii. 26). It was the home of two of David's
mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 28, 29). Netopha-
thites with Seraiah at their head were among
the men who assembled loyally about Geda-
liah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had made gov-
ernor of Judah on the fall of Jerusalem
(2 Kin. xxv. 23 ; Jer. xl. 8 seq.). Fifty-six
of the town's people returned after the exile
(Ezra ii. 22). It was not originally a.ssigned
to the Levites, but after the return its de-
pendent villages were occupied by certain of
them, including singers (1 Chron. ix. 16;
Neh. xii. 28). On the survey map it is located,
with a query, at the ruin Umm Toba, the
Om Tuba of Tobler, and the Antubeh of Van
de Velde, 2 miles northeast of Bethlehem.

Ne-to'pha-tMte, in A. V. of Neh. xii. 28 Ne-

tophatM, the Hebrew form being preserved.

An inhabitant of Netophah (2 Sam. xxiii.

28).

Net'tle.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Hand,
burning plant, one that inflames. Men driven
by want take refuge under it (Job xxx. 7).
Along with the stinging nettle, Hebrew kim-
m'shoH, it overspreads the sluggard's un-
weeded garden (Prov. xxiv. 31). In fact it
springs up everywhere when cultivation of
the land is neglected (Zeph. ii. 9). The
plant cannot be identified R. V. places
wild vetches on the margin.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Kimmosh
in Is. xxxiv. 13 and Hos. ix. 6. The rab-
binical idea that the plant is a nettle, has
been generally adopted. The Roman or pill
nettle (Urtica pihdifeni) is found everywhere
in Palestine. The Hebrew word itself is
probably more general in signification and
comprehends a large class of weeds. A mod-
ification of the word is kimiu'shon (Prov.
xxiv. 31), which the English versions render
thorns.

New Moon. See Moon.

New Tes'ta-ment.

Tlie second of the two portions into which
the Bible is naturally divided. Testament
represents the- Latin woi'd fesfdiiieiitnm, which
is used to translate the Greek word dinthrke,
covenant (2 Cor. iii. 14). The N. T. embodies
the new covenant of which Jesus was the
Mediator (Heb. ix. 15 ; cp. x. 16, 17 and Jer.
xxxi. 31-.34). The fir,st covenant was dedi-
cated with blood (Heb. ix. 19, 20), but was in
no sense a testament: the secoTid, while
primarily a covenant was also a testament ;
that is, it was not merely dedicated with
blood, bnt it required the death of the testa-
tor to give it force. It would not have had
j)roper efficacy had not Jesus its Mediator
died an atoning death.

I

New Testament

513

New Testament

With the possible exception of Matthew's
Gospel, the hooks of the N. T. were written
iu Greek. This language had taken deep
root in Palestine during the more than three
centuries which bad elai)sed since the con-
quest of the Holy Laud by Alexander the
Great ; and the merits of the language itself
and that of the literature which it enshrined,
had given it the widest currency among edu-
cated men throughout the Roman empire,
though Greece had now for a considerable
time lost its i)olitical independence.

The original manuscripts of the books of
the N. T. and the copies made during the
first three centuries have disappeared. Papy-
rus, which was commonly used for letters
(2 John 12), soon wore out, and in the time
of Diocletian, A. D. 303, it was customary for
the persecutors of Christians to seek for
copies of the Scriptures and destroy them.
The art of printing was unknown, but tran-
scribers laboriously multiplied copies. The
four gospels were most frequently transcribed,
and after them the epistles of Paul. The
Eevelatiou was copied least often. No fewer
than 1760 ancient manuscript copies of the
N. T. iu whole or in part exist, their abun-
dance markedly contrasting with the small
number of the classical writers which have
come down to our own day.

Corruptions of the text soon crept in.
Copyists were fallible, careless, and often
imperfectly acquainted with Greek. Men
of the patristic age and later were not gov-
erned by the modern demand for scientitic
exactness, and they handled the text with
considerable license. They attempted to im-
prove the grammar and the style, to correct
supposed errors in history and geography, to
adjust the quotations from the O. T. to the
Greek of the Septuagint, and to harmonize
the gospels. They incorporated marginal
notes, and they added to the gospel nar-
ratives incidents obtained from authentic
sources, as John vii. 53-viii. 1 and jNIark
xvi. 9-20. The various readings which thus
originated are very numerous. They number
150,000. Nineteen-twentieths of these are,
however, of no authority, being evidently
not genuine, and only the merest fraction of
the remainder are of any consequence as
affecting the .sense. The v^ery number of
these readings, and the fact that they were
made originally in different parts of the
world, and from a v'ariety of manuscripts,
enables biblical students to detect and elimi-
nate the errors, and approximate to the
original text more closely than if the various
readings were fewer. This tedious but nec-
essary work has been carried out with un-
tiring energy by textual critics. It is possible
indirectly to gain access to the readings in
manuscripts which have perished, for there
were early versions of the X. T. in different
languages, such as the Syriac and Latin, and
quotations from the X. T. are found iu the
writings of the early Christians, especially
33

in Clement of Alexandria and Origen. In
many cases these versions and citations were
made ironi manuscripts not now existing,
but the translation shows what the original
must have been.

The N. T. manuscripts fall into two di-
visions: Uncials, written in (ireek capitals,
without breathings or accents and with no
separation between the different words, ex-
cept occasionally to indicate the beginning
of a new paragraph, and very little even be-
tween the different lines; and Cursives, in
small Greek letters, and with divisions of
words and lines. The change between the
two kinds of Greek writing took place about
the tenth century. Only five manuscripts
of the X. T. approaching to completeness are
more ancient than this dividing date. The
first, numbered by biblical critics A, is the
Alexandrian manuscript. Though taken
to England by Cyril Lucar, patriarch of
Constantinople, as a present to Charles I., it
is believed that it was written, not in that
capital, but in Alexandria, whence its title.
Its date is believed to be the middle of the
fifth century. In addition to a large portion
of the O. T.'and the First Epi-stle of Clement
and part of the Second, it contains the
whole of the X. T. except Mat. i.-xxv. 5 ;
John vi. 50-viii. 52; 2 Cor. iv. 1.3-xii. H.
The page is divided into two columns,
and the text is marked off into chapters,
I Mark containing forty-eight. The second,
I known as B, is the Vatican manuscript. It
I has been in the Vatican library at Eome from
! 1475 or an earlier period, but not till 18.57 was
j an edition of it published, and that one, by
; Cardinal Mai, when issued, was uncritical
i and of little value. But in 1868 a facsimile
i of it came forth, so that now- it is fully ac-
; cessible to scholars. The Vatican manuscript
! dates from the middle of the fourth century,
' if not even from an earlier period. Besides
j the O. T., it contains the whole of the N. T.
! except Heb. ix. 14-28, 1 and 2 Tim., Titus,
Philem., and Rev. It has three columns to
the page, and is divided into .short chapters,
Matthew having 170. The third, C, or the
Ephraem manuscript, is a palimpsest. In
the twelfth century the original writing was
washed out to make room for the text of sev-
eral ascetic treatises of Ephraem the Syrian.
Traces of the older writing were, however,
discernible, and in 1834 the original text was
revived by an application of prussiate of
potash. It is believed that it belongs to the
fifth century, and perhaps a slightly earlier
period of it than the manuscript A. It ccm-
tains portions of the O. T. and five-eighths
of the X. T. The lines run across the page.
The fourth, D, or the manuscript of Beza,
was so called because it belonged to the re-
former Beza, who found it in the monastery
of St. Irenaus at Lyons in 1562. It is dated
in the sixth century. It contains the greater
part of the Greek text of the gospels and The
Acts, together with a Latin translation. It is

New Testament

514

Nicodemus

written sticliometrically, i. e., in single lines
containing as many words as could be read
at a breath, consistently with the sense. The
fifth, called X (the Hebrew first letter, alpha),
is the Sinaitic manuscript, obtained in 1844
and 1859 by Tischendorf from the monks be-
longing to the convent of St. Catherine on
mount Sinai. Besides the major part of the
O. T., it contains the whole N. T. without
a break, together with the epistle of Bar-
nabas and a large part of the Shepherd of
Hernias. The last twelve verses of Mark
are lacking, but it is suspicious that the page
where they occur seems to be a cancel. It
was made in the fourth century. It has four
columns to the page.

The cursive manuscripts, though numerous,
are of too late date to stand on the same level
for critical purposes as the uncials.

The first printed edition of the Greek N.
T. actually published was that of Erasmus,
who issued it in 1516. It was reprinted in
1518, a second and more correct edition
followed in 1519, a third in 1522, a fourth in
1527. Cardinal Ximenes, the Eoman Catho-
lic primate of Spain, had been engaged for
some years in preparing an edition of the
Greek N. T., but various causes of delay
kept it back from the world till 1521 or 1522.
From being made at Alcala, called by the
Romans Comjilutum,, it is known as the
Complutensian edition. Among other edi-
tions of the Greek N. T. which followed,
none were more celebrated than those of
Eobert Stephens of Paris. They appeared
in 1546, 1549, 1550, and 1551. Then Beza
the reformer came upon the scene, and
issued several editions of the Greek N. T.
between 1565 and 1604, based on Stephens'
third edition (1550), which in turn had been
founded mainly on Erasmus' fourth or fifth
edition. Stephens' edition of 1550 is the
te.rtiis recepfus in England, but on the conti-
nent of Europe this designation and au-
thority are generally given to the first
Elzevir edition, printed at Leyden in 1624.
This Elzevir text is mainly that of Stephens'
edition of 1550, from which it diflers in 278
places, including merely orthographic varia-
tions. It was mainly from Beza's edition of
1598 that the A. V. of the English Bible was
made.

The division of the O. and N. T. into our
present chapters has been generally ascribed
to Cardinal Hugo, who died in 1263, a
Dominican monk, who used it for his con-
cordance to the Vulgate. Its application in
this concordance certainly brought this di-
vision into repute, and established the prac-
tice of citing by chapters instead of referring
to the book merely or to some prominent
narrative in the book (cp. Mark ii. 26; xii.
26 ; Rom. xi. 2) ; but there is reason to believe
that the present division antedates Hugo,
and was due to Ste})hen Langton, archbishop
of Canterbury, who died in 122S. The di-
vision of the N. T. into our present verses

was made by Robert Stephens in the Vul-
gate which he published in 1555. The first
English N. T. to be so divided was Whitting-
hani's translation, Geneva, 1557, and the first
English Bible so divided was the Geneva
version of 1560.

Ne-zi'ah [bright, pure, illustrious].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-
bers of which returned with Zerubbabel from
the Babylonian captivity (Ezra ii. 54 ; Neh.
vii. 56).

Ne'zlb [statue, idol, military station].

A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh. xv.
43). Beit Nusib, about 9 miles west-north-
west of Hebron, is scarcely the site ; for it
is in the hill country.

Nib'haz.

An idol, one of two worshiped by the
Avvites, a tribe brought with others from the
Assyrian empire to colonize Samaria after
the cai)tivity of the ten tribes (2 Kin. xvii.
31). The Jewish ra))bins derived the name
from the Semitic root inibah, to bark, and
considered that Nibhaz had the figure of a
dog; but there is no reason to think that
thej' were correct.

Nib'shan [soft, level soil].

A town in the wilderness of Judah (Josh.
XV. 62). Site unknown.

Ni-ca'nor [victorious].

1. Son of Patroclus and one of the king's
friends whom Lysias, regent in western
Syria during the absence of Antiochus E]Mi)h-
anes, in 166 B. c. selected to lead the army
to suppress the Judsean revolt (1 Mac. iii. 38 ;
2 Mac. viii. 9). The Syrians were defeated.
Nicanor stood high in the favor of Demetrius
I. also, and was appointed governor of Judsea
by him (1 Mac. vii. 26 ; 2 Mac. xiv. 12). He
professed friendship for Judas Maccabicus,
but the Jew was not deceived. Nicanor en-
gaged in battle with Judas at Capharsalama,
and was slain in battle with him near Beth-
horon, 160 B. c. (1 Mac. vii. 27-49 ; 2 Mac. xv.
1-36).

2. One of the seven men who were chosen
in the church at Jerusalem to look after the
Greek-speaking widows, and apparently the
poor in general (Acts vi. 5).

Nic-0-de'm.us [victor over the people].

A Pharisee and a member of the sanhe-
drin. Being convinced by the miracles which
Jesus wrought that the Nazarenc teacher had
come from God, he sought an interview with
him ; but by night, that he might not attract
observation. Jesus then explained to him
the nature of the new birth, and the love of
God for the world which prompted him to
.send his only begotten Son to give eternal life
to all who should accept him in faith (John
iii. 1-21). When afterwards the sanhedrin
wished to arrest .Tesus, Nicodemus defended
him and was met with the reply, " Art thou
also of Galilee ? Search, and see that out of
Galilee ariseth no prophet" (vii. 50-52).

Nicolaitans

515

NUe

After the death of Christ Nicodennis took
about a liiiiidrcd i)()Uiuls weight of myrrh
and aloes, and aided in eiiil)aliiiiug the i)re-
cious reoiaius (xix. 39). The time and man-
ner of his own death are unknown.

Nic-0-la'i-tans.

A jiarty or sect iu the churches of Ephesus
and IVrgamos whose practice and doctrine
are se%'erely censured. They held the doc-
trine of Balaam, and taught that Christians
were free to eat things offered to idols and
commit the excesses of heathenism (Eev. ii.
(), 14, 15). Presumably the Nicolaitans were
the followers of some heresiarch called
Nicolas. There is no i>roof that he was the
man of that name elected as one of the first
seven deacons : although one tradition makes
the deacon lapse into imjiurity and then be-
come the head of an immoral sect ; and an-
other describes him as using unguarded lan-
guage, which, though in itself innocent, was
capable of being perverted to evil ends, and
thus unwittingly originating an immoral
jiarty wMth which he had no sympathy. A sect
of Nicolaitans existed among the Gnostics,
which may have grown out of these corrupt
Christians of the apostolic age.

Nic'o-las [victor over the people].

A proselyte of Antioch, who was one of
the seven elected at the instance of the apos-
tles to look after the interests of the Greek-
speaking widows and apparently the Chris-
tian poor in general (Acts vi. 5).

Ni-cop'o-lis [city of victory].

A place at which Paul, when he wrote the
Epistle to Titus, hoped to winter (Titus iii.
12). The note appended to the epistle makes
it sent from Nicopolis of ^Macedonia, but it is
of no authority. The place referred to in
this postscript was situated on both sides of
the river Nestus, which was the boundary
line between Thrace and Macedonia. It is
now called Nikopi. But the probability is
that the Nicopolis at which Paul meant to
winter was the town in Epirus, 4 miles from
Actium, which Augustus founded in 30 B. c. to
commemorate his victory. Herod the Great
built a number of its public edifices (Antiq.
xvi. 5, 3). Its ruins remain at Prevesa.

Ni'ger [black].

A Latin surname of Simeon, a prophet
and teacher in the church of Antioch (Acts
xiii. 1).

Night.

The period of darkness (Gen. i. 5). It was
divided into three watches : sunset to mid-
night, midnight to cock-crow, cock-crow to
sunrise (Lam. ii. 19; Jiidg. vii. 19; Ex. xiv.
24). The Greek and Roman division into
four watches was in use in N. T. times (Luke
xii. 38 ; Mark vi. 48). At this period the
night, from sunset to sunrise, was divided
into twelve hours (cp. Acts xxiii. 23).

Night Hawk.

The rendering of the Hebrew Tahmas, vio-

lent one ; an unclean bird mentioned in Lev.
xi. K; ; Deut. xiv. 15. It is doul)tful what
bird is meant. The English versions make
it the night hawk, which is another name for
the night jar, better known as the goat-
sucker iCaprimulgiis europveus), or some sjje-
cies akin to it. The Septuagint and Vulgate
identify it with the owl.

Night Mon'ster.

The rendering of the Hebrew Lilith (Is.
xxxiv. 14, R. V. Margin ; in A. V. screecli
owl ). The word in Hebrew means simply noc-
turnal, and may denote any female nocturniri
bird or beast. In Assyrian, it was ajiplied to
a nocturnal demon. See under Satvk.

NUe.

The great river of Egypt (Is. xxiii. 3, in
A. Y. Sihor ; Jer. ii. 18, margin of R. V.) ;
in Hebrew Sldhor, dark, turbid, and Y'or,
stream. Its waters covered so vast an ex-
panse, especially during the inundation, that
it is sometimes called a sea (Nab. iii. 8). The
ultimate sources of the river are the streams
which feed the Victoria Nyanza in equa-
torial Africa. But the Nile in a narrower
sense, as it presents tho.se peculiarities which
have made it famous, is formed by the con-
fluence of the White and the Blue Nile at
the town of Khartum ; from which point to
its principal mouths at Damiettaand Rosetta,
a distance of upw-ards of 1800 miles, it trav-
erses an absolutely barren country and re-
ceives one tributary only, the Atbara, on the
east side, about 180 miles below Khartum.
The banks rise several hundred feet and at
places to upwards of 1000 feet, resembling
two large canal enibaukments, and wall the
valley all the way to Cairo, where they di-
verge abruptly toward the east and north-
west and face the protruded delta. A short
distance .above Assuan, the ancient Syeue, a
ridge of granite, extending for 180 miles from
east to west, lies athwart the river's course.
The stream breaks through this barrier^
plunges down the rocks of the last or, on as-
cending the river, first cataract, and enters
the bounds of ancient Egypt. All above that
cataract was Ethiopia ; all below was Egypt.
The granite of this transverse ridge is col-
ored ; it is the well-known light-brown stone
of which so many of the polished statues of
the Pharaohs are made. Below Cairo the
river divides and seeks the sea by several
great channels. These mouths are now two,
the Damietta and the Rosetta ; but formerly
they numbered seven, of which the most
important were the eastern or Pelusiac, the
western or Canopic, and the middle or Seben-
nytic (Herod, ii. 17).

As the river pursues its tortuous course
through thirsty land, much of its water is
consumed by evaporation and infiltration,
and still more by the extensive sy.stem of ir-
rigating canals. The loss at the time of the
inundation within Egypt proper is about one-
third of the total volume.

Nimrali

516

Nineveh

This annual overflow is the famous feature
of the Nile. Its occurrence in a rainless re-
gion was mysterious to the ancients (Herod.
ii. 19-25). It is exi)laiued by the fact that
all the sources of the Nile lie within the region
of abundant periodical rains. These fall co-
piously on the sources of tiie White Nile
about the time of the equinoxes, and in
Abyssinia a little later. The Abyssinian
rains, being nearer the mouth, cause a first
rise, which reaches Egypt about the middle
of June. This is followed in the course of a
mouth by a sudden increase, due to the in-
flux of the rising waters of the White Nile,
when the river begins to swell steadily in
volume with a resulting inundation which
commences in the latter part of August.
Toward the end of September the water
vea.ses to rise, remaining at about the same
height for a fortnight or more ; but during
the first half of October it rises again and
attains its highest level. During a good in-
undation it reaches a height of 40 feet at As-
suan and of 23 to 27 at Cairo. About the end
of November most of the fields are left dry
and covered with a fresh layer of rich brown
slime ; this is the time when the lands are
put under culture. Occasionally inundation
does not take place. Tradition was current
and found record in an in.scription on the
rocks at Sahel, an islau,d of the first cataract,
that in the reign of Toser or Toser-Sa, a
Pharaoh of the third dynasty, the inunda-
tion failed for seven years and a sore famine
resulted. It failed for seven years in the
time of Joseph (Geo. xli. 54) ; and it failed
likewise for seven years in the reign of the
caliph el-Mustansir, the resulting famine
reaching its height A. D. 1070.

In the time of the Pharaohs the Egyptian
agricultural year was divided into three
equal parts ; the period of the inundation
(from the end of June to the end of October),
that of the growing of the crops (from the end
of October to the end of February), and that
of the harvest (from the end of February to
the end of June).

Nim'rali [limpid and wholesome water].

An abbreviation of Beth-nimrah (cp. Num.
xxxii. :> with 36) ; see Beth-nimrah.

Nim'rim [perhaps, a plural of Nimrah,
limpid waters, or an abnormal plural for
leopards].

A locality in Moab, noted for its waters
(Is. XV. 6 ; Jer. xlviii. 34). Opinion as to its
identification is divided between Beth-nim-
rah in the Jordan valley and the wady
Nemeirah, near the southern end of the
Dead Sea, where the ruins of a town Nemei-
rah, the leopard, exist. Tristram locates
the site higher up the valley, where it is said
there is an old Moabite city with the name
Springs of Nemeirah. It has many well-
watered gardens still in cultivation.

Nim'rod.

A Cushite, a mighty hunter and a potent

monarch, the beginning of whose original
kingdom embraced Babel, Erech, Accad, and
Calneh, cities in the laud of Shinar (Gen. x.
8-10; Mic. V. ()). The only ancient king of
Babylonia known, who fits this description,
and was at the same time celebrated in tradi-
tion and song, was Izd ubar or, as there is rea.son
to pronounce his name, Gilgamesh. He freed
Babylonia from the oppressive rule of the
Elamites and became king of Erech. He
was a slayer of wild beasts, and his encoun-
ters with animals, not less than his exploits
in war, were embodied in a poem, and formed
a favorite subject for engraver and sculptor.
His life became embellished with legend, and
he was occasionally addressed in prayer by
men of after ages; but through all the attri-
butes which accumulated about him the fact
remained clearly discerned that he was a
mortal man. There is, however, no proof
that Nimrod and Gilgamesh are identical,
and the attempt to establish a relationship
between their names has thus far proved
fruitless.

Nim'sM [perhaps, drawn out, or active,
lively].

An ancestor of Jehu (1 Kin. xix. Ifi ; 2
Kin. ix. 2), who was generally designated
the son of Nimshi.

Nin'e-veli.

The capital of the Assj^rian empire. The
Hebrews embraced the entire population
which was collected about the capital, and
occupied the district at the confluence of the
Tigris and the Upper Zab under the designa-
tion of Nineveh the great city (Gen. x. 11,
12; Jon. i. 2; iii. 3; Judith i. 1). Nineveh
in the narrower sense stood on the eastern
bank of the Tigris, at the mouth of a small
tributary which is now known as the Khosr,
about 27 miles above the confluence of
the Zab with the main stream. It was
built by a people of Babylonian origin
(Gen. X. 11). Its tutelary deity was the god-
dess Ishtar, to whom from a very eai-ly
period a temple had existed in the place.
This sanctuary engaged the attention of
Shamshiramman about 1800 B. c, and after
falling into decay, was rebuilt vrith splendor
by Ashuruballit about 1400 B. c. Asshur, 60
miles south of Nineveh and on the opposite
bank of the river, was the ancient seat of
government; but Shalmaueser erected a pal-
ace at Nineveh about 1300 b. c, and made it
his capital, and from that period it was
looked upon as the chief city of Assyria.
Ashurnasirpal and his successor Shalmaneser,
whose united reigns extended from about
885 to 825, had palaces in both Nineveh and
Calah, and resided sometimes in one place,
sometimes in the other. Their successors
dwelt in Nineveh in the broad sense ; but
the palace was not always in Nineveh proper,
but was often erected in one of the suburbs,
as Calah or Dur-sharrukin or Tarbisu. The
Assyrians were great warriors, and the spoils

Nineveh

5V,

Nisan

of the couquered cities and nations were
hronght to tlic capital and used to enihellisli
it. It was also the center of some literary
activity. Al)out tioO b. c. Ashurhanijial gath-
ered a great library, consisting of documents
inscribed on clay tablets, which related to
history, ritual, incantation, astronomy, math-
ematics. It was composed for the most ]>art
of copies of older works, which had been
brought from Babylonia. The prophet Na-
hum calls >^ineveh the bloody city (iii. 1),
both because of the wars which it had waged
for centuries with the surrounding nations,
and because of the cruelty which was prac-
ticed by the victors. Asliurnasirpal, for ex-
ample, was accustomed after his victories to
cut oil' the hands and feet, and the noses
and ears, and put out the eyes of his cap-
tives, and to raise mounds of human heads.
In 6"25 B. c, when the Assyrian empire began
to decline in vigor. Nabopolassar, governor
of Babylon, declared himself independent,
and about 606 b. c. the Babylonians, Medes,
Persians, and Armenians, acting in confeder-
ation, captured and destroyed Nineveh. They
were greatly aided by a sudden rise of the
Tigris, which carried away a great part of
the city wall and rendered the place inde-

NINEVE>i

REHOBOTH-IR.CALAH.ANO REjEtj

77ie Great City

fensible. So complete was the desolation
that in classic times the departed Nineveh
became like a myth. Yet all the while part
of the city lay buried under mounds of ap-
parent rubbish. Rich. English resident at
Bagdad, inspected the mound called Kon-
yunjik, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, in
1820, and became convinced that it concealed

the ruins of Nineveh. In 184IJ Botta, French
consul at Mosul, on the western bank of the
Tigris, began to make excavations. He was
soon diverted to Khorsabad, 10 miles ofl", the
site of Dur-sharrukin. Between 184.') and
1850 Layard commenced operations at Nim-
roud, 18 miles south of Kouyunjik ; then
he made excavations at the latter i)lace itself,
which proved to be the site of Nineveh.
George Smith conducted further excavations
at the place from 1873 to 1876, ajid after his
death the work was taken up and extended
to other mounds by Eassam. The walls of
Nineveh have been traced, and indicate a
city 3 miles in length by less than a mile
and a half in breadth, containing an area of
about 1800 English acres. But, as already
said, the Hebrews and perhaps other foreign-
ers were accustomed to include under the
name of Nineveh the complex of cities
which included besides Nineveh Calah, 18
miles south, Eesen between Calah and Nine-
veh, and Rehoboth-Ir, broad places or suburb
of the city, which is perhaps identical with
Eebit Nina, suburb of Nineveh, which lay
to the northeast of the city. These are the
four jdaces which are enumerated in Gen. x.
11, 12 as composing the great city. But they
were not the only towns which sprang up in
the environs of Nineveh. Yarimja. on the
river directly south of Nineveh, marks an
ancient site, and near the Tigris, 3 miles
above Nineveh, was Tarbisu, with a royal
palace, beginning the imposing line of habi-
tations and walled towns which extended
along the river southward to Calah. Back
from the river, northeast of Nineveh and be-
yond Eebit Nina, at the foot of the eastern
mountains, was Dur-sharrukin or Sargon's
burg, a town about as large as Calah, built
about 707 b. c, and containing a great palace.
Seven miles southeast, and also at the foot of
the eastern mountain, was another town
scarcelj' inferior in size to Calah. Its ancient
name is unknown, but it is situated hard by
Baasheihah. It was one of a series of towns
which extended to Calah. Birtelleh, 6
miles south, probably marks the site of an
ancient town, and Keremlis. 3 miles far-
ther on, is known to do so. Imgurbel, with
its palace and temple which Asliurnasirpal
adorned, was 6 miles south of the latter
place, and was 9 miles from Calah. Other
towns and villages dotted the ])lain within
the bounds which have been thus defined.
It may be that Diodorus Siculus, of the first
century B. c, is citing an authentic tradi-
tion when he states that Nineveh formed a
quadrangle measuring l.">0 stadia by 90, or
480 in circuit, about 60 miles. Strabo, a few
years later, says that it was much larger
than Babylon.

Ni'san [Assyrian Kimviui, jjrobably open-
ing, beginning].

The name given after the captivity to
Abib, the first month of the year (Neh. ii. 1 ;

Nisroch

518

Noah

I'^sth. iii. 7). It nearly corresponds to March.
See Year.

Nis'roch.

A god worshiped by Sennacherib. It was
in the temple of Nisroch at Nineveh that he
was assassinated (2 Kin. xix. 37 ; Is. xxxvii.
:{8). NLsroch is the Hebrew pronunciation
of the name. Perhaps it represents the As-
syrian god Nuskii, or is compo.site and con-
tains the name of the god Ashur.

Ni'ter.

Saltpeter, potassium nitrate ; but among
the ancients sodium carbonate and potassium
carbonate. It is an alkali (Prov. xxv. 20),
and in solution was used in washing clothes
(Jer. ii. 22).

No and in R. V. once No-amon (Nah. iii. 8)
[Egyptian nu-da, the large city, or nu-amen,
Anion's city].

The Egyptian city of Thebes, often called
by this name on the monuments. Herodotus
found its distance from On to be a voyage of
nine days up the river (ii. 9). After the ex-
pulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, Aahmes
I., tlie founder of the eighteenth dynasty,
turned his attention to the reorganization
and improvement of the kingdom, and among
other works embellished Thebes. The city
at once rose to chief importance as the capi-
tal of the new empire, and became large,
splendid, and populous. Homer speaks of
its hundred gates (Iliad ix. 381). Its tutelary
divinity was Amon, and the high prie.st of
Amon was second only to the king. It re-
mained the center of Egyptian civilization
and power until, first, Esarhaddon, king of
Assyria, conquered Egypt, in 672 b. c, and,
afterwards, Ashurbanipal, his son and suc-
ce.ssor, subjugated the country and plundered
the city in 664 B. c. (Nah. iii. 8). But even
after that disaster, Thebes long remained a
l)lace of importance (Jer. xlvi. 25 ; Ezek.
XXX. 14-16 ; Herod, ii. 3 ; iii. 10). It was
finally destroyed utterly by the Roman pre-
fect, Cornelius Clallus, for its participation in
the revolt of Upper Egypt in 30-29 b. c.
against oppressive Roman taxation. Splendid
remains of the city, consi.sting of temples,
obelisks, sphinxes, etc., still exist at Luxor
and Karnak, on the eastern, and Kurna and
Medinet-Habu, on the western side of the
river. West of what was the site of the
city there is a gorge cut into the lower lime-
stone which contains the tombs of the ancient
Theban kings.

No-a-di'ah [Jehovah hath met].

1. Son of Binnui. He was one of those
who took charge of the gold and silver
vessels brought by Ezra and the returned
captives from Babylon (Ezra viii. 33).

2. A prophetess whose evil vaticinations
were intended to frighten Nehemiah (Neh.
vi. 14).

No'ah I., in A. V. of Matthew and Luke
Noe [rest].

Son of Lamech of the posterity of Seth

(Gen. v. 28, 29). Tlie reason for bestowing
the name Noah is stated in words which
bear some resemblance to the name in
sound. He called him Noah, saying: "This
same shall comfort us {y'iiah''menu) for our
work and for the toil of our hands, because
of the ground which the Lord hath cursed."
This method is one of several which are em-
ployed by the Hebrew writers. The refer-
ences to the years of Noah's life are capa))le
of .several explanations, in accordance with
ancient methods of statement and of con-
structing genealogical registers. Several
methods are mentioned in the art'cle on
Chkonology. The application of the first
two of these to the data referring to Noah is
simple and needs no explanation. The third
method is more intricate, but is also appli-
cable. According to it, in the family of
Lamech, 182 years after it succeeded to the
position of prominence among the children
of Seth and became the family through
which the church descended, a son was born
whom his father called Noah, saying : " This
one shall comfort us." Long afterwards,
among the descendants of this child of boi)e,
who are collectively called Noah, just as the
descendants of Israel were frequently called
Israel, appeared one in whom the hopes were
realized, who proved a comforter, whose con-
duct and worship were rewarded by God's
promise not to curse the ground again for
wicked man's sake nor to smite any more
everything living, who built the ark and
who was the family's head and representa-
tive. He is referred to by the tribal name.
His eldest son was about 100 years old when
the flood came. This event occurred in the
six hundredth year of Noah, that is, 600
years after the family which was spoken of
as Noah had attained to leadership. If the
third method is the true one, such is its ap-
plication to the record concerning Noah.

Noah was a just man and, like Enoch,
walked with God (Gen. vi. 9). But it was a
time of almost universal apo.stasy. It was
an age of religious indifference, when even
the sons of God had become worldly and in
contracting marriage chose by the outward
appearance rather than by the disposition of
the heart (vi. 2), and when men generally
were living for the present moment, eating
and drinking, marrying and giving in mar-
riage (Mat. xxiv. 38). It was al.so an age
that was defiant of God : there was secret
hostility of the heart ; men formed their
plans without regard to God, every imagina-
tion and device of man's heart was evil
(Gen. vi. 5) ; there was open defiance also ;
the earth was filled with violence, the strong
oppres.sed the weak (11). The age was so
corrupt that God purjiosed to destroy man-
kind ; but a respite apparently of 120 years
was given (3). By his exemplary life at
least, Noah was a preacher of righteou.sness
(2 Pet. ii. 5). To him God, the creator and
judge of all, revealed his purpose to destroy

Noah

519

Nobah

niau, and coinnianded him to huikl an ark
to save hiiiist'lt' and his family and keep
alive the various kinds of animals, for a
flood of waters was to overwhelm the laud.
Noah did so. When the ark was finished,
Jehovah, God of redemption, hade Koah
enter the ark with his family and provide
for their use the clean animals which they
needed for food and .sacrifice; and he who
had created the beasts and the birds had
them also go by pairs into the vessel for the
preservation of their species. The same God
of redemption shut Noah in. Then the flood
broke in all its violence. See Flood. When
at length the judgment purposed by the
creator and governor of the universe was ac-
complished he remembered Noah and made
the waters to assuage. After catching the
first glimp.se of the mountain tops, Noah
waited the same length of time as the storm
had raged, and then sent forth birds to
discover whether the waters were abated
from the surface of the earth. When he
learned that they were, he tarried yet in the
ark, waiting until God should bid him dis-
embark. On New Year's day he removed
the covering and saw that the ground was
dry, but it was eight weeks longer before
God bade him go forth. Then he built an
altar and ottered burnt ofterings to the God
of his redemption, who accepted the worship
and purposed in his heart not to curse the
ground again and smite every living thing
on account of man's wickedness. God pro-
ceeded to reveal this i>urpose. As he had
blessed Adam when he created him and had
commanded that he be fruitful and multiply,
so now at the beginning of a new world he
blessed Noah and bade him be fruitful. He
also laid injunctions on the head of the new
race ; but of the seven precepts of Noah, as
they are called, which were regarded by the
Jews as antecedent to the law and the ob-
servance of which was required of all pros-
elytes, three only are expressly mentioned
here : the abstinence from blood, the prohibi-
tion of murder, and the recognition of the
civil authority (Gen. ix. 4-()). The remain-
ing four, the prohibition of idolatry, blas-
phemy, incest, and theft, rested on the gen-
eral sense of mankind. God further, in
revealing his purpose not to curse the ground
again for man's .sake, pledged himself not to
cut off all flesh again by the waters of a
flood and adopted the rainbow as the sign of
the engagement by which he had bound
himself (>S-17).

Noah naturally devoted himself to agri-
culture. Among other works he planted a
vineyard, and he drank himself drunk' on
the wine. His son Ham mocked at his dis-
grace, but the other sons sought to protect
their father. When Noah recovered, and
learned what had occurred, with insight into
character, and with that knowledge which
he had derived before the flood of God's
ordination that the evil propensities of

parents descend to children and that God
blessed the righteous in their gi'uerations
(Ex. XX. 5, (i), he foretold degradation among
the i)osterity of Ham, for some reason
singling out one only of Ham's sons, pre-
dicted the subjection of this branch of the
tribe to the descendants of the high-minded
and godly brothers, pronounced the divine
blessing on the families of Sheni and .Iai)heth,
and announced especially their united ser-
vice of Jehovah, God of Shem (Gen. ix. 20-
27) ; see Canaan, Japheth, and Shem.

Noah lived, or the family which he repre-
sented continued its leadershii), for.i^O years
after the flood (Geu.ix.28). Then the Semites,
as distinguished from the other descendants
of Noah, became the leading family and the
line in which the church descended. The
flood seems to be referred to in Ps. xxix. 10,
where mnbhul, the special word for the flood,
is used. Isaiah (liv. 9) and Ezekiel (xiv. 14)
both allude to Noah. Our Lord compares
the days of Noah to tho.se which should pre-
cede his own second coming (Mat. xxiv. 37) ;
the patriarch's faith is commended in Heb.
xi. 7, and Peter twice alludes to the eight
saved from the deluge when it overwhelmed
the ungodly (1 Pet. iii. 20; 2 Pet. ii. 5). The
Greeks and Eomans had a story about a flood
from which onlj' two people were saved,
Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha; and this
Deucalion may be Noah under a diflerent
name. However this may be, the Baby-
lonians at any rate preserved a tradition of
the same flood of which the Hebrews had
knowledge. They called the hero of it
Sitnapishtim and Atrahasis. See Flood.

No'ah II. [a moving, wandering].

A daughter of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi. 33 ;
xxvii. 1 ; xxxvi. 11 ; Josh. xvii. 3).

No-a'mon. See No.

Nob [elevation].

A town of the priests (1 Sam. xxii. 19), in
the territory of Benjamin (Neh. xi. 32), on
the north and apparently within sight of
Jerusalem (Is. x. 32). After the capture of
the ark, the tabernacle was for a time pitched
at Nob, with Ahimekch as high priest. He
was ignorant of the variance between Saul
and David, and when the latter came to Nob,
Ahimelech allowed him and his men to eat
the showbread and gave him the sword of
Goliath. This act was reported to Saul, who
summoned the priests and had them slain,
and smote Nob, men, women, and children
with the sword. Abiathar, however, escaped
and told David (1 Sam. xxi., xxii.). The
place was inhabited after the exile (Neh. xi.
32), but its site has not been identified.
Eobinson contents himself with locating it
"somewhere upon the ridge of the mount
of Olives, northeast of the city."

No'bah [barking].

1. A Manassite, presumably, who captured
the town of Kenath, on the western slope
of the Jebel Hauran, and gave it his own name

Nobai

520

Numbers

(Num. xsxii. 42). The old name was prob-
ably ere long restored. See Kenath.

2. A town mentioned in connection with
the Gadite town of Jogbehab. A road lead-
ing to the country of the nomads passed
on the east (Judg. viii. 11). The site of
Nobali is accordingly to be sought near the
boundary between Gad and the Arabian
desert.

No'bai, in A. V. and margin of R. V. Ne-
bai, which is the ti-aditional pronunciation.

One of the chiefs of the people who with
Neheniiah sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 19).

Nod [in Hebrew, wandering, exile].

A district on the east of Eden to which
Cain went and there abode (Gen. iv. 16).
Not identified.

No'dab [nobility].

An Arab tril^e of the Syrian desert, to
judge from their allies (1 Chron. v. 19).

No'e. See Noah.

No'gah [brilliance].

A son of David (1 Chron. iii. 7 ; xiv. 6).

No 'hah [rest].

The fourth son of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii.
2). who, however, did not give rise to a tribal
family. He is not mentioned among those
who accompanied Jacob into Egypt, probably
because he was born after the migration into
Egypt. Keil offers a 'different explanation.
He suppo.ses that Nohah either is another
name for Shephupham (Num. xxvi. 39, E. V.),
or else was a celebrated chief who was de-
scended from Shei)hupham and whose name
supplanted Shephupham as the designation
of the family.

Non. See Nitist.

Noph. See Memphis.

No'phah [possibly, a breeze].

A Moabite town (Num. xxi. 30), not else-
where mentioned. The text is open to ques-
tion.

Nose Jew'el.

A jewel inserted, generally by means of
a ring, into the side of the nostril for orna-
ment (Is. iii. 21, E. V.).4

Nose Ring.

A ring worn as an ornament, especially by
women (U. V. of Gen. xxiv. 47; Ezek. xvi.
12). It was inserted through the partition
between the nostrils or in the side of the
nose.

Num'ber and Nu'mer-al.

There is no evidence that the ancient He-
brews used figures to denote nnmbers. The nu-
merals which occur in the present text of the
Hebrew Scriptures, in the Siloam inscription,
and on the Moabite stone, are spelled in full.
Tlie Hebrews employed the letters of the
alphabet to represent numerals as early as
Maccabajan times, using aleph for one, beth
for two. This practice is exhibited on the
coins of Simon ; see Money. In the Na-
bathaean inscriptions of the first century the

numerals are generally spelled, but they are
occasionally represented by signs, upright
strokes for the smaller units, a figure like 5
without the upper horizontal arm for five,
and other marks. In the Aramaic inscrip-
tions of the same period at Palmyra signs are
also used. On the lion weights, which were
used by Aramaean traders in Nineveh in the
eighth century B. c, the weight is indicated
by upright strokes for the units and a hori-
zontal stroke for ten. In yet earlier cen-
turies the Assyrians and Babylonians used
cuneiform signs to indicate number.

Numbers were used symbolically and con-
ventionally. Three had apparently no sym-
bolism ; but emphasis was conventionally ex-
pressed by it; as "The temple of the Lord,
the temjile of the Lord, the temple of the
Lord, are these " (Jer. vii. 4), " O earth,
earth, earth" (xxii. 29), "I will overturn,
overturn, overturn it" (Ezek. xxi. 27),
" Holy, holy, holy " (Is. vi. 3), and the triple
blessing (Num. Vi. 24-26). The threefold
character of the baptismal formula and the
apostolic benediction resulted from the doc-
trine of the Trinity (Mat. xxviii. 19 ; 2 Cor.
xiii. 14). Four does not play an important
pai-t. Four corners or quarters of the earth
were recognized, north, south, east, and west
(Is. xi. 12), and hence four winds (Dan. vii.
2), and four chariots (Zech. vi. 1, 5). Seven
was early a sacred number among the Sem-
ites (Gen. ii. 2 ; iv. 24 ; xxi. 28). It did not
derive its character from the fact that it was
equal to three plus four. Not arithmetical,
but religious considerations were involved ;
.see Sabbath. Ten was recognized as a com-
plete number, and was constantly used as
such ; there were ten commandments (Ex.
xxxiv. 28), ten antediluvian and ten post-
diluvian patriarchs (see Chronology), and
a tenfold division of the book of Genesis.
Twelve was the basis of the duodecimal sys-
tem of the Babylonians, and as a result found
employment in common life. Something of
it was probably inhei-ited by the Hebrews,
and was enhanced by the fact that the tribes
of Israel were twelve. Forty was a round
number much in vogue (Ex. xxiv. 18 ; 1 Kin.
xix. 8 ; Jonah iii. 4 ; Mat. iv. 2 ; and Chro-
nology, From the Exodus to the Foundation
of Solomon's Temple).

Num'bers.

The fourth book of the Pentateuch. It is
named in the Hebrew Scriptures by the
phrase "In the wilderness." Its modern
designation originated with the Greek trans-
lators, and was chosen on account of the two
enumerations of the peoi)le which the book
relates ; the fir.st at Sinai in tlie second year
of the exodus, the second on the Jordan in
the fortieth year.

It may be divided into three main sections :
1. In the wilderness at Sinai (i. 1-x. 11).
Census of the people, exclusive of the Le-
vites, with assignment of a place for each

Numenius

521

Oak

tribe in the encauipuieut (i., ii.) ; census of
the Leviti's, their location in the camp, and
specific duties (iii., iv.}. Laws regarding im-
purity, trespass, jealousy, Nazirites ; and
form of the priest's blessing (v., vi.). Offer-
ing of the i)rinces at the dedication of the
tabernacle (vii.). Consecration of the Levites
(viii.). Observance of the passover and law
of the supplementary celebration (ix. 1-14).
The guiding i)illar of cloud (15-23) and sil-
ver signal trumpets (x. 1-10). 2. On the way
from Sinai to the Jordan (x. 11-xsi. 35).
Order of march (x. 11-36). Murmurs against
the manna, and descent of quails (xi.).
Miriam's leprosy (xii.). At'Kadesh: the
spies and their report, the people faithless
and condemned to die in the wilderness
(xiii., xiv.). Supplementary legal specifica-
tions (xv. ). Eebellion of Korah, Dathan,
and Abiram ; and related events (xvi.. xvii.) ;
in consequence, duties and privileges of the
priests and Levites affirmed (xviii.). Law
for purification of those defiled by contact
with a dead body (xix.). Return to Kadesh :
death of iliriam, sin of Moses and Aaron,
embassy to Edom (xx. 1-21). Death of Aaron,
journey from mount Hor around Edom to
plains of Moab, fiery serpents, conquest of
the country east of the Jordan (xx. 22-xxi.
35). 3. At Shittim opposite Jericho (xxii. 1-
xxxvi. 13>. Balaam (xxii.-xxiv.). Sin of
Baal-peor (xxv.). Census of the new gener-
ation (xxvi.). Laws regarding inheritance
by daughters (xxvii. 1-11). Public announce-
ment of Joshua as Moses' successor (12-23).
Further regulation of the daily ofl'erings and
of vows (xxviii.-xxx.). War with Midian
(xxxi.). Assignment of the conquered coun-
try east of Jordan to the Eeubenites, Gadites,
and half-tribe of Manasseh (xxxii.). Itiner-
ary from Egyi)t to Shittim (xxxiii.). Bound-
aries of the land and a commission on allot-
ment (xxxiv.). Laws of the cities of refuge
(xxxv.). Supplementary law concerning in-
heritance by daughters (xxxvi.).

The book of Numbers is recognized by all
schools of criticism to reflect the same social
conditions and laws as Leviticus.

Nu-me'ni-us [pertaining to the new moon] .

A Jew, son of Antiochus. sent as ambassa-
dor to Rome and Sparta in 144 b. c. by Jona-
than ^laccaba^us, and dispatched a second
time to Rome by Simon in 140 B. c. (1 Mac.
xii. 16; xiv. 24; xv. 15).

Nun, in A. V. and Hebrew text once Non
(1 Chron. vii. 27) [fish].

1. Father of Joshua, the military leader
(Ex. xxxiii. 11 : Josh. i. 1 1. descended through
Tahan and perhaps Beriah from Ephraim
(1 Chron. vii. 27).

2. The fourteenth letter of the Hebrew
alphabet. English N has the same origin
and represents it in anglicized Hebrew names.
It heads the fourteenth section of Ps. cxix.,
in which section each verse of the original
begins with this letter.

Nurse.

1. A wet nurse, meneketh, employed to
suckle an infant (Ex. ii. 7-9; 2 Kin. xi. 2).
Deborah, who had nursed Kebekah, remained
an honored servant in the family (Gen. xxiv.
59; xxxv. 8), as was frequently the case
(Odyssey xix. 15, 251).

2. A male or female attendant, 'omen, who
acted as nurse, i. <•., had the care of small
children, either when infants (Num. xi. 12;
Ruth iv. 16) or when older but still helpless
(2 Sam. iv. 4).

Nuts.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Bolnim,
pislacino nuts (Gen. xliii. 11, R. V. margin).
The true pistachio tree (Pisfacia rem) belongs
to the order Anacardiacew (anacards or tere-
binths). Its leaves have, as a rule, three or four
leaflets. Its fruit, which is a little less than
an inch in diameter, consists of a bony shell
surrounded by a dry covering and enclosing-
a sweet, somewhat oily kernel. The nuts are
eaten like almonds or used for making con-
fectionery. It is a native of western Asia,
from which it has been introduced into
southern Europe. It is not now common in
Palestine. Jacob sent some of its fruit,
with other vegetable produce, as a present to
the Egyptian prime minister (Gen. xliii. 11).

2. The rendering of the Hebrew word
"(70S. walnut (Song vi. 11). The walnut tree
(Juglans regia), in America distinguished as
the English walnut, is native from the Cau-
casus to the mountains of northern India.
It is cultivated in Galilee and along the
slopes of Lebanon and of Hcrmon.

Njrm'plias [sacred to the muses].
A Christian at Laodicea or Colo.s.sse, to
whom Paul sent salutation (Col. iv. 15).

0.

Oak.

1. A rendering of the Hebrew word 'Elah^
a strong tree. The Hebrew word occurs in
fifteen passages of the O. T. In three of
these it serves as a geographical designation
and is treated as a proper name, valley of
Elah (1 Sam. xvii. 2. 19; xxi. 9; R. Y. mar-
gin, terebinth). In two pas.sages, where it is
associated with another word, 'allon, which
is rendered oak. it is translated terebinth in
E. v., but teil tree and elms in A. V. (Is. vi.
13; Hos. iv. 13). In the remaining ten pas-
sages it is rendered oak, with terebinth on
the margin of R. V.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew 'Elon,
strong one, in the text of nine passages of
the E. v., terebinth being placed on the
margin. The A. V., following the Targums
and Vulgate, uniformly renders 'elon, by
plain, but on the margin of Judg. ix. 6 it
substitutes oak. There were the oak of
Moreh (Gen. xii. 6; Deut. xi. 30). the oak of
Mamre (Gen. xiii. IS ; xiv. 13 ; xviii. 1), the

Oath

522

Obadiah

oak in Zaanannim (Judg. iv. 11), the oak of
the pillar that was in Shechem (ix. 6), the
oak of the augurs (ix. 37, E. V. margin), and
the oak of Tabor (1 Sam. x. 3).

3. The rendering of the Hebrew word 'El,
strong tree, in Is. i. 29.

4. The uniform and doubtless correct ren-
dering of the Hebrew word 'Allan. It occurs
in eight passages, and was a species of oak
associated with Bashan (Is. ii. 13 ; Ezek.
xxvii. 6 ; Zech. xi. 2). Under a tree of this
species near Bethel Deborah, Rebekah's nurse,
was buried (Gen. xxxv. 8). It was probably
the prickly oak {Querms coccifera) ; see illus-
tration, article Abraham.

5. The rendering, probably correct, of the
Hebrew word 'Allah (Josh. xxiv. 26).

Oak is the meaning of 'allon, for it was a
characteristic tree of Bashan. 'Elah differed
from it (Is. vi. 13 ; Hos. iv. 13), and hence is
probably the terebinth ; and the three re-
lated words, 'elah, 'el, and 'elon, may denote
three kinds of terebinth. They may, how-
ever, designate any large tree, and not spec-
ify the terebinth in particular. Several
species of oak grow in Palestine. Quercus
sessiliflora grows high up on Lebanon and in
the Hauran. Four varieties of the prickly
evergreen oak {Q. coccifera) occur: one is Q.
pseudococcifera, and is found on Carmel, in
Oilead, and in Bashan, often being of mag-
nificent gi'owth ; another is Q. calUprinos,
which is found in Lebanon, on Tabor, and in
Gilead. Valonia oak {Q. legilops) is decidu-
ous. It is common in Galilee and Gilead.

Oath.

An appeal to God in attestation of the
truth of a statement or of the binding char-
acter of a promise (Gen. xxi. 23 ; xxxi. 53;
Gal. i. 20; Heb. vi. 16). Its violation was
an offense against God (2 Chron. xxxvi. 13 ;
Ezek. xvii. 13, 18). Sometimes the appeal
was to the sovereign or other sacred object
(Gen. xlii. 15; 2 Sam. xi. 11; Mat. v. 33;
xxiii. 16-22). Jehovah condescended to con-
firm his promise to the patriarch by an oath,
swearing by himself (Gen. xxii. 16 ; Heb. vi.
13-20). An oath was commonly made by
lifting the hand unto God (Gen. xiv. 22 ;
Ezek. XX. 5, 6 ; Rev. x. 5 ; Homer, Iliad xix.
254), but it was sometimes made by placing
the hand under the thigh of the person to
whom the promise was made (Gen. xxiv. 2 ;
xlvii. 29), probably as an invocation of the
posterity, which should proceed from the
loins, to guard the oath and avenge its viola-
tion. The oath was occasionally taken before
the altar (1 Kin. viii. 31). Abraham gave
Abimelech seven ewe lambs as witness of the
oath (Gen. xxi. 27-31). An oath was some-
times intensified by slaying an animal, divid-
ing it into two parts, and passing between the
pieces (xv. 8-18). Each party to the oath in-
voked upon himself the fate of the victim if he
broke the covenant. By the Mosaic law, in
certain judicial investigations, a man to clear

himself was required to swear an oath of the
Lord (Ex. xxii. 11 ; Num. v. 19-22). Any
man swearing an oath or making a vow to
God was required to carry out his promise,
as was a woman, if being a virgin her father
did not disallow her oath when she uttered
it, or being married her husband did not in-
terfere. If she was a widow, or bad been
divorced, her oath stood (Num. xxx.). If
anyone swore falsely by the name of the true
God, he profaned the divine name (Lev.
vi. 3 ; xix. 12 ; cp. Is. xlviii. 1 ; Jer. xii. 16 ;
Mai. iii. 5) ; and no one was under any circum-
stances to swear by a faLse god (Josh, xxiii.
7). The man'is commended in Ps. xv. 4 who
does not change, although he has sworn to
his hurt. Our Lord condemned the use
of oaths, even when taken with the best in-
tention, declaring that whatever went be-
yond " yea. yea, or nay, nay," was of the
evil one (Mat. v. 33-37). He was delivering
the sermon on the mount and correcting
various perversions of the law which the
scribes had introduced ; and among other
evils, he condemned swearing in ordinary
communications between man and man. But
the judicial oath is lawful; for it was en-
joined by God (Ex. xxii. 11), and Christ
himself did not hesitate to answer when he
was put upon his oath by the high priest
(Mat. xxvi. 63). The oath was recognized as
lawful by the apostles also, for they called on
God to witness to the truth of what they said
(2 Cor. xi. 31; Gal. i. 20). The mischief
which may arise from a rash oath was well
illustrated in that of Herod the tetrarch,
which made him against his will the mur-
derer of John the Baptist (Mat. xiv. 3-12).

O-ba-di'ah [worshiper of Jehovah].

1. A man of Issachar, family of Tola, house
of Uzzi (1 Chron. vii. 3).

2. A Gadite hero who joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Chron. xii. 9).

3. Father of the chief of the Zebulunites
in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii. 19).

4. A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron.
viii. 38 ; ix. 44).

5. The governor of Ahab's palace, who
during the persecution of Jehovah's prophets
by queen Jezebel, hid a hundred prophets, in
two companies of fifty, in a cave (1 Kin.
xviii. 3, 4). He was sent by his royal master
to look for grass for the horses and mules
during the great drought, and while so en-
gaged fell in with Elijah, who persuaded him
to announce to the king the presence of the
prophet (5-16). Elijah's interview with the
king led to the contest at Carmel, which was
followed by the slaughter of Baal's prophets.

6. One of the princes sent by Jehoshaphat to
teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron. xvii. 7).

7. A prophet of Judah (Obad. 1). Jo-
sephus believed that he was the God-fearing
Obadiah of Ahab's palace, but the prophet
probably lived at least a century after Ahab.

The book of Obadiah is the fourth of the

Obadiah

523

Obed-edom

minor prophets. It consists of a solitary
fliapter, and foretells tlie destruction of
Edom (1-9) and the reason of it, namely
Edom's uubrotherly attitude toward the
children of Jacob (10, 11), warns Edom ac-
cordingly not to exult over the children of
Judah in their distress (1"2-16), and predicts
the deliverance and enlargement of Israel
(17-21). Much uncertainty exists as to the
date of the prophecy. It is very generally
ascribed to the Chaldean period, when Jeru-
salem was alternately subject to tlie king of
Egypt and the king of Babylon, and was
fiuall}- captured bj' Nebuchadnezzar and
razed to the ground, and its inhabitants car-
ried into captivity. This view is based on
the description of Judah's calamity (10-16),
and the fact is appealed to that prophets of
the time severely denounce Edom (Jer. xlix.
7-22; Ezek. xxv. 12-14; xxxv.). The proph-
ecy may, however, be much earlier, for 1. No
allusion is made to the striking features of the
fall of Jerusalem, the burning of the temple,
the razing of the walls, and annihilation of
the city. 2. The hostile attitude of Edom
was of long standing (Ezek. xxxv. 5), and
the feeling against Edom expressed by Oba-
diah was voiced by Amos more than a cen-
tury before the Chaldean invasion (Amos i.
(), 9, especially 11, 12: ix. 12; cp. Joel iii.
19). 3. Historical conditions, which are pre-
supposed by the prophet, existed as early as
the reign of Ahaz. Jerusalem had been
plundered several times : it had been en-
tered and ravaged by Arabians and Philis-
tines in the reign of Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi.
16, 17; cp. Amos i. 6) ; and in the reign of
Amaziah, who slaughtered the Edomites, the
king of Israel entered Jerusalem, broke
down the northern portion of the city wall,
plundered temple and palace, and carried off
hostages (2 Kin. xiv. 14, 17 ; 2 Chron. xxv.
11, 12, 23, 24). In the calamities which be-
fell Judah in the reign of Ahaz, when the
king of Damascus wrested Edom from Judah,
the king of Israel ravaged to the gates of Je-
rusalem, the Philistines took the cities of the
lowland, and Ahaz stripped the temple of its
treasures to buy aid from the king of Assyria,
did homage to this foreigner, and made
Judah a vassal state, when Israelites also
were carried into captivity (Obad. 20; Amos
1. 6, 9; cp. 1 Chron. v. 26), then the Edomite
did violence to his brother Jacob, refrained
from extending aid, and became as one of
Judah's enemies (2 Chron. xxviii. 17 ; 2 Kin.
xvi. 6, R. V. margin ; Obad. 10, 11). It was
an ap])ropriate time for Obadiah to take up
his prophecy against them, rebuke them for
their inditference to Judah's woes, and for
their open hostility in the past and present,
and warn them not to exult over Judah's
present distress, for their owti time of pun-
ishment is coming.

8. A Levite, one of the overseers over the
workmen who repaired the temple in the
reign of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxiv. 12).

9. Founder of a family, presumably of the
lineage of David (1 Chron. iii. 21).

10. A descendant of Joab. He came from
Babylon with Ezra (Ezra viii. 9).

11. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, scaled the covenant made in
the time of Nehemiah (Neb. x. 5).

12. A Levite, apparently founder of a
family of porters (Neh. xii. 25). He seems
to have been the Levite Obadiah, son of Shc-
maiah (1 Chron. ix. 16), called Abda in Neh.
xi. 17.

O'bal [corpulence].

A people descended from Joktan (Gen. x.
28). 'Abil is the name of one of the oldest
tribes of Arabia (Delitzsch) and of a district
in Yemen (Halevy). Bochart suggests Pliny's
Avalitfe on the African coast, near the straits
of Bab el-Mandeb. In 1 Chron. i. 22 the
name is written Ebal, jod being used instead
of vau. These letters were often confused
by copyists.

O'bed [server, worshiper].

1. Sou of Ephlal, of the house of Jerah-
meel. tribe of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 37).

2. Sou of Boaz and Ruth, and grandfather
of David (Ruth iv. 17, 21, 22).

3. One of David's mightv men (1 Chron.
si. 47).

4. A Levite, one of the doorkeepers, son
of Shemaiah, house of Obed-edom (1 Chron.
xxvi. 7).

5. The father of a certain Azariah, in the
time of Athaliah (2 Chron. xxiii. 1).

O-bed-e'dom [serving Edom, or Edom is
serving] .

1. A Gittite, that is a native either of the
Philistine Gath, and, if so, probably a mem-
ber of David's bodyguard, or else of the Le-
vitical city of Gath-rimmon in Dan. He
lived between Kirjath-jearim and Jerusalem,
near the spot where Uzzah was struck dead
for touching the ark. The ark was there-
fore taken to his house by David's order,
where it remained three months, blessings
attending him and his family for giving it
accommodation (2 Sam. vi. 10-12 ; 1 Cliron.
xiii. 13, 14 ; sv. 25). If a Levite, he is
doubtless identical with Obed-edom the Kor-
ahite (see number 3). The Korahites were a
division of the Kohathite family to which
Gath-rimmon was assigned, and the .state-
ment that God blessed him (1 Chron. xxvi. 5)
seems to refer to 1 Chron. xiii. 14 and 2 Sam.
vi. 11.

2. A Levite of the second degree, who
with others acted as doorkeeper for the ark,
and was moreover a musician who played
the harp at the removal of the ark to Jeru-
salem, and afterwards as a regular duty in
the tent erected for the ark (1 Chron. xv. 18,
21 ; xvi. 5).

3. A Levite, who as doorkeeper marched
in front of the ark at its removal to Jerusa-
lem (1 Chron. xv. 24). He is probably one
with Obed-edom, son of Jeduthun, a door-

Obil

524

Offerings

keeper for the ark iu the tent at Jerusalem
(xvi. 38), and who is generally, though on
uncertain grounds, held to be the person
mentioned iu the preceding clause of the
verse. He appears to be Obed-edom the
Korahite (xxvi. 1, 4 ; cp. also 10 with xvi.
38), whose sons and grandsons, with their
brethren, sixty-two in number, were among
the ninety-three, of whom the courses were
formed in David's reign (xxvi. 8). Their
station was at the southern gate (15). The
family was still on duty in the reign of
Amaziah (2 Chron. xxv. 24).

O'bil [a camel keeper].

An Ishmaelite who had charge of David's
camels (1 Chron. xxvii. 30).

Ob-la'tion. See Offering.

O'both [water skins] .

A station of the Israelites before their
arrival in the desert east of Moab (Num.
xxi. 10, 11 ; xxxiii. 43, 44). Situation un-
known.

Och'ran, in A. V. Ocran [troubled].

An Asherite, father of Pagiel (Num. i.
13).

O'ded [he hath restored].

1. Father of the prophet Azariah (2 Chron.
XV. 1). In ver. 8 the text is evidently cor-
rupt.

2. An Israelite prophet in the reign of
Pekah. Meeting the army of the northern
kingdom returning from battle with many
captives of Judah, the prophet remonstrated
with them on their unbrotherly conduct,
and iu the name of Jehovah called on them
to send the captives home. His words pro-
duced a great effect. Some of the leading
men in Samaria, persuaded by him as to the
path of duty, refused to allow the army to
bring the prisoners inside the city. They
then clothed the naked, fed the hungry, and,
mounting the feeble on asses, took them to
Jericho, and handed them over to their
countrymen (2 Chron. xxviii. 9-15).

Od-o-me'ra, in A. V. Od-o-nar'kes.

Chief of a nomad tribe, or possibly an
officer under Bacchides, whom Jonathan
Maccabseus smote (1 Mac. ix. 66).

Of fer-ings.

Offerings to God of various kinds can be
traced from the dawn of human history. In
the O. T. alone there are mentioned among
others of early times the vegetable offering
(Gen. iv. 3), the sacrifice of the firstling of
the flock (iv. 4), the burnt oflering (viii. 20;
Ex. X. 25), the sacrificial meal (Gen. xxxi.
54), and the drink offering (xxxv. 14). An
elaborate ritual of sacrifice existed among
the great nations of antiquity, notably in
Babylonia and Egypt, long before the days
of Moses.

Offerings of many kinds to God constituted
a marked feature of the Israelitish worship.
Extended information on the subject is found
in Lev. i.-vii., but not there exclusively.

Offerings were of two classes, public and
private, according as they were ofl'ered at
the expense of the nation or of an individ-
ual, and they were of three kinds : drink
ofie rings, vegetable or meal ofle rings, and
animal ofierings or sacrifices. The shedding
of blood was a necessary accompaniment of
every oflering made in accordance with the
religion of Jehovah. Without it there is no
remission of sins ; and hence a bloodless offer-
ing could not be accepted from man, for man
by nature and practice is a sinner and has no
right to approach God. It is true that in
certain cases, such as extreme poverty, a
bloodless offering was permitted ; but it was
made and accepted only in connection with
the blood of the great public altar (Lev. ii. 2,
8 ; V. 11-13).

The drink offering was not independent
under the law. It was made only in connec-
tion with the meal oflering which accom-
panied all burnt offerings, except perhaps
that of Lev. xii. 6, and all peace ofierings
which were Nazirite, votive or freewill
(Num. vi. 17 ; xv. 1-12). It was excluded
from sin and trespass oft'erings.

The vegetable offering, called meat ofler-
ing in A. V. and meal offering in R. V., con-
sisted of white meal, or of unleavened bread,
cakes, wafers, or of ears of grain roasted,
always with salt and, except in the sin offer-
ing, with olive oil (Lev. ii. 1, 4, 13, 14 ; v.
11). It might form an independent offering :
and part might be placed on the altar and
the rest belong to the jiriest, as in private
voluntary offerings (ii.), and when accepted as
a sin offering from the very poor in lieu of an
animal (v. 11-13) ; or else the whole might be
consumed on the altar. In this latter case it
corresponded to the burnt offering ; and was
made at the consecration of the high priest
and at the cleansing of the leper (vi. 19-23 ;
xiv. 10, 20). Or the vegetable oflering might
be subordinate, an accompaniment of a sacri-
fice. It was thus the invariable concomitant
of the burnt offering, excei)t ]ierha]is that of
Lev. xii. ; and of peace offerings, except those
obligatory at the feast of weeks. In these
cases, according to tradition, it was entirely
consumed on the altar. In other cases, part
was placed on the altar and the rest went to
the priest ; namely, the wafers at the conse-
cration of priests (viii. 26-28), in the thank
offering (vii. 12-15), and at the release of the
Nazirite (Num. vi. 13-20).

Animal ofierings or sacrifices called for
cattle, sheep and goats of both sexes, rarely
for doves. The animal was required to be
free from blemish and at least eight days
old. Sacrifices were of three kinds, in each
of which the blood made atonement (Lev. i.
4 ; xvii. 11). 1. The burnt offering, for
which a male lamb, ram, goat, or bullock
was prescribed. The case in 1 Sam. vi. 14
was extraordinary. The blood was sprinkled
round about upon the altar, and the entire
animal was consumed on the altaR It was

Offerings

525

Oholibamah

expressive of the entire self-dedication of
the otierer to Jehovah. 2. The siu oflerinj;
and the trespass or guilt otieriug ; for the for-
mer of which a bullock, a male or female goat,
a female lamb, a dove, or a pigeon was used
(Lev. iv. 4, 23, 28, 32 ; v. 7), while for the
latter a ram was prescribed or, in the case of
the leper and the Nazirite, a male lamb (vi.
6; xiv. 12, 21 ; Num. vi. 12). The blood was
symbolically displayed, but in ditferent ways.
In the sin ofieriug a portion of the blood was
.s])rinkled before the Lord and smeared on the
horns of the altar of incense, and the rest
was poured out at the base of the altar of
burnt otiering, when the siu had been com-
mitted by the high priest or the nation ; but
in the case of other sinners, a part was put
on the altar of burnt oflering, and the rest
was poured out as before (Lev. iv. 6, 7, 17, 18,
25, 30, 3-1). In the trespass offering all the
blood was scattered over the altar. The fat
only was burnt on the altar. The flesh of those
sin offerings of which the blood was taken
into the sanctuary was burnt without the
camp, whereas the flesh of other sin offer-
ings and of trespass offerings belonged to the
priests (Lev. vi. 20, 30 ; vii. 6, 7 ; cp. Ex.
xxix. 14; Lev. iv. 3, 12, 1.3, 21; xvi. 27;
Heb. xiii. 11, 12). No part of these offerings
was eaten by the offerer, as in the peace ofler-
ings ; for the sacrificer came as one unworthy
of communion with God, and these offerings
were for purposes of expiation. The sin
offering was made for sins of which the ef-
fect terminates primarily on the sinner ; the
trespass offering for sins of which the effects
terminate primarily on another, and for
which, in addition to the sacrifice, restitution
was made. But sins committed deliberately
and for which the penalty was death could
not be exjiiated (Num. xv. .30, 31^. Atone-
ment could be made for unintentional sins ;
for non-capital sins, like theft, for which
punishment had been endured and restitu-
tion made ; and for sins which the guilty
one voluntarily confessed and for which he
made compensation when possible. 3. The
peace offering. Tliree kinds are distin-
guished : the thank offering in recognition of
unmerited and unexpected blessings ; the
votive offering, in payment of a vow ; and
the freewill offering, probably not in grati-
tude for a special favor, but as an expression
of irrepressible love for God (Lev. iii.). Peace
offerings might also be prompted by the felt
need of renewing peaceful communion with
God (Judg. XX. 26 ; xxi. 4 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 25).
Anj' animal authorized for sacrifice, of either
sex, might be used, but no bird. The blood
was sprinkled ; the fat was consumed on the
altar ; and, when the offering was private,
the breast and shoulder went to the priests,
and the rest of the flesh was eaten by the
offerer and his friends before the Lord at the
place of the sanctuarv (Lev. iii., vii. 11-21 ;
cp. 22-27 ; Ex. xxix. 20-28; Deut. xii. 7, 18 ;
1 Sam. ii. 15-17). The meal before Jehovah

was a eucharistic feast. It signified that Je-
hovali was present as a guest.

The sacrificial acts were five : 1. Presenta-
tion of the sacrifice at the door of the sanc-
tuary by the offerer himself as his personal
act. 2. Laying on of hands. The offerer
placed his hands on the victim's head, there-
by dedicating it to God and making it his
own representative and substitute (cp. Lev.
xvi. 21) ; see Laying on of Hands. 3. Slay-
ing the animal by the offerer himself, who thus
symbolically accepted theitunishmentdue for
his sin. In later times the priests slew the ani-
mal. 4. Symbolic application of the blood.
The priest sprinkled or smeared it on the al-
tar and poured it out at the base. In specified
cases a part was put on the offerer, or it was
sprinkled before the veil of the sanctuary
(Lev. iv. 6), or carried into the holy place
(vi. 30), or even into the holy of holies (xvi.
14). 5. Burning the sacrifice, the whole of
it or its fat only, on the altar of burnt offer-
ing, whereby its essence and flavor ascended
to God.

Og.

A king of the Amorites of Bashan (Deut.
iii. 8, 10). He was a giant, the last of the
Eephaim, and liad an iron bedstead or .sar-
cophagus 9 cubits long by 4 cubits broad,
which was of course longer and wider than
its occupant. This relic was preserved in
Eabbath Amnion (Deut. iii. 11). He had resi-
dences at both Ashtaroth and Edrei (Josh. xii.
4, 5 ; xiii. 12). After the Israelites had con-
quered Sihon, they left their families and
their cattle at the secure camp at Pisgah, and
marched against Og. They defeated and
slew him at Edrei and took possession of his
country (Num. xxi. 20, 32-35; Deut. iii. 14).
This territory was given to the half-tribe of
Manasseh (Deut. iii. 13).

O'had.

A son of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 10 ; Ex. vi. 15).
He did not found a tribal family.

O'hel [a tent].

A son of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 20).

O-ho'lah, in A. V. Aholah [her tent].

Samaria and the kingdom of Israel per-
sonified as a woman of bad character (Ezek.
xxiii. 1-49).

O-ho'li-ab, in A. Y. Aholial) [father's tent].

An artificer of the tribe of Dan, who as-
sisted Bezalel in making furniture for the
tabernacle (Ex. xxxi. 6; xxxv. 34, 3.5).

O-holl-bah, in A. V. Aholibah [my tent
is in her].

Jerusalem and the kingdom of Judah per-
sonified as a woman of bad character (Ezek.
xxiii. 1-49).

O-hol-i-ba'mah, in A. V. Aholibamali [my
tent is a high place].

A wife of Esau, daughter of Anah the
Hivite (Gen. xxxvi. 2). She gave name to
an Edomite family, organized under a chief

Oil

526

Old Testament

(41). She was also called Judith, the praise-
worthy (xxvi. 34 ; cp. Anah).

OU.

The oil used by the ancient Hebrews was
chiefly olive oil, obtained by pressing the
fruit of the olive tree (q. v.). It was so im-
portant a product of Palestine that oil and
wine are frequently mentioned, with or even
without grain, as the chief harvest gain
(Num. xviii. 12; Deut. vii. 13; Neh. x. 39 ;
xiii. 5, etc.). Oil was used for illuminating
purposes, being burned in lamps (Ex. xxv.
6 ; Mat. xxv. 3). Oil was used for food (1
Chron. xii. 40 ; Ezek. xvi. 13). It was mixed
with meal and made into bread (1 Kin. xvii.
12) ; and cakes of fine flour mingled with
oil, or with oil poured upon them, were part
of the meal ofi'ering (Lev. ii. 1, 4-7), the oil
being prescribed probably on account of its
common use in food. Oil was used in medi-
cine for mollifying wounds (Is. i. 6"; Mark
vi. 13). Sometimes wine was added to the
oil, as was done by the good Samaritan in the
case of the wounded Israelite (Luke x. 34).
Herod was put in a bath of warm oil in the
hope of alleviating his disease (War i. 33, 5).
Oil was used as a cosmetic for anointing the
body, especially after a bath, and for render-
ing the hair smooth (Ps. xxiii. 5 ; civ. 15 ; 2
Sam. xiv. 2). Olive oil was used for anoint-
ing kings (1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 1, 13 ; 1 Kin. i.
39 ; 2 Kin. ix. 1, 6) ; and was called holy be-
cause employed in behalf of God (Ps. Ixxxix.
20). A holy oil of composite and expensive
character was used for the anointing of high
priests. The tabernacle, the ark, the table,
the candlestick, the altar, the laver and its
foot were also anointed with the same pre-
cious compound (Ex. xsx. 22-33).

Oil Tree.

The literal rendering of the Hebrew words
'Es shemen, tree of oil, in Is. xli. 19. The
words are translated olive wood (1 Kin. vi.
23 ; in A. V. olive tree) and wild olive (Neh.
viii. 15; in A. V. pine branch). It is gener-
ally believed to be the oleaster (Elxagnus
hortensis), sometimes called the wild olive,
but which, though it has a certain super-
ficial resemblance to the true olive, is not
really akin to it, Elaeagnus being the type
genus of the order Elseagimcese or oleasters.
They are trees or shrubs more akin to the
willows and gales than to the olive tree. The
oleaster yields an oil, but much inferior to
that of the true olive. It is abundant in
Palestine, especially near Hebron, Samaria,
and mount Tabor. Other investigators iden-
tify the oil tree with Balanites segyptiaca,
which is called salchun by the Arabs, and
from which they extract an oil. But it now
grows around the Dead Sea, and not on the
mount of Olives (Neh. viii. 15).

Oint'ment.

Fragrant ointments were highly prized
among the Hebrews (Eccl. vii. 1). They were
used in dressing the hair and in purifying and

perfuming the skin (Esth. ii. 12 ; Eccl. ix. 8),
and Jesus was several times anointed with
ointment brought by women who regarded
him with adoration (Mat. xxvi. G-13; Luke
vii. 3(t50). Ointments, with other spices,
were employed on the dead body and in em-
balming (Luke xxiii. 56). Balm of Gilead
and eye salve were used in medicine (Jer.
viii. 22; Rev. iii. 18). In the ritual an oint-
ment or holy oil was used, composed of
myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, calamus, and olive
oil (Ex. XXX. 25). In Palestine the usual
ointment consisted of perfumed olive oil.
The Hebrew word for oil is sometimes ren-
dered ointment in A. V. (2 Kin. xx. 13), and
this rendering is allowed to stand in E. V. in
Prov. xxvii. 9; Ecc. vii. 1 ; ix. 8; x. 1 ; Song
i. 3 ; iv. 10 ; Is. Ivii. 9 ; Amos vi. 6).

Old Tes'ta-ment.

The first of the two portions into which
the Bible is naturally divided. The title
was borrowed from the apostle Paul, who in
2 Cor. iii. 14, says: "For until this day re-
maineth the same veil untaken away, in the
reading of the O. T." [in E. V. covenant].
The O. T. consists of thirty-nine books
which, in the order in which they stand in
the English Bible, naturally divide into
three classes : seventeen historical books
(Genesis to Esther), five poetical books (Job
to Song of Solomon), and seventeen propheti-
cal books. Poems and fragments of poems
occur in the historical books (Gen. iv. 23, 24 ;
ix. 25-27 ; xlix. 2-27 ; Ex. xv. 1-18 ; Judg. v.),
and poetry abounds in the prophetical books.
The Hebrew Bible contains all these books
and no more ; but there is a difference in
the arrangement and in the classification.
See Canon. The English Bible has adopted
the arrangement of the old versions. Nearly
the whole of the O. T. was written originally
in Hebrew, the only exceptions being Ezra iv.
8-vi. 18; vii. 12-26; Jer. x. 11; Dan. ii. 4-
vii. 28, which are in Aramaic. The letters
of the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets were
similar. An early form of them is seen on
the Moabite stone, in the Siloam inscription,
and on Maccabseau coins. They passed
through various changes of form until they
ultimately became the familiar square char-
acter of the extant Hebrew manuscripts and
printed editions of the Hebrew Bible. The
books of the O. T. were written in the older
script; but in the course of their multiplica-
tion by manuscriiit copies, the older charac-
ters were gradually transliterated into the
square. An approximation to this character
was used as early as the time of Christ (Mat.
V. 18), for the allusion to jod as the smallest
letter could not have well been made except
to the more modern character. Hebrew
writing consisted of consonants only, vowels
being supplied by the reader. But between
the seventh and the tenth centuries of the
Christian era, Jewish scholars, resident
chiefly at Tiberias, supplied vowel points

Old Testament

527

Olive

which indicated the proper vocalization
and l\(ll()\vc'(l the traditional pronunciation.
These vowel sijius gave greater fixity to the
meaning of the texts. These men are called
Masoretes or Massoretes, from mdsonih or
lietter massoruh. tradition; and the text, as sup-
plied with vowels and otherwise improved, is
known as the Masoretic text. They also added
a system of accents to indicate the proper
accentuation of the words and the manner in
which they are to he conjoined or disjoined.
Two stages of the Hebrew language are trace-
able in the O. T. In the first or golden age of
that tongue, the Hebrew is comparatively
pure ; in the second or silver age, it is tinged
more and more as time goes on with Ara-
maic, so that, speaking broadly, the deeper
the Aramaic tinge the more modern the
book. This test, however, is nut infallible ;
for a writer, writing, say in northern Pales-
tine, near Syria, in which the Aramaic was
the vernacular, would naturally tend to use
Aramaic words more than one who penned
his book at Jerusalem, where purer Hebrew
prevailed. The existence of Aramaic forms
in an O. T. book may, therefore, in some
cases indicate, not the time, but the place of
its composition.

It is believed that the original manuscripts
of the O. T. books were written on skins ;
see Book. That many of them were, is
certain (Ps. xl. 7 ; Jer. xxxvi. 14). The ex-
isting manuscripts are usually of parchment
or, in the East, of leather. They are not
old. A roll containing the Pentateuch,
brought from Derbend in Daghestan, is be-
lieved to have been penned before A. D. 580.
The oldest extant manuscript of which the
date can be afhrmed with certainty is a manu-
script of the prophets, punctuated after the
less perfect Babylonian system. It was brought
from the Crimea, and is dated a. d. 916.
The oldest manuscript of the entire O. T. is
dated a. d. 1010. The scarcity of ancient
Hebrew manuscripts is to a large extent due
to the practice of the Jews, which is alluded
to in the Talmud, of burying all sacred manu-
scripts which became defective through wear
or otherwise faulty. After the invention of
printing, the Book of Psalms was put in type
and ])ubli.shed in 1477. Eleven years later, in
1488, the whole printed Hebrew Bible was
issued in folio from a press at Soncino in
the duchy of Milan. A printed manual
edition was first issued by Bomberg in 1517.
Van der Hooght's was first published at
Amsterdam in 1705. It has held its ground
on account of its accuracy, being reprinted
with minor corrections bv Aug. Hahn in
1831 and by C. G. G. Theile in 1849. It has
about 1,000 marginal readings, most of them
of considerable antiquity. Yet more im-
portant is the edition of the Masoretic text,
in single parts, with critical and Masoretic
appendices, prepared by S. Baer and Franz
Delitzsch. Genesis ai)peared in 1869, and sev-
eral other books have followed at intervals.

The number of "various readings" is less
in the O. T. than in the N. T. ; and such as
they are, they exist more in numbers and in
proper names than in narratives, and do not
vitiate didactic statements. They are due to
transcribers mistaking one Hebrew charac-
ter for another that closely rcsenil)k-d it (.see
Beth, Daleth), improjierly uniting two
words into one or separating one word into
two (see Mole 2), attaching an initial letter
to the preceding word, or accidentally re-
peating or omitting letters or words. As in
the case of the X. T., three aids exist for
biblical critics who attempt to eliminate
copyists' errors and restore the text to its
primitive purity. They are, first, the colla-
tion of Hebrew manuscrii)ts, which has been
carried on with perseverance, portions of
from 1500 to 2000 manuscripts having been
used in the comparison ; second, the exami-
nation of early versions made from the He-
brew into other languages before the Maso-
retic text was established ; and third, the
study of passages c^uoted or alluded to in
the Apocrypha, the N. T., or other writings.

Ol'ive.

A tree largely cultivated in Palestine in
olive yards (Ex. xxiii. 11, Josh. xxiv. 13;
Judg. XV. 5 ; 1 Sam. viii. 14). It grew also
in Assyria (2 Kin. xviii. 32). Strabo men-
tions it among the trees of Armenia, and it
is supposed to be indigenous in northern
India and other temperate regions of Asia.
The wood was used for timber (1 Kin.
vi. 23, 31, 32, 33). The fruit was obtained
by shaking the tree (Is. xvii. 6 ; xxiv.
13), or by beating it (Deut. xxiv. 20).
Oil was expressed from the berries by
treading them with the human foot (Deut.
xxxiii. 24 ; Mic. vi. 15), or by crushing them
in a basin under a wheel, and squeezing the
pulp in a press constructed for the purpose.
The oil had extensive use ; see Oil. The
process of grafting a cutting from the wild
olive tree into one of the cultivated kind is al-
luded to in Eom. xi. 17, 24 to illustrate the
grafting of the gentile converts on what hith-
erto had been the Jewish church. In garden-
ing the process was diflerent ; it was the graft-
ing of a cutting from the cultivated tree into
a stock of the wild olive to alter and im-
prove its nature. It was from an olive tree
that the dove plucked the leaf when the
waters of the flood were subsiding (Gen.
viii. 11). An olive branch is now an emblem
of peace. The olive was also a symbol of
prosperity and divine blessing, of beauty and
strength (Ps. Hi. 8 ; Jer. xi. 16 ; Hos. xiv. 6).
The aged olive tree is often surrounded by
young and thrifty shoots (Ps. cxxviii. 3).
Women sometimes adorned themselves with
garlands of olives on festal occasions (Judith
XV. 13 1, and at the Olympic games in Greece
the victor's crown was composed of olive
leaves. The tree is the common Olea europxa.
It has lanceolate, entire, leatherj-, evergreen

Olives, Mount of

528

Omri

leaves of a dusty color, and small whitish,
monopetalous flowers. The nearest approach
to it of familiar garden plants is the privet.
The olive is still cultivated through nearly
every part of Palestine.

Ol'ives, Mount of, and Ol'i-vet, the latter
word being a Latin form, borrowed from the
Vulgate, and meaning a place where many
olive trees grow.

A hill which is before Jerusalem on the
east (Zech. xiv. 4), separated from it by the
valley of the Kidron (2 Sam. xv. 14, 23, 30).
Its summit with the farther slope was reck-
oned as a Sabbath-day's journey from the
city (Acts i. 12), or, according to Josephus, at
5 or 6 stades (Antiq. xx. 8, 6 ; War v. 2, 3).
On its summit God was wont to be worshiped
(2 Sam. XV. 32). The glory of the Lord ap-
peared there to Ezekiel in a visioa (Ezek. xi.
23), and Zechariah prophetically portraj'ed Je-
hovah standing on the mountain to interpose
in behalf of his people (Zech. xiv. 4). Jesus
went often to the mount of Olives (Luke xxi.
37 ; xxii. 39 ; John viii. 1). He was descending
its slope when the multitude welcomed him
to the city with hosannas (Luke xix. 37, 38).
He had rounded its shoulder when Jerusalem
hurst into full view, and he wept over the fate
which he knew awaited the city (41-44). He
was sitting on the mount with his disciples gaz-
ing across the valley at the splendid temple and
the citv, when he prophesied the destruction
of both (Mat. xxiv. 3 ; Mark xiii. 3). After his
last passover he retired to the mount of Olives
(Mat. xxvi. 30; Mark xiv. 26). The garden
of Gethsemane was to the west of it, either
at its base or some small distance up its as-
cent. Bethany and Bethphage were on the
eastern side (Mat. xxi. 1 ; Mark xi. 1 ; Luke
xix. 29). It was near the former of these
villages that our Lord's ascension took place
(xxiv. 50). The mount of Olives is un-
questionably the eminence now called by
the Arabs Jebel et-T6r, east of Jerusalem.
Properly speaking, it is a chain of hills rising
into three or, as some reckon, four summits,
and with two lateral spurs. One spur runs
westward, starting at the bend of the Kidron,
about a mile north of Jerusalem. This
northern spur is generally identified with
Josephus' Scopus. The other spur is sepa-
rated from the main ridge by the Kidron.
It also runs westward, and faces the city on
the south. It has been designated the hill
of Evil Counsel, a single tree which it bears
being denominated the tree of Judas. Of
the four peaks into which the range of Olivet
rises, the most northerly one, called Karem
es-Seiyad, is the highest, being 2723 feet
above sea level. It was formerly called Gali-
lee, either because Galilseans encamped there,
or because it was believed to be the place of
the ascension where the angels addressed the
disciples as men of Galilee. The second peak
is called the Ascension. As early as a. d.
iJlo it was crowned by Constantine with a

basilica, which was replaced later by succes-
sive churches of the Ascension. This is the
mount of Olives proper. It stands directly
opposite to the eastern gate of Jerusalem,
and rises to 2037 feet above the level of the
ocean, 560 above the bed of the Kidron, and
196 over the tenii)le plateau. At its foot, at
the traditional site of Gethsemane, three
roads diverge. Two include the garden with-
in the angle which they make. One of these
two winds round the southern shoulder of
Olivet, the other, which is steep and rugged,
leads to the summit. They both meet again
at Bethany, which is on the eastern slope of
the hill, about 921 feet lower than the crest.
The way to Jericho is the southern road.
The third hill is called the Prophets', from
what are called the prophets' tombs on its
side. The fourth hill is named the mount
of Offense, from the belief that Solomon
there built the idolatrous shrines for his
heathen wives. The ascension hill and the
hill of the prophets are so slightly dissevered
that some reduce the four summits to three.

Ol'i-vet. See Olives, Mount of.
0-lym'pas.

A Roman Christian to whom Paul sent his
salutation (Rom. xvi. 15).

O'mar.

A descendant of Esau through Eliphaz
(Gen. XXX vi. 11), and chieftain of a tribe
of the name (15).

0-me'ga.

The last letter of the Greek alphabet,
hence used figuratively for the last or for the
end (Rev. i. 8, 11 ; xxi. 6; xxii. 13).

O'mer.

A measure for dry articles. It contained
a tenth part of an ephah (Ex. xvi. 36), and
was one hundredth of a homer (Ezek. xiv.
11). The omer contained nearly 6 pints.
See Measure.

Om'ri [untaught or impetuous or like a
sheaf ] .

1. A man of Benjamin, family of Becher
(1 Chron. vii. 8).

2. A man of Judah, family of Perez (1
Chron. ix. 4).

3. Son of Michael and prince of the tribe
of Issachar in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii.
18).

4. A king of Israel. Before gaining the
throne he was commander of the Israelite
army in the reign of Elah and not unlikely
in that of Baasha also ; and he may have
subjugated Moab at this time (Moabite Stone
7, 8). He was conducting the siege of Gib-
bethon, which belonged to the Philistines,
when news arrived that Zimri had murdered
Elah, and usurped the throne. The army at
once proclaimed Omri king of Israel. He
accepted the honor, and led his troops against
the town of Tirzah, the national capital,
where Zimri was. The latter, despairing of
his ability to hold the throne, committed

1

On

529

Onion

suicide (1 Kin. xvi. 15-20). But the nation
was divided. One luilf adhered to Omri and
the other half supported the chiims of
Tibni ; and it was not until the death of
Tibni five years later that Omri became the
undisputed sovereign of all Israel (21-23).
The statement of ver. 23, "in the thirty-first
year of Asa began Omri to reign over Israel "
(in Hebrew simply "Omri reigned"), re-
fers, not to the time of his proclamation
by the soldiery and his assumption of the
royal title (although the twelve yeai-s of his
reign are counted from this event), but to his
attainment of the sole authority in the king-
dom (cp. ver. 15, 29). He transferred the
seat of government from Tirzah to Samaria,
which he built for the pui-pose (24). He fol-
lowed the idolatries of Jeroboam and acted
in other respects more wickedly than any of
his predecessors on the throne of the ten
tribes (2G ; Mic. vi. 16). He died about 874
B. C, and was buried in Samaria. His son
Ahab succeeded him on the throne (1 Kin.
xvi. 28). Omri made an impression on his-
tory outside of Israel. Not only did the
Moabites remember his name ; but after his
death and the annihilation of his family the
Assyrians for a time still attached his name,
which they wrote Humri, to the reigning
monarch and laud of Israel.

On, I. [strength],

A Reubenite chief who took part in the
rebellion of Korah (Num. xvi. 1) ; see Kokah.

On, II. [Egyptian An, light].

An old and renowned city of Lower Egypt,
on the east of the Nile, in the delta, sev-
eral miles from the river and 19 miles

S" jrr' " "'ifttiS/

Obelisk at Heliopolis.
Erected by Usertesen, second king of the twelfth dyna.sty.

north of Memphis. It was the principal seat
of the worship of the sun ; hence called
Heliopolis by the Greeks (cp. Ex. i. 11, Sep-
tuagint) and Beth-shemesh by Jeremiah
(xliii. 13). Apparently Isaiah had this city
34

in mind ; and by a slight change in the
tirst letter of the name turned city of the
sun into city of destruction, to denote the
overthrow of idolatry (Is. xix. 18 ; cp. margin).
With the temple of the sun were connected
a training school for priests and a medical
school, and these institutions were visited by
all the Greek philosojjhers who went to
Egypt to study. In Herodotus' day the
priests of On were esteemed the most learned
in history of all the Egyptians (ii. 3). It
was the daughter of a priest of On whom
Pharaoh gave to Joseph to wife (Gen. xli.
45, 50 ; xlvi. 20).

O'nam [strong, wealthy].

1. A Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 23 ; 1 Chron. i. 40).

2. A man of Judah, house of Jerahmeel
(1 Chron. ii. 26, 28).

O'nan [strong].

A son of Judah by a Canaanite woman.
He sinned, and was cut off by a divine judg-
ment, leaving no posteritv (Gen. xxxviii.
4-10; xlvi. 12; Num. xxvi. 19).

0-nes'i-mus [useful, profitable].

A slave of Philemon, whom Paul was the
means of converting at Eome, and whom he
sent back to his Christian master requesting
that he might be received, not as a servant,
but as a brother beloved (Philem. 10-19). He
was a man of Colossse, and with Tychicus
carried from Rome to that city the epistles to
the Colossians and to Philemon (Col. iv. 7-9).

On-e-siph'o-rus [bringing advantage].

A Christian whose home was probably at
Ephesus (2 Tim. i. 18). When he was at
Rome he sought out the apostle Paul, then a
prisoner, and showed him great kindness
(16). The members of his household were
with Timothy, and Paul sent them his salu-
tations (iv, 19).

0-ni'as, in A. V. once 0-ni'a-res (1 Mac.
xii. 19) [Greek for perhaps Coniah]. The
form Oniares is an old corruption, in which
the two names Onias Arius are blended (cp.
Antiq. xii. 4, 10).

A high priest of the Jews, who held office
from about 323 to 300 b. c. He was a con-
temporary of Arius, king of Sparta, who
reigned from 309 to 265 B. c. (1 Mac. xii.
7, in A. y. Darius, a corruption of Arius ; 19,
20). Onias succeeded Jaddua, and was the
father and predecessor of Simon the Ju.st
(Antiq. xi. 8, 7; xii. 2, 5). He is probably
referred to in Ecclus. 1. 1. Josephus errs in
regarding Onias III., a later pontiff, as the
recipient of the letter from Arius.

For others of the name, see High Priest.

On'ion.

A plant, the bulbous root of which was
much used in Egypt as an article of food
(Num. xi. 5 ; Herod, ii. 125). It is AUiiim
cepa. called in Hebrew hesel, in Arabic haxnl.
It has been cultivated from an early period
in Egypt and other parts of the east.

Ono

530

Ophrah

O'no [strong].

A town of Beujaraiu (Neh. xi. 35), in a
plain of considerable size (vi. 2), built or
rather rebuilt by a Benjamite called Shamed
(1 Chron. viii. 12). Some of its iuha))itauts
returned from the Babylonian captivity
(Ezra ii. 33; Neh. vii. 37). It is considered
to have been at Kefr 'Ana, about 7 miles in-
land east by south from Joppa.

On'y-clia.

The rendering of the Hebrew HMielelh (Ex.
XXX. 34). It was one of the ingredients in a
perfume made for the service of the taber-
nacle. It is believed to have been the oper-
culum (lid) of a shell mollusc called stromb
or wing-shell, which being burnt gave out a
certain perfume.

O'nyx [a fingc^r nail, an onyx].

The rendering of the Hebrew Shoham.
The Hebrew word denotes a precious stone
(.Job xxviii. l(i, R. V. margin beryl ; Ezek.
xxviii. 13). It was found in the land of
Havilah (Gen. ii. 12). Two of these stones,
each graven with the names of sis Israelite
tribes, were put on the shoulder pieces of the
high priest's ephod (Ex. xxviii. 9, 12), and
another was the second stone in the fourth
row on his hreastplate (xxviii. 20). David
gathered such stones for the service of the
future temple (1 Chron. xxix. 2). The onyx
is a cryptocrystalline yariety or subvariety of
quartz. It is in layers of different colors,
which alternate with each other and bear
some risi'inhlauce to the white and flesh-col-
ored bands of the finger nail.

O'phel [a swelling, a hill].

The southern and lower portion, or per-
haps originally only an eminence on this
southern portion, of the eastern or temple
hill at Jerusalem, enclosed by the city walls.
This general locality is indicated by the
proximity of the pool of Shelah, i. e. doubt-
less Siloam, the court of the guard, the water
gate, and the horse gate (Neh. iii. 15-27; see
Jerusalem, paragraph on the walls) ; the
pool of Siloam, the eastern court of the tem-
ple, and the Kidron valley (War v. 4, 1 and
2 ; 6, 1). Jotham built much on its walls,
and Manasseh increased their height (2
Chron. xxvii. 3 ; xxxiii. 14). After the ex-
ile, if not before, the Nethinim bad their
residence in this quarter, because of its con-
venience to the temple (Neh. iii. 26; xi. 21).
Sir Charles Warren, in the course of his ex-
cavations on this pfirtion of the ridge, came
upon a wall more than 70 feet high, which
he felt disposed to identify with that of Ma-
nas.seh {Recovery of Jerusalem, 285-6).

O'pliir.

A tribe descended from Joktan (Gen. x.
29; 1 Chron. i. 23), and the country which
they inhabited. This region was celebrated
for its gold (xxix. 4; Job xxii. 24 ; xxviii.
16 ; Ps. xlv. 9 ; Is. xiii. 12), to obtain which,
Hiram, in conjunction with Solomon, sent a
navy from Ezion-geber (1 Kin. ix. 28). The

ships brought back algum or almug trees

as well as gold (x. 11), and probably also
silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks (22 ; cp.
xxii. 48). Jehoshaphat attempted to imitate
the enterprise, but his ships were wrecked at
Ezion-geber (xxii. 48). As this port was
on the gulf of Akaba, the route to Ophir was
by the Ked Sea and not by the Mediterranean.
The voyage out and back in the ships of that
day, with the peculiar winds of the Red Sea,
and including the lying in port, lasted, it may
be judged, three years (x. 22; cp. xxii. 48) ;
see Red Sea. Three opinions exist as to its
situation : 1. Ophir was at Sofala, on the east-
ern coast of Africa, opposite the island of
Madagascar. In favor of this view is the
fact that it was formerly an emporium for
gold. But when it is noted that the algum
or almug tree is apparently the sandalwood,
which is a native of India, and is not be-
lieved to occur either in Arabia or Africa, and
that other products of Ophir brought by the
seamen had also Indian names, it is probable
that Ophir was in India, or else was a mart
of exchange for Indian goods. 2. Josephus
says that it was the Golden Land in India
(Antiq. viii. 6, 4), perhaps on the river
Cophen (i. 6, 4) ; and hence it has been con-
jecturally located at Abhira, at the mouth
of the Indus. 3. Ophir was in southern or
southeastern Arabia. This opinion is prob-
ably correct ; for the majority of the Jok-
tanites, perhaps all of them, settled in Arabia.
Moreover, Ophir is mentioned between Sheba
and Havilah.

Oph'ni [perhaps, the musty or the Oph-
nite]. The Hebrew uses the definite article.

A village of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21).
Robins(m suggests its identity with Gophna,
on the highway from Samaria to Jerusalem,
a day's march north of Gibeah (War v. 2, 1) ;
the modern Jufna, 3 miles northwest by north
of Bethel. This identification assumes that
the boundary of Benjamin turned northward
near Bethel, for Bethel was on the northern
boundary.

Oph'rah [hind].

1. A son of Meiaothai, of the tribe of Judah
(1 Chron. iv. 14).

2. A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 23 ; 1
Sam. xiii. 17). Robinson dcnibtfully identi-
fied it with et-Taiyibeh, on a conical hill 4
miles northeast by east of Bethel, with a
splendid view from its summit, which he felt
could not have been left unoccupied in an-
cient times. His opiuicm has been widely
accepted, although the place seems far north
for a town of Benjamin.

3. A village west of the Jordan, occupied
by the Abiczrites, a family of Manasseh
(Judg. vi. 11, 15; cp. Josh. xvii. 1, 2). It
was the home of Gideon, where be was called
to his mission and built an altar, where he
made an ephod to the ensnaring of Israel,
and where he was buried (Judg. vi.-viii.).
Conder, pointing out that according to the

Orator

531

Ossifrage

Samaritau Chronicle, Ophrah was the aucient
name of Fer'ata, (5 niik's west by south of
Shecheiii, suggests this viHage as its site.
Fer'ata is, however, commonly regarded as
Pirathon (q. v.).

Or'a-tor.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew LaJinsh, an
incantation, preceded by n'bon, skillful in en-
chantment (Is. iii. 3). The R. V. accurately
translates the phrase by skillful enchanter.

2. The rendering of the Greek Rhetor, pub-
lic speaker, pleader, in Acts xxiv. 1, api>lied
to Tertullus. He was a i)rofessional advo-
cate engaged by Paul's Jewish enemies to
prosecute the apostle before the Eomau proc-
urator.

Or'chard. See Garden.

O'rel) [a raven].

1. One of two Midianite princes defeated,
captured, and put to death by Gideon. He
was slain at a rock, which came to be called
in consequence the rock of Oreb (Judg. vii.
25 ; viii. ;i ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 11 : Is. x. 26).

2. A rock on wiiich the Midianite prince
Oreb was killed by Gideon (Judg. vii. 25 ;
Is. X. 26). Exact situation unknown ; but
doubtless it was west of the Jordan near the
river (Judg. vii. 25 ; viii. 4).

O'ren [a species of pine tree].
A man of Judah, house of Jerahmeel (1
Chron. ii. 25).

Or'gan. See Pipe.

0-ri'on.

A constellation (Job ix. 9 ; xxxviii. 31 ;
Amos V. 8), in Hebrew K'sil, a man without
understanding, an irreligious person, a fool.
The ancient versions unite in this identifica-
tion. The Targums and the Syriac version
render the word by giant, and the Septuagint
and Vulgate employ the name Orion. In the
classic mythology Orion is represented as a
man of great strength, celebrated as a worker
in iron and as a hunter. Being killed by the
goddess Diana, he was transferred to the
heavens and bound to the sky (cp. Job
xxxviii. 31), and became the constellation
Orion.

The constellation is visible in all latitudes.
It disputes with the Great Bear the dis-
tinction of lieing the finest constellation of
the sky. Two of its stars — Betelgeuse at
the upper part of his right arm as he faces
the spectator, and Eigel at his uplifted left
foot — are of the first magnitude. About 100
stars in the constellation are visible to the
naked eye, and 2000 or more may be seen
under the telescope.

Or'na-ments.

Orientals adorn themselves with orna-
ments to an extent deemed excessive by
occidental taste. It has ever been so. He-
brews, Egyptians, Jlidianites. Syrians, both
men and women, were fond of wearing orna-
ments (Gen. xxiv. 22 ; Ex. iii. 22 ; xi. 2 ; xxxii.

2; Num. xxxi. 50). Women wore beads and
Iiearls, and articles of gold, silver and hni.ss
(Song i. 10, 11 ; 1 Tim. ii. 9) ; earrings, nose
rings, pendants, necklaces, chains, brazen
mirrors, armlets, bracelets, finger rings,
anklets (Gen. xxiv. 22, 47; xxxv. 4; Ex.
XXXV. 22; Num. xxxi. .50; Is. iii. 18-23).
Men of all classes except the poorest wore
.seal rings (Gen. xxxviii. 18), which were
useful in business as well as ornamental.
Nor did they regard rings for the aims as
efi'eminate. Saul, like the kings of Assyria,
wore a ring about the arm or wrist (2 Sam.
i. 10). It was a national custom with the
Lshmaelites for the men to wear earrings
(Judg. viii. 25, 26), and men among tlie He-
brews sometimes did so (Ex. xxxii. 2). Men
of high rank wore a gold chain as badge of
otBce (Gen. xli. 42 ; Dan. v. 29).

Ornaments were laid aside in time of
mourning (Ex. xxxiii. 4-6).

Or'nan [perhaps, piny]. See Akaunaii.

Or'pah [neck, mane].

The wife of Mahlon, and the sister-in-law
of Ruth. She consented to remain in her
native country, Moab, when Ruth, drawn by
affection to her mother-in-law, Naomi, in-
sisted on accompanying her to Palestine
(Ruth i. 4, 14, 1.5).

Or-tho-si'a, in A. V. Ortbosias.

A city on the coast of Pha>nicia. between
Tripoli and the river Eleutherus (1 Mac. xv.
.37; Pliny, Hist. Nat. v. 17).

Os-nap'per. See Asnappkr.

Os'pray, oh.solete form of Osprey.

The rendering of the Hebrew 'Osniyyah
(Lev. xi. 13; Dent. xiv. 12), an unclean bird.
It is either a species of eagle or more vaguely
the eagle genus. The Septuagint translates
it 'aiinietos, that is, Pandion halin'etus. It
is a dark brown eagle widely distributed
throughout the world, frecjuenting seacoasts,
and living on fish. In Palestine it occurs
along the Mediterranean, especially in the
lagoons at the mouth of the Kishon.

Os'si-frage [hone breaker].

The rendering in A. V. of the Hebrew
Peres, breaker. It was an unclean bird (Lev.
xi. 13; and Deut. xiv. 12). The R. V. trans-
lates it gier eagle. It is believed to be the
lammergeycr, or bearded eagle ((rypaetiis bar-
batiis). The English name ossifrage and the
Hebrew jieres both refer to the fact that
the bird delights in bones, snakes, and tor-
toises, which it breaks. This it sometimes
docs by taking them up to a great heiglit in
the air and dropping them on a stone. The
ossifrage is 3^- feet high ; the expansion of
its wings is about 9 feet. Its claws are not
adapted for carrying off living prey, and its
disposition is cowardly. In Palestine the
ossifrage is rare and tending to extinction,
its chief haunts being the ravines of the
Arnon, east of the Dead Sea.

Ostrich

532

Owl

Os'tricli.

1. Tlie rendering of the Hebrew Ya'en,
feminine Va"'nah, probably the voracious

Ostrich.

bird. It was ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi.
l(i; Deut. xiv. 15), makes a mournful sound
(Mic. i. 8), inhabits the wilderness (Is. xiii.
21 ; xxxiv. 13), and was believed to forsake
its eggs (Lara. iv. 3). The A. V. translates
the masculine form by ostrich, the feminine
form by owl.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Rannn,
utterer of tremulous sounds (Job xxxix. 13,
in A. V. ])eacock). The female deposits her
eggs on the ground to be warmed in the dust ;
and it was commonly supposed that she
abandoned them to their fate, forgetting
that the foot might crush them or that the
wild beast might trample them (14, 15). The
speed of the ostrich is such that it distances
a man on liorseback (18).

3. The A. V. inaccurately renders Nosah
by ostrich in Job xxxix. 13. It means a
feather, as in Ezek. xvii. 3, 7.

The ostrich {Stnithio camelns) belongs to
the aberrant subclass or division called
Ratitse, or struthious birds. They are among
the largest in size of the class, but are not
able to fly, the deprivation being compen-
sated by great power of running. The com-
mon ostrich is 6 or 8 feet high. The ostrich
feathers which are used for ladies' hats are
the quill feathers of the wings and tail.
Tlie bird jirepares a nest by rolling in the
sand and scooping out a hole about 6 feet in

diameter. An egg is laid every other day,
until the eggs numl)er ten, twelve, or more.
Each egg is about three pounds in weight.
They appear to be hatched partly by the heat
of the sun, but mainly by incu))ation, the
male bird sitting on them for about twenty
hours to the hen's four. The male takes
charge of the young brood. At night the bird
utters a hoarse, complaining cry, alluded to
in Mic. i. 8. The ostrich is diffused over the
greater part of Africa. It still occurs in
Arabia, but its area there seems to have been
diminished since O. T. times.

Oth'ni [probably, lion of (God)].
A porter, the son of Shemaiah (1 Chron.
xxvi. 7).

Otli'ni-el [lion of God, powerful one of
God] .

A son of Kenaz and brother or half brother
of Caleb, son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite
(Josh. XV. 17; 1 Chron. iv. 13); see Caleb.
Caleb promised to give his daughter Achsah
in marriage to any hero who took the town
of Debir or Kii-jath-sepher. Othniel eflected
its capture and received Achsah (Josh. xv.
15-17 ; Judg. i. 11-13). He subsequently de-
livered the Israelites from the tyranny of
Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, and
became judge, and the laud had rest forty
years (iii. 8-11).

Ov'en. See Bkead.

Owl.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Bath
hai/ya"'nah (Lev. xi. 16, A. V.). See Ostrich 1.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Kos, a
cup, an owl. It was ceremonially unclean
(Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 16, little owl), and
frequented waste places (Ps. cii. 6). Prob-
ably the southern little owl (Aihene glaiiz) is
intended, which is universally distributed
through Palestine, occurring.in olive yards,
rocks, thickets, and among ruins and tombs.

3. The rendering of the Hebrew Yanshuph.
It was ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi. 17;
Deut. xiv. 16, great owl) and frequented
waste places (Is. xxxiv. 11 ; R. V. margin,
bittern). It is rendered il>is in the Septua-
gint and Vulgate, and owl in the Targums
and the Syriac version. Tristram believes
that the species was the Egyptian eagle owl
{Bubo ascalaphufi). It lives in caves and
among ruins, and is common about Petra
and Beer-sheba.

4. The rendering of the Hebrew Tiuslienieih
(Lev. xi. 18 ; in A. V. swan). The Septuagint
renders it heron, and the Vulgate swan.

5. The rendering of the Hebrew Lilith,
nocturnal specter (is. xxxiv. 14; in A. V.
screech owl, in R. V. night monster). The
screech or barn owl {f^trix flammca) is found
in Palestine frequenting ruins.

6. The rendering of the Hebrew Kippos
(Is. xxxiv. 15; in R. V. arrow snake). The
corresponding word in Arabic, Mffdza, de-
notes the arrow snake.

Ox

533

Paint

Little Owl of Palestine.

Ox.

The male of the species Bos tni(rus, though
ox frequently siguilies any animal of the
kind, without respect to sex (Ex. xx. 17),
and the plural oxen is often synonymous
with cattle (Gen. xii. 16). The ox was early
domesticated. Abraham had sheep and oxen
(Gen. xii. KJ; xxi. 27) ; so had his contempo-
rary Abimelech (xx. 14), and the Egyptians at
the time of the ten plagues (Ex. ix. 3). The
ox was used for plowing (1 Kin. xix. 19),
for dragging carts or wagons (Num. vii. 3 ;

Egyptian Oxen treading out Grain.

2 Sam. vi. 6, etc.), aud for treading out grain
(Deut. XXV. 4). They were eaten (1 Kin. i.
25 ; cp. Mat. xxii. 4). and were largely sacri-
ficed, especially in connection with the burnt
offerings (Num. vii. 87, 88 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22;
2 Chron. v. 6 ; vii. 5, etc.). A yoke of oxen
was two oxen designed to be yoked together
for the plow, for a cart, or for anything simi-

lar. Tristram says that the common
cattle of southern and central Pales-
tine are small in size, those of north-
ern Palestine are larger. The largest
herds are now beyond the Jordan.

The word t'o, rendered wild ox
(Deut. xiv. 5, A. V.) and wild bull
(Is. li. 20, A. v.), is translated in K.
V. by antelope (q. v.). See Unicorn.

Ox'goad. Sec Goad.

O'zem.

1. A son of Jesse (1 Chron. ii. 1.'')).

2. A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chron.
ii. 25).

0-zi'as. See Uzziah.

Oz'ni [eared, attentive].

A son of Gad, and founder of a
tribal family (Num. xxvi. l(j). He
was either called also Ezbon ((ien.
xlvi. 16), or else on Ezbon's death ho
took his place and founded a tribal
family, as did Hezron and Hamul in
Judah (Num. xxvi. 19-21).

Pa'a-rai.

One of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii.
35, most probably a diverse reading of 1 Chron.
xi. 37).

Fad'dan and Pad-dan-a'ram, in A. V.
Fa'dan and Pa-dan-a'ram [plain, jjlain of
Aram, i. e., Syria] ; see Aeam 2 (1).

Pa'don [freedom, redemption].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-
bers of which returned from captivity (Ezra
ii. 44; Neh. vii. 47).

Pa'gi-el [a meeting with God].

Head of the tribe of Asher in the wilder-
ness (Num. i. 13; ii. 27; vii. 72, 77; x. 26).

Pa-hath-mo'ab [governor of Moab] .

Founder of a family, members of which
returned from the Babylonian captivity
(Ezra ii. 6; viii. 4 ; Neh. vii. 11). Some of
them married heathen wives, from whom
Ezra persuaded them to separate (Ezra x. 30).
The representative of the family signed the
covenant (Neh. x. 14), and Hashub, a mem-
ber of the family, rebuilt or replaced part of
the wall of Jerusalem (iii. 11).

Pa'i. See Pau.

Paint.

In ancient Egypt and Assyria the custom
of painting a black rim around the eyes pre-
vailed among the women. The Hebrews
seem to have regarded the practice as a mere-
tricious art, unworthy of a woman of higli
character (2 Kin. ix. .30; Jer. iv. 30; Ezck.
xxiii. 40; War iv. 9, 10). The eyeball under
the lids and the edge of the lids, and some-
times the eyebrows, were blackened. Doubt-

Palace

534

Palestine

less various dye stuffs were used for the
purpose. Antimony, burnt to blackness and
pulverized, was employed (Septuagint).
Probably lead also was used, as it is in Per-
sia. The ordinary kohl, which is used by
women in Egypt at the present day, is a pow-
der obtained from almo!id shells or by burn-
ing a fragrant resin. The powder was kept
in small, covered jars ; and was applied, both
dry and moistened with oil, by means of a
prolie made of wood, silver, or ivory, and
blunt at the end.

For cosmetics applied to other parts of the
body, see Henna ; and for pigments used to
color walls and other objects, see Colors.

Pal'ace.

David occupied a royal residence at Jeru-
salem (2 Sam. V. 9 ; vii. 1, 2), but Solomon's
commodious and magnificent abode was the
first in Jerusalem to be constructed on a
grand scale (1 Kin. vii. 1-12). It was thir-
teen years in counse of erection, whereas the
temple was completed in seven years (vi. 38 ;
vii. 1). It contained the house of the forest
of Lebanon (2-5), which took its name from
its numerous cedar pillars. This house was
100 cubits or 150 feet long, 50 cubits wide,
and 30 cubits high. Its walls were of solid
masonry. Within were four rows of cedar
pillars. Probably one row ran parallel with
each wall, and the four rows formed the four
sides of a rectangular court, about 30 by 80
cubits in dimension : or else the pillars were
disposed in two double rows parallel to the long
sides of the building and left a court in the
center. Beams extended from the pillars to
the walls and supported three tiers of cham-
bers. These chambers looked down into the
court. This building was at once armory
and treasure house (x. 17, 21 ; Is. xxii. 8),
and may have served other purposes as well.
A hall of pillars was the reception and wait-
ing room of the palace (1 Kin. vii. 6). It was
50 cubits in length and 30 cubits in breadth,
and had a portico in front of its portal. This
portico was not unlikely the main entrance to
the palace. Next came the hall of judgment
(ver. 7), open in front, but probably clo.sed on
the other three sides by solid walls pierced by
doors only. It was the throne room. The
great ivory throne overlaid with gold stood
there (x. 18-20). These three buildings prob-
ably opened on a rectangular court, the sides
of which were the portal in the central part
of the inner long wall of the house of the
forest of Lebanon,* the inner doors and wall
of the hall of pillars, and the open front of
the throne room. Behind the throne room
was the inner court where the king dwelt.
The principal entrance to it was probably
through the throne room, so that the king pro-
nounced judgment and granted audiences in
the gate of his palace. This court was, of
course, adorned with flowers and fountains,
and surrounded by cloisters. The palace of
Pharaoh's daughter (vii. 8) was next to the

throne room, according to Josephus (Antiq.
viii. 5, 2). Solomon's palace was constructed
on the general model which prevailed in
western Asia, and which is now familiar from
the remains of the royal abodes unearthed
in Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. Some
conception of its elegance and beauty may
be formed from casual references in the Book
of Esther to the palace of the Persian king
at Shushan (Esth. i. 5, 6, 9 ; ii. 3, 14 ; v. 1, 2 ;
vii. 7). See House; Asmon^ans, Palace
OF the; Herod's Palace; and Pr.etor-

lUM.

Pa'lal [a judge, or he hath judged].

A son of Uzai. He helped to rebuild the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 25).

Pal-an-quin'.

A covered conveyance, arranged both for
sitting and reclining, and carried by means
of poles on the shoulders of two, four, or six
men or borne as a litter between two camels,
horses, or mules. The royal palanquin, pro-
vided by Solomon for his bride, consisted of
a frame made of cedar, with small orna-
mental pillars of silver, a bottom of gold,
costly coverings of purple for the seat, and
perhaps embroideries lovingly made by the
daughters of Jerusalem (Song iii. 9, in A. V.
chariot ; by Ewald and Delitzsch rendered
bed of state).

Pal'es-tine (Joel iii. 4) and Pal-es-ti'na
(Ex. XV. 14 ; Is. xiv. 29, 31), in R. V. always
Philistia.

In the O. T. the name denotes the country
of the Philistines (cp. Herod, vii. 89). The
name now designates a country in the south-
west corner of Asia, constituting the southern
portion of Syria, and which for along time was
in the possession of the Hebrews. That portion
of this territory which lies west of the Jor-
dan the ancient Hebrews called Canaan as
distinguished from the land of Gilead on the
east of the river. After the conquest the en-
tire country became known as the laud of
Israel (1 Sam. xiii. 19 ; 1 Chron. xxii. 2 ; Mat.
ii. 20), but after the division of the kingdom
this name was often given to the northern
realm. In the epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 9)
it is called the land of promise. Soon after
the beginning of the Christian era Greek and
Latin writers denominate it Palie.stina. lu
the Middle Ages it became known as the
Holy Land (cp. Zech. ii. 12 ; 2 Mac. i. 7).

1. Boundnries and Exfenf of Palesfive. The
Hebrews occupied the region from Kadesh-
barnea and the wady el-'Arish on the south
to mount Hermon on the north, and from
the Mediterranean Sea on the west to the
desert on the east, except the plain of the Phi-
li.stines and the country of Moab. In pros-
perous reigns powerful kings extended their
sway beyond these limits and held dominion
over Hamath and Damascus and beyond, as
far as the river Euphrates, and over Ammon,
Moab, and Edom. The Hebrews themselves
were accustomed to say that their country

Palestine

535

Palestine

extended from Dan to Beer-sheba, a distance
of 150 miles. The southern boundary was
then the wady el-Fikreh and the river Amon.
These limits included the thickly populated
portion of the land. Taking the smaller
limits, which exclude most of the territory
occupied by the tribe of Simeon and part of
that occupied by Naphtali. the boundaries
form a parallelogram, the altitude of which,
measured by the latitudes of Dan and the
southern extremity of the Dead Sea. is 145
miles, and the base TO miles. The area is
10.150 square miles. This includes the Phi-
listine country, which, at its utmost extent
from Carmel to Beer-sheba, had an area of
1765 square miles, leaving 83S5 square miles
as the territory occupied by the Hebrews.
The survey as.signs to eastern Palestine, from
Hermon to the Arnon. about 3800 square
miles ; and to western Palestine, as far south
as Beer-sheba and including Philistia, 6040
square miles.

2. Popiilaiion of PnJentine. The Hebrews
at the time of the conquest numbered 600,-
000 males above twenty years of age. which
represents a total population of 2,160,000.
They were distributed over something more
than 8300 square miles. Massachusetts, with
an area of 8315 square miles, had a popula-
tion of 2,238,943 in 1890, and New Jersey,
with an area of 7815 square miles, had a
population of 1,444,933. David took the
census of a much larger region. The present
population is estimated at 600.000. That it
was formerly much larger is evident from the
statements of the Bible and Josephus. and
from the numerous ruins of former towns.
Scarcely a hilltop of the multitude always
in sight but is crowned with a city or village,
inhabited or in ruins.

'■'. The Geology of Palestine. A band of
Nubian or Petra sandstone extends along the
eastern coast of the Dead Sea and along part
of the wall of rock flanking the Jordan val-
ley on the east, and appears on the western
slopes of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It is
generally of a dark red or blackish color.
Above this lies the most important geological
formation in Palestine, the cretaceous lime-
stone which constitutes the main part of the
table-land of the country both east and west
of the Jordan. At Jerusalem there are two
beds of the limestone, an upper or harder
layer, called by the inhabitants misseh. and
an inferior soft one. denominated melekeh.
The reservoirs, sepulchers. and cellars under
and around the city have been excavated in
the soft melekeh. while the foundations of
the buildings are on the hard misseh. The
large quarries near the Damascus gate are in
the melekeh. From them came the stone of
which the temple walls were constructed.
These beds of cretaceous limestone underlie
a newer series which, commencing at mount
Carmel. runs nearly south to Beer-sheba. from
which it then curves in a southwesterly
direction parallel to the Mediterranean. Out-

liers of it exist also northeast, east, and
southwest of Jerusalem and around Shechem.
P>om the abundance in them of the little
foraminifeia called nummulites, the beds are
named the nummulitic limestone. They be-
long to the Eocene Tertiary, and probably to
the Middle Eocene. This rock is so connected
with the cretaceous limestone that the two
are generally held to constitute but a single
formation, called the cretaceo-nummulitic
series. Flanking the nummulitic limestone
on the west a long continuous band of cal-
careous sandstone extends throtigh the Phi-
listine country and appears in scattered
patches farther north, to near mount Car-
mel. As a rule, it is porous and soft, and as
it easily weathers away, it exposes the harder
limestone of the table-land which dips be-
neath it, and makes the descent from the
uplands to the lowlands of Judaea and
Samaria more abrupt than it otherwi.se
would be. Between this sandstone and the
Mediterranean lie raised beaches belonging
to the upper Pliocene, or to recent times.
All these are sedimentary beds. A few
igneous rocks, however, exist in the land.
A minute patch of very old igneous rocks,
an outlier of the great mass of granite,
porphyrj-, diorite, and felsite, which occurs
farther south in the Arabah and especially
at Sinai, is combined with the carboniferous
rocks. On the eastern side of the Jordan,
nearly all the way from the roots of mount
Hermon to south of the sea of Galilee, and
east and southeast to the Hauran, beyond
the limits of Palestine, the country is over-
spread by an immense mass of volcanic
material, basalt, dolerite, felsite, none of it
older, and some of it apparently more re-
cent, than the Pliocene Tertiary. There are
detached portions of the same volcanic rocks
in western Palestine, west and northwest of
the sea of Galilee, with fragments in other
quarters. Along the Mediterranean coast of
Palestine, wherever the ground is low and
level, there is a row of sand dunes, some
rising 200 feet in height. Those on the
southwest of the country may have been at
least partly formed by the blowing of sand
from the Egyptian and Sinaitic deserts. Those
farther north obtained the sand from the
weathering of the calcareous sandstone of
Philistia. They tend to encroach upon the
cultivated parts adjacent, the wind continu-
ally blowing particles from them inland.
Palestine lies in one of the lines in which
earthquake action is potent ; and both in
ancient times and more recently jiortions of
the country have been seriously convulsed.
To recapitulate, the geological structure of
Palestine con.sists of a layer of red sandstone
over the primitive rocks; then comes the
chalky limestone which forms the mass of
the country, overlaid with nunimulite lime-
stone and alluvial soil; and lastly in the
northeast appear colossal erupted masses of
volcanic rock.

Palestine

536

Palestine

4. The Physical Geography of Palestine.
The physical divisions of I'alestine are five :
the maritime plain, the low country or
Shephelah, the central mountain range, the
Jordan valley, and the eastern table-land.
These form parallel zones, and with certain
modifications extend through the entire
length of the country from north to south.
They are broken only by the plain of
Esdraelon, which lies athwart the mountain
range and connects the seacoast with the
Jordan valley. 1. The maritime plain lies
along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea for
the entire length of the country, being
broken only by mount Carmel. North of
Carmel it is quite narrow, but south of that
mountain it is 6 miles wide and increases in
width southward. It is an undulating plain
100 to 200 feet above sea level, and very
fertile. Between Carmel and the 'Aujah,
•which empties into the sea north of Joppa,
it was called Sharon, south of Joppa it was
occupied by the Philistines. 2. The low
country or Shephelah is a region of low hills
situated between the maritime plain south
of Carmel and the high central range. It
forms a terrace with an elevation of about
500 feet above the sea level. The name is
applied almost exclusively to that part of the
low hilly country which extends from the
latitude of Joppa southward to Bcer-sheba,
and which is sharply separated from the
central range by a series of valleys running
north and south. 3. The central mountain
range is a continuation of the Lebanon
mountains. South of the river Leontes the
lofty ridge drops to a high plateau which
reaches southward as far as the northern end
of the sea of Galilee and Acre. This is
Upper Galilee. It contains a number of hills
between 2000 and 3000 feet in elevation ;
while several rise considerably above that
height, like Jebel Jermuk which is 3934 feet.
Lower Galilee is triangular, having the sea

of the sea of Galilee. Southwest of the sea is
mount Tabor, 1843 feet high; and farther south

Mount f/ermon^

■VA'M'f.z^L

mount Gilboa, with one peak 1698 feet and
another 1648 feet. The southern part of
Lower Galilee descends into the plain of
Esdraelon, most of the places in which do not
exceed 200 or 300 feet in height. South of the
plain of Esdraelon the ranjge is broken by
many wadies, mountains are scattered into
groups, and its inner recesses are accessible
from the maritime plain, Esdraelon, and the
Jordan valley. Carmel is thrust out as a
spur toM-ard the northwest. The average
watershed is 2000 feet high. But mount Ebal
rises 3077 feet and its coimpanion Gerizim
2849. This was Samaria. From Bethel to
Hebron and almost to Beer-sheba, a distance
of about 45 miles, the range forms one c<)m-
pact mass with precipitous sides on the east
and west and with an average height of 2200
feet. Bethel, however, has an elevation of
2930 feet above sea level, the highest part of
Jerusalem 2598, Bethlehem 2550, and Hebron
3040. About 15 miles south of Hebron it
slopes down to the desert of the wandering.
The summit of the range is the narrow
table-land which was occupied by the tribes
of Benjamin and Judah. 4. The Jordan
valley is a remarkable chasm which begins

//

Sca.te of Miles

Cross Sections of Palestine on the Parallels of Hebron, Jerusalem, and Shiloh.

of Galilee and the Jordan as far as Beth-
shean on its eastern side and the plain of
Esdraelon on the southwestern side. It con-
sists of a series of low ridges running east
and west. Its elevation is considerably less
than that of Upper Galilee, many of its hills
being only 400, 500, or 600 feet high, though
there are a few loftier peaks immediately west

at the foot of mount Hermon, 1700 feet
above sea level, but with lofty mountains on
each side, and grows rapidly deeper as it goes
southward until at the surface of the Dead
Sea it is 1290 feet lower than sea level ; see
Dead Sea and Jordan. Though not an
impassable barrier, it prevented free inter-
course between the peoples who dwelt east

PALESTIXE

ill 1 1 It--

Time of Christ.

SCALE OF MILES.

S^owing Elevations aud Depressions.

[~I Below Sea Level Aelizit

I ^ I Sea Level to 300 ft. alwve
I [500 ft. to 1.000 fi. a
I I 1,000 ft. to 2.000 ft

k

Palestine

537

Palestine

of it south of the Jabhok as far as Edom,
aud the tribes of Judah and Kenjaniiu on
the west. ."). The eastern table-land is a
great fertile jilaiu, much of it more than
3000 feet in elevation, stretching from the
blutfs which overlook the Jordan valley to
the Syrian desert. It is cut in twain by the
gorge of the Jabbok aud the uorthern por-
tion is further cleft by the Yarmuk, imme-
diately south of the sea of Galilee.

5. The Principal Roads of Palestine. The
physical structure determined the course of
travel. The great commercial and military
highway between Egypt and the empires of
the east passed through Palestine. It crossed
the wady el-"Arish near its mouth, followed
the seacoast to Gaza, where it was met by a
road from Elath and Arabia, and continued
through the phiin of the Philistines to Ash-
dod. Beyond Ashdod it forked. One branch
followed the coast by Joppa and Dor, and
avoided mount Carmel by keeping to the sea-
shore at the base of the headland ; but the
way is only 600 feet wide under the head-
land, and is broken by rocks. The other
branch, and the maiu line of travel, continued
from Ashdod through Ekron and Lod and
crossed the mountains to the plain of Esdra-
elon by one of three passes. The western
road emerged by Tell Keimun and led to
Acre, Tyre, Sidon. and the north. The cen-
tral road crossed to el-Lejjun (Megiddo),
traversed the plain of Esdraelon and Lower
Galilee to the plain of Gennesaret, followed
the Jordan northward, and by one branch
entered the valley of the Leontes between
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and led to Ha-
math and the north. The other branch
crossed the Jordan between the waters of
Merojn and the sea of Galilee, and went
northeastward to Damascus. The third and
most frequented route from the maritime
plain passed through the plain of Dothan to
En-gannim, where it divided, one branch
joining the aforementioned road across Lower
Galilee, and the other leading to Beth-shean,
and, dividing again, continuing to Gilead or
to Damascus. By any of the northern routes
Carchemish on the Euphrates might be
reached. There was another road from the
plain of Esdraelon to Egypt. It traversed
the hill country, passing by Samaria, vShe-
chem, Bethel, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron,
and Beer-sheba. At this point the road
branched, and there was a choice of routes ;
the highway along the seacoast might be
gained by diverging to the west, or the
journey might be continued by way of Ke-
hoboth and 'Ain Muweileh, and thence across
the desert to Egypt. A route from Beth-
shean to Edom, which was also used by trav-
elers to Jerusalem, passed down the Jordan
valley to Jericho, where persons going to Je-
rusalem took the steep road up the mountains
to the capital. From Jericho the road con-
tinued along the western shore of the Dead
Sea to En-gedi, where it was joined by a road

from Jerusalem and Bethlehem, and thence
continued to Edom and Elath at the head of
the Red Sea, where it joined the caravan
routes from Egypt and Gaza to southern
Arabia. East of the Jordan a caravan route
led from Damascus along the edge of the
desert southward to Arabia ; see Decapolis.
It was joined by roads running from Beth-
shean across Gilead ; by a road from Shechem
down the wady Far'ah to the ford of the
Jordan below the mouth of the Jabbok, and
thence across Gilead to Rabbath Amnion ;
and by another from the ford at Jericho by
way of Heshbon. West of the Jordan Gali-
lee was crossed by a road running almost
due east from Acre, which joined the road
to Damascus near the point where it crossed
the Jordan, midway between the waters of
Merom and the sea of Galilee. The high
table-land occupied by the tribes of Benjamin
aud Judah was not easy of access from the
maritime plain. A way, however, led from
the plain of Sharon aud the Nahr el-'Aujah
at Ras el-'Ain (Antipatris) southeastwardly
into the hill country, and joined the road
from Samaria to Jerusalem at a point two
miles southwest of Bethel. From the sea-
port of Joppa a road led to Jerusalem by the
valley of Aijalon and Beth-horon. From
Ashdod the capital was most readily reached
by wady es-Surar and Beth-shemesh ; but a
route to Jerusalem and also to Bethlehem
was aflbrded by the wady es-Sunt past Socoh.
Access to the hill country in the vicinity of
Hebron was had through the wady el-'Afranj
by Beit Jibrin, aud by the wady el-Hesy by
Lachish.

6. The Meteorology of Palestine. The great
contrasts in physical features have given Pal-
estine a remarkable range of climate, from the
perpetual snow on mount Hermon to the
tropical heat of the Jordan valley at Jericho
and En-gedi. The average temperature at
Jerusalem in January, which is the coldest
month, is about 49.4° F., and the greatest
cold 28°. In August the average is 79.3°,
and the greatest heat is 92° in the shade.
See also Ye^r.

7. The Botany of Palestine. In consequence
of the great diversity of surface and climate,
the flora is extensive and plants of many
latitudes flourish. Tristram showed that of
3002 flowering plants and ferns known to
exist in Palestine, a large number for so
small a country, 2563 are Palsearctic, and
most of them belong to its Mediterranean
section ; 161 are Ethiopian, 27 Indian, and
251 peculiar. In the region which lies be-
tween the Taurus mountains and the south-
ern point of the peninsula of Sinai, and be-
tween the Mediterranean Sea and the Syrian
desert. Dr. Post has found 850 genera and
about 3500 species.

8. The Zoology of Palestine. The distribu-
tion of the several .species of animals essential-
ly agrees with that of the Palestinian plants.
Of 113 mammalia known to occur in Pales-

Palestine

538

Palestine

tine, Tristram found 55 to belong to the
Palsearctic region, the same to which our
European species belong ; 34 were Ethiopian,
16 Indian, and 13 peculiar to the land. The
same species sometimes belongs to two regions.
Of 348 species of birds, 271 were Palsearctic, 40
Ethiopian, 7 Indian, and 30 peculiar. Of the
91 reptiles and amphibians, 49 were Palse-
arctic, 27 Ethiopian, 4 Indian, and 11 pecu-
liar. Of 43 fresh-water lishes, 8 were Palje-
arctic, 2 Ethiopian, 7 Indian, and 26 pecu-
liar. In the case of both plants and animals,
tlie African and Indian types come chiefly
from the low-lying region around the Dead
Sea, and to a less extent from the low valley
of the Jordan.

9. The Ethnology of Palestine. The aborig-
inal inhabitants of Palestine were a tall, stal-
wart race, consisting of Anakim (Josh. xi.
21, 22), Eephaim (Gen. xiv. 5), Emim, Zam-
zummim, and Horites (Deut. ii. 10-23). Traces
of the primitive ])opulatiou continued to ex-
ist as late as the time of the monarchy
(2 Sam. xxi. 16-22). When Abraham arrived,
the country was occupied chiefly by the
Amorites and other smaller tribes of Canaan-
ites, but Philistines aud Phoenicians were set-
tled on the seacoast and Hittites dwelt ou the
northern border and at Hebron. The Hit-
tites are regarded as a, Turanian people from
the Taurus mountains. The Philistines came
from the west. The Caiiaanites, including
the Phoenicians, either belonged to the Ham-
itic race by blood or became incorporated
with it (Gen. x. 6, 15-20). They early spoke
a Semitic language. These various peoples
were conquered, but not utterly extermi-
nated, by the Hebrews under the leadership
of Moses and Joshua. The occasional intro-
duction of Edomites, Ammonites, and Moab-
ites by conquest and immigration did not
bring a new strain into the blood, for these
peoples were Semitic and like the Hebrews
descended from Abraham. The conquest of
Aramsean tribes, so far as it resulted in add-
ing foreigners to the commonwealth of Israel,
added Semites. After the fall of Samaria,
the Assyrians dejjorted the northern and
eastern tribes of the Israelites and intro-
duced colonists from Hamath, Babylonia,
and Elam (2 Kin. xvii. 24 ; Ezra iv. 9). They
were largely Semites and Aryans. A large
immigration of Greeks followed in the wake
of the conquest of Alexander the Great,
colonized Ptolemais, built the Greek towns
of the Decapolis, and introduced the Greek
language, customs, and culture. Later, Roman
ofiicials and a Roman army of occujiation
were in the country, and ultimately Roman
colonists came. In the second quarter of the
seventh century of the Christian era the
country was subjugated by the Mohanimed-
ans, and in many of the towns and villages
Arabian military colonies were planted. The
Turks made their appearance as conquerors
in western Asia A. D. 1086, and excei)t for
short periods Palestine has ever since been

under their rule ; but people of Turkish
descent are very few in the country.

10. The Hist'orn of Pnlestine. The early
history of Palestine, before the arrival of
Abraham, is involved in obscurity. The
succession of races who inhabited the coun-
try may be gathered from the Hebrew records,
as already pointed out. The kings of Baby-
lonia early began their invasions of the west,
and the campaign of Chedorlaomer in eastern
Palestine in the time of Abraham is described
in Gen. xiv. The Babylonians impressed
their culture, including their comjilicated
script and their language as a medium of
international communication, upon the in-
habitants. After the expulsion of the shep-
herd kings from the country of the Nile, the
great Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty
extended their sway far into Asia. Thothmes
III. conquered Canaan and exacted tribute
from the nations dwelling as far as the
Euphrates. During the reigns of Amen-
ophis III. and lY., who succeeded him after
an interval, Canaan was garrisoned by Egyp-
tian troops and governed by Egyptian of-
ficials. But in the latter reign the gra.sp of
Egypt was evidently weakening. The Hit-
tites were threatening the northern frontier,
lawlessness prevailed in various parts of the
land, travel was insecure, individual states
were in a foment of discontent or in rebellion,
and various tribes were extending their ter-
ritory at the expense of Egjq^t. Under the
succeeding dynasty Seti I. passed through
Palestine and waged war with the Hittites
on the Orontes ; Ramses II. invaded Pales-
tine and penetrated beyond ; and Meneptah's
armies ravaged southern Palestine and the
coast of Philistia, and wasted the crops of the
Israelites, who were ])erhaps in the wilder-
ness of the wandering near Kadesh-barnea ;
see Egypt and Pharaoh. Ramses III., of
the twentieth dynasty, overran Palestine
while the Israelites were still in the desert.
When the i)ower of the country had been re-
duced by these wars, the Hebrews ajijieared
on the scene. Under the leadership of Moses,
they conquered the region east of the Jordan ;
aud in the following year, under Joshua,
they crossed the river, and after repeated
campaigns took jiossession of Canaan. From
this time onward, until the fall of Jerii.salem
in the first century of the Christian era, the
history of Palestine is largely the history of
the Hebrew peoi)le. See History.

11. The Topoiiiupln/ of Palestine. As nearly
as can be estimated, 622 towns west of the .Tor-
dan are mentioned in the Bible and the Apoc-
rypha. Other early documents refer to many
of these towns by name. In 1874 Mariette Bey
I)ublished geogra])hical lists taken from tab-
lets round the necks of the figures of cap-
tives represented on the great gateway of the
temple at Karnak. Tliey belong to the reign
of Thothmes III. Tliere are 118 names, of
which no fewer than one-third throw light
on the tojiography of Palestine and the Book

Pallu

539

Palm

of Joshua. References to towns of Palestine
in tlie time of Anienophis 111. and IV. oc-
cur in the letters which were discovered at
Tell el-Amarna. Later references are found
in contemporary records of Assyria, especial-
ly in documents which relate to campaigns
conducted in Palestine. Eusebius, bishoj) of
Csesarea in the first half of the fourth cen-
tury of the Christian era, wrote a tract con-
cerning the names of places in the sacred
Scriptures. It was translated and enlaiged
by Jerome, resident at Bethlehem a century
later. The M'ork is commonly known as the
Onomasticon of Eusebius and Jerome. The
notices regarding the situation of ancient
places in Palestine, according to the informa-
tion possessed by the learned authors, are
often valuable, sometimes absurd. The in-
formation gathered by Reland and published
by him in 1714, and the travels of Seetzen
and Burckhardt, esi)ecially east of the Jor-
dan, in the beginning of the present century,
prepared the way for the systematic, scien-
tific investigation conducted by Dr. Robinson.
He visited Palestine in 1838, accompanied by a
former pu])il of his, Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, Amer-
ican missionary at Beirut, who greatly aided
the inquiry by his knowledge of Arabic.
They found by asking the natives what cer-
tain ruins or yet inhabited villages were
called, that they often bore the old Hebrew
names still, a little modified as pronounced
by Arab lips. Their discoveries in the to-
pograjthy of Palestine were very important,
and were given to the world by Prof. Robin-
son in 1841 in three octavo volumes. Return-
ing from America, Dr. Robinson resumed his
researches in Palestine in 1852, accompanied
again by Rev. Dr. Eli Smith and others. He
made fresh discoveries, embodied in his Later
Biblical Bexearches, 18.56. Dr. Robinson
brought to bear on his inquiry not merely
keen observation and a sound judgment, but
great learning ; and his conclusions, many
of them ilLsputed at the time, are now much
more largely accepted. On June 22, 1865, a
society named The Palestine Exploration
Fund, was formed in England to prosecute
in a .scientific spirit all branches of inquiry
regarding the Holy Land. Since then it has
conducted an ordnance survey of a great
part of Palestine, and constructed a superb
map of the countrj- in twenty-six sheets.
This result is a permanent and sjjlendid
achievement. The .society has also carried
on excavations, especially at Jerusalem and
Lachish. As a result of all past investigations,
about one-half of the biblical sites have been
identified with certainty or great probability.

Pal'lu, in A. V. once Phallu (Gen. xlvi. 9)
[distinguished].

A son of Reuben, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi. 14 ; Num.
xxvi. 5).

Palm.

A tree, called in Hebrew tamar, timmorah,

and fomer, and in Greek plwi)iix. It is a tall
tree (Song vii. 7, 8), straight and upright (Jer.
x. 5). It is a fruit tree (Joel i. 12), and suffi-
ciently ornamental to have been carved in va-
rious parts of Solomon's temple and other sane-

Date Palm.

tuaries (1 Kin. vi. 29, 32, 35 ; Herod, ii. 169).
Its great leaves were used as tokens of victory
and peace (1 Mac. xiii. 51 ; 2 Mac. x. 7 ; John
xii. 13 ; Rev. vii. 9 ; imitated in 2 Esdr. ii.
43-47). These leaves are often popularly
called branches ; and this designation is em-
ployed in the English versions (Lev. xxiii.
40 ; Neh. viii. 15 ; John xii. 13), but is not
botanically correct. Scarcely any palms have
branches at all ; and the date palm, the spe-
cies common in Palestine, is not one of the
few exceptions to the rule. The leaves are
large and feathery, from 4 to 6 feet in length ;
they are quite accessible, as there are gener-
ally a number of young plants around the
foot of the parent stem. Palm trees flour-
ished on the banks of the Nile. They grew
at Elim, in the wilderness near the Red Sea
(Ex. XV. 27), and in Edom (Virgil, Georg. iii.
12). They grew in various parts of Judfea
also (Pliny Hist. Nat. v. 14) ; as in the valley
of the Jordan, at Jericho, and En-gedi, and
on the coast of the .sea of Galilee (Gen. xiv.
7, in the proper name ; Deut. xxxiv. 3 ;
Ecclus. xxiv. 14 ; Antiq. ix. 1, 2 ; War i. 6, 6 ;
iii. 10, 8j ; in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 31,
49, in the names Sansannah and Kirjath-san-
nah). in mount Ephraim near Bethel (Judg. iv.
5; XX. 33), near Jerusalem (Neh. viii. 15 ; John

Palmer-worm

640

Papyrus

xii. 13). They grew also in the desert cast of
Damascus, at the towu named from them,
Tadmor, Tamar, and Palmyra. They flour-
ished also in the lower valleys of the Tigrisand
Euphrates (Herod, i. 193). The tree was re-
garded by the Greeks and Romans as peculiar-
ly characteristic of Palestine and the neigh-
boring regions. Phoenicia took its name in
Greek from the date palm ; and the coin
struck at Rome to commemorate the capture
of Jerusalem represented a woman, emblem of
the country, sitting disconsolate under a date
palm ; see Jerusalem and Money. The
tree which was once so common has almost
disappeared from Palestine, except in the
maritime plain of Philistia and in the neigh-
borhood of Beirut, but it is being cultivated
anew near Jericho. The palm tree in Scrip-
ture almost always means the date palm
{Phoenix dactyUfera), which grows about 60 or
80 feet high, having a single upright stem of
uniform thickness through its entire length
and marked by the scars of fallen leaves.
The stem terminates above in a circle of
great feathery leaves, perennially green.
It is believed to attain a great age, from
a hundred to two hundred years. The do-
mestic uses of the palm are numerous. The
leaves are employed for covering the roofs
and sides of houses, for fences, mats, and
baskets. When the tender part of the spatha
is pierced, a sweet juice exudes, from which
sugar is obtained by evaporation, and a strong
drink called arrack by fermentation or dis-
tillation (War iv. 8, 3 ; Herod, i. 193). The
fruit, which it produces annually in numer-
ous clusters and great abundance, constitutes
its chief value, being largely used as an arti-
cle of food. Even the stony seeds are ground,
and yield nourishment to the camel of the
desert. Another palm tree may have been
known to many Israelites: the Palmyra,
which grows at Tadmor in the wilderness.
It is BoniNSHS flabelUformis, the specific name
implying that it has fan-shaped leaves.

Palm'er-worm.

The rendering of the Hebrew Gnsam, de-
vourer, an insect which devoured vines, fig
trees, olive trees, and the produce of the
gardens and fields generally (Joel i. 4 ; ii. 25 ;
Amos iv. 9). Probably a kind of locust, or
a locust in a certain stage of its growth
(R. V. margin). When the A. V. was made,
palmer-worm denoted a sort of hairy cater-
pillar which has no fixed abode, but wanders
like a palmer or pilgrim from place to place.

Pal'sy.

A disease, or rather a series of morbid
symptoms, characterized by partial or total
loss of sensibility, motion, or both, in one or
more parts of the body (Mark ii. 3, 9-12 ; Acts
ix. 33-35). It is produced by disease of the
brain, the spinal cord, or particular nerves.

Pal'ti, in A. V. once Phalti (1 Sam. xxv.
44) [abbreviation of Paltiel, deliverance by
God].

1. The representative spy from the tribe
of Benjamin (Num. xiii. 9).

2. The man to whom Saul married Michal,
David's wife, and from whom she was later
wrested away and restored to David (1 Sam.
xxv. 44 ; 2 Sam. iii. 15, where the unab-
breviated form is used).

Pal'ti-el, in A. V. once Phaltiel (2 Sam.
iii. 15) [deliverance by God].

1. Prince of the tribe of Issachar and a
contemporary of Moses (Num. xxxiv. 26).

2. The same as Palti 2 (2 Sam. iii. 15).
Pal'tite.

A memlier of the family, or an inhabitant
of the town, of Pelet or Palti. To judge
from 2 Sam xxiii. 26 compared with 1 Chron.
xxvii. 10, the Paltites were reckoned to
Ephraim.

Pam-phyl'i-a [popularly interpreted by
the Greeks as meaning an assemblage of
mingled tribes].

A stretch of coast land in Asia Minor. It
was bounded on the north by Pi.sidia ; on the
south by a gulf of the Mediterranean, called
the sea of Pamphylia, across which Paul
sailed (Acts xxvii. 5) ; on the east by Cilicia ;
and on the west by Lycia and part of Phrygia.
Pamphylia contained Jewish communities
(ii. 10). Its towns, Perga and Attalia,
were visited by Paul on his first missionary
journey (xiii. 13; xiv. 24, 25; xv. 38).

Pan'nag.

A product of Palestine which the Tyrians
purchased (Ezek. xxvii. 17). The R. V., fol-
lowing the Jewish Targum, suggests that
perhaps it was a kind of confection.

Pa'per. See Papyrus.

Pa'per Reed.

Papyrus ; the rendering in the A. V. of
the Hebrew 'Arah, nakedness (Is. xix. 7) ;
see Papyrus. The corresponding word in
Arabic means an open place ; and R. V. ren-
ders the Hebrew word by meadow.

Pa'phos.

A town at the southwestern extremity of
Cyprus, near cape Zephyrion. It was called
Old Paphos to distinguish it from the newer
mercantile town some miles to the northwest.
It was the capital of the Roman province of
Cyprus, and the residence of the proconsul.
In its vicinity was a celebrated temple of the
Cyprian Venus (Homer, Odyssey viii. 362).
The town was visited by Paul (Acts xiii.
6-13). It is now called Kuklia.

Pa-py'rus.

The rendering of the Hebrew word Gome' ; a
plant which grows in mire (Job viii. 11, R. V.
margin ; in Is. xxxv. 7 rendered rush), and
of which the ark in which Moses was ex-
posed as an infant on the Nile (Ex. ii. 3,
R. V. margin), and also larger boats (Is.
xviii. 2, R. V.) were made. The plant re-
ferred to is the paper reed (Papyrus anti-
qiiontm). Though the word reed is often
widely applied, yet it is most closely asso-

Parable

541

Parable

ciated with the pciius Anuido, which is a
grass. But the pui)ynis is not a grass, nor is
it a rush : it is a giant sedge, with a triangu-
lar stock 8 or 10 feet high, terminating in a
tuft of flowers. It grows in the waters of

i-"- ¥''>-

Papyrus.

Merom and elsewhere, and formerly did so
on the Nile, though now extinct upon that
river. The Egyptians made shoes, haskets,
boats, and other articles of it; and used
sheets, formed of strips of the pith, as
writing paper. On such material, called in
Greek chaiies, the apostle John wrote his
Second Epistle (2 John 12).

Par'a-ble.

A method of speech in which moral or re-
ligious truth is illustrated from the analogy
of common experience. The comparison
may be expressed, as by the word like, or be
implied. The limits between the parable
and simile and metaphor are not well de-
fined. Often thei'e is scarcely any difference,
except that the simile and metaphor are
short and the parable comparatively long.
"Ye are the light of the world " is a meta-
phor; "'like a lamb dumb before his shear-
er" is a simile; but "the kingdom of
heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman
took, and hid in three measures of meal, till
it was all leavened," is a parable (Mat. xiii.
33). The parable has certain advantages.
One is, that this means of conveying truth
makes it adhere to the memory much more
than a plain didactic statement would do.
For instance, no didactic statement as to the

willingness of our Loi-d to receive penitent
sinners would have Imd an etlect at all equal
to that jiroduced by the parable of the jjrodi-
gal son (Luke xv. 11-32). A second advan-
tage in a parable is that when it is needful
for a prophet or a jtreacher to censure a
powerful personage, who will not allow liim-
self to be directly found fault with, it is
possible by a skillfully framed parable to
make him not merely listen patiently, but
condemn him.self before he discovers that it
is himself he is condemning. This was done
with much skill by the prophet Nathan
when he went to reprove David for his great
sin in the matter of Uriah the Hittite.

The following are the chief ]ia rabies in
the O. T.: the trees anointing a king (.ludg.
ix. 8-20), the ewe lamb (2 Sam. xii. 1-14),
the widow, one of whose two sons slew the
other (2 8am. xiv. 4-20), the soldier who let
his captive escape (1 Kin. xx. 3.5-42), the
thistle which asked for the cedar's daughter
as a wife for his son (2 Kin. xiv. 9-11), the
vineyard (Is. v. 1-7), the two eagles and a vine
(Ezek. xvii. 1-10), the lion's whelps (xix. 1-9),
Oliolah and OhoHbah (xxiii. 1-49), the boil-
ing pot (xxiv. 1-14).

An important part of our Lord's teaching
was by means of parables ; and when Scrip-
ture parables are spoken of, generally those
of Jesus are meant. Christ used the para-
bolic form of teaching at every period of
his public ministry (Mark iii. 23; Luke vi.
39; vii. 40-50), but there came a time when
a distinct change took place and he gave a
larger place to parables in his public instruc-
tion (Mat. xiii. 3; Mark iv. 2). Two reasons
are assigned why he adopted to such an ex-
tent this method of teaching. One given by
Matthew is that it was prophesied (Mat. xiii.
34, 35; cp. Ps. xlix. 4; Ixxviii. 2, 3). The
other, emanating from our Lord, explains
the former. He used parables because it was
not given unto his auditors to know the
mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, since
seeing they saw not and hearing they did
not understand (Mat. xiii. 10-16). This
statement of Jesus has been interi>retcd to
mean that he clothed the truths of the king-
dom in images in order to make them more
intelligible to his hearers and to impress
them indelibly on their memory. But this
was true of a certain class of hearers only and
in many cases, even in respect to them, only
after the parable had been explained. Jesus
rather meant that his auditors generally
were unprepared to hear and heartily be-
lieve the spiritual truths of the kingdom ;
and while the time had come to teach these
doctrines to his followers who were to carry
on his work after his departure (Mark iv. 33,
34), the truth was henceforth hidden from
those who had heard without repentance,
was cautiously uttered in the hearing of ob-
durate enemies who were watching to seize
upon his words and employ them against
him, and was veiled from the fickle multi-

Paraclete

542

Faran

tude who would refuse to listen to his words
if they perceived the full import of them
(Mark iv. 11, 12).

With perhaps only one exception (Mat.
xviii. 23-35), the recorded parables, which
were spoken after this form of instruction
became prominent in Jesus' i)ublic teaching,
fall into three groups : I. Eight illustrating
the nature of the kingdom of heaven (Mat.
xiii. 1-50; Mark iv. 26-29), followed by one
by way of application (Mat. xiii. 51, 52).
These were spoken during one day on the
shore of the sea of Galilee (xiii. 1, 53). They
contain five fundamental truths: 1. Sower
and seed : the varied reception of the gospel
by different classes of hearers. 2. Tares and
wheat : evil springs up among the good. 3.
Seed growing secretly, mustard seed, and
leaven : growth of the church imperceptibly,
externally, internally. 4. Hid treasure, and
pearl of great price : value of the kingdom,
necessity of sacrifice to obtain it. 5. Net
gathering all kinds of fish : mixed, condition
of the visible church until the end of the
world. II. Nineteen, or thereabout, illus-
trating the kingdom of heaven in the indi-
vidual life (Luke x. 25-xix., except xiii. 18-
21). Most of them, if not all, were delivered
after Christ's departure from Galilee, in the
interval of six months between the feast of
tabernacles and his last passover. They in-
clude the parables of ' the good Samaritan,
the friend at midnight, the rich man and his
barns, the waiting servants, the shut door,
the chief seat, the supper and excuses for
not attending it, the lost sheep, the lost
money, the prodigal son, the unjust steward,
the rich man and Lazarus, the servant's
duty, the importunate widow, the Pharisee
and the publican, and the pounds. III. Five
or, with Mat. xxiv. 32-35, six, which were
delivered during the last week at Jerusalem,
and point to judgment and the consumma-
tion of the kingdom. The attitude of those
called is illustrated by the parables of the
two sons and the wicked husbandmen (Mat.
xxi. 28-4(5), and the need of the wedding
garment, of watchfulness, and of fidelity is
shown by the parables of the marriage of
the king's son, the ten virgins, and the five
talents (Mat. xxii. 1-14 ; xxv. 1-.30).

In interpreting the parables, rigid inquiry
should be made into the circumstances in
which each was delivered at first, and the
doctrine or argument which it was intended
primarily to convey. This done, it is at once
seen that the teaching of the parable is of
universal application, suited for all analo-
gous circumstances and for all succeeding
time.

Par'a-clete [Greek parakletos, a legal as-
sistant, advocate, or intercessor] .

The word occurs in R. V. on the margins
of John xiv. 16, 26 ; xv. 26 ; xvi. 7, where
helper or advocate is given as the English
equivalent. In the text of these passages

the translation is comforter, but in 1 John
ii. 1 it is advocate. It is applied to :

1. The Lord .lesus Christ. He was the
advocate, by implication in John xiv. 16,
who guided, counseled, and strengthened the
disciples while he was present with them,
and he is now the Christian's advocate with
the Father, and pleads the believer's cause
with God (1 John ii. 1) as he did while on
earth (Luke xxii. 31, 32; John xvii.).

2. The Holy Spirit, who is Christ's advo-
cate with the believer, glorifying Christ and
declaring him (John xv. 26 ; xvi. 14), vindi-
cating him from man's unworthy thoughts,
showing him to be chief among ten thousand
and altogether lovely, and exhibiting him as
man's great need ; and he is the Spirit of
truth, who teaches the believer and guides
him into the truth (xv. 26 ; xvi. 13, 14), con-
victing of sin, righteousness, and judgment
(ver. 8), who teaches to pray and makes in-
tercession with groanings that cannot be
uttered (Rom. viii. 26, 27).

Par'a-dise.

A pleasure ground, orchard, or park, in
Hebrew pardes (Ecc. ii. 5; Song iv. 13, R. V.
margin ; in Neh. ii. 8 rendered forest). Solo-
mon's gardens at Etham and the hanging
gardens at Babylon are called paradises in
the Greek text of Josephus (Antiq. viii. 7, 3 ;
con. Apion. i. 20), and the garden of Eden
is called the paradise (paradetsos) of Eden in
the Septuagint (Gen. ii. 8).

Paradise was the region of bliss which
man had lost, and it naturally came to be a
desiguation for the place of the righteous
dead. The later Jews distinguished between
a supernal and an infernal paradise, the
former being a part of heaven, the latter a
division of hades assigned to the souls of the
just.

In the N. T. paradise means heaven in
two instances (2 Cor. xii. 4 ; cp. 2 ; Rev. ii.
7; cp. xxii. 2) ; see Heaven. Accordingly it
naturally denotes heaven in the remaining
instance (Luke xxiii. 43).

Pa'rati [heifer, young cow].

A village of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 23),
commonly identified with the ruins Farah in
the wady Farah, 52 miles northeast of Jeru-
salem.

Pa'ran [perhaps, a region abounding in
caverns].

A wilderness between mount Sinai, or more
exactly between Hazeroth, several days'
march from Sinai, and Canaan (Num. x. 12;
xii. 16). It was on the south of Judah
(1 Sam. xxv. 1-5). In it Kadesh was situated
(Num. xiii. 26), and apparently also Elath on
the Red Sea (Gen. xiv. 6 ; see El-paran).
It lay east of the wildernesses of Beer-sheba
and Shur (Gen. xxi. 14, 21 ; cp. xxv. 9, 12-
18; xxviii. 9). It included the wilderness
of Zin, or insensibly merged itself in it
without a sharply defined boundary (Num.
xiii. 26 with xx. 1). These data indicate the

Parbar

543

Farthians

plateau or mountain land (Deut. xxxiii. 2 ;
Hab. iii. 3), lying south of Canaan, and
bounded on the other sides by the wilderness
of Shur, the curved range of mountains
known as Jebel et-Tih or mountain of the
wandering, and the Arabah. It is the wil-
derness where the Israelites wandered thirty
and eight years. Most of it is from 2000 to
2500 feet above sea level. There is a wady, or
valley, in the Sinaitic Peninsula, called wady
Feiran, which looks very much like Paran
altered. Niebuhr thought that they might
be identified ; but it is so difficult to harmon-
ize the Scripture location of the place with
this view, that Robinson, Stanley, and most
inquirers, decline to accept the identification.
The wady Feiran is between mount Sinai
and the Red Sea. Paran is not reached till
after the departure from Sinai in the opposite
direction.

Par'bax [probably, colonnade].

A precinct on the western side of the outer
court of the temple (1 Chron. xxvi. 18). It
contained chambers for officials and stalls for
cattle (2 Kin. xxiii. 11, where the plural is
rendered suburbs and precincts).

Parch'ed Corn.

Roasted grain used as food (Lev. xxiii. 14 ;
Ruth ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 17). Thomson de-
scribes the method of preparing it at present
in vogue. A number of the best ears of
grain, not too ripe, are plucked, with the
stalks attached. After being tied in small
parcels, a blazing fire of dry grass and thorn
bushes is kindled under them, which burns
oflT the chatl" and roasts the grain.

Parch'ment.

The skin of .sheep or goats prepared for
use as a writing material or for other pur-
poses. The skin is first soaked in lime to
remove the hair, and is then shaved, washed,
dried, stretched, and smoothed. Herodotus
relates that the ancient lonians used the
skins of goats and sheep, because of the
scarcity of papyrus (Herod, v. 58). In
Herodotus' own time papyrus was the com-
mon writing material. Parchment was first
obtained at Pergamos; and when Ptolemy for-
bade the export of papyrus, Eumenes II.. king
of Pergamos, adopted parchment for the books
of his great library, and such skins became
kuo^vn as chaiix peigamenx, whence the word
parchment is derived. In the time of Josephus
and earlier, parchment was used by the Jews
for the manuscripts of their sacred writings
(Antiq. xii. 2, 11) ; and it was a provision of
the Talmud that the law should be written
on the skins of clean animals, tame or wild,
and even of clean birds. Papyrus was a
common writing material (2 John 12, in E. V.
paper), but Paul refers to parchments of his,
about which he is especially solicitous (2
Tim. iv. 13).

Par'ents.

The fifth commandment inculcates upon
children th« duty of reverencing their

parents and attaches a promise to its ful-
fillment (Ex. XX. 12; Deut. v. 16; Ephes. vi.
1, 21. Upon the parents rests the obligation
of bringing up the children in the fear of
the Lord, and not provoking them to wrath
(Gen. xviii. 19; Deut. vi. 7; Ephes. vi. 4).
According to the Mosaic law, a son that
smote father or mother, or cursed them, was
punished with death (Ex. xxi. 15, 17 ; Lev.
XX. 9; Deut. xxvii. 16) ; and as an extreme
measure, parents were enjoined to bring a
stubborn and rebellious son before the elders
for trial and execution (Deut. xxi. 18-21).
The Mosaic law thus regulated the power of
parents. According to Roman law, as set
forth in the twelve tables, the life and lib-
erty of children were in the father's hands.
In Hebrew law the right of life and death
did not rest with the parents, but was vested
in the judicial body. Cu.stom permitted an
impoverished parent to sell a daughter to be
a maidservant, but the Mosaic law carefully
guarded her rights (Ex. xxi. 7-11). Israel-
itish custom further permitted a creditor to
seize a bankrupt debtor and enslave his wife
and children (2 Kin. iv. 1; Neh. v. 5: Is. 1.
1 ; Mat. xviii. 25) ; and in cases of grave sin
the entire family was involved in the exter-
mination of the offender (Josh. vii. 24).

Par 'lor.

Eglon's summer parlor was an upper cham-
ber exposed to the cool breezes (Judg. iii. 20,
cp. R. V. margin). See House.

Par-mash'ta [probably, a Persian name,
very great, superior].

A son of Haman (Esth. ix. 9).

Par'me-nas [probably, faithful].

One of the seven men elected to look after
the Greek-speaking widows and, apparently,
the poor and financial affairs generally in.
the apostolic church (Acts vi. 5).

Par'nach.

A Zebulunite (Num. xxxiv. 25).

Pa'rosh, in A. V. once Pharosh (Ezra viii.
3) [a flea].

Founder of a family, members of which
returned from the Babylonian captivity
(Ezra ii. 3; viii. 3). One of the clan was
called Pedaiah (Neh. iii. 25). Other mem-
bers of it married foreign wi%'es, whom Ezra
induced them to put away (Ezra x. 25).

Par-shan'da-tha [a Persian name, given
to Persia].

A son of Haman (Esth. ix. 7).

Par'thi-ans.

A people who, when first heard of, occu-
pied a region nearly corresponding to the
modern Persian province of Khorasan, a
considerable distance southeast of the Cas-
pian Sea. The length of Parthia proper was
about 300 miles, its breadth from 100 to 120,
its area about 33,000 .square miles, or slightly
more than that of Scotland and nearly that of
Indiana. The first mention of the Parthians is
in the inscriptions of Darius Hystaspis. They

Partridge

544

Pashhur

revolted against the Persians, 521 b. c, but
were soon subdued again. From the Per-
sians, they passed to Alexander the Great,
and then to his eastern successors, the Seleu-
cidie. About 256 B. c. Baetria successfully-
revolted against Seleucidan domination, and
Parthia, under Arsaces I., immediately fol-
lowed the example. His successors are gen-
erally known as the Arsacidte. Mith-
ridates I., who reigned thirty-eight years,
from 174 to 136 B. c, raised the kingdom
founded by Arsaces into an empire, extending
1500 miles from east to west, with a varying
breadth from north to south of 100, 300, or
400 miles. The western boundary was the
Euphrates. The chief city was Ctesiphon
on the Tigris, opposite Seleucia. After rid-
ding themselves of the Macedonian-Greek
domination, the Parthians came into frequent
collision with the Eomans, one standing bone
of contention between them being the pos-
session of Armenia. From 64 B. C. to A. D.
225 they set limits to the Eoraan empire in
the East. In 40-37 B. c. their armies over-
ran Asia Minor and Syria, took and plun-
dered Jerusalem, and placed Antigonus, the
last of the Asmonieans, on the throne (Antiq.
xiv. 13, 3; War i. 13, 1). Jews from Parthia
were present at Jerusalem on the day of
Pentecost (Acts ii. 9), and may have carried
the gospel to Parthia, when they returned
home. After wielding power for nearly 500
years, the Parthians became enervated by
luxury, and the Persians about A. d. 224,
rose in revolt, and under the leadership of
Ardashir, family of Sassan, terminated the
Parthian dominion, substituting the second
Persian or Sassanian empire in its room.

Par'tridge.

A wild bird, called in Hebrew lore', the
crier or caller, in Greek perdix, which was

Greek Partridge.

hunted on the mountains of Palestine (1
Sam. xxvi. 20). The caged partridge was
used as a decoy bird (Ecclus. xi. 30). Jere-
miah compares the amasser of ill-gotten
wealth to the partridge which, according to

the belief of the Israelites of his time,
gathers young which it has not brought forth
(Jer. xvii. 11, R. V.), or .sitteth on eggs which
it has not laid (R. Y. margin). Two species
are found in Palestine, the desert or Hey's
sand partridge {Ammoperdix heyi), which is
the only species at En-gedi, in the wilder-
ness of which David was when he compared
himself to a hunted partridge ; and the
chukar partridge iCaccabis chiikar), which is
abundant in all the hilly parts of Palestine.
It has richly barred feathers on the flanks,
deep red legs and bill, and deep black gorget.
It is a large and fine bird, a variety of the
Greek partridge ( Caccabis saxatilis), but larger,
and it exceeds the chukar partridge of India
in size.

Pa-ru'ah [flourishing].

The father of Solomon's purveyor in Issa-
char (1 Kin. iv. 17).

Par'va-im.

A designation of gold used for the orna-
mentation of Solomon's temple (2 Chrou. iii.
6). Gesenius derived it from Sanscrit purva,
in front, eastward, and gave it the sense of
eastern or oriental gold ; but most investiga-
tors believe that it denotes a locality in
Ophir.

Pa'sach [perhaps, a divider] .

An Asherite, of the family of Beriah (1
Chron. vii. 33).

Pas-dam'mim. See Ephes-dammim.
Pa-se'ah, in A. V. once Phaseah (Neh. vli.
51) [lame].

1. A man of Judah, descended from Che-
lub (1 Chron. iv. 12).

2. The father of a certain Jehoiada, who
repaired the old gate of Jerusalem (Neh. iii.
6). He was the founder of a family of
Nethinim, members of which returned from
captivity (Ezra ii. 49 ; Neh. vii. 51).

Pash'hur, in A. V. Pashur.

1. Son of Malchiah, and one of several
officials who had influence with king Zede-
kiah and bitterly opposed the prophet Jere-
miah (Jer. xxi. 1 ; xxxviii. 1, 4 ; cp. xxi. 9
with xxxviii. 2). It is natural to suppose
that his father is the Malchiah mentioned in
xxxviii. 6, a royal prince into whose dungeon
the prophet was cast. His identity with the
priest Pashhur, the son of Malchijah (1
Chron. ix. 12). is doubtful : especially as to
his companion, but not to him, is given the
priestly title (Jer. xxi. 1).

2. A son of Immer, a priest. He put Jere-
miah in the stocks on account of his discour-
aging ])redictions (Jer. xx. 1-6).

3. The father of an opponent of Jeremiah
named Gedaliah (Jer. xxxviii. 1).

4. The founder of a priestly family, mem-
bers of which returned from the Babylonian
captivity (Ezra ii. 38 ; Neh. vii. 41, and per-
haps 1 Chron. ix. 12). Some of his descend-
ants married foreign wives, whom Ezra in-
duced them to put away (Ezra x. 22).

Passages, The

545

Patara

5. A priest, doubtless bead of a father's
■house, who, with others, sealed the covenant,
made in the days of Nehemiah, to forbid the
internuirriasie of their ehildren with foreign-
ers and to keej) the law of God (Neb. x. [<).

Pas'sa-ges, The. See Abarim.

Pass'o-ver [passing over (Ex. xii. 23 ; An-

tiq. ii. 14, fi)].

1. The first of the three annual festivals
at which all the men were required to appear
at the sanctuary (Ex. xii. 43 ; Deut. xvi. 1),
known also as the feast of unleavened bread
(Ex.xxiii. 15; Deut. xvi. 16). It was instituted
in Egypt to commemorate the culminatiug
event in the redemption of the Israelites (Ex.
xii. 1, 14, 42; xxiii. 15; Deut. xvi. 1, 3).
That night was to be much observed unto
the Lord, when he smote all the firstborn in
the land of Egypt, but passed over the
houses of the Israelites where the blood had
been sprinkled and the inmates were stand-
ing, stafi" in hand, awaiting the deliverance
promised by the Lord. The festival began
on the fourteenth of Abib at evening, that is
in the beginning of the fifteenth day, with
the sacrificial meal (Lev. xxiii. 5). A lamb
or kid was slain between the evenings, that is
in the evening at sunset (Ex. xii. 6 ; Deut.
xvi. 6). It was roasted whole, and was eaten
with unleavened bread and bitter herbs (Ex.
xii. 8). The shed blood denoted expiation,
the bitter herbs symbolized the bitterness of
Egyptian bondage, the unleavened bread was
an emblem of purity (cp. Lev. ii. 11 ; 1 Cor.
V. 7, 8). The Israelites pleading the blood,
mindful of the afilictions from which they
awaited deliverance, and putting away wick-
edness, were the peo])le of the Lord in holy,
glad communion befcjre him. The supper was
partaken of by the members "of every house-
hold. If the family was small, neighbors
joined until the company was large enough
to consume the entire lamb (Ex. xii. 4). The
head of the household recited the history of
the redemption. At the first institution the
participants stood, in later times they re-
clined. Other minor features were intro-
duced : four successive cups of wine mixed
with water, to which there is no reference in
the law ; singing of Psalms cxiii.-cxviii. (cp.
Is. XXX. 29 ; Ps. xlii. 4) ; a dish of fruits re-
duced with vinegar to the consistency of
lime as a reminder of the mortar used
during the Egyptian bondage. The paschal
supper was the introductory ceremony and
chief feature of the festival, which lasted
until the twenty-first day of the month (Ex.
xii. 18; Lev. xxiii. 5, 6; Deut. xvi. 6, 7).
That the event was to be commemorated by
a festival of seven days' duration (Ex. xii.
14-20) was not communicated to the people
until the day of the flight (xiii. 3-10). They
were directed regarding one evening only
(xii. 21-23), and informed that the service was
to be kept perpetually (24, 25). The attend-
35

ance of the pilgrims was required at the
supper only. They were at liberty to depart
on the morrow (Deut. xvi. 7). The first day,
that is the fifteenth, was kept as Sabbath
and likewise the seventh ; no work was done
and there was a holy convocation (Ex. xii.
16 ; Lev. xxiii. 7 ; Num. xxviii. 18, 25 ; of
which only the last is emphasized in Ex.
xiii. 6 ; Deut. xvi. 8). On the morrow after
the Sabbath, that is on the second day of the
festival, a sheaf of the first ripe barley was
waved by the priest before the Lord to con-
secrate the opening harvest (Lev. xxiii. 10-
14 ; cp. .Tosh. v. 10-12, E. V. margin ; Septu-
agint of Lev. xxiii. 7, 11 ; Antiq. iii. 10, 5) ;
see Weeks, Feast of. This was an inci-
dental feature : the act consecrated the open-
ing harvest, but it held a subordinate place ;
the second day, when it was performed, was
not observed as a Sabbath ; and altogether
the relation of the passover to the agricul-
tural year was less marked than in the festi-
vals of weeks and tabernacles. During the pass-
over day by day continuallj% in addition to the
regular sacrifices of the sanctuary, two bul-
locks, one ram, and seven lambs M'ere oflered
as a burnt offering, and a he goat as a sin ofl'er-
ing (Lev. xxiii. 8 ; Num. xxviii. 19-23).
During the seven days also unleavened bread
was eaten. They had no leaven in their
houses on the night of the passover, and
consequently the dough which they seized in
their hurried flight was unleavened (Ex. xii.
8, 34, 39). It was baked thus. Henceforth
unleavened bread was associated in their
minds, not only with the thought of sin-
cerity and truth, which was the essential
idea, but also with that of the hurried flight
from Egypt (Deut. xvi. 3). Celebrations of
the passover are recorded at Sinai (Num. ix.
1-14). on entering Canaan (.Tosh. v. 11), un-
der Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxx. 1-27; with
reference to Solomon, 5, 26), under Josiah (2
Kin. xxiii. 21-23 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 1-19), in
the days of Ezra (Ezra vi. 19-22). See also
Mat. xxvi. 17 seq. ; Mark xiv. 12 seq. : Luke
xxii. 7 seq. ; John xviii. 28 ; Antiq. xvii. 9, 3 ;
XX. 5, 3; War vi. 9, 3).

2. The lamb or kid killed at the festival
of the passover (Ex. xii. 21 ; Deut. xvi. 2 ; 2
Chron. xxx. 17). Christ is our passover (1
Cor. V. 7). Like the paschal lamb, he was
without blemish (Ex. xii. 5 with 1 Pet. i.
18, 19), not a bone was broken (Ex. xii. 46
with John xix. 36), his blood was a token be-
fore Ciod (Ex. xii. 13), and the feast was
eaten with unleavened bread (18 and 1 Cor.

Pat'a-ra.

A maritime city on the southwest of Lycia.
Paul took ship there for Phoenicia on his last
voyage to Palestine (Acts xxi. 1). It pos-
sessed a famous oracle of Apollo. It still ex-
ists as a ruin under its old name, though
gradually becoming overwhelmed by moving
sand dunes.

Pathros

546

Paul

Path'ros [laud of the south (Gesenius,
Bruf^sch), house of the goddess Hathor in the
south (Ebers)].

The country of southern or Upper Egypt.
It is mentioned between Egypt and Cash (Is.
xi. 11) ; and is known in Egyptian texts as
Pa-to-ris, with Tliebes as its capital. It was
the original seat of the Egyptians themselves
(Ezek. xxix. 14) ; and the first historical king
of Egypt, Meues, is reported to have resided in
Upper Egypt, in whose timeall the lower coun-
try north of lake Mceris was a swamp (Herod.
ii. 4, 15, 99). Isaiah foretold the dispersion
of Israel to the remotest regions and their
eventual return, among other places from
Pathros (Is. xi. 11 ; cp. vii. 18). After the cap-
ture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, Jews,
probably refugees, were dwellers in Pathros
(Jer. xliv. 1, 2, 15).

Path-ru'sim.

One of seven peoples proceeding from Miz-
raim. Tliev are the inhabitants of Pathros
(Gen. X. 14; 1 Chron. i. 12).

Pat'mos.

An island to which the apostle John was
banished for the word of God, and for the
testimony of Jesus Christ, and where he saw
the visions recorded in the book of Revela-
tion (Rev. i. 9). It is a small, rocky island,
one of the Sporades, in the Grecian Archi-

Hebrew race and nation. It is applied to
Abraham (Heb. vii. 4), to the twelve sons
of Jacob (Acts vii. 8, 9), and to king David
(ii. 29). The title is commonly given to the
godly men and heads of families, whose
lives are recorded in the O. T. previous to
the time of Moses, as the antediluvian patri-
archs whose lineage is given in Gen. v. In
the patriarchal system the government of a
clan is regarded as the paternal right. It
resides in the first instance in the progenitor
of the tribe, and descends from him to the
firstborn son or eldest lineal male descendant.
The head of each several family, into which
the increasing tribe expands, exercises a
similar government within his own limited
sphere.

The patriarchal dispensation was the period
before the establisliiiient of the theocracy at
Sinai, when each patriarchal head of a family
was the priest of his own household, and
God communed with him as such.

Pat'ro-bas.

A Christian at Rome, to whom Paul sent
salutations (Rom. xvi. 14).

Pa'u [bleating (of sheep)].

A town of Edom, the city of king Hadar
(Gen. xxxvi. 39). Site unknown. Called in
1 Chron. i. 50 Pai, van and jod being inter-
changed ; see Vau.

Patmos and the Harbor of La Scala.

pelage, and is now called Patino. It lies off
the southwestern coast of Asia ]\Iinor, about
30 miles south of Samos ; and is about 15 miles
in circumference, and generally barren.

Pa'tri-arch.

The father or chief of a race ; a name
given in the N. T. to the founders of the

Paul ((xreek Paulos, from Latin Pauha^,
little).

The great apostle to the gentiles. His
Jewish name was Saul (Hebrew Sha'nh Greek
Sunlos). He is .so called in The Acts until
after the account of the conversion of Sergius
Paulus, proconsul of Cyprus, from which

Paul

547

Paul

point in the narrative (Acts xiii. 9) the name
Paul alone is given him. In his epistles the
apostle always rails himself Paul. It is not
strange that some have supjiosed that he
took the name Paul from the proconsul. But
this is in reality quite improbable in itself,
and fails to observe the delicacy with which
Luke introduces the ajiostle's gentile name
when his work among the gentiles, by whom
he was known as Paul, began. It is more
probable that, like many Jews (Acts i. 23;
xii. 12; Col. iv. 11), and especially in the dis-
persion, the apostle had from the beginning
l)0th names. He was born in Tarsus, the
chief city of Cilicia (Acts ix. 11 ; xxi. 39 ;
xxii. 3), and was of the tribe of Benjamin
(Phil. iii. 5). It is not known how the family
came to reside in Tarsus, though one ancient
tradition represents it as having removed
there from Gischala in (ralilee after the latter
place had been captured by the Romans. It
is po.ssible, however, that the family had at
an earlier time formed part of a colony set-
tled in Tarsus by one of the Syrian kings
(Ramsay, ^7. rui'd the Traveler, p. 31), or
they may have voluntarily migrated, as so
many Jews did, for commercial purposes.
Paul seems, however, to have had a large
and even influential family connection. In
Rom. xvi. 7, 11 he salutes three persons as
his kinsmen, two of whom, Andronicus and
Junias (R. V.), are said to have been "of
note among the apostles,"' and to have be-
come Christians before Paul did. From Acts
xxiii. 16 we learn that his "sister's son,"
who seems to have resided, perhaps with his
mother, in Jerusalem, gave information to
the chief captain of the plot to kill Paul,
from which it may be inferred that the
young man was connected with some of the
leading families. This is also confirmed by
the prominence of Paul, though himself a
young man, at the time of Stephen's death.
He was apparently already a member of
the council (Acts xxvi. 10), and soon after-
wards the high priest intrusted to him the
work of persecuting the Christians (ix. 1,
2; xxii. 5). His language in Phil. iii. 4-7
further implies that he occupied originally a
position of large influence, and that oppor-
tunities of honor and gain had been open to
him. His family connections, therefore, can-
not have been obscure. Though he was
brought up in the strict observance of the
Hebrew faith and traditions, his father hav-
ing been a Pharisee (Acts xxiii. 6), he was
born a free Roman citizen. We do not know
by what means his ancestor obtained citizen-
ship. It may have been for service to the
state or possibly by purchase. Its possession
may have had some connection with the
apostle's Roman name Paulus. But, how-
ever acquired, his Roman citizenship became
fif great importance in the prosecution of his
Christian work and more than once saved
his life. Tarsus was one of the intellectual
centers of the East, and the seat of a famous

school of learning in which Stoicism was the
dominant philosophy. It is scarcely prob-
able, howevi'r, that Paul came under these
influences when a boy, for his parents were
strict Jews, and he was early sent to Jerusa-
lem to be educated. Like other Jewish l)oys
he was taught a trade, which in his case was
the manufacture of tents, such as were used
by travelers Ixviii. 3). But, as he him-
self sjiys (xxii. 3), he was brought up in
Jerusalem. He must, therefore, have been
sent there when quite young. And his edu-
cation in Jerusalem tended to deepen the
hold upon him of his inherited Pharisaic
traditions. He was instructed "according to
the perfect manner of the law of the fathers"
(ibid.). He had for his teacher one of
the most learned and distinguished rabbis
of the day. This was Gamaliel, the grand-
son of the yet more famous Hillel. It was
this Gamaliel whose speech, recorded in Acts-
v. 34-.39, prevented the sanhedrin from at-
tempting to slay the apostles. Gamaliel, in-
deed, had some leaning, strangely fcvr a Phar-
isee, toward Greek culture, and his speech
in The Acts shows the reverse of a bitter,
persecuting spirit. But he was famous for
rabbinical learning, and at his feet the young:
man from Tarsus became versed not only in
the teaching of the O. T., but in the subtle-
ties of rabbinical interpretation, while it is
plain also that his zeal for the traditions of
the fathers and his narrow Pharisaism
burned with the fiery intensity of youth.
Thus the future apostle grew up an ardent
Pharisee, trained in the religious and intel-
lectual ideas of his people, and from his per-
sonal qualities, his course of education, and
probably his family connections prepared to
take a high position among his countrymen.
He first appears in Christian history as the
man at w'hose feet the witnesses who stoned
Stephen laid their clothes (Acts vii. 58). He
is described as being then a young man.
The po.sition he is here said to have occupied
was not an official one. It seems to imply,
however, especiallj' when taken with the
.statement (viii. 1) that he "was consent-
ing unto his death," that Paul was active
in the persecution of the first Christian mar-
tyr. He was doubtless one of the Hellenists,
or Greek-speaking Jews, mentioned in Acts
vi. 9 as the original instigators of the charge
against Stephen. We cannot be wi'ong in
supposing that Paul's hatred of the new sect
had already been aroused ; that he not only
despised their crucified Messiah, but regarded
them as being both politically and religiously
dangerous ; and that he was already pre-
pared, with bitter but conscientious fanati-
cism, to oppo.se them to the death. So we
find him, immediately after Stephen's death,
taking a leading part in the persecution of
the Christians which followed (Acts viii. 3 :
xxii. 4 ; xxvi. 10, 11 ; 1 Cor. xv. 9 ; Gal. i. 13 ;
Phil. iii. 6; 1 Tim. i. 13). He did this with
the fierceness of a misguided conscience. He

Paul

548

Paul

was the type of the religious inquisitor. Not
content with waging the persecution in Jeru-
salem, he asked of the high priest letters to
the synagogues in Damascus that he might
bring from thence any Christian Jews whom
he might find (Acts ix. 1, 2). Large powers
of internal administration were granted to
the Jews even by the Romans, and in Da-
mascus, which was under the control of
Aretas, king of the Nabathaeans. the gover-
nor was particularly favorable to them (ix.
23, 24 ; 2 Cor. xi. 32), so that Paul's persecu-
tion of the Christians is not in the least in-
credible. The important thing to observe,
however, is that according to the express
testimony of Luke and of Paul himself, he
was filled with fury against them up to the
Yery moment of Ills conversion, and believed
that in persecuting them he was rendering
the highest service to God. He did not have
a doubt as to the righteousness of his course,
nor did his heart fail him in its execution.

It was on the way to Damascus that his
sudden conversion occurred. Paul and his
companions, probably on horseback, had been
following tlie usual road across the desert
from Galilee to the ancient city. Damascus
had been nearly reached. It was the hour
of noon and the suu was blazing in the zenith
(Acts xxvi. 13). Suddenly a light from
heaven, brighter than the sun, streamed
round about them, and, overcome by its
blinding brilliance, Paul fell upon the ground.
His companions, too, fell to the ground
(14), though they appear to have afterwards
arisen, while he remained prostrate (ix. 7).
Out of the light he heard a voice, say-
ing in the Hebrew language: "Saul, Saul,
why per.secutest thou me? it is hard for
thee to kick against the goad" (xxvi. 14
E. v.). He replied : " Who art thou. Lord ? "
He heard in answer : " I am Jesus whom
thou persecutest" (15). "Arise, and go
into the city, and it shall be told thee
what thou must do" (ix. 6; xxii. 10). His
companions heard the sound of the voice
(ix. 7), but did not understand what was
said (xxii. 9). Paul, however, was found to
be blinded by the light, so they led him by
the hand into Damascus, where he lodged in
the house of a certain Judas (ix. 11). For
three days he remained blind and fasting,
praying (9, 11) and meditating on the reve-
lation which had been made to him. On the
third day the Lord commanded a certain
Jewish Christian, named Ananias, to go to
Paul and lay his hands on him that he might
receive his sight. The Lord assured .\nanias,
who was afraid of the persecutor, that the
latter had already seen him in a vision com-
ing to him. Thereupon Ananias obeyed.
Paul confessed his faith in Jesus, received
his sight, accepted baptism, and forthwith,
with his characteristic energy and to the as-
tonishment of the Jews, began to preach in
the synagogues that .fesus was the Christ, the
Son (if God (ix. 10-22).

Such is the narrative of tlie conversion of
Saul of Tarsus. Three recitals of it are
given in The Acts ; one by Luke (ix. 3-22) ;
one by Paul himself before the Jews (xxii.
1-16) ; again by Paul before Festus and
Agrippa (x.xvi. 1-20). The three accounts
entirely agree, though in each of them par-
ticulars are dwelt on which are not found in
the others. The story in each case is told
with special regard to the purpose of the nar-
rator. Paul in his epistles also frequently
alludes to his conversion, attributing it to the
grace and power of God, though he does not
describe it in detail (1 Cor. ix. 1, 16; xv. 8-
10; Gal. i. 12-16; Ei)h. iii. 1-8 ; Phil. iii. 5-7;
1 Tim. i. 12-16; 2 Tim. i. 9-11). The fact,
therefore, is supported by the strongest i)ossi-
ble testimony. It is certain also that Jesus
not onlj' spoke to Paul, but visibly appeared
to him (Acts ix. 17, 27; xxii. 14 ; xxvi. 16 ;
1 Cor. ix. 1). While the form in which he
appeared is not described, we may be sure
that it was a glorious one ; so that Paul real-
ized at once that the crucified Jesus was the
exalted Son of God. He himself describes
it as "the heavenly vision" (Acts xxvi. 19),
or spectacle, a word elsewhere used only in
Luke i. 22 and xxiv. 23 to describe the mani-
festation of angelic beings. There is no
ground therefore for the allegation that it
was an illusion of any kind. At the same
time the mere appearance of Christ did not
convert Paul. This was the work of the
Spirit in his heart, enabling him to appre-
hend and accept the truth which had been
revealed to him (see especially Gal. i. 15).
Ananias also was evidently made use of in
order to connect Paul's new life with the
already existing church. The various ration-
alistic attempts which have been made to ex-
plain Paul's conversion without acknowledg-
ment of the objective and supernatural in-
terposition of the Lord are wrecked upon
the testimony of Paul himself that he had
thought up to the time of his conversion
that it was his religious duty to persecute
Christianity, and that his change was due to
the sovereign exercise of God's power and
grace. The expression, "It is hard for thee
to kick against the goad," does not imply
that he had been an unwilling jiersecutor or
that he already believed that Christianity
might be true, but describes the folly of any
resistance to the purpose of God with him.
At the same time his previous history had
been an unconscious prei)aration for his fu-
tui'e work. His Eoman citizenship, his rab-
binical training, as well as his natural quali-
ties of mind fitted him for his life task.
There is reason to believe also that with all
his zeal he had not found spiritual peace
in Judaism (Eom. vii. 7-25). If so, the
manner of his conversion must have made
him vividly realize that salvation is alone
through the grace of God in Christ. His re-
ligious experience therefore was also part of
his preparation to become the great ex-

Paul

549

Paul

pouuder of the gospel as providing justifica-
tiou for the sinner i)n the ground of Christ's
merits received through faith alone. As
soon as he was converted Paul began evan-
gelistic work. This was partly due to his
natural energy, but also to the fact that it
had been revealed to him that God's purpose
in calling him was to make him a mission-
ary and apostle (Acts ix. 15; xxvi. Ki-iiO ;
Gal. i. 15, IG). He began work in the syna-
gogues of Damascus and pursued it with suc-
cess. This raised against him persecution from
the Damascene Jews, who were aided by the
governor of the city (2 Cor. xi. 32) ; so that he
was compelled to dee secretly, being let down
by his disciples in a basket from a window in
the city's wall (Acts ix. 23-25; 2 Cor. xi. 33).
Instead of returning to Jerusalem, however,
he went to Arabia and afterwards returned
to Damascus (Gal. i. 17). We do not know
where he went in Arabia, nor how long he
stayed, nor what he did there. It is not im-
probable that the time was mainly spent in
meditation upon the great change which had
come over his life and the truth as it had
now been revealed to him. But three years
after his conversion he determined to leave
Damascus and visit Jerusalem again. He
tells us (Gal. i. 18, 19) that his main i)urpose
was to visit Peter; that he remained in Je-
rusalem only fifteen days ; and that of the
apo.stles he saw Peter only, though he men-
tions that he also saw James, the Lord's
brother. Luke, however (Acts ix. 26-29),
gives further particulars. It appears that
the Christians in Jerusalem were afraid of
him because of his former reputation and
did not believe he was really a di.sciple ; but
that Barnabas, with that generosity of mind
which was ever characteristic of him, took
Paul to the apostles and related the story of
his conversion and subsequent changed life.
We are also told that Paul preached as fear-
lessly in Jerusalem as he had done at Damas-
cus and directed his eflbrts especially toward
his old friends, the Greek-speaking .Tews (ix.
28, 29). These, too, plotted at once against his
life. The tlireatening danger caused the
brethren to send him away, so they took him
to Csessirea and sent him from there to Tar-
sus (29, ,30; Gal. i. 21). He departed the
more willingly because in the temple the
Lord had appeared to him in a vision bidding
him go and telling him distinctly that his
mission was to the gentiles (Acts xxii. 17-21).
The two accounts in The Acts and Galatians
of this visit to Jerusalem have sometimes been
thought inconsistent, but they may be natur-
ally harmonized. It is highly probable that
Paul would want to visit Peter in order that
his work might proceed in unison with that
of the original apostles, of whom Peter was
the most prominent. It is equally natural
that the Jerusalem Christians should be at
first afraid of him; and the conduct of Bar-
nabas, who was, like Paul, a Hellenistic
Jew, is in keeping with his action through-

out tlie whole history. Fifteen days, more-
over, are not too .sliort a time for tlie events
described in Tlie Acts. It is, in fact, confirmed
by the Lord's command to Paul to dejiait
quickl}' (xxii. 18). Nor is Luke's statement
that Barnabas brought Paul " to the apostles "
inconsistent with Paul's statement that he
saw Peter only, together with James. Tlie
reception of the new convert even by Peter
alone, not to speak of James, who occupied
almost an apostolic position (see Gal. ii. 9),
was equivalent to apostolic recognition of him,
and this is all that Luke's expression was
meant to describe. It is further worthy of re-
mark that it was now realized fully, both by
Paul and the leaders in Jerusalem, that the
new convert was a chosen apostle of Christ,
and that his mission was to the gentiles. At
the same time the question does not appear
to have been raised of what would be the re-
lation of gentile converts to the Mosaic law.
Neither did any foresee how important Paul's
mission was to become. His commission,
however, was admitted, and he was sent
forth to Tarsus to engage in such work as
might open before him.

Paul's stay in Tarsus is nearly a blank to
us. It probably lasted six or seven years ; see
below on the chronology of Paul's life. No
doubt he engaged in missionary work, and
probably founded the churches of Cilicia,
which are mentioned incidentally in Acts
XV. 41. If at any time he felt the intellec-
tual influences of Tarsus, this must have
been the period. As already remarked. Tar-
sus was one of the centers of the Stoic ]iliil-
osophy, and Paul's appreciation of Stoicism
plainly appears in his speech at Athins. But
we must be content with the little informa-
tion that has been given us. While doubt-
less not inactive, Paul was waiting for the
Lord by his providence to make i)lain the way
in which his chosen ambassador was to go.

At length, however, the purpose of God
began to appear. Some of the Greek-speak-
ing .Jewish Christians who had been driven
from Jerusalem by the persecution whi(;h
followed Stejihen's death came to the great
city of Antioch in Syria. It was situated on
the Orontes, north of the Lebanon range,
had been the cajiital of the Syrian king-
dom, and was then the residence of the Rou'an
governor of the province. It was rated as
one of the chief cities of the empire. Its
mixed population and its extensive com-
merce made it a center of wide influence.
Lying just outside of Palestine and at the
entrance to Asia Minor, connected also by
traffic and politics with the whole empire, it
formed a natural base of operations from
wliich the new faith, if it was to he separated
from Judaism, could go forth to the conquest
of the world. In Antioch the Christian ref-
ugees began, we are told (Act^s xi. 20), to
preach to the gentiles (A. V. Grecians; R.
V. Greeks). There is a difficult question of
the text in the original ; but the context

Paul

550

Paul

leaves no room for doubt that the work was
amoug gentiles. Many were converted, so
that a distinctively gentile church sprang
up in the metropolis of Syria. Wlien the
fact was reported at Jerusalem, Barnabas was
sent to investigate. With noble breadth of
view, he saw the Lord's hand in the new de-
velopment in spite of the fact that the con-
verts were uncircumcised. He also seems to
have realized that this was the divine open-
ing for Paul ; for he went to Tarsus to seek
him and brought him to Antioch. Together
they labored for a' year in Antioch. Many
more gentiles were converted, and the non-
Jewish character of the church was signal-
ized by the fact that to the di.sciples in Anti-
och was the name Christians first given, evi-
dently by their heathen neighbors. Thus
began Paul's connection with Antioch. Thus
also aro.se on the page of church history the
first gentile Christian organization. It was
to be the starting point for Paul's mission to
the pagan world.

While Paul was at Antioch, a prophet from
Jerusalem, named Agabus, predicted in the
Christian asseniltly that a famine was soon to
occur. This was seized upon by the brethren
at Antioch as an occasion for evincing their
love to and fraternity with the Christians of
Judsea. Tlie fact is a remarkable proof of
the sense of obligation which these gentiles
had to those from whom they had received
their new faith, as well as of the extent to
which the gospel broke down at once the
barriers which had existed between races
and classes. Contributions for the relief of
the Judaean Christians were made at Anti-
och, and the same were sent to the elders at
Jerusalem by the hands of Barnabas and
Saul (Acts xi. 29, 30). This visit of Paul
to Jerusalem probably occurred in A. D. 44,
or shortly after. It is not mentioned by
Paul in Galatians, no doubt because he did
not see any of the apostles. Some writers
indeed have tried to. identify it with the
visit recorded in Gal. ii. 1-10 ; but that
plainly occurred after the dispute concerning
the circumcision of gentiles had sprung up,
and Luke distinctly assigns the rise of that
controversy to a later date (Acts xv. 1). The
purpose of Paul in Galatians was to recount
the opportunities he had had of obtaining
his gospel from the older apostles ; and if on
this occasion, as Luke intimates (xi. 30), he
met only the elders of the church, and if the
brief visit was purely on a matter of charity,
his argument in Galatians did not require
him to mention the journey. Barnabas and
Paul soon returned to Antioch, taking with
them John Mark (xii. 2.^).

The time had at length arrived when
Paul's historic missionary work to the gen-
tiles was to begin. It was indicated by tlie
Spirit to the jtrophets belonging to the
church in Antioch (Acts xiii. 1-3). They were
directed to .set ajiart two of their number,
Barnabas and Paul, for the work to which

God had called them. Thus by divine direc-
tion and under the auspices of the church at
Antioch, the apostle's first missionary journey
began. Its exact date is uncertain. We can
only assign it to the years between a. d.
45-50 ; perhaps, 46-48. Neither is there any
clear indication how long a time it occupied.
Barnabas, who was the older, is mentioned
as the leader ; but Paul speedily took the
chief place through his ability in speaking.
John Mark also went as their helper. The
party went from Antioch to Seleucia, at the
mouth of the Orontes, and thence sailed
to Cyprus, the original home of Barnabas.
Landing at Salamis, on the east coast of
Cyprus, they began work, as was natural, in
the Jewish synagogues. Then they moved
through the island from place to place until
they reached Paphos on the southwest coast.
Here they attracted the notice of Sergius Pau-
las, the Roman proconsul, and were violently
opposed by a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-jesus,
who called himself Elymas, learned one,
and who had previously won the patronage
of the proconsul (Acts xiii. ti, 7). Paul, with
much indignation, rebuked the sorcerer and
smote him with blindness ; and the effect
of the miracle and of the missionaries'
teaching was the conversion of Sergius (8-
12). Then leaving Cyprus, the party, of
whom Paul was now the recognized head
(13), sailed north toward Asia Minor and
came to Perga in Pamphylia. There John
Mark, for some unexplained reason, left
them and returned to Jerusalem. Nor do
Paul and Barnabas appear to have remained
in Perga, but journeyed northward into
Phrygia until they reached Antioch, called
Pisidian because it lay toward Pisidia.
This was the chief city of the Roman prov-
ince of Galatia. There they entered the
Jewish synagogue and, on invitation of the
rulers of the synagogue, Paul made the great
address recorded in Acts xiii. 16-41, the first
recorded specimen of his preaching. After
rehearsing the divine leading of Israel with
a view to the coming Messiah, he related the
testimony of the Baptist and the rejection
of Jesus by the Jewish rulers, but declared
that God had raised him from the dead, that
in him the ancient promises to Israel were
being fulfilled, and that only through faith in
him could men be justified. He also warned
the Jews not to repeat the crime of their
rulers in Jerusalem. The .speech aroused
the enmity of the leading Jews ; but it made
an impression on some others, and yet more
on those gentiles who were already under
the influence of the synagogue and who
ever formed the connecting link for Paul be-
tween the synagogue and the i)agan world.
The next Sabbath the break took place be-
tween the missionaries and the synagogue,
and the former began to address their work
directly to the gentiles. The chief people
of the city, however, were excited by the
Jews against the Christians, and Paul and

Longiinde East 30' from nrevuwich js'-

Second Joaraev

East 30" from

Third Jouruey

ST. PAUL'S

JOIJUNEY TO ROME.

20° Lniigitucic E list 20 j;

Greenwich 30°

Paul

551

Paul

Barnabas were expelled (Acts xiii. 50). From
Autioeh they went to Iconium. another city
of Phrygia, where many converts, both
Jewish and gentile, were made (51). But
the Jews again succeeded in raising per-
secution, and the missionaries passed on to
Lystra and Derbe, important cities of Ly-
caonia (xiv. 1-6). At Lystra the miracu-
lous cure of a lame man by Paul led
to an attempt on the jjart of the heathen
populace to otfer worship to the missionaries,
calling them Jupiter and Merc\iry ; and this
occasioned the second recorded speech of
Paul (15-18), in which he reasoned against
the folly of idolatry. At Lystra Timothy
was probably converted (see Acts xvi. 1;
2 Tim. i. 2: iii. 11). The brief popularity
of the apostle was, however, soon followed
by renewed persecution under Jewish in-
stigation (Acts xiv. 19), so that he was
stoned, dragged out of the city, and left for
dead. When he revived he departed with
Barnabas to Derbe, which was probably at
the southeastern limit of the province of
Galatia (20). It would have been possible for
the missionaries to cross the mountains into
Cilicia, and so go directly by way of Tarsus,
back to Syrian Autioeh. Their route had
followed a rough circle. But they would not
return until they had placed the new churches
on a firm basis. Hence they returned from
Derbe to Lystra, from Lystra to Iconium, from
Iconium to Pisidiaii Antioch, and from An-
tioch to Perga, in each place organizing the
church and encouraging the disciples. At
Perga they preached, as they had seemingly
not done at the former \isit ; then, going to
its seaport, Attalia, they returned to Antioch
in Syria (Acts xiv. 21-26). Thus the first
missionary tour of the apostle was com-
pleted. It covered the regions next toward
the west of those already occupied by the
gospel. His method was to offer the gospel
first to the Jews and then to the gentiles.
He found a large number of the latter
already influenced by Judaism, and there-
fore somewhat prepared to receive Chris-
tianity. His method was to found churches
in the principal cities, and his journeys were
facilitated by the fine roads which the
Roman government had made between her
military posts. The Greek language also
was everywhere understood. Providence
had thus prepared the way for the prepared
herald of the gospel to the world. [On the
missionary journeys of Paul, the student
should consult C'onybeare and Howson's
Life (uid Epistles of St. Paul; and, especially
for the first journey, the first part of Eam-
say's Church in the Roman Empire.]

The success of Paul's work among the
gentiles led, however, to controversy within
the church. Certain strict Jewish Christians
from Jerusalem went to Antioch and de-
clared that unless the converted gentiles
were circumcised, they could not be saved
<Acts XV. 1). Some years before this time God

had revealed to the church through Peter
that gentiles were to be received without
observance of the Mo.saic law (x. 1-xi. 18).
But the strict Jewish party, made up
mostly of converted Pharisees (xv. 5), would
not abide by this teaching; and the an-
nouncement of their doctrines in Antioch
so disturbed the church there that the
brethren determined to .send Paul and Bar-
nabas, with others, to Jerusalem to consult
with the apostles and elders about this ques-
tion. This is the visit described in Acts xv. i
and Gal. ii. 1-10. Both accounts are entirely
harmonious, though written from different
points of view. Paul tells us that a revela-
tion from God directed him to go (Gal. ii. 2).
It was a great crisis. The wiiole future of
the new religion was depending on the issue.
But the result was a triumph of Christian
loyalty and charity. Paul and Barnabas
proclaimed to the mother church what God
had done through them. When the strict
Jewish Christians opposed them, a council
was held of the apostles and elders (Acts xv.
6-29). Peter reminded the church of God's
will as shown in the case of Cornelius; Paul
and Barnabas related the mighty attestations
which God had given to their mission;
James, the Lord's brother, pointed out that
prophecy had foretold the calling of the
gentiles. It was resolved to heartily recog-
nize the uncircumcised converts as brethren,
but to direct them to avoid certain practices
which were specially oflensive to the Jews.
Paul tells us in Galatians that the church in
Jerusalem stood by him against the " false
brethren;" and also that James, Peter, and
John gave him the right hand of fellowship,
he to go to the gentiles, they to the Jews.
Thus Paul retained fellowship with the other
apostles while at liberty to go on his own
divinely appointed mission. How bitter the
controversy was on the part of the Judaizers
is shown by their subsequent hatred and hos-
tility to Paul. But he had gained his point.
The unity of the church was preserved.
The liberty of the gentiles was preserved. A
practical adjustment was made by which
reasonable Jewish prejudice was conciliated,
while the way was open for the carrying of the
go.spel to all peoples, unencumbered by Jew-
ish ceremonialism. A brief reminder of the
controversy occurred indeed soon after in
Antioch which ought to be mentioned (Gal.
ii. 11-21). Peter had gone there and, being
in entire agreement with Paul, had lived in
free association with the gentiles. But when
Jews from Jerusalem came to Antioch, Peter
and even Barnabas withdrew from this asso-
ciation. This led Paul publicly to rebuke
Peter, and in his rebuke he outlined the
doctrinal ground on which he rested the
rights of the gentiles in the church. Salva-
tion is by faith alone, he said, because the
believer has died with Christ to the law ; i. e.
Christ by dying has met all the obligations
of the law for his people, and therefore

Paul

552

Paul

nothing more than faith in Christ can be
made the condition of any one's becoming a
Christian. We thus see that the rights of
the gentiles in the church involved for Paul
much more thau a question of church unity.
He saw that it involved the essential principle
of the gospel. By his defense of this prin-
ciple, as well as by his missionary work,
Paul was the chief agent in the establish-
ment of universal Christianity.

The council at Jerusalem was probably
held in a. d. 50 ; see the chronology below.
Not long after it Paul proposed to Barnabas
a second missionary journey (Acts xv. 36).
He was unwilling, however, that John Mark
should again go with them, and this led to
the final separation of the two great mis-
sionaries. Paul thereupon took with him
Silas ; see Silas. They first visited the
churches of Syria and Cilicia, and then
passed northward, through the Taurus moun-
tains, to the churches which had been
founded on Paul's first journey. They thus
came first to Derbe, then to Lystra. At the
latter place Paul determined to take Timothy
with hira, and circumcised him to prevent
giving ofl'ense to the Jews, for Timothy's
mother was a Jewess. Paul thus showed
willingness to conciliate Jewish prejudice ;
though he would not yield an inch when
the principles of the gospel were at stake.
From Lystra they appear to have gone to
Iconium and Pisidian Antioch. Their move-
ments here, however, are much disputed by
scholars. Ramsay and others, who believe
that the churches of the first journey were
the " churches of Galatia " to which the epis-
tle with that name was afterwards written
(see Galatia, Galatians, Epistle to the),
hold that Paul went directly north from
Pisidian Antioch through the Roman prov-
ince of Asia, but without preaching, since
he was "forbidden of the Holy Ghost to
preach the word in Asia" (Acts xvi. 6) ; that
when they came "over against Mysia" (7,
R. V.) they attempted to go into Bithyn-
ia, but were again forbidden ; then passing
by (or, as the original may mean, neglect-
ing) Mysia they turned westward through or
alongside of Mysia to Troas. The commoner
view is that from Pisidian Antioch the
travelers moved northeastward into Galatia
proper; that on the way Paul was for a
while disabled by sickness, and that this led
him to improve the opportunity, sick though
he was, of preaching in Galatia and so of
founding the "churches of Galatia" (Gal.
iv. 1.3-15) ; that this movement to the north-
east from Pisidian Antioch was due to the
command not to preach in Asia ; that when
his work in Galatia proper was done, he at-
tempted to enter Bithynia, but was again
forbidden ; and so, as on the former theory,
he turned west through or alongside of
Mysia to Troas. This whole period is very
briefly described by Luke. The Spirit
■was directing the missionaries to Europe,

and Luke's narrative likewise hastens for-
ward.

At Troas there appeared the vision of the
man of Macedonia (Acts xvi. 9) ; in response
to whose call the missionaries, now joined by
Luke himself, took ship for Europe, and
landing at Neapolis, went forward to the im-
portant city of Philippi. Here a church was.
founded (xvi. 11-40), which ever remained
specially dear to the apostle's heart (see Phil,
i. 4-7; iv. 1, 15). Here, too, Paul fir.st came
into conflict with Roman magistrates and
found that his citizenship was a protection
for his work (Acts xvi. 20-24 ; 37-39). From
Philippi, where Luke remained. Paul, Silas,
and Timothy went on to Thessalonica. The
brief account in Acts xvii. 1-9 of the work
done there is supplemented by the allusions
made to it in his two epistles to that church.
He had much success among the gentiles; he
laid with great care the foundations of the
church ; and he gave the example of indus-
try and sobriety by supporting himself by
his trade while preaching the gospel (1 Thes.
ii., etc.). But persecution arose, instigated
by the Jews, so the brethren sent Paul to-
Beroea, and from there, after marked success
even in the synagogue, to Athens. His so-
journ at Athens was rather disappointing,
and is memorable chiefly for the address be-
fore the philosophers on Mars' hill (Acts-
xvii. 22-31), in which Paul showed his appre-
ciation of the truths which the gospel had in
common with Stoicism, while he yet faithfully
proclaimed to a critical audience their duty
to God and what God required them to be-
lieve. At Corinth, on the contrary, to which
he next went, he remained eighteen months,
and his work was most successful. Here he
made the acquaintance of Aquila and Pris-
cilla and abode with them (xviii. 1-3). At first
he preached in the synagogue, but afterwards,
because of the opposition of the .Tews, in the
house of a gentile, Titus Justus, who lived next
to the synagogue (5-7, R. V.). In both The
Acts (xviii. 9, 10) and 1 Cor. (ii. 1-5) there are
allusions to the great anxiety of mind with
which the apostle prosecuted his mission in
Corinth, and to his earnest determination to
proclaim in Greece as elsewhere the simple
gospel of the Crucified ; while 1 Cor. amply
testifies both to his success and to the many
temptations to which the Christians of Corinth
were exposed, and which from the beginning
occasioned the apostle special solicitude. The
needs of other churches also pressed upon
him, so that from Corinth he wrote the two
epistles to the Thessalonians for the purpose
of warning against certain doctrinal and
practical perils by which that church was
threatened. The hostility of the Jews also-
did not cease, and, on the coming to Corinth
of the new proconsul, Gallio, they accused
Paul of violation of the law. But the pro-
consul properly decided that the matter per-
tained to the synagogue itself and that the
apostle had broken no law of which the gov-

Paul

553

Paul

eminent could take cognizance. The empire
thus at this jieriod protected the Christians
from Jewish violence hy identifying them
with the Jews, and Paul was i)ermitted to
continue his work unmolested. His mission
to Corinth was one of the most fruitful in
the history of the early Christian church.
At length, however, Paul turned his face
again to the east. From Corinth he sailed to
Ej)hesus. He did not remain there, however,
but, promising to return, sailed to Ciesarea,
made apparently a hasty journey to Jerusa-
lem, and, having saluted the church there,
returned to Autioch, whence he had orig-
inally started (Acts xviii. '22). Thus was
completed his second missionary journey. Its
result had been the estalili>liuient of Chris-
tianity in Europe. ^Macedonia and Achaia
had been evangelized. The gospel had
thereby taken a long step forward toward
the conquest of the empire. After remain-
ing some time at Antioch, Paul, probably in
A. D. 54, began his third journey. He first
traversed*" the region of Galatia and Phry-
gia in order, stablishing all the disciples "
(23), and then settled in Ephesus. It thus
appears that the previous divine prohibition
to preach in the province of Asia had been
removed. Ephesus was the capital of Asia
and one of the most influential cities of the
East. Hence the apostle for 3 years made it
his center of operations (xix. 8, 9 ; xx.31). For
3 months he taught in the synagogue (xviii.
8), and then for 2 years in the school or
lecture hall of a certain Tyrannus (9). His
work in Ephesus was marked by great
thoroughness of instruction (xx. 18-31) ; by
the exercise of astonishing miraculous power
(xix. 11, 12) ; by great success, so that "all
they which dwelt in Asia heard the word of
the Lord " (10). and even some of the chief
officers of Asia became Paul's friends (31) ;
yet also bv constant and tierce opposition
(2.3-41 : 1 Cor. iv. 9-13 ; xv. 32) : and finally,
by the care of all the churches (2 Cor. xi. 28).
This period of the apostle's life is especially
rich in incidents. Much occurred of which
The Acts tells nothing. Here Paul heard of
attacks made on him and his doctrine by Ju-
daizing teachers in Galatia ; and in reply he
wrote the famous Epistle to the Galatians, in
which he defends his apostolic authority,
and gives the first formal statement and
proof of the doctrines of grace. The condi-
tion of the Corinthians also occasioned him
much anxiety. In reply to inquiries from
Corinth he wrote a letter, now lost, concern-
ing the relations of believers to the pagan
society about them (1 Cor. v. 9). But later
reports showed that more serious troubles
had arisen. Hence our 1 Cor. was written,
an ejnstle which finely exhibits the apostle's
practical wisdom in the instruction and dis-
cipline of the infant churches. Even so,
however, the seditious elements in the Co-
rinthian church would not yield. Many
think that Paul, before writing 1 Cor., had

himself made a hurried visit to Coriulh fttr
disciplinary purposes (cp. 2 Cor. xii. 14 ; xiii.
1). At any rate, before leaving Ephesus he
sent Titus to Corinth, probably with a let-
ter, to secure the discipline of a refractory
member of the church. Titus was to rejoin
him in Troas. When he failed to do so, Paul
passed on in much anxiety to Macedonia,
whither Timothy and Erastus had preceded
him (Acts xix. 22). At length, however,
Titus rejoined him (2 Cor. ii. 12-14; vii. 5-
16), with the good news that the Corinthian
church had obeyed the apostle and were
loyal in their love for him. Whereupon Paul
wrote our 2 Cor., the most biographical of
all his epistles, in which he rejoices in their
obedience, gives directions concerning the
collection he was making for the Juda?an
saints, and once more defends his authority
as an apostle of Christ. From Macedonia he
himself went to Corinth and passed the win-
ter of A. D. 57-58 there. No doubt he com-
pleted the discipline and organization of the
Corinthian church; but the visit is most
memorable because he then wrote the Epistle
to the Eomans. In it he states most com-
pletely the doctrine of the way of salvation.
He evidently regarded Eome as the place
where his labors should culminate. He could
not, however, go there at once, because he
felt it necessary to return to Jerusalem with
the gifts of the gentiles to the mother church.
Christian work had already been begun at
Eome, and was being carried on mainly by
Paul's own friends and disciples (cp. Eom.
xvi.). Hence, he sent the epistle from Cor-
inth that the Christians of the capital might
possess complete instruction in the gospel
which Paul was proclaiming to the world.
Paul now set out on his last journey to
Jerusalem. He was accompanied by friends
who represented various gentile churches
(Acts XX. 4). The apostle's work among the
gentiles had been much opposed by Juda-
izers, and even the ordinary Jewish Christians
often regarded him and it with distrust.
Hence arose his scheme of proving the loy-
alty of the gentile churches by inducing
them to send a liberal offering to the poor
Christians of Judsea. It was to carry this
offering that he and his friends left Corinth
for Jerusalem. His plan had first been to
sail direct to Syria, but a plot of the Jews
led him to change his route and to return by
way of Macedonia (xx. 3). He lingered at Phi-
lippi while his companions went on to Troas,
but he was rejoined at that place by Luke
(5). After the passover he and Luke went
on to Troas, where the others were waiting
for them and where all remained seven days
(6). A church had grown up at Troas, and
an interesting account is given by Luke of
the events of the apostle's interview with it
on the day and night before he left it (7-12'.
From Troas Paul went by foot about twenty
miles to Assos, whither his companions had
already gone by boat (13). Thence they

Paul

554

Paul

sailed to Mitylene, on the eastern shore of
the island of Lesbos, and then, coasting
southward, they passed between the main-
land and the island of Chios, touched the
next day at the island of Sanies, and the
day following reached Miletus (14, 15). The
A. V. states (Acts xx. 15) that they " tarried
at Trogy Ilium " after leaving Samos ; see Tro-
GYLLiUM. The R. V. with the best manu-
scripts omits this clause. Miletus was about
36 miles from Ephesus, and as Paul was in
haste, he determined not to go to Ephesus.
but to send for the elders of the church. At
Miletus he took leave of them in the affec-
tionate address recorded in Acts sx. 18-35.
No words could more strongly exhibit the
apostle's devotion to his work, and his love
for his converts, and his realization of the
spiritual perils to which they would be ex-
posed. Leaving Miletus, the ship went with
a straight course to Cos (Acts xxi. 1, in A.
v., Coos), an island about 40 miles to the
south ; then, the next day, Ehodes, an island
and city about 50 miles southeast of Cos, was
reached ; and from Ehodes the course lay
eastward to Patara, on the coast of Lycia (Acts
xxi. 1). At Patara a ship for Phojnicia (Syria)
was found and the party went on board (2),
and, passing west of Cyprus, reached Tyre
(3). There they remained a week, and the
disciples of Tyre urged Paul not to go to
Jerusalem (4) ; but after an affectionate fare-
well he sailed (5, 6) to Ptolemais, the modern
Acre, and came the. next day to Csesarea
(7, 8). At Csesarea the company abode with
Philip the evangelist. There too the prophet
Agabus, who at an earlier time had foretold
the famine (xi. 28), bound his own hands and
feet with Paul's girdle, and predicted that so
would the Jews bind Paul and deliver him
to the gentiles. But in spite of this warning
and the lamentation of the brethren, Paul
insisted on going forward (xxi. 11-14). So,
in company with a number of the disciples,
he went on to Jerusalem, thus completing
what is known as his third missionary
journey.

The prediction of Agabus was soon fulfilled.
Paul was at first indeed well received by the
brethren in Jerusalem, and on the day fol-
lowing his arrival went in to James, the
Lord's brother, and the elders of the church.
When he had related his work among the
gentiles, they glorified God. At the same
time they reminded him that many of the
Jewish Christians had heard evil reports
about him and doubted his fidelity to Moses.
It was proposed, therefore, that he should
give an ocular proof that he still held the
Jewish customs in honor. He was to join
with four men, who at that time were per-
forming a Nazirite vow in the temple. To
this Paul assented, for he was ever anxious
not to give needless offense to the Jews, and
the observance proposed was probably little
more than what he had done of his own will
at Corinth (xviii. 18). While Paul insisted

that no gentile should observe the Mosaic
law, and while he maintained that no Chris-
tian Jew was bound to observe it, he found
no fault with Jews who chose to observe it,
and held himself at liberty to observe its
regulations or not as circumstances might'
seem to make expedient. His assent to this
proposal, therefore, was not inconsistent with
his action on other occasions. But the ex-
pedient proved unavailing for the purpose
for which it was intended. Certain Jews
from Asia saw him in the temple and raised
a tumult. They falsely charged him with
having brought gentiles into the temple, and
declared to the populace that he had every-
where taught men to dishonor both the tem-
ple and the law (xxi. 27-29). A riot speedily
ensued in which Paul would probably have
been slain, had not the commander of che
Eoman garrison, Claudius Lysias, hastened
with soldiers to quell the uproar. He was
leading Paul, bound with two chains, into
the castle for examination and the Jews were
following with many outcries, when the
apostle desired liberty to speak. The com-
mander was surprised that the prisoner could
use Greek, for he had taken him to be an
Egyptian insurrectionist who had recently
given trouble to the government (38). When
Paul explained that he was a Tarsiau Jew,
Lysias allowed him to address the multitude.
He did so in the Hebrew tongue (xxii. 2). He
related his early life and the story of his
conversion. They heard him till he uttered
the word "gentiles," when the uproar was
renewed, and Lysias withdrew him into the
castle for .safety and further examination.
The examination would have been by scourg-
ing, had not Paul remarked to the centurion
that he was a Eoman citizen (25). When
this was reported to Lysias, he unbound
Paul and, feeling that the matter was a seri-
ous one, directed the priests to convoke the
sanhedrin on the following day that the
prisoner might be tried.

The appearance of Paul before the council
led, however, to another tumult (Acts xxiii.
1-10). The apostle was now fighting for his
life. He had no hope of justice, and should the
council condemn him, Lysias might give him
over to execution. With much shrewdness
he succeeded in dividing his enemies. He
claimed to be a Pharisee, and to be on trial
for teaching the doctrine of the resurrection
of the dead. This was true, as far as it
went, and it served Paul's purpose. The
hatred of the Pharisees and Sadducees for
each other was greater than their hostility to
Paul, and the two sects quickly arrayed
themselves on opposite sides. The com-
mander feared that Paul would be juilled to
pieces between liis defenders and his oppo-
nents, so by his orders the soldiers removed
the prisoner again to the castle.

That night the Lord appeared to Paul in
a vision and bade him be of good cheer,
since he was certainly to bear his testimony

Paul

555

Paul

at Konie (Acts xxiii. 11). This consumma-
tion was to be eflected, however, in an unex-
pected way. Some of the Jews formed a
plot to kill Paul and, to accomplish thi.s, it
was determined to request the commander
to bring the prisoner once more before the
council. But Paul's nephew heard of the
plot and managed to inform his uncle and
the commander (l'2-"22). Thereupon Lysias
sent Paul under a strong guard to Caesarea
with a letter to Felix, the procurator, re-
ferring the case to him. When Felix learned
that the accused was from Cilicia, he declared
that he would wait until the accusers came,
and meanwhile placed Paul for .safe keeping
in Herod's palace, which was used as the prae-
torium or residence of the procurator. Then
followed two years of imprisonment in Csesa-
rea. When the Jews appeared before Felix,
they made a general accusation against Paul
of sedition aud especially of profanation of
the temple, complaining of the violeuce with
which Lysias had taken their prisoner out
of their hands (Acts xxiv. 1-9). To this
Paul replied by au explicit denial and a
demand that witnesses should be produced
against him (10-21). Felix appears to have
been sufficiently acquainted with the matters
in dispute to perceive that Paul had not com-
mitted any ci'ime worthy of jiunishment.
He dismissed the accusers on the plea that
he must learn further particulars from Lysias,
and directed that Paul should be kept in con-
tinement. but that his friends should be
allowed to visit him freely. Felix and his
wife Drusilla were also much impressed by
what Paul had said and "heard him con-
cerning the faith in Christ'' (24). In fact,
the apostle seems to have exercised a strange
fascination over the procurator, who trembled
before his solemn preaching and promised to
send for him again. He hoped also that
Paul would pay for his liberty (25, 26). But
the apostle would not bribe the procurator,
and the latter deferred decision of the case,
so that vrhen. after two years, Porcius Festus
succeeded Felix, Paul was still a prisoner
(27).

The Jews hoped that the new governor
would prove more favorable to their desires
than Felix had been. But Festus refused to
send Paul to Jerusalem for trial, and re-
quired his accusers to confront him again in
Csesarea (Acts xxv. 1-fi). Again, however,
they were unable to prove any crime against
him, while he persistently maintained his
innocence (7, 8). Festus, however, willing to
please the Jews, asked Paul if he would go to
Jerusalem to be tried. Paul knew that such
a course would probably prove fatal to him.
He availed himself, therefore, of his right as a
Eoman citizen and appealed unto Caesar (9-
111. This took the case out of the procurator's
hands and necessitated the prisoner's trans-
mission to Rome. Before he could be sent,
however, Agrippa II. and his sister Bernice
came to visit Festus, doubtless to congratu-

late him on his accession to office; and the
procurator, who was not well versed in
Jewish disputes and yet was bound to send
to the emperor a full account of the case,
related the matter to Agripi)a, who expressed
his desire to hear what the prisoner had to
say. Forthwith it was arrangfd that Paul
should state his cause before the assembled
company. Agrippa's familiarity with Jewish
afl'airs would be of service to the procurator
in preparing his report to the emperor (12-27).
Paul's defense before Agrippa forms one
of his most notable speeches. In it he dis-
played the courtesy of a gentleman, the elo-
quence of an orator, and the fearlessness of
a Christian. He reviewed his life in order to
show that he had been governed only bj^ the
wish to obey the God of Israel, and main-
tained that his course as a Christian had not
only been determined by God's direction,
but had been the fulfillment of the Hebrew
prophecies themselves (Acts xxvi. 1-23).
When Festus interrupted him with the ex-
clamation that he was mad, Paul appealed
earnestly to Agrippa. But the king was not
disposed to be more than au observer and critic
of what he deemed a new fanaticism. He
replied with some contempt : " With but little
persuasion thou wouldest fain make me a
Christian" (28, E. V.). Nevertheless he ad-
mitted that Paul had done no crime, and
n)ight have been set at liberty if he had not
appealed unto Csesar (31, 32). In the autumn
of the same year, a. D. 60 (see chronology be-
low), Paul was sent to Rome. He was com-
mitted, with other prisoners, to the care of a
centurion, Julius, of the Augustan band or
cohort. He was accompanied by Luke and
Aristarchus, a Thessalonian (xxvii. 1, 2).
The account of the voyage is related by
Luke with singular detail and accuracy (see
James Smith, The Voyage and Shipureclc of f>t.
Patil). The apostle was treated also with
notable courtesy by the centurion. Leaving
Csesarea in a coasting ship of Adramyttium,
they touched at Sidon and then sailed to
Myra in Lycia. There they were transferred
to an Alexandrian merchant ship bound for
Italy. The wind, however, was not favor-
able. They were compelled at first to keep
coasting northeastward until over against
Cnidus on the coast of Caria. Then putting
southward, they rounded with difficulty
cape Salmone, on the eastern extremity of
Crete, and managed to reach Fair Havens, a
port on the southern shore of the same island
(Acts xxvii. 3-8). It was now after the Fast,
i. e. the 10th of Tishri or day of atonement (9),
when the season of navigation was drawing to
a clo.se. The weather also continued threaten-
ing. Paul counseled against sailing further,
but the centurion followed the advice of the
master and the owner of the ship, who wished
to go on to PhcBnix, further west on the
coast of Crete, where there was a better
harbor (9-12). But when they had left Fair
Havens, a tierce northeast wind came down

Paul

556

Paul

upon them and drove them to the south.
Passing south of Cauda (or Clauda A. V., the
modern Gozzo), and having lightened the
ship, they were driven for fourteen days be-
fore the gale in a westerly direction. Paul
alone maintained his courage and that of the
rest, for an angel of the Lord assured him
that no life would be lost (13-26). On
the fourteenth night the sounding lead
told of their approach to land ; and, casting
four anchors, they waited for the day. When
daylight came, they perceived in the un-
known land a small bay with a beach ; so
cutting otf their anchors, they hoisted the
foresail to the wind and made for the beach
(27-40, K. v.). The ship, however, grounded,
and soon began to break up under the vio-
lence of the waves. Thereupon the whole
company cast themselves overboard and, as
Paul had predicted, all reached land in safety
(41-44). In this thrilling adventure, which
Luke relates with so much detail, the conduct
of Paul beautifully illustrates the courage of
the Christian and the influence over others
which a man of faith can exercise in times
of peril.

The land on which they had been cast was
the island of Melita, the modern Malta, which
lies 58 miles south of Sicily. The inhabitants
kindly received the shipwrecked company,
and Paul by his works -gained special honor
among them (Acts xxviii. 1-10). After three
months, however, they were put on board
another Alexandrian ship, which had win-
tered in the island, and, after touching at
Syracuse and Rhegiiim, arrived at Puteoli, a
harbor of southwestern Italy. There Paul
found Christian brethren with whom he
tarried seven days (11-14). Meanwhile word
of his arrival had reached the Christians in
Rome, so that some of them went to meet
him at the Market of Appius and the Three
Taverns, two places distant from Rome about
4.3 and 33 miles respectively (15, R. V.). Ac-
cording to the A. V. (16) the centurion deliv-
ered his prisoners to the captain of the
guard, and this has been usually understood
to mean the prefect of the prjetorian guard,
who at this time, a. d. 61, was the celebrated
Burrus. The R. V., however, with the best
manuscripts, omits this statement. Mommsen,
followed by Ramsay, thinks that the prison-
ers were delivered to the captain of another
corps, to which Julius the centurion him-
self belonged, and whose duty it was to
superiuteml the transportation of grain to
the capital and to perform police duty. We
really cannot tell to whose custody Paul was
delivered. We only know that he was held
in military confinement, chained to a soldier
(xxviii. 16: Phil. i. 7, 13), but allowed to
lodge by himself. Appeals to Ciesar were
slow processes. Paul soon hired a dwelling
and continued in it for two years (Acts
xxviii. 30).

So began Paul's first imprisonment in
Rome. The Acts closes with an account of

how after three days he summoned the chief
of the Jews, related the reason of his pres-
ence in the capital, and on an appointed day
expounded to them the gospel ; but that when
they, like their countrymen elsewhere, dis-
believed, Paul again declared that he would
turn to the gentiles. His imprisonment,
therefore, did not prevent his missionary ac-
tivity. The last verses of The Acts relate that
for two whole years he received all who came
to him and preached the kingdom of God
and the things concerning the Lord Jesus
Christ without hindrance from the authori-
ties (xxviii. 17-31). But still more light is
thrown on this period of Paul's life by the
epistles which he wrote during it. They are
those to the Colossians, to Philemon, to the
Ephesians, and to the Philippians. The first
three were probably written in the earlier
part of the period and that to the Philip-
pians toward its close. These epistles show
that the apostle in Rome had many faithful
friends working with him. Among these
were Timothv (Col. i. 1 ; Phil. i. 1 ; ii. 19 ;
Philem. i.), Tychicus (Eph. vi. 21 ; Col. iv. 7),
Aristarchus (Col. iv. 10 ; Philem. 24), John
Mark (Col. iv. 10 ; Philem. 24), and Luke (Col.
iv. 14 ; Philem. 24). His friends had unhin-
dered access to him ; they acted as his mes-
sengers to the churches and also as his co-
workers in Rome ; and they made the im-
prisoned apostle the center and head of the
gentile Christian work throughout the em-
pire. The epistles further show the personal
activity of the apostle's life. With great
zeal and success, in spite of his bonds, did
he preach the gospel. He was an ambassador
in bonds (Eph. vi. 20). He desired his friends
to pray that God would open for him a door
of utterance (Col. iv. 3). In Onesimus, the
runaway slave, we see an example of the
fruit of his labors (Philem. 10). As time went
on the success of his work increased. He
wrote to the Philippians (i. 12, 13, R. V.) that
the things which had happened unto him had
fallen out unto the i)rogress of the gospel, so
that his bonds were manifest in Christ
throughout the whole prsetorian guard and
to all the rest. He sent greetings also (iv.
22) from them of Ca?sar's household. At the
same time he was opposed even by some of
the Christians, probably of the Jewish Chris-
tian type (i. 15-18). But he regarded their
opposition with equanimity, and was confi-
dent that he would be finally released (Phil. i.
25 ; ii. 17, 24 ; Philem. 22). His imprisonment
was only God's way of enabling his ambassa-
dor to fulfill to the uttermost his chosen
mission. Finally, the epistles testify to the
apostle's continued superintendence of the
churches throughout the empire. New her-
esies had arisen in Asia. In the epistles of
the imprisonment Paul gave his ripest in-
structions concerning the person of Christ
and the eternal purpose of God revealed in
the gospel, while the practical directions
which they contain disclose the breadth of

n

Paul

557

Paul

his grasp on Christian duty and the fervor of
his own Christian life.

Although the book of The Acts leaves Paul
a prisoner at Eome, there is abundant reason
to believe that he was released after two
years' confinement and resumed his mission-
ary journeys. The evidence for this may be
summarized as follows : (1) The closing verse
of The Acts accords better with this view
than with the supposition that the imprison-
ment which has been described ended in the
apostle's condemnation and death. Luke
emphasizes the fact that no one hindered his
work, thus certainly giving the impression
that the end of his activity was not near.
Moreover (2) Paul fullv expected to be released
(Phil. i. 25 ; ii. 17. 24 ; Philem. 22), and this
expectation was fully justified by the treat-
ment which he had always received at the
hands of Roman officials. It should be re-
membered that Nero's persecution of the
Christians had not yet begun ; that it was a
sudden outbreak, preceded by no official ill-
treatment of them ; and that in the view of
Roman law, the Christians were as yet only
a sect of the Jews, whose liberty to maintain
their religion was fully recognized. It is,
therefore, altogether probable that, when
Paul's case came before the imperial tri-
bunal, he was acquitted of any crime of
which Roman law could take cognizance.
No doubt also the report of Festus was a
favorable one (see Acts xxvi. 31), nor do the
Jews appear to have sent any accusers to
Rome to appear against him (xxviii. 21).

(3) The tradition that he was released and
resumed his journeys, and was again arrested
dates from an early period. Clement of
Eome, A. D. 96, seems clearly to imply that
Paul went to Spain, for he says that in
his journeys " he reached the limit of the
west." His journey to Spain is also men-
tioned in the so-called Muratori Fragment,
A. D. 170. With this agrees the history of
Eusebius, a. d. 324, which reports, as the
common tradition, that "after he [Paul] had
made his defense, the apostle was sent again
on the ministry of preaching, and a second
time having come to the same city [Rome],
he suffered martyrdom." It must be ad-
mitted that this traditional evidence is not
sufficiently strong to be absolutely demon-
strative ; but it is early and strong enough to
confirm the rest of the evidence, and no suf-
ficient counter-evidence can be adduced.

(4) The epistles to Timothy and Titus may
be proved to be Pauline by abundant ex-
ternal and internal evidence. No place for
them, however, can be found in the history
of Paul related in The Acts. They must,
therefore, have been written later, and that
fact compels vis to accept the tradition given
by Eusebius.

We must, therefore, believe that Paul's
appeal from Festus to Caesar resulted in his
release. His subsequent movements can only
be inferred from the allusions contained in

the epistles to Timothy and Titus and from
tradition. We may su])pose that after his re-
lease he went, as he had intended (Phil. ii. 24 ;
Philem. 22). to Asia and Macedonia. From
1 Tim. i.3we learn that he had left Timothy
in charge of the churches about Ephesus
when he himself went to Macedonia. Where
he was when he wrote 1 Tim. is not clear,
but he hoped soon to be able to return to
Ephesus (1 Tim. iii. 14). From Titus we
learn that he had left Titus in charge of the
churches of Crete, and expected to winter in
Nicopolis (Titus iii. 12). There were, how-
ever, three cities by that name to which this
reference may apply, one in Thrace, near
Macedonia, another in Cilicia, and a third in
Epirus ; so that the name does not help us
much to fix the apostle's locality. It is prob-
able, however, that Nicopolis in Epirus M-as
the one referred to. If we accept the early
tradition that Paul went to Spain (see above),
we may suppose that he did so after having
been in Asia and Macedonia ; that after that,
on his return from Spain, he stopped at Crete
and left Titus on that island ; then that he
returned to Asia, from which place he doubt-
less wrote the Epistle to Titus. We learn
from 2 Tim. iv. 20 that he had passed through
Corinth and Miletum, the one in Greece, the
other in Asia. There is nothing to show
whether he carried out his intention of win-
tering in Nicopolis. Many suppose, how-
ever, that he did go to Nicopolis in Epirus,
and was there rearrested and sent to Rome.
But while the apostle's movements during
this closing period of his life are somewhat
uncertain, the epistles then written show
that he occupied himself, in addition to
evangelizing new regions, with the perfect-
ing of the organization of the already exist-
ing churches. He evidently felt that his
career must soon close, and that the churches
would be exposed to new dangers, from both
without and within. Hence the pastoral
epistles, as they are called, round out the
apostle's instruction of the churches by solid-
ifying their organization and practically
equipping them for their future work.

The release of Paul from his first Roman
imprisonment probably occurred in a. d. 63,
and his subsequent activity lasted about four
years. According to Eusebius, his death
took place in A. D. 67 ; according to Jerome,
in A. D. 68. How he came to be rearrested
we do not know. There are a few slight
hints furnished, however, by the Second
Epistle to Timothy, which was written from
Eome shortly before his death. We should
remember, moreover, that in A. D. 64 Nero's
persecution of the Christians in Rome broke
out ; and it was doubtless followed by sporad-
ic outbreaks against them in the provinces
(1 Pet. iv. 13-19). It may be, as some have
supposed, that Paul was informed against as
a leader of the now proscribed sect by the
Alexander mentioned in 2 Tira. iv. 14. At any
rate, and wherever he was arrested, he waa

Paul

558

Paul

sent to Rome for trial, either because, as before,
he appealed to Csesar, or because he was
charged with a crime committed in Italy,
perhaps with complicity in the burning of
Rome, or because the i)roviucials wished to
gratify Nero by sending so notable a prisoner
to the capital. Only Luke, of his former
friends, was with him when 2 Tim. was writ-
ten (2 Tim. iv. 11). Some had even deserted
him (i. 15 ; iv. 10, 16), while others had gone
away on various errands (10, 12). Yet when
arraigned before the tribunal he was at first
not condemned (17), though he continued to
be held on .some other charge. Possibly he
was able to disprove a charge of criminal
conduct, but was retained in custody because
he was a Christian. He speaks of himself as
a prisoner (i. 8) in bonds (16), as if an evil-
doer (ii. 9), and regards his fate as sealed
(iv. 6-8). No doubt he was finally con-
demned to death simply because he was a
Christian, in accordance with the policy
begun by Nero in a. d. 64. Tradition relates
that the apostle was beheaded, as became a
Roman citizen, on the Ostian Way.

In giving this outline of the life of the apos-
tle Paul, we have necessarily followed the ex-
press testimony of The Acts and epistles. But
it should not be forgotten that many other
events occurred in his active and checkered
career. To some of these allusions are made
in his epistles (Rom. xv. 18, 19 : 2 Cor. xi.
24-33). Yet the well-known events of his
life, taken with his epistles, make plain the
character of the man and the supreme value
of his work. It is difficult to gather into one
picture the many features of his versatile
character. He was by nature intensely re-
ligious and his religion controlled his whole
being. This was true of him even as a Jew,
much more after his conversion. Keenly
intellectual, he grasped truth at its full value
and logically wrought out its implications.
Yet truth posses,sed his heart equally with
his intellect, and his emotions were as fervid
as his logical processes were vigorous. At
the same time the practical aspects of truth
were seen by him no less than its theoretical
side. If on the one hand he fully wrought
out dialectically the content of his doctrinal
ideas, on the other hand he applied Christi-
anity to life with the wisdom and complete-
ness of a ])ractical man of atfairs. He w'as
intense in his affections, at times ecstatic in
his religious experiences, ever progressive in
his statements of truth, capable of soaring to
the loftiest heights of religious thought, and
of embodying in action the truth for which
he stood. This versatility, intensity, purity,
breadth of mental and spiritual life, when
used by the all-controlling Spirit of God,
fitted Paul for the work for which the provi-
dence of God intended him.

And that work consisted in authoritatively
interpreting to the gentile world, in action
and in written statement, the mission and
message of Christ. How Paul did this in

action is narrated in the book of The Acts.
Through his agency the universalism of
Christianity, its independence of the Jewish
ritual, its adajitatinn to all mankind, was
historically established. Other men also con-
tributed to the result. But it was Paul's
divinely given task to bear the burden of
this achievement, and to him, as to no other
man, Christianity owes its possession of a
worldwide destiny. All this was done, of
course, in accordance with the purpose of
Christ and under his direction. But the
student of Christian history must recognize
in Paul the principal agent used to accom-
plish the result. On the other hand, the
epistles of Paul disclose in written state-
ment the doctrinal and ethical interpretiition
of Christ's word and work, which accompa-
nied Paul's missionary activity and made it
profound and permanent. It is, therefore,
to Paul as a theologian that we rightly look
with the greatest admiration. His theology
took shape from the peculiar experience of
his own conversion. By that sudden transi-
tion he was made to realize the impossibility
of man's saving himself, the dependence of
the sinner on the sovereign grace of God,
and the completeness of the redeeming work
which Jesus, the Son of God, had done
through death and resurrection. It followed
that only by union with Christ through faith
can any man be saved. Salvation consists in
justification of the sinner by God on the
ground of Christ's obedience, and when thus
justified the sinner, being united to Christ,
is made to partake of all the spiritual bene-
fits, external and internal, in heaven and on
earth, which Christ has purchased for him.
The Spirit inspired Paul to set forth on this
foundation the truth of Christ's whole work
and person. In the epistles to the Galatians
and Romans the way of salvation itself is
most fully elaborated, while in the epistles
of the imprisonment the exalted dignity of
Christ, and the whole breadth and end of
God's eternal purpose of grace in Christ and
his church find their full expression. Be-
sides these principal themes, almost every
phase of Christian truth and duty is touched
upon in his epistles. His is emphatically
the theology of grace. He sounded the
depths of this truth. He interpreted the
Hebrew Messiah to the gentile world. He
was raised up to explain to the world the
Saviour in whom it was invited to believe
and the work which the Saviour had done.
Paul was preeminently the theologian of the
apostles as well as the most aggressive mis-
sionary. It is not i)ossi))le to understand
Christianity, unless we unite with the teach-
ing and work of Jesus Christ the interpreta-
tion thereof furnished by his ajiostle Paul.

ChronoUxiy of PniiVs life. While the order
of events in Paul's life and the relative dates
of his epistles are in the main quite clear,
there is some dispute concerning the preci.se
years to which both events and epistles are

Paul

559

Paul

to be assigned. In the book of The Acts two
dates may be rejjarded as certain, viz., the
a.scension of Christ in .v. D. 30 (though some
scholars assign this to .\. D. 2ft) and the deatli
of Herod Agrippa (Acts xii. 23), which all ad-
mit to have taken place in a. d. 44. Neither
of these dates, however, is of much assistance
in determining the absolute chronology of
I'auTs life. That depends mainly on the
date assigned to the accession of Festus as
procurator of Judtea. According to the
common and most probable opinion Festus
became governor (xxiv. 27) in A. d. 60.
Josephus assigns nearly all the events during
the governorship of Felix to the reign of
Nero, which began in October, a. d. 54, and
Paul (10) speaks of Felix as having been
"of many years a judge unto this nation."
It is hardly possible, therefore, to assign
Paul's arrest when he appeared before Felix
to a date earlier than A. D. 58. Then Paul
was kept two years in confinement in
Cfpsarea, which would make the accession
of Festus, who then succeeded Felix, to have
taken place in a. d. 60. It can hardly have
been later, since Festus was succeeded by
Albinus in A. D. 62. and the events recorded
of him imply that he was governor for more
than a year. Rut if Festus became governor
in A. D. 60, Paul was sent to Rome in the
autumn of that year, and arrived at Eome
in the spring of A. D. 61, having spent the
winter on the way. Then the close of The
Acts, and probably the apostle's release from
his fii^st Roman imprisonment, are to be dated
in A. D. 63 (xxviii. 30).

For the earlier events of Paul's life, we
date back from the accession of Festus. As-
suming the latter to have been in a. d. 60,
then Paul's arrest, which occurred two years
before (.\cts xxiv. 27), was in a. d. 58. This
was at the close of his third journey. The
winter preceding his arrest he had spent in
Corinth (xx. 3), the preceding autumn in
^Macedonia (2), and before that, for three
years, he had been in Ephesus (31), to which
lie had gone from Antioch after a rapid tour
through Galatia and Phrygia (xviii. 23).
Hence four years must be allowed for the
third journey. If he was arrested in Jeru-
salem in the spring of A. D. 58, he must have
begiin this journey in the spring of A. D. 54.
The third journey followed the second by a
moderate interval (23), and for the latter at
least two years and a half must be allowed,
since eighteeen months were spent at Corinth
(11), and the preceding events of the tour
may fairly be supposed to have occupied a
year more (xv. .'J6-xvii. 34). If, therefore,
the second journey closed in the autumn of
A. D. 53, it probably began in the spring of
A. D. 51. The second journey in turn began
some days (xv. 36) after the council of Jerusa-
lem. This latter epoch-making event may,
therefore, be assigned to the year a. d. 50.
The first mi.s.sionary journey can only be
roughly located between a. d. 44, the date

of Herod's death (xii.), and a. d. 50, the date
of the council (xv.). We may probably assign
it to the years A. D. 46-48, though it is not
possible to say how long a time it consumed.
For the date of Paul's conversion, we must
combine the results given above with his
statements in the Epistle to the Galatians.
In Gal. ii. 1 he says: "Then fourteen years
after I went up again to Jerusalem with
Barnal)as." This visit is undiiubiedly the
one to the council which we have located in
a. d. 50. But from what event are these
fourteen years to be counted? According to
some conmientators. they are to be reckoned
from his conversion mentioned in Gal. i. 15.
If so, his conversion was in A. d. 36 or 37,
according as we count the fourteen years ex-
clusively or inclusively of the first one of
them. But in Gal. i. 18 Paul notes that he
first visited Jerusalem three years after his
conversion. Hence it is more natural to date
the fourteen j'ears of Gal. ii. 1 from the close
of the previously mentioned three years. In
that case, according as we reckon exclusively
or inclusively, his conversion was in a. d. 33
or 35. It is most in accordance with Hebrew
custom to reckon inclusively. Hence we
may assign bis conversion to A. D. 35, his first
subsequent visit to Jerusalem (Gal. i. 18) to
A. D. 37, and the fourteen years after (ii. 1)
to A. D. 50. As already remarked, all of
these dates are disputed. Some assign the
accession of Festus to A. D. 55, and therefore
push back all the other dates five years ear-
lier than those given above. Other critics
vary on special points. Some assign Paul's
death to A. T>. 64, supposing that he died in
the first year of Nero's persecution. But the
dates given above appear to be by far the
most probable. They yield, with some other
details, the following table :
Death, resurrection, and ascension

of Christ A. D. 30

Conversion of Paul " 35 (?)

First subsequent visit to Jeru.salem

(Gal. i. 18) "37

Paul at Tarsus " 37-43

Visit to Jerusalem with the gifts

from Antioch (Acts xi. 30) . . "44

First missionary journey " 46-48 (?)

Council at .Ternsalem . ". "50

Second missionary journey .... " 51-53

1 and 2 Thes.s"alonians "52

Third missionary journey " 54-58

Galatians "55

1 Corinthians " 56 or 57

2 " "57

Romans " 57-58

Arrest "58

Imprisonment in Ca;sarea " 58-60

Accession of Festus "60

Paul arrives at Rome "61

Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians " 61 or 62

Philippians ■ • . . " 62 or 63

Release from first Roman impris-
onment "63

1 Timothy " 64 or 65

Titus " 65 or 66

Hebrews, if by Paul " 66 or 67

2 Timothy "67

Death of Paiil "67

G. T. P.

Pavement

560

Pekah

Pave'ment. See Gabbatha.

Pe.

The seventeenth letter of the Hebrew al-
phabet. It comes from the same source as
English P, but was pronounced like )) or ph,
according to its position. It is accordingly-
represented in anglicized Hebrew names,
though too often arbitrarily, by either p or
ph. It heads the seventeenth section of Ps.
cxix., in which section each verse of the
original begins with this letter.

Copyists sometimes experienced difficulty
in distinguishing pe from beth (q. v.).

Peace Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Pea'cock.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew word
Tiihki. The rendering is doubtless correct,
for, along witli ivory and apes, tukkiyyim
were imported by Solomon in ships of Tar-
shish (1 Kin. x. 22; 2 Chron. ix. 21). Now
the words for ivory and ape are of Indian
origin, and tuhki also finds a satisfactory
origin in Malabar tofiei, Old Tamil tokei,
togei, a peacock. The peacock {Pavo cristatus)
is a native of India, where it may be found
in the jungles, generally running pretty rap-
idly away when disturbed. As the natives
do not allow it to be molested, it often makes
its Avay into the villages.

2. See OsTKicH 2. -
Pearl.

A precious article of commerce (Mat. xiii.
45, 46 ; Rev. xxi. 21 ; also Job xxviii. 18, in
E. V. crystal), used as an ornament by women
(1 Tim. ii. 9; Rev. xvii. 4). Pearls are found
inside the .shells of several species of Mulliisca.
They consist of carbonate of lime interstrati-
fied with animal membrane, and are formed
by the deposit of the nacreous substance
around some foreign body within the mantle
lobes, such as a grain of sand, which acts as
an irritant and serves as a nucleus. This
substance is the same as the mother of pearl,
which forms the lustrous inner lining of the
shell. Pearls of large size and fine quality
are yielded by the pearl oyster {Meleagrhia
margarififera), which abounds in the Indian
seas, especially in the Persian Gulf and near
Ceylon. It sometimes attains a length of 10
or 12 inches.

Ped'a-hel [God hath saved].

A prince of the tribe of Naphtali in the
■wilderness (Num. xxxiv. 28).

Pe-dah'zur [a rock, i. e., God, hath saved].

Father of the prince of Manasseh in the
wilderness (Num. i. 10; ii. 20).

Pe-da'iah [Jehovah hath saved].

1. The father of Joel, prince of Manasseh
(1 Chron. xxvii. 20).

2. A citizen of Rumah and maternal grand-
father of king Jehoiakim (2 Kin. xxiii. 36).

3. A brother of Shealtiel or possibly, though
not probably, his son (1 Chron. lit. 18, 19).
See Zerubbabel.

4. A descendant of Parosh. He rebuilt I

and rei)aired part of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. iii. 2.5).

5. One of those, jtrobably priests, who
stood on Ezra's left hand when he addressed
the people (Neh. viii. 4).

6. A Benjamite of the family of Jeshaiah
(Neh. xi. 7).

7. A Levite; one of those appointed by
Nehemiah over the treasures (Neh. xiii. 13).

Pe'kah [an opening (of the eyes), deliver-
ance] .

Son of Ecmaliah. He was a captain under
Pekahiah ; but he conspired against his king,
slew him, and reigned in his stead. He ad-
hered to the calf worship of Jeroboam I. (2
Kin. XV. 25-28). When Jotham's reign was
drawing to a close, Pekah entered into an alli-
ance with Rezin, king of Syria, against Judah.
They purposed to dethrone the king, anl
place the crown on a creature of their own.
The allied kings began their great invasion
of Judah just as the reins of government
l)assed from Jotham into the hands of Ahaz.
The Syrians advanced through the country-
east of the Jordan to Elath, intending to
rendezvous at Jerusalem. Pekah led his
army directly toward the capital of Judah,
burning and pillaging as he went. The in-
habitants of .Jerusalem were greatly alarmed.
Isaiah, however, was directed to encourage
the king and the people with the assurance
that the plan of the enemy would fail, and
to exhort them to put their trust in Jehovah.
Ahaz spurned the advice, preferring to trust
to the king of Assyria, and purchased the
aid of Tiglath-pileser. The advance of the
Assyrian army through Galilee (2 Kin. xv.
29) to Philistia, in 734 B. c, compelled the
allied kings to withdraw their troops from
Judah in order to protect their own domin-
ions. Pekah carried ofi" a multitude of ca]i-
tives as he departed ; but on the remonstrance
of the prophet Oded, he clothed and fed them
and sent them home (2 Kin. xvi. 5-9; 2
Chron. xxviii. 5-15 ; Is. vii. 1-13). During
the next two years Tiglath-pileser was at
Damascus, doubtless leading his army across
the territory of Israel as he marched from
Philistia. From Damascus detachments of
the A.ssyrian army were sent forth, which
overran the country east of the Jordan and
carried ofl" many Israelites captive (1 Chron.
V. 26). lu 730 B.C. Hoshea murdered Pekah
and ascended the throne in his stead (2 Kin.
XV. 30). This deed was accomplished with
the connivance of Tiglath-pileser, as the As-
syrian records relate. The present Hebrew
text assigns twenty years to the reign of
Pekah (2 Kin. xv. 27). It is impossible that
he occui)ied the throne of Samaria during all
these years, ft)r Menahcm, a predecessor of his,
was on the throne about 7.38 B. c, in the reign
of Tiglath-pileser (2 Kin. xv. 19). Critics
of all schools accordinglj' admit that twenty
years are much too long. There is a bare
possibility, however, that the Hebrew writer,

1

Fekahiah

561

Pelican

when he summarizes the reign of Pekah,
and states that "in the tifty-socoud year of
Uzziah Pekah reigued ovei* Israel in Samaria
— twenty years," does not mean that Pekah
reigned all of these twenty years in Samaria.
Pekaii was associated with Gileadites (2 Kin.
XV. 2.")). It is just possible that he set up his
authority in northern Gilead and Galilee in
749 B. c, during the confusion which accom-
panied the death of Jeroboam II.. and main-
tained his power during the greater part of
Menahem's reign, being the cause of Mena-
hem's feeling of insecurity until Tiglath-
jiileser invaded the north and established
^lenahem's swav over the whole country
(2 Kin. XV. 19)'. Then Pekah, like Abner
before him, abandoned opposition, professed
loyalty, and was given a high military posi-
tion in the service of the king to whom he
had hitherto refused obedience. After Men-
ahem's death and in the absence of Tiglath-
pileser, and perhaps backed by Rezin, he
seized the throne in the fifty-second year of
Uzziah and again reigned. See Cheo-

NOLOCiY.

Pek-a-hi'ah [Jehovah hath given sight or
delivered].

Son and successor of Menahem in the king-
dom of Israel. He came to the throne about
7.37 B. c, and reigned two years, adhering to
the calf worship of Jeroboam I. He was
assassinated in his palace at Samaria by
Pekah, a captain of his. who then usurped
the throne (2 Kin. xv. 23-26).

Pe'kod.

A locality in Babylonia and its inhabitants
(Jer. 1. 21; Ezek. xxiii. 23); doubtless the
Pukudu, a Babylonian people.

Pe-la'iah [Jehovah hath made illustrious].

1. One of the Levites who with Ezra
caused the people to understand the law
(Neh. viii. 7) and sealed the covenant (x. 10).

2. A man of Judah, descended from Shec-
aniah (1 Chron. iii. 24).

Pel-a-li'ah [Jehovah hath judged].
A ])riest descended from Malchijah (Neh.
xi.i2).

Pel-a-ti'ah [Jehovah hath set free].

1. One of the Simeonite captains in the
successful war between that tribe and the
Amalekites (1 Chron. iv. 42).

2. A prince of Israel, and son of Benaiah.
He misled the people. In vision Ezekiel saw
him, and he proi)hesied against him, and
Pelatiah suddenly died (Ezek. xi. 1-13: cp.
viii. 1, 3; xi. 24).

3. A sou of Hananiah, and a grandson of
Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 21). Perhaps he
was the person of this name who was a chief
of the jieople and with Nehemiah sealed the
covenant (Neh. x. 22).

Pe'leg, in A. V. of N. T. Phalec [division].

A son or descendant of Eber (Gen. x. 2.5;
xi. 16). He takes his name from the fact
that in his days the earth was divided. The
36

division alluded to may be the separation of
the descendants of Arpachshad from the
Joktanide Arabs (x. 24-29) ; or it may refer
to the .scattering of the descendants of Noah
in consequence of the confusion of tongues
at Babel.

Pe'let [liberation].

1. A son of Jahdai, of the tribe of Judah
(1 Chron. ii. 47).

2. A Benjamite who joined David while
he was at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

Pe'leth [swiftness].

1. A Eeubenite, father of that On who
joined in Korah's rebellion (Num. xvi. 1).

2. A man of Judah, family of Ilezron,
house of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. ii. 33).

Pel'e-thites.

Certain members of David's bodyguard.
Apparently they were from the Philistine,
country, as were the Cherethites and the
men of Gath, who were their comrades in
arms. They were faithful to David during
the calamities of his later years, and took a
prominent part in the war in which Absalom
lost his cause and his life (2 Sam. xv. 18-22).
They also helped in the fight with Sheba
(xx. 7). The name which they bear is doubt-
less a gentile adjective, like those with which
it is connected ; but it is not a contraction
of P'lishti, Philistine, as some scholars have
supposed.

Pel'i-can.

The rendering of the Hebrew word Ka'ath,
probably meaning the vomiter. The word is
twice translated cormorant in the text of
A. V. (Is. xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 14) ; but else-
where pelican, as everywhere in E. V. The
bird was ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi. 18 ;

Pelieaii.

Dent. xiv. 17), lived in the wilderness (Ps.
cii. 6), and frequented ruins (Isa. xxxiv. 11;
Zeph. ii. 14). It is probably the common or
roseate pelican (Pelecanus onocrofalus), though
rivers and lakes, rather than ruined cities, un-
less the ruins are interspersed with marshes,

Pelonite

562

Pentateuch

are its appropriate place of abode. Its four
toes, beiug all connected by large webs, adapt
it for aquatic life. It sometimes, however,
perches on trees. Its bill is large and fur-
rowed, and has under it a large pouch in
which the bird carries the fish on which its
young feed. Its height is from 5 to 6 feet ;
the expansion of its wings 12 or 13. A few
individuals are found on the sea of Galilee ;
a much larger number on the shallow lakes
of Egypt and on the Nile.

Pel'o-nite.

A word corresponding in 1 Chron. xi. 27;
xxvii. 10 to Paltite in 2 Sam. xxiii, 2H, and
in 1 Chron. xi. 36 apparently to Gilouite in
2 Sam. XV. 12; xxiii. 34. In 1 Chron. xxvii.
10 the person who is designated by this
epithet is further said to be of the children
of Ephraim. No person or place is known
from which this adjective could be derived ;
certainly not from Pallu, who was a Reubenite
and whose descendants were called Palluites
(Num. xxvi. 5). In view of these circum-
stances, Pelonite is not unreasonably believed
to be either a corruption of the text or else
to mean "such and such a one," as it does
in other connection (e. g. 1 Sam. xxi. 2), and
to have been inserted in the passages men-
tioned by a scribe who could not read the orig-
inal word in the text which he was copying.

Pen.

1. A stylus or graving tool made of iron
and used by writers for cutting letters on
stone (Job xix. 24 ; Ps. xlv. 1 ; Jer. viii. 8 ;
xvii. 1). In Hebrew it is called 'et and once
heret (Is. viii. 1).

2. A reed pen used for writing with ink on
papyrus (3 John 13 ; cp. 2 John 12). The
mention of a penknife or knife of a writer
in Jeremiah xxxvi. 23, and of a roll in which
the prophet's words were written, imply that
reed pens had beeu introduced among the
Israelites by the time of Jehoiakim.

The Hebrew words rendered pen of the
writer in Judg. v. 14, A. V. mean literally
staff of a marshal or scribe (E. V.).

Pe-ni'el. See Penuel 2.

Pe-nin'nah [ruby or coral].
One of Elkanah's two wives, the other
being Hannah (1 Sam. i. 2-6).

Pen.'ny.

The rendering of the Greek Denarion. It
was the denarius, a silver coin of the Eomans
(Mat. xxii. 19-21), worth about 17 cents in the
time of Christ (xviii. 28, R. V. margin). See
Money. It was the ordinary pay of an
agricultural laborer for a day (Mat. xx. 2, 9,
13). Two were given to the innkeeper by
the good Samaritan for looking after the
wounded Jew, though he promised to sup-
plement this sura if the expense should ex-
ceed it (Luke X. 35). The apostles calculated
that 200 would be needed to buy sufficient
bread to feed 5000 people (Mark vi. 37).
This would be one denarius for each twenty-

five, or two thirds of a cent to each person.
The prices in Rev. vi. 6 were those asked
during a dearth.

Pen'ta-teuch [Greek pentaieuchos, consist-
ing of five books].

The first five books of the O. T., viz.,
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy. The word nowhere occurs in
Scripture, the Israelites calling these books
collectively the law (Josh. i. 7 ; Mat. v. 17),
the law of Moses (1 Kin. ii. 3 ; Ezra vii. 6 ;
Luke ii. 22), the law of the Lord (2 Chron.
xxxi. 3; Luke ii. 23), the book of the law
(Josh. i. 8), the book of Moses (2 Chron. xxv.
3, 4), the book of the law of Moses (Josh,
viii. 31), the book of the law of God (Josh,
xxiv. 26), the book of the law of the Lord
(2 Chron. xvii. 9). This fact suggests that
the five books were considered as one ; and
they still are so in Hebrew manuscripts,
though severally cited by their opening
words. The division into five distinct books is
mentioned by Josephus (con. Apion. i. 8). It
may have originated with the Greek trans-
lators or been ancient. But whether or not
the Septuagint translators adopted or origin-
ated this five-fold division, from them at
least emanated the modern names Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteron-
omy.*

* The division of the law of Moses into five
books furnished the model, it is thought, for the
similar division of the Psalter. If it did, it is
ancient: fur the Psalter was early divided into
five books. Proof that it did is sought in the
alleged discovery that the contents of each
book are so arranged that the opening psalm
sliall correspond to the respective book of the
Pentateuch. Ps. i., with its comparison of the
righteous to a tree planted by the rivers of
water, is a reminder of the garden of Eden in
the first book of the Pentateuch. Ps. xlii., with
which the second book of the Psalter opens, is
the cry of a man in distress, oppressed by the
enemy, and thinking liimself forgotten by God,
but anticipating deliverance out of all his
trouble. It recalls the affliction of Israel in
Egypt and their deliverance, as related in Ex-
odus. In Ps. l.xxiii., with which tlie third boo]j
begins, the doubts of the psalmist regardingthe
justice of God's dealing with men vanish when
he considers the end of the wickiMl. Tlie psahn
is supposed to reflect gratitude for God's good-
ness in giving the law of Leviticus, which was
an abiding mercy. Ps. xc, a prayer of .Moses,
in which God is besought to teach iisto number
our days, corresponds to Numbers. Ps. cvii.,
wliicli begins the fifth book, speaks of the good-
ness of the Lord in the days of trouble, and is
thus like Deuteronomy, which recapitulates the
instances of God's loving kindness to Israel. It
must be confessed tliat the correspondence is
ratlier fanciful : and if an editor set alj(mt secur-
ing correspondence, it is strange tliat he did not
a(]opt a more appropriate arrangement. Ps.
viii., with its reference to the heavens, the work
of God's fingers, to tlie moon and stars which he
ordained, and to man whom he made and to
whom he gave dominion over all creatures,
would have better corresponded with Gen. i.
Ps. Ixvi. of the second book, which tells of the
works of God, how he turned the sea into(]ry
land for the people to pass through, and how he
tried the Israelites, laid sore burdens on them

Pentateuch

563

Pentateuch

The events recorded iu the first book of
the Pentateuch were transmitted to the time
of Moses, as is now known, by tradition oral
and written ; the subsequent occurrences
fell under his own observation, and he was
himself an actor in the most stirring events.
Writing was practiced long before the time of
Moses. It was common in Egypt, where he was
educated ; iu Arabia, through a portion of
which he passed ; and iu Canaan where his
ancestors had sojourned and whither he was
leading the people. Though the five books
themselves are not attributed as a whole to
Moses in any verse which they contain, yet
the Pentateuch testifies expressly to the
Mosaic authorship of its contents. Two pas-
sages of the narrative portion are attributed
to his pen ; the account of the victory over
Amalek (Ex. xvii. 14), and the itinerary of
the march of the Israelites from Egypt to
the plains of Moab opposite Jericho (Num.
xxxiii. 2). A didactic song, reciting the
dealing of the Most High with Israel, is de-
clared to have been written and uttered by
iloses (Deut. xxxi. 19, 2J, 30; xxxii. 44j.
The legal portion consists of three distinct
bodies of law. The first is entitled the book
of the covenant, and comprises the ten com-
mandments which formed the fundamental
law of the nation, and specific regulations
based on them (Ex. xx.-xxiii.). This book
Moses is expressly said to have written ( Ex.
xxiv. 4). The second body of laws pertains
to the sanctuary and service (Ex. xxv.-xxxi.,
XXXV. -xl., Leviticus, and major legal part
of Numbers). This legislation is constantly
declared to have been revealed by the Lord
to Moses (Ex. xxv. 1, etc.). The third body
of legislation expressly and repeatedly claims
to be the address of Moses to the new gen-
eration of people on the eve of their entrance
into Canaan. It contains a brief rehearsal
of the way which God has led them and
then repeats sundry portions of the law with
the special object of exhibiting its spiritu-
ality, emphasizing the features which are of
vital religious importance in the new circum-
stances in which the people will soon be
placed, and modifying details to adapt the
laws to the new requirements of the settled
life in Canaan. Closes wrote this address
and delivered it into the custody of the
Levites (Deut. xxxi. 9, •24-*26). These are
the explicit claims, scattered throughout the
Pentateuch itself, to its Mosaic authorship.
The remainder of the O. T. refers to the law
as the work of Moses and written in a book
(Josh. i. 7, 8; Ezra vi. 18; Xeh. viii. 1. 18);
and abounds in explicit references to the law
of Moses (Josh. i. 7, 8 ; viii. 31-35 ; Judg. iii. 4 ;

and caused men to ride over their heads, and
then brought them out into a wealthy place,
should have opened the book. It has an obvious
reference to the events recorded in Exodus,
whereas Ps. xlii. has not. Ps. Ixxvi. or Lxxviii.
should form the opening of the third book in
order to correspond appropriately to Leviticus.

1 Kin. ii. 3 ; 2 Kin. xviii. 6, 12 ; cp. Deut.
xxiv. ]() ; 2 Kin. xxi. 7, 8 ; Dan. ix. 11, 13 ;
Ezra iii. 2; vi. 18; vii. 6; Neh. viii. 1, Is ;
Mai. iv. 4). One feature of this law, namely,
the law of the one altar, was in abeyance
during the captivity and seclusion of the
ark after the Lord had forsaken Shiloh
(1 Sam. iv. 11, 21, 22; vi. 1; vii. 2; Ps.
Ixxviii. 60; Jer. vii. 12-15; xxvi. (i). Dur-
ing this period the people under the leader-
shij) of Samuel sacrificed where they could
(1 Kin. iii. 2-4), as their fathers had done
in the olden time before the covenant had
been entered into between Jehovah and the
Israelites, of which the law and the ark
were the sign and pledge. Once again this
specific law was in abeyance. The pious Israel-
ites of the northern kingdom were i)revented
from going up to Jerusalem to worsliiji.
They had to choose between refraining from
sacrifice altogether or worshiping God as did
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They properly
chose the latter alternative. All other cases
of sacrifice otlered elsewhere than at the
central sanctuary were strictly in accord
with the law which exjiressly provided that
wherever Jehovah manifested his name, there
sacrifice was fitting (Ex. xx. 24; and see
Judg. ii. 1, 5; vi. 19-24; xiii. 15-22). The
law of Moses was known and its authority
acknowledged even in the northern king-
dom. The prophets Hosea and Amos, who
labored among the ten tribes, although
they do not mention the name of Moses,
constantly refer to the laws recorded in the
Pentateuch and use its very language. At
a still later time the temple copy of the book
of the law was unused and cast aside during
the half century of Mauasseh's reign when
the religion of Jehovah was neglected ; but
when the temple was being cleaned, prepara-
tory to the restoration of .Jehovah's worship,
the book was found, or so much of it at lea.st
as contained Deuteronomy (2 Kin. xxii. b ;
'xxiii. 25). Daniel, Ezra, and Xeheniiah
allude to the written law of Moses. That
Closes was the author of the Pentateuch was
the opinion of the Jews of Christ's time
(Mark xii. 19 : John viii. 5 ; Antici. preface 4 ;
con. Apion. i. 6). Christ and the evan-
gelists call the Pentateuch Moses and the
book of Moses (Mark xii. 26 ; Luke xvi. 2!) ;
xxiv. 27. 44), and speak of its having been
given by Moses and committed to writing by
Moses (Mark x. 5 ; xii. 19; John i. 17; v. 46,
47 ; vii. 19).

The Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch
is impugned. The principal objections for-
merly urged again.st it were several verses
in which reference has been found to times
subsequent to the death of Moses. 1. In
Gen. xii. 6 we read: "And the Canaanite
was then in the land " (cp. xiii. 7). The
meaning assigned to these words is that the
Canaanites had ceased to be there when the
writer lived. The words, however, actually
state only that the Canaanites were in the

Fentateuch

564

Pentateuch

c'oimtry when Abraham was there, and were
occupying the promised laud. 2. lu Gen.
xiv. 14 we read that Abraham pursued
the defeated confederates to Dan. In the
l)atriarch's time, however, the place was
called Laish, the name Dan not having been
gi%'en it till the time of the judges (Judg.
xviii. 29). The question is, however, whether
Dan in Genesis is the place mentioned in
the Book of Judges. If it is, the more
familiar name may have been substituted in
the place of Laish in the course of repeated
transcription. The Hebrew text has not
been preserved in absolute purity. 3. In
Gen. xxxvi. 31 the words occur: "Before
there reigned any king over the children of
Israel," as if the Hebrew monarchy under
Saul had already been established when the
author wrote. But the kings of Edom who
are mentioned in ver. 32-43 reigned before
Moses ; and Moses notes that the descendants
of Esau already had kings, although Hhe Isra-
elites, to whom the promise had been given
that kings should arise among them (Gen.
xvii.6, 16; xxxv. 11), as yet had none. 4. Moses
is said to be beyond Jordan, meaning east of
the river, as though the writer himself were
in Canaan (Deut. i. 1). The expression, how-
ever, does not imply this. Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob spoke of that region as "beyond
Jordan," and the designation became a fixed
geographical term. Moreover that country
was not Canaan, not the promised land.
Moses was still beyond Jordan. No matter
on which side of the river the people were,
they designated the mountains east of the
Dead Sea Abarim, those beyond, and in later
times they called the country between the
Jabbok and the Arnon Persea, region beyond.
5. It is univei'sally admitted that Deut. xxxiv.
5-12, in wliitli the death of Moses is recorded
andcomi)arisoii made between him and proph-
ets subsequently raised up (5, 10, etc.), cannot
have been from his pen. But an addition of
this sort does not militate against the Mosaic
authorship of the Pentateuch as a whole.

The orthodox theologian and commentator
Vitringa expressed the opinion in 1707, in
the interest of the credibility of Genesis,
that Moses edited and supplemented records
left by the fathers and preserved among the
Israelites. In 1753, Jean Astruc, a French
physician of ability, but profligate, attempted
to discriminate two leading authors in Gene-
sis, whose writings Moses used and who are
distinguished by their employment respec-
tively of the words Elohim, that is God, and
Jehovah. Besides the writings of these
two, he thought he could detect ten minor
documents relating chiefly to foreign nations
and in which no name of God is found. Tliis
hypothesis was adopted by Eichhorn, and
elaborated with learning and ingenuity. He
steadfastly insisted that Moses compiled Gen-
esis, and was the author of the rest of the
Pentateuch. It was soon discovered, how-
ever, that the principles which govern the

partition of Genesis were capable of being
applied with similar results to the entire
Pentateuch ; and if so, the original docu-
ments covered the history of Moses' own
time, and were scarcely put together by
Moses to form the present Pentateuch. The
grounds on which the partition is made are
chiefly four : 1. The alternate use of the
divine names God and Lord in successive
paragraphs or sections. 2. The continuity
of each so-called document when taken sepa-
rately. 3. The diversity of style, diction,
and ideas in the ditterent documents. 4.
Repetitions or parallel passages, often contra-
dictory, indicative of distinct documents.
Starting in simple form, the hypothesis un-
derwent constant modification under careful
criticism in order to remove the difiiculties
which beset it. The form which it now as-
sumes is that four principal original docu-
ments were used by an editor or redactor in
compiling the Pentateuch : an Elohistic, in
which the divine title is Elohim, and which
supplies about one-half the matter; a Jeho-
vistic and another Elohistic, which have
many mutual likenesses and are closely
united ; and finally the document of the
Deuteronomist. The second and third docu-
ments, referred to as J E, are regarded as
the oldest and dated about 1000-bOO B. C.
Deuteronomy or D is assigned to the year
621 B. c. (2 Kin. xxii. 8). And the first men-
tioned, usually denominated P to indicate
that its author was a priest, is commonly
dated at the close of the exile. To each of
these main divisions there is a code of law ;
to J E, Ex. xx.-xxiii. ; to D, Deut. xii.-xxvi. ;
and to P the priestly and other legislation
of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. It will
be observed that there are two distinct
matters involved in the modern theory :
first, the existence of documents out of
which the Pentateuch was constructed, and,
second, the date of these documents. Well-
hausen dates them as above, holding that the
legislation of Leviticus is later than that of
Deuteronomy. But 1. This theory involves
the denial of the truth of the historical narra-
tive in the O. T., not the assertion of occa-
sional or minute inaccuracies, but the rejec-
tion of the credibility of the O. T. narrative
almost as a whole. Wellhauscn makes no con-
cealment of the fact. 2. Furthermore, to date
the so-called documents so late is forbidden by
the fact of the development of doctrine. In
the Pentateuch, the conceptions entertained
and the doctrine taught concerning the future
state, divine retribution, the spiritual char-
acter of true worship, angels, and the Mes-
siah are rudimentary. They appear in de-
veloped form in late books, in Job, the Psalms,
and the prophets; a strong argument that
the writer of the Pentateuch lived at an
earlier age and in a different intellectual en-
vironment. Dillmann, while accepting the
existence of documents, opposed Wellhau-
sen's arrangement, insisting that history re-

Pentateuch

565

Pentateuch

quired the existence of the Levitical legisla-
tion before that of Deuteronomy, and so far
he is more in accord witli the teaching of
.Scripture. 3. The early existence of the laws
and institutions of the IVutateuch is attested
by the traces of them in the writings of the
early projihets. A short time since, it was
customary to admit the geuuinene.ss of the
pas.sages where these traces are found, but to
deny that they were derived from Deuter-
onomic or priestly documents. Now it is
universally conceded that these laws and in-
stitutions were in full force when the pas-
sages were written ; but the logical result of
this concession, namely that the Pentateuchal
law and organization were in existence in the
eighth century B. c, is avoided by declaring
that these references are late interpolations
in the genuine writings of the prophets. As
a rule no proof for this dechiration is offered.
The decision is magisterial. It is pronounced
without appeal from the master's mere as-
sertion. Believers in the Mosaic authorship
of the Levitical and Deuteronomic law point
with confidence to the evident indissoluble-
ness of these references from the context and
their inseparable connection with the original
argument, which show that they are not in-
terpolations, but an essential part of the dis-
course of the prophets of the eighth century.
What are the objections to the theory of
documents? 1. The impossibility of separa-
ting the documents from each other in strict
adherence to the principle that certain words
are characteristic of the several writers. To
take an example from the use of different
divine names, which is the starting point of
the hypothesis and the phenomenon most
evident to English readers, the name Lord
betokens J, and should not occur, according
to the theory, in Genesis in the documents
E and P. But it does occur in v. 29 ; vii. 16 ;
xiv. 22; XV. 1, 2; xvii. 1; xx. 18; xxi. 1 b,
33 ; xxii. 11, 14, 15, 16 ; xxviii. 21. Nor should
the name God appear in the document J ;
yet it does in iii. 1-5 ; iv. 25 ; vi. 2, 4 ; vii. 9 ;
ix. 26, 27; xxxiii. 5, 11 ; xliii. 14, etc. Here
are more than a score of instances in Genesis
alone and in respect to but two characteristic
words, where the critical priuciple fails.
When obstinate facts like these oppose the
critical theory, they are exscinded. The
compiler is .said to have introduced the awk-
ward words arbitrarily or from another docu-
ment. In some cases J is said to have used
the name God discriminatingly, which is a
virtual abandonment of the theory. If the
writer used the divine name discriminatingly
in some cases, he may have done so in all, as
the defenders of the Mosaic authorship main-
tain. On the theory of the Mosaic authorship,
these words are in place ; and it is ordinarily
apparent that they are discriminatingly em-
ployed. God denotes the divine being in his
relation to the universe at large as creator, jire-
server, and governor of all his creatures and
all their actions. Jehovah denotes God as he

reveals himself to man, especially in grace.
2. The asserted continuity of the documents
when taken separately is fictitious. .T's nar-
rative ending in iv. 25, 26 is continued in v.
28 b, 29; vi. (1-4) .5-8. These passages do
not relate unbroken history, they are discon-
nected fragments, there is no continuity. J's
narrative in vi. 5-8 is continued in vii. 1-5.
The account is fragmentary again, not con-
tinuous. Whence came the ark into which
Noah was commanded to enter? J's nar-
rative embraces X. 21, 25-30 ; xi. (1-9), 28-30;
xii. 1-4 a. Who was Terah, and who were
Haran and Abram? Where is the snujoth-
uess of continuous narrative? P narrated i.
1-ii. 4 a, concluding with the emphatic decla-
ration that God saw everything that he had
made; and behold, it was very good. Then
after listing the genealogj' of Adam (v. 1-28 a,
30-32), he suddenly said: "And the earth
was corrupt before God " (vi. 9-22). How did
that become corrupt which God had pro-
nounced very good? Again, P's uncouth nar-
rative of the early history of Abraham is cut
out of J's account, thus : xi. 27, 31, 32 ; xii.
4 b, ; 5 xiii. 6 a, 11 b, 12 a. It is continued in
xvi. 1 a, 3, 1.5, 16 ; xvii. Over against this
uncouthness in the hypothetical documents,
believers in the Mosaic authorship are able
to show unity of theme, unbroken continuity
of thought, balanced treatment of the parts,
and progressive narrative. See Genesis. 3.
The theory that there are parallel accounts
marked by difference of style fails as a trust-
worthy priuciple in the only case where it
can be tested by external evidence. It is
asserted that in the narrative of the flood
the storm which produced the deluge is
described twice in three successive verses :
"The same day were all the fountains of
the great deep broken up, and the win-
dows of heaven were opened" (vii. 11, P),
and " It came to pass after the seven days
that the waters of the flood were upon the
earth, and the i-ain was upon the earth forty
days and forty nights " (10, 12, J). It is urged
also that there are two literary styles appar-
ent here : the former exuberant, vivid,
poetic, the latter a bald statement of the
facts in simple prose. But the account of
the flood was also handed down by the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians; and when the Assyro-
Babylonian narrative is compared with the
Hebrew record, it is found to show the same
repetitions which occurring in Genesis are
called parallel narratives, and to exhibit like
differences ofstyle in the corresponding places.
The narrator depicts the breaking and raging
of the storm with equal picturesqueness and
even greater exuberance than the Hebrew
writer ; but when he comes to state how long
the storm lasted, he naturally expresses him-
self simply. He .says : "Six days and nights
wind, storm and rain prevailed : on the
seventh day the rain abated, the storm whii h
had struggled like a woman in travail,
rested ; the sea withdrew to its bed, the

Pentecost

566

Perga

violent wind and the flood-storm ceased ; "
see the Assyrian account in article Flood.
On the theory of Mosaic authorship, there is
no difficulty in accounting for difference of
style. Different themes require different
statement. Dates, genealogies, and the like
do not call the imagination into exerci.se.
Vivid and picturesque description belongs to
the narration of lively and vivid incidents.
4. The critical theory that there are parallel
accounts of the .same event which are
marked by contradictions likewise fails to
stand the test of external evidence. It is con-
tended that according to P God forewarns
Noah of an impending destructive flood of
waters, but does not reveal to him whether
it will be caused by melting snows or con-
tinuous rains or tidal wave ; and thus P con-
tradicts J, who states that the Lord bade
Noah enter into the ark, because in yet seven
days he would cause it to rain uj)on the earth.
But again the Assyrian account shows that
the Hebrew narrative does not embody two
divergent accounts, but is the record of suc-
cessive progressive events. For according to
it, as in Genesis, man was first warned of
coming destruction and bidden build a boat.
The ruin was, accordingly, to be wrought by
a flood of water, but whether the deluge
would be due to rain, or a freshet, or the in-
flowing sea was not disclosed. When the
appointed time approached, however, the
]irophecy became deflnite and foretold rain.
The Hebrew account, with its present ma-
terial and the present- arrangement of that
material, is essentially the ancient account
handed down from the fathers. And the
criticism which distributes the narrative
among different writers on the ground of
differences of style or alleged contradictions
is demonstrably invalid. [For full discussion
of the subject, see William Henry Green, The
Higher Ciiticixm of the Pentuteitch and The
Unity of the Book of Gene.sis] .
Pen'te-cost. See Weeks, Feast of.

Pe-nu'el and once Peniel (Gen. xxxii. 31)
[face of God].

1. Originally an encampment east of the
Jordan, first named by Jacob because he had
there .seen God face to face, yet his life had
been preserved (Gen. xxxii. 30, 31). In the
time of the judges there was a tower there,
which Gideon broke down, and a city, the
inhabitants of which he slew (Judg. viii. 8,
9, 17). It was fortified bv Jeroboam I. (1 Kin.
xii. 2.''>).

2. A man of Judah, and the ancestor of
the inhabitants of Gedor (1 Chron. iv. 4).

3. A Benjamite, family of Shashak (1 Chron.
viii. 25).

Pe'or [an opening, a cleft].

1. A mountain in Moab looking toward the
desert, or Jeshimon (Num. xxiii. 28). From
it the camp of Israel at Shittim was in full
view (xxiv. 2). A mountain still bore the
name in the time of Eusebius and Jerome.

It stood opposite Jericho, on the road to
Heshbon, above or to the east of Livias, now
Tell er-Rameh. Accordingly Peor was a peak
of the Abarim range near wady Hesban.

2. A Moabite divinity worshiped in mount
Peor, and often called Baal-peor. See Baal-

PEOK.

Pe-rae'a or Perea [the land beyond].

The region between the Jabbok and the
Arnon, beyond Jordan (War iii. 3, 3) ; cp.
significaticm and location of Abarim. The
name was, however, used in a wider sense ;
for Josephus calls Gadara, on the banks of
the Yarmuk, the capital of Persea (War iv.
7, 3).

Per'a-zim. See Baal-perazim.

Pe-re'a. See Per^a.

Pe'res. See Mene.

Pe'resh [distinction, separation, dung].

A man of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii. 16).

Pe'rez, in A. V. of O. T. Pharez except
thrice (1 Chron. xxvii. 3 ; Neh. xi. 4, 6) ; in
A. V. of N. T. Phares [a breach] .

A son of Judah, one of twins whom Tamar
bore (Gen. xxxviii. 24-30). He became the
founder of a tribal family which took its
name from him, and of two other tribal fam-
ilies which sprang from his sous and were
named from them (Num. xxvi. 20, 21 ; 1
Chron. ii. 4, 5). He was an ancestor of David
and consequently of Christ (Ruth iv. 12-18 ;
Mat. i. 3).

Pe-rez-uz'za and Perez-uzzah [breach of
Uzza].

The name given by David to the place
where Uzza was struck dead for touching
the ark (2 Sam. vi. 8; 1 Chron. xiii. 11). Ex-
act situation unknown.

Per-fum'er-y.

Spices of various kinds, such as aloes, cas-
sia, cinnamon, myrrh, frankincense, spike-
nard, which were raised in the Jordan val-
ley or imported from Arabia and elsewhere,
formed the basis of perfumery (Ecclus. xxiv.
15). The spice was compelled to yield its
fragrance by at least four difl'erent methods.
It was tied in a bundle or enclosed in a bag
(Song i. 13) ; it was reduced to powder and
burned as incense (iii. 6) ; its aromatic matter
was separated by boiling, and the exti-act was
carried as scent in smelling-bottles suspended
from the girdle, or was mixed with oil and
used as an ointment (i. 3 ; Is. iii. 20 ; John
xii. 3). Frequently several spices were com-
pounded (Ex. XXX. 23, 24; John xix. 39).
Perfumery was applied to the person and
garments and furniture (Ps. xlv. 8: Prov.
vii. 17 ; Song iv. 11). It was used in the tem-
ple service both as incense and as ointment
(Ex. XXX. 22-38).

Per'ga [doubtless citadel, burg].

A seaport in Pamphylia, and capital of the
province, on the right bank of the river Kes-
tros, 60 stades from its mouth. Paul and

Pergamum

567

Persia

Barnabas visited the town on the first mis-
sionary journey, both going and returning
(Acts xiii. 13, 14 ; xiv. 25). In the vicinity
was a celebrated temple of the goddess Ar-
temis, the Eoraan Diana.

Per'ga-miim, in A. V. Pergamos [citadel,
burg]. Both forms of the name were used
by the ancients.

The most important city of Mysia, situated
on the north bank of the river C'aicus, about
•20 miles from the .sea. It was once the cap-
ital of a wealthy kingdom ruled over by a
dynasty of kings, several of them called At-
tains. The first of the.se came to the throne
in the year 241 B. c. His sou Eumenes, who
succeeded him, 197 B. c, founded a cele-
brated library, which ultimately was second
only to that of Alexandria. Attains III., who
died in the year 133 B. c, bequeathed to the
Eomaus his movable property. They misin-
terjireted the bequest to mean the kingdom,
and appropriated it at once. Marc Antony
promised the library (which did not belong
to him) to his mistress, Cleopatra, and had it
removed to Egypt, where it was added to the
renowned Alexandrian library. Pergamos
possessed a celebrated temple of ^sculapius,
god of medicine. Parchment, called in Latin
perfjiimeufi, and in Greek pergamene, was so
named because it was first obtained at Per-
gamos. The third of the seven churches of
Asia addressed in the book of Eevelation was
that at Pergamos. It is said that Satan's seat
was there, and that a faithful martjT, An-
tipas, had been put to death in the place. It
must, therefore, have been a stronghold of
antichristian idolatry (Eev. i. 11 ; ii. 12-17).
It is now called Bergama or Bergma, and
still exists as a town of mean-looking wooden
houses interspersed with the more splendid
relics of antiquity.

Pe-ri'da. See Pekuda.

Per'iz-zites [dwellers in unwalled vil-
lages].

An important section of the Canaanites,
often enumerated as one of the tribes of
Palestine (Gen. xv. 20; Ex. iii. 8; Josh. ix.
l),and perhaps, like the Eephaim, an aborig-
inal people who were of different race from
the Canaanites and in the land before them
(cp. Gen. xiii. 7 ; Josh. xvii. 15 ; and the
omission of them in Gen. x. 15 seq.). They
were in the country as early as the days of
Abraham and Lot (Gen. xiii. 7). In Joshua's
time they inhabited the mountain region
(Josh. xi. 3), dwelling in the territory after-
wards given over to the tribes of Ephraim,
Manasseh (xvii. 15), and Judah (Judg. i. 4, 5).
They were not extirpated, but, contrary to
the law of Moses (Deut. vii. 3). allowed to
enter into marriage alliances with their con-
querors, seducing them into idolatry (Judg.
iii. 5, 6). Solomon imposed upon these Per-
izzites a voke of bondservice (1 Kin. ix. 20,
21 ; 2 Chron. viii. 7).

Per'se-us.

Son and successor of Philip III., and last
king of Macedon. In 171 b. c. he resumed
the war with the Eomans which his father
had waged ; but, after three years of desul-
tory fighting and occa.sioual success, he was
completely defeated (1 Mac. viii. 5) by L.
^milius Paulus in the battle of Pydna,
which ended the Macedonian monarchy. He
fled, but was captured and taken to Eome,
where he graced the triumph of his con-
queror.

Per'si-a.

Persia proper, the seat of the Persians
when they first became known to the West-
ern nations as a settled people, lay southeast
of Elam and nearly corresponded to the
province of modern Persia called Pars, or
Farsistan, a modification of the original native
name Parfa. Persia, in this limited sense, was
bounded on the north by Great Media (Media
Magna), on the southwest by the Persian
Gulf, on the east by Carmania (now called
Kerman), and on the northwest by Susiana.
Its length was at most about 250 miles ; its
average breadth about 200 ; its area consid-
erably less than 50,000 square miles. In
looser usage, the term Persia denoted the
plateau of Iran, the region bounded by the
Persian Gulf, the valleys of the Tigris and
the Cyrus, the Caspian Sea, the rivers Ox us,
Jaxartes, and Indus (1 Mac. vi. 1 ; 2 Mac. i.
19). But when the Persian empire was at
the height of its power, it stretched from the
empire of India on the east to the Grecian
Archipelago on the west ; and from the
Danube, the Black Sea, mount Caucasus,
and the Caspian Sea on the north, to the Ara-
bian and Nubian deserts on the south (Esth.
i. 1 ; X. 1) ; and it was nearly 3000 miles long,
with a varying breadth of 500 to 1500 miles.
It had an area of 2,000,000 square miles, half
that of Europe. The race inhabiting Persia
proper was Aryan, and closely related to the
Median race.

The Persians are not mentioned in the
table of nations (Gen. x.). They did not
attain to prominence until many centuries
after Moses. About 700 b. c. the country of
Parsu, i. e. Persia, was one of the allies of
Elam. But soon Teispes, a chief of the tribe
and a member of the family of the Acha?-
menidpe, conquered Elam and established
himself as king in the district of Ansan or
Anzan, as the name is also written. His de-
scendants branched into two lines, one reign-
ing in Ansan and the other remaining in
Persia. His great-grandson, Cyrus II., king
of Ansan, united the divided power, con-
quered Media about 550 B. c, Lydia in Asia
Minor a little 1,-iter, and Babylonia in 539.
He allowed the Hebrew exiles to return to
their own land ; see Cyri's. Dying in 529
B. c, he was succeeded by his son Cambyses,
but reserved a small portion of his vast do-
minions for his younger son, Smerdis. The

Persia

568

Peruda

arrangement worked badly. Cambyses
became jealous of Smerdis, and had him
privately put to death. In 5'25 the king con-
quered Egypt. As he was returning to Per-
sia, the news readied iiim that Smerdis,
whom he believed to be dead, was really
alive (which was not true), and had assumed
the sovereignty, the Persian army supporting
his claim. Troubled by the tidings, the mon-
arch drew a short sword from its sheath and
gave himself a wound which in a few days
proved latal. He died 522 B. c The so-
called Smerdis, who was really one of the
Magi, now ascended the throne. When it
was discovered that he was not the true
Smerdis, a conspiracy was foi'uied against
him, and he was slain. Darius, son of Hys-
taspes, one of the leaders of the plot and ap-
parently the next heir to the throne when
the family of Cyrus became extinct, began
to reign, 521 b. C, being then about twenty-
eight years of age. The accession of the new
king was the signal for a general revolt of
the provinces, but the insurrection was sup-
pressed, and Darius organized a new empire
which extended from India to the Grecian
Archipelago and the Danube. It was under
him that the temple at Jerusalem was re-
built. He died 486 B. c. ; see Darius 2. His
son and successor was Xerxes, the Ahasuerus
of the Book of Esther and probably of Ezra
iv. H. He reconquered the Egyptians ; and
he attempted an invasion of Greece, but was
repulsed with gi-eat loss to the Persians ; see
Ah.\suerus 2. After a reign of twenty years,
he was assassinated in 465 b. c. His sou and
successor, a much more respectable charac-
ter, but still fickle and feeble, was Artaxerxes
Longimanus. He was not unfriendly to the
Jews. He allowed Ezra to lead a large num-
ber of them back to Jerusalem, and he per-
mitted Nehemiah to rebuild the walls of the
city ; see Artaxerxes. He reigned forty
years, dying in 425 b. c. His successors were
Xerxes II., 425 ; Sogdianus, 425 ; Darius
Nothus, the Illegitimate, 424 ; Artaxerxes
Mnemon, of good memory, 404 ; Artaxerxes
Ochus, 359 ; Arses 338 ; and Darius Codo-
mannus, 336. The last king was conquered
by Alexander the Great in 331 b. c, and
with him the first Persian empire passed
away. See Darius 3.

The royal residences were Persepolis (2
Mac. ix. 2), Shushan (Neh. i. 1 ; Esth. i. 2),
Ecbatana, that is Achmetha (Ezra vi. 2;
Antiq. x. 11, 7), and to an extent Babvlon
(Ezra vi. 1).

When Cyrus the Great allowed the Jews
to return to their own land 538 B. c, he did
not grant them their independence. They
were placed under governors appointed by
the Persian emperor (Neh. iii. 7), and formed
part of the satrapy beyond the river (Ezra
viii. 36) which consisted of Syria, Pales-
tine, Phoenicia, and Cyprus (Herod, iii.
91). They were subjects of Persia for 207
years, from 539, the year in which Cyrus

entered Babylon, to 332, that in which Alex-
ander the Great completed the conquest of
Palestine.

The faith of their imperial lords was
Zoroastrianism, but no effort was made to
enforce it on the subject peoples. It was a
spiritual religion, recognizing the distinction
between God and nature, between spirit and
matter, and consequently being averse to
images of God. Its fundamental ethical
principle was the essential contradiction be-
tween good and evil, light and darkness. It
conceived of two realms of spirits : one with
a hierarchy of angels and archangels, where
Ahuramazda or Ormazd, as the name is writ-
ten in modern Persian, the all-wise lord,
God in the fullest sense, presides over the
seven holy spirits, who are his ministers and
the expression of his attributes, and over
thousands of wortliy ones; and another
realm of evil spirits ruled over by Ahriman,
the spiritual enemy. It was deeply tainted
with dualism, and Ahriman was probably
regarded as self-existent. It taught the duty
of man to eradicate evil and cultivate good,
and to strive after holiness in thought, word,
and deed, which will be rewarded by im-
mortality and heaven. It paid homage to
fire, air, earth, and water as the creation of
Ahuramazda. See M.\gi. Later Judaism
shows traces of the Persian supremacy.

What once had been Persia passed first
to the Macedonian Greeks and their suc-
cessors of the same race. Then it became
part of the Parthian empire. In a. d. 211 or
212 Ardashir laid the foundations of a new
Persian sovereignty, ruled by a dynasty
called after his family Sassanian. In 224 he
defeated and slew the last Parthian king.
The Sassanian dynasty became powerful,
met the Eoman armies on equal terms, and
set limits to the extension of their sway in
the east. In a., v. 636 and 641, Yazdejard,
or Yezdejerd III., the last of the dynasty,
was defeated by the Saracens, and Persia
came under Mohammedan rule, which has
continued till now. Some of the bolder
spirits refused to submit to Mohammedan
domination, and fled to the deserts and the
mountains. Finally, a number of Persian
refugees landed in Guzerat about a. d. 717,
seeking and obtaining an asylum in India.
Their successors constitute a limited but im-
portant section of the Indian community.
They are called Parsees. They have become
prosperous, and are loyal to the English
throne.

Per'sis [Persian].

A Christian at Rome who labored dili-
gently in the Lord, and to whom Paul sent
his salutation (Rom. xvi. 12).

Pe-ru'da and Perida [scattered, a kernel].

A subdivision of the children of Solomon's
servants who returned from captivitj' (Ezra
ii. 55 ; Neh. vii. 57).

Pestilence

569

Peter

Pes'ti-lence.

An iulVctious or foutagious disease, a
plague. While the sending of pestilence is
frequently mentioned as from God (Ex. ix.
15; Lev. xxvi. 'J5; Deut. xxviii. 21), he
very often, if not in all cases, uses secondary
causes for its production. The v)unishment
which is threatened is often described as the
sword, the famine, and the pestilence, and
these words tend to stand in this order (Ezek.
vi. 11). There is reason for this <n-der. War
breaks out. The people of the invaded
country cannot cultivate their fields, or, if
they do, they find their crops reaped or de-
stroyed by the enemy. Besiegers invest the
cities au(l intentionally cut off the supplies
with the object of forcing a surrender.
Famine ensues in country and town. The
starvation, the carnage, and the unsanitary
condition of the cities crowded during the
siege bring a pestilence.

Pe'ter.

The Greek form of the Aramaic surname
Cephas (John i. 42 ; 1 Cor. i. 12 ; iii. 22 ; ix.
5; XV. 5; Gal. i. 18; ii. 9, 11, 14), meaning a
rock, which Christ bestowed upon Simon or,
more properly, Symeon (Acts xv. 14 ; 2 Pet.
i. 1, R. V. margin) on his first appearance be-
fore him (John i. 42), and afterwards ex-
plained more fully in its prophetic import
(Mat. xvi. 18 seq. ; Mark iii. 16). Simon was
the son of a certain John (John i. 42, E. V. ;
xxi. 15, 16, 17, K. V.) or Jona (Mat. xvi. 17,
probably a .syncope of John), who, with his
sons, Andrew and Peter, prosecuted the trade
of a fisherman on the sea of Galilee in part-
nership with Zebedee and his sons (Mat. iv.
18; Mark i. 16; Luke v. 3 seq.). He was a
native of Bethsaida (John i. 44), and subse-
quently dwelt with his family at Capernaum
(Mat. viii. 14 ; Luke iv. 38).

Peter was probably a disciple of John
the Baptist, and was in the first instance
brought to Jesus by his brother Andrew
(John i. 4L 42), who was one of the fa-
vored two disciples of John whom he pointed
to Jesus immediately after his return from
the temptation in the wilderness (John i.
35 seq.). With prophetic insight into his
character, Jesus at once conferred upon
him the surname of Cephas, or Peter, that
is, "Eock" (John i. 42). In common with
the earliest followers of Jesus, Peter re-
ceived three separate calls from his Master:
first, to become his disciple (John i. 40 seq. ;
cp. ii. 2) ; secondly, to become his constant
companion (Mat. iv. 19; Mark i. 17; Luke
V. 10) ; and, thirdlv, to be his apostle (Mat.
X. 2; Mark iii. 14, 16; Luke vi. 13, 14).
Peter's ardor, earnestness, courage, vigor, and
impetuosity of disposition marked him from
the first as the leader of the disciples of
Jesus. He is always named first in the lists
of the apostles (Mat. x. 2 ; Mark iii. 16 ; Luke
vi. 14; Acts i. 13). In the more intimate
circle of the most favored three disciples, he

is likewise always named first (Mat. xvii. 1 ;
Mark v. 37; ix. 2; xiii. 3; xiv. 33; Luke
viii. 51 ; ix. 28). He was the natural spokes-
man of the apostolical band. He was the
first to confess Jesus as the Christ of God
(Mat. xvi. 16 ; Mark viii. 29), but was equally
forward to dissuade him from his cho.scn
I)ath of suflering (Mat. xvi. 22; Mark viii.
33), receiving from Christ the appropriate
praise and blame.

Peter's life exhibits three well-marked
stages. First, there is the period of train-
ing, as exhibited in the gospel narrative.
During these years of personal associa-
tion with Christ, he learned to know both
Christ and himself. And though he brought
them to an end in a threefold denial of the
Master whom he had boasted that he at least
would never forsake (Mat. xxvi. 69 seq. ;
Mark xiv. 66 seq. ; Luke xxii. 54 seq. ; John
xviii. 15 seq.), Jesus closed them with a
loving probing of his heart and restoration
of his peace and confidence (Jolm xxi. 15
seq.). Secondly, the period of leadership in
the church, as exliibited in the earlier chap-
ters of The Acts. During these years Peter
justified his surname, and fulfilled the proph-
ecy that on him should the edifice of the
church be raised. It was by his bold and
strong hand that the church was led in every
step. It was he who moved the disciples to
fill up the broken ranks of the apostolate
(Acts i. 15) ; it was he who proclaimed to the
assembled multitudes the meaning of the
Pentecostal efiusion (ii. 14); he was the
leader in the public healing of the lame
man and in the subsequent sermon and de-
fense (iii. 4, 12 ; iv. 8) ; it was by his voice
that Ananias and Sapphira were rebuked
(v. 3, 8). Above all, it was by his hand that
the door of salvation was opened alike to the
Jews in the great sermon at Pentecost (ii.
10, 38), and to the gentiles in the case of
Cornelius (x.). Thirdly, the period of
humble work in the kingdom of Christ, ex-
hibited in the epistles of the N. T. When
the foundations of the church had been laid,
Peter takes a subordinate place, and in hum-
ble labors to spread the boundaries of the
kingdom, disappears from the page of history.
In the church at Jerusalem James takes
henceforth the leading place (xii. 17 ;
XV. 13; xxi. 18; Gal. ii. 9, 12). The door
had been opened to the gentiles, and Paul
now becomes the apostle to the gentiles
(Gal. ii. 7). As the apostle to the circum-
cision (8), Peter prosecuted henceforth his
less brilliant work, wherever Jews could be
found, and contentedly left Jerusalem to
James and the civilized world to Paul. The
book of The Acts closes its account of him
at the meeting at Jerusalem (Acts xv.), when
his policy of breaking down the barriers for
the gentiles met with universal acceptance.
We hear of him afterwards at Antioch (Gal.
ii. 11), possibly at Corinth (1 Cor. i. 12), cer-
tainly in the far east at Babylon (1 Pet. v.

Peter

570

Peter

13), and certainly as prosecuting liis work
througli missionary journeys, taking his wife
with him (1 Cor. ix. 5). Finally, we know
that he glorified God by a martyr's death
(John xxi. 19). Beyond this, Scripture tells
us nothing of his fortunes, labors, sufferings,
or successes, except wliat can be learned from
his two Epistles. In them he stands before
us in a singularly beautiful humility, not
pressing the recognition of personal claims
to leadership upon the Christian community,
but following up the teaching of Paul or of
Jude with his own, and exhorting his readers
to hold fast to the common faith.

No character in Scripture history, we
may even say in all literature, is drawn
for us more clearly or strongly than Peter's.
In the gospels, in The Acts, and in the
epistles it is the same man that stands
out before us in dramatic distinctness. Al-
ways eager, ardent, impulsive, he is pre-
eminently the man of action in the apostolic
circle, and exhibits the defects of his quali-
ties as well as their excellences throughout
life (Mat. xvi. 22; xxvi. 69-75; Gal. ii. 11).
His virtues and faults had their common
root in his enthusiastic disposition ; it is to
his praise that along with the weed of rash
haste, there grew more strongly into his life
the fair plant of burning love and ready re-
ception of truth. He was treated with dis-
tinguished honor by his Lord : he was made
the recipient of no less than three miracles
in those early days of the gospels ; he was
granted a special appearance after the resur-
rection (1 Cor. XV. 5) ; Jesus could find time
in his own passion and while saving the
world to cast on him a reminding glance
and to bind up his broken heart. Accordingly
the life of Peter is peculiarily rich in in-
struction, warning, and comfort for the
Christian, and his writings touch the very
depths of Christian experience and soar to
the utmost heights of Christian hope.

Authentic history adds but little to our
knowledge of Peter's life beyond what we
glean from the N. T. Conformably to the
notice of his martyrdom in John xxi. 19, we
are credibly told that he died by crucifixion
about the same time with Paul's death by
the sword, that is about a. d. 68. The place
of his death is not incredilily witnessed to
be Rome. Legend was early busy with his
life ; the Eoman legend of a twenty-five
years' episcoj)ate in Rome has its roots in
early apocryphal stories originating among
the heretical Ebioniles, and is discredited not
less by its origin and manifest internal in-
consistencies than by all authentic history.

The First Epistle General of Peter. The
author of this epistle announces himself as
the apostle Peter (i. 1) ; and the whole in-
ternal character of the letter as well as ex-
ceptionally copious historical attestation bears
out the assertion. It is addressed "to the
elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in
Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bi-

thynia " (i. 1), which is evidentlj'a somewhat
metaphorical description of the whole body
of Christians inhabiting the region com-
prised in modern Asia Minor. That the
readers in the mind of the author were
largely of gentile origiu is clear from such
pas.sages as i. 14; ii. 9, 10; iii. 6; iv. 3.
These were churches founded and nurtured
in large i)art Vjy the apostle Paul, and to
them Paul had written his letters to the Gala-
tians, Ephesians, and Colossians ; Peter writes
to them as those w'ho owed their conversion
to others than himself (i. 12, 25), and in
order to testify that the gospel they had re-
ceived was "the true grace of God" and to
exhort them to "stand fast therein" (v. 12).
Thus he publishes his hearty agreement with
the ajiostle Paul and at the same time pens
what is preeminently the epistle of hope.
The order in which the countries to which
it was sent are enumerated (i. 1), names
them from east to west, and suggests that
the letter was written in the east. This
is borne out by the salutation sent from
the Babylonian church (v. 13). Its date is
set by its pretty copious use of the Epistle to
the Ephesians on the one side, and the death
of Peter on the other, as between a. d. 63
and A. D. 67 : it is most probable that it was
written about 64 or 65. The style in which
the letter is written is at once simple, strik-
ing, and forcible, abounding in sudden and
alirupt transitions and admirably reflecting
the character of the writer. The whole
mode of presentation of its matter is special
and characteristic, though the doctrine pre-
sented is distinctly the same as that of the
epistles of Paul, set forth here with prevail-
ing reference to the grace of God and the
future hope. The epistle is filled to a re-
markable degree with reminiscences of earlier
Christian writings, particularly of the epis-
tles to the Romans and Ephesians and James:
thus revealing a characteristic of Peter's. It
is remarkable for the combined depth and
beauty of its Christian teaching. After the
greeting (i. 1, 2) there follows an introduc-
tory section (i. 3-12) in which God is praised
for the blessings of salvation. The body of
the letter (i. 13-v. 11) consists of (1) a series
of exhortations to a diligent Christian walk,
correspondent to the teaching its readers had
received (i. 13 ; ii. 10) ; (2) a number of jiar-
ticular directions for the special relationships
of life (ii. 11-iv. 6) ; and (3) some closing
instructions for the present needs of the
readers (iv. 7-v. 11). It ends with saluta-
tions and announcements (v. 12-14). Though,
after the allusion in 2 Pet. iii. 1, it is first
mentioned explicitly by name by Irenseus, in
the later second century, this epistle has from
the very beginning always held a secure place
in the Christian Bible in every part of the
Avorld, and has always been in the fullest use
bv Christians of everv land.

'The Second Epistle' General of Peter. The
author of this epistle describes himself as

Pethahiah

571

Pharaoh

"Symeou Peter, a bond servant and apostle
of Jesus Christ " (i. 1, E. V. margin), and rep-
resents himself as having been present at
Christ's transfiguration (i. Ifi) and as having
reeeived from him a predii-tion as to his
death (i. 14; ep. Jolm xxi. lU), and also as
standing on an equality with the apostle
Paul (iii. 15). This distinct claim of the au-
thor's to be the ajiostle Peter is borne out by
the character of the letter itself, which does
not lack traits characteristic of Peter's man-
ner or points of likeness to his speeches re-
corded iu The Acts and to the first epistle, to
which it alludes (iii. 1). Traces of its use iu
the very earliest days of the church are not
numerous or very clear : but Origen at the
opening of the third century .speaks of it iu
a manner which shows that it was used in
the church of his day ; and although doubts
were cherished in some quarters concerning
its authorship, these are overborne by the
weighty historical evidence. The form

of its addi-ess is quite general : " to them that
have obtained a like precious faith with us "
(i. 1) ; but iii. 1 shows that the same readers
are iu view to whom 1 Peter had been sent.
The place from which it was written cannot
be confidently ascertained; if the allusion
in i. 14 implies that Peter was on the verge
of his martyrdom, we may think of Eome.
In that case the letter should be dated in
A. D. <)S; and the nature of the errors re-
buked in it, and its use of the Epistle of
Jude as well as its allusion to 1 Peter will
accord with this date. Its object is

declared in iii. 1, 17, 18 to be to stir up
the minds of its readers to remember what
had been taught them, to the end that they
nught be saved from the errors now be-
coming prevalent and might grow in grace
and the knowledge of the Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ. It was written, in other
words, to rebuke the nascent gnosticism
creeping into the churches, and to build up
Christians in true knowledge and purity.
The contents of the letter are in full accord
with its object. After the usual apostolical
greeting (i. 1, 2), it passes insensibly into an
earnest exhortation to growth iu grace and
knowledge (3-11), and thence into a re-
minder of the grounds on which this knowl-
edge, itself the basis of piety, rests (12-21),
and a denunciation of the false teachers (ii.
1-22). The readers are then reminded of
the nature and surety of the teaching given
them as to the second advent and the end of
the world (iii. 1-13); and the letter closes
with an exhortation to them to make their
calling and election sure, including a com-
mendation of Paul's letters, and concludes
with a doxology (14-18). B. B. W.

Peth-a-hi'ah [Jehovah hath set free].

1. A descendant of Aaron whose family
became the nineteenth course of priests (1
Chron. xxiv. 16).

2. A Levite who was induced by Ezra to

put away liis foreign wife (Ezra x. 23). He
was jirobably the Levite of the name who
assisted Ezra in his religious work (Neh.
ix. 5).

3. A man of Judah, family of Zerah, and
an official of the Persian king for all matters
concerning the people (Neh. xi. 24).

Pe'thor [cleft, opening].

A town near the Euphrates (Num. xxii.5),
by the mountains of Aram or Mesopotamia
(Num. xxiii. 7; Deut. xxiii. 4). While the
Israelites were in Egypt, the town was cap-
tured by the Hittite.s, and they retained it
until the ninth ceutury b. c, when it was
wrested from them by Shalmaneser II., king
of As.syria, and converted into a colony of
the conquerors. It was situated far north
of Palestine, on the western bank of the
Euphrates, near the river Sagura, now Sajur,
a few miles south of the Hittite capital
Carcbemish.

Pe-thu'el [probably, noblemindeduess of
God].
Father of the prophet Joel (Joel i. 1).
Pe'tra. See Skla.

Pe-ul'le-thai, in A. V. Pe-ul'thai [perhaps,
full of work, laborious].

A Levite, a doorkeeper, son of Obed-edom
(1 Chron. xxvi. 5).

Pha'lec. See Peleg.

Phal'lu. See Pallu.

Phal'ti. See Palti.

Phal'ti-el. See Paltiel.

Pha-nu'el [face or presence of God].

An Asherite, the father of Anna (Luke ii.
36).

Pha'raoh [Egyptian per-da, great house].

A title used as the general designation of
the sovereign of Egypt, both with and with-
out the personal name attached.

Of the Pharaohs mentioned in the Bible,
several, among whom are the Pharaohs of
Abraham and Joseph, cannot be identified
with any degree of certainty. Of those that
are better known there are :

1. The Phar.\oh of the Oppression. It
is quite generally, though not universally, be-
lieved that this was Ramses II., third king of
the nineteenth dynasty and son of Seti I. See
Egypt III. 8. Both belonged to the New Em-
pire. Ramses while yet a mere child was made
coregent by Seti, and reigned sixty-seven
years, from 1348 to 1281 B. c. according to Dr.
Mahler's calculation. He was a great war-
rior and iK'nctrated farther into Asia than
even Thothmes III. had done, advancing as
far as Asia Minor and to the vicinity of the
Tigris. The Libyans, the inhabitants of
Asia Minor, and islanders of, the Medi-
terranean made war against Egypt, but
Ramses defeated them. His great expedi-
tions were directed against the Hittites and
their allies, and occupied many campaigns.
His most notable exploit was during an ex-

Pharaoh

572

Pharaoh

peditiou to Kadesh, on the Orontes, the
southern Hittite capital, in which he was
led by treacherous Bedouin Arab guides into

Head of Ramses II.

an ambuscade, from which he extricated
himself by great personal prowess ; but he
failed to take the city or inflict on the Hit-
tites such a defeat as would terminate the
war. He entered into a treaty of peace and
amity, sealed by his marrying the
daughter of the Hittite king. The
peace which ensued allowed Ramses
to devote his attention to building
operations, to founding and enrich-
ing libraries, and to establishing
schools. Especially in the delta did
he erect buildings, among which
were Pa-Ramses and in part at least
Pithom. His mummy is now in the
museum at Bulak.

2. The Pharaoh of the Ex-
odus. He is believed to have been
Meneptah II., the thirteenth son of
Ramses II. On his accession to the
throne he maintained the treaty of
peace which his father had entered
into with the Hittites. In the fifth
year of his reign Lower Egypt was
invaded by the Libyans and their
allies. The mercenaries of the
Egyptian king, rather than him- _h "
self, ultimately gained a complete ^ ..
victory over their invaders. A t
hymn was composed to celebrate
this success and other victories.
The translation is doubtful in minor r.

l)oints, but is essentially as follows : =

The chiefs bow down, making their

salutations of peace,
Not one of the peoples of the bow [i. e.

hostile foreigners] lifts up its

head :
The land of the Libyans is vanquished.
The land of the Hittites is tranquilized,
Kavaged is the place Pa-Kanana [in Southern

Palestine] with all violence.

Carried away is the place Ashkelon,

Overpowered is the place Gezer,

The place Innuam [near Tyre] is brought to
naught.

The people Isiraalu are spoiled, they have no
seed,

The place Khar [i. e. southern Palestine] has be-
come like the widows of Egypt.

All the world is at peace.

Every one that was rebellious is subdued by the
king Meneptah.

Isiraalu is mentioned in close connection
with places in Philistia, Phcenicia, and Pales-
tine. It cannot be rendered Jezreel, for the
orthography of the word and the use of the
determinative which signifies people are both
against it. It alone is without the determi-
native for land or city. It accordingly is a
nomadic tribe or else a people dwelling in a
country not their own. Leaving no seed to
a spoiled and harried people was a common
mode which the Egyptians had of recording
the destruction of the crops or supply of
gi-ain. The natural meaning of the inscrii>
tion accordingly is that troops, who were act-
ing under Meneptah and waging war against
the peoples of Palestine and vicinity, ravaged
the Israelites and destroyed their fields or
storehouses of grain. All available evidence
indicates that the Israelites had not con-
quered Canaan and settled in Palestine as

yet. The attempt to identify the yabiri,
who were warring in Palestine in the reign
of Amenophis IV., six or seven generations
before Meneptah, with the Hebrews has not

Pharaoh

573

Pharaoh

been successful ; sec Egypt III. 8. The bib-
lical rectird and the inscription of Meiieptah
agree, if the inscription means, as has been
inferred by Dr. W. W. Moore, that within
two or three years after the exodus Egyptian
or Canaauitish subjects of Meneptah attacked
the Israelites near Kadesh-barnea. The He-
brews had feared to advance from Kadesh
and had begun their dreary life of forty
years in the wilderness. Hero they pastured
their tlocks and herds, and doubtless, like
Isaac when in the s;ime quarter (Geu. xxvi.
1'2). sowed seed and raised what crops a scan-
tily watered soil permitted. Their grain was
destroyed by the enemy; and the event may
possibly be referred to in Num. xiv. 45 ;
Deut. i. 44-46, for their sojourn at Kadesh
had been long enough to permit the young
crop to be growing, but not the grain to be
ripe. On this interpretation the Pharaoh of
the exodus was not drowned in the Red Sea.
The biblical record does not neceasarily mean
that he was. It is not neces.sary to believe
that he did in person everjthing which is
charged to him. What is done in Pharaoh's
name and by Pharaoh's servants can be de-
scribed as done by him ; and what his emis-
siiries sutler he can be said to suffer.

3. Shishak. Called by the monuments
Sheshenk and by Manetho Sesonchis, the
first ruler of the twenty-second dynasty.
According to an inscription found in Abydos,
Shishak was the son of an Assyrian con-
queror named Nemret. The names of his
successors are also more Assyrian than Egj-p-
tlan in origin. An account of his expedition
into Palestine (1 Kin. xiv. 25, 26; 2 Chron.
xii. 2-9), with the usual embellishments and
exaggerations, is found on the south wall of
the temple at Karnak. In the list given
there of cities conquered in that expe-
dition occurs the name Judha-malek, which
may possibly mean royal city of Judah. He
was probably an able statesman, as he was
able to avoid a rupture with Solomon while
keeping Solomon's enemy as a guest (1 Kin.
xi. 40). He shrewdly took advantage of the
unsettled state of affairs in Palestine after
the division of the kingdom, to make his in-
vasion at that time when resistance to an
enemy was necessarily weakened by dissen-
sions at home. He also created a V)alance of
power for himself in Egyjit by reelevating
to a ])osition of power the priests of Apis at
Menii)his, rivals of the priests of Thebes.
Jeroboam took refuge at his court some time
after the twenty-fifth year of Solomon (1 Kin.
vi. 38; vii. 1 ; ix. 10, 24 : xi. 27), and the in-
vasion of Judah took place in the fifth year
of Rehoboam ; accordingly, the longest time
required by the biblical data for the reign of
Shishak is 21 years, though a shorter time
would suffice. This demand is met by the
Egyptian monuments, for they mention the
thirty-ninth year of his reign.

4. Zer.\h the Cushite, who undertook an
expedition against Judah in the reign of Asa,

leading an army composed of Ethiopians and
Lil)yans, doubtless in addition to the Egyj)-
tian troops. His forces were routed at Ma-
reshah (2 Chron. xiv. 9-15; xvi. 8). The
monuments do not mention this military ex-
])edition, as it is their custom to pass over in
silence their own defeats. Zerah is com-
monly identified with Osorkon I. or II., suc-
cessors of Shishak in the twenty-second or
Bubastite dynasty. He maj' have been called
Cushite by the biblical writer either because
he was crown jirince when he led the expe-
dition against Judah, in which case he bore
the title Prince of Cush ; or because he was
by birth an Ethio])ian, Osorkon II. being the
son-in-law, not the son, of the preceding
monarch.

5, So, contemporary of Hoshea, king of
Israel (2 Kin. xvii. 4) ; see So.

6, TiRHAKAH, third and last king of the
twenty-fifth dynasty, which is known also
as the Ethiopian dynasty. Both he and his
name are Ethiopian (Steindorfl"). When Sen-
nacherib, king of Assyria, was advancing
through Philistia in the direction of Egypt in
701 B, c, he heard that Tirhakah. king of
Ethiopia, was coming against him (2 Kin.
xix. 9). Sennacherib, in his own account of
the aflair, without mentioning the personal
names of the monarchs, says that the kings
of Egypt and the archers, chariots and
horses of the king of Ethiopia met him in
battle at Eltekeh (Cylinder ii. 73-81). Ethi-
opia and Egypt, which were probably under
the general sway of Shabataka, or already
under the rule of the young and vigorous
Tirhakah as husband of Shabataka's widow
and guardian of his young son. were gov-
erned by subordinate kings. Esarhaddon
conducted several campaigns against Egypt;
and in 671 B.C. penetrated intothemidst of the
country, defeated Tirhakah, whom he calls
king of Ethiopia, took Memphis, made Tir-
hakah's son a captive, and assumed the title
of king of Egypt, Pathros, and Ethiopia.
Tirhakah found refuge in Ethiopia, and on
Esarhaddon's death, in 669 or 668 B. c, re-
turned to Egj-pt. Ashurbani])al sent an
army against him, styling him king of Egypt
and Ethiopia, and defeated his troops at Kar-
banit, near the mouth of the Canopic branch
of the Nile. Tirhakah retired to Thebes.
He still had the support of several minor
kings of Egypt, among whom was Necho.
Asburbanipal afterwards pursued him thither
and took Thebes. The Assyrian king pres-
ently records the death of Tirhakah. This
event occurred about 664 B. c. The Egyp-
tian records attest the fact that he reigned
at least 26 years, so that his possession of the
royal title can be traced back as far as 690 B.
c. at least.

7, Necho, son of Psammetick I. He was
the second ruler of the twenty-sixth dynasty
and reigned 16 years, from 610 to 594 B. c.
He attempted to complete a canal connecting
the Red Sea with the Nile, and sent a sue-

Pharathon

574

Pharisees

cessful expedition to circiiiunavigate Africa
(Herod, ii. 158 ; iv. 4'2). He slew kiug Josiah
at Megiddo as the latter unwisely o])posed
his march toward Assyria. Herodotus says
that Necho defeated the Syrians at Mag-
dolus (Megiddo), and afterwards took Cadj--
tus, one of the large cities of Syria (ii. 159).
This has been identified with Gaza, but bet-
ter with Kadesh, the Hittite city on the
Orontes. On Josiah's death, the people set
up his son Jehoahaz, but Pharaoh dethroned
and carried him off to Egypt, setting up in
his stead his elder brother, Jehoiakim (2
Kin. xxiii. 30-34). Necho seems to have left
his army atCarchemish while he returned to
Egypt. In 605 B. c. he returned to his army,
the object being an attack on the decaying
Assyrian empire. Unfortunately he came
too late and found himself opposed by Nebu-
chadnezzar, the Babylonian conqueror of
Assyria, was utterly routed by him, and lost
all of Egypt's Asiatic possessions (2 Kin.
xxiv. 7).

8. Pharaoh-iiophra, the Uah-ab-ra of the
Egyptian monuments, the (^uaphris of Ma-
netho, and the Apries of Herodotus. He
was the second successor of Necho, separated
from him by the short reign of Psammetick
II. He reigned 19 years, from 589 to 570 b.
c. He was on the throne while Jeremiah
and his fellow-fugitives from Palestine still
lived. The prophet intimated that Pharaoh-
hophra should be given into the hands of his
enemies, as Zedekiah, the last kiug of Ju-
dah, had been (Jer.' xliv. 30). He was a
warrior, and appears to have conquered the
combined fleets of Cyprus and Sidon in a sea
fight. He failed at last in an attack on the
Greek colony of Cyrene. His army, in con-
sequence, revolted ; he was captured, confined,
and ultimately put to death.

Phar'a-thon. See Pirathon.

Pha'res and Pha'rez. See Perez.

Phar'i-sees [probably, separated].

One of the three chief Jewish sects, the
others being the Sadducecs and the Essenes.
It was the straitest sect (Acts xxvi. 5). In
all probability the Pharisees originated in
the period before the Maccabjean war, in a
reaction against the hellenizing spirit which
appeared among the Jews and manifested it-
self in the readiness of a part of the people
to adopt Grecian customs. Those who re-
garded these practices with abhorrence and
their spread with alarm were incited to strict
and open conformity to the Mosaic law. They
were drawn yet more closely together as a
party by the fierce persecution which Anti-
ochus Epiphanes, 175-164 B. c, set on foot
against the faithful Israelites who would not
abandon Judaism and accept the Greek faith,
when he attempted to destroy the holy
Scriptures, and commanded that whosoever
was found with any book of the covenant or
consented to the law, should be put to death
(1 Mac. i. 56, 57). The Hasidaeans, who

were mighty men of Israel, even all such as
were voluntarily devoted unto the law (ii.
42 ; cp. i. 62, 63), participated in the Mac-
cabtean revolt as a distinct party. They were
probably the Phari.sees, they certainly cor-
responded to that sect. When the war ceased
to be a struggle for religious liberty, and be-
came a c(jntest for political supremacy, they
ceased to take an active interest in it. They
are not mentioned during the time that Jon-
athan and Simon were the Jewish leaders,
160-135 B. c. The Pharisees appear under
their own name in the time of John Hyrcanus,
135-105 B. c. He was a disciple of theirs,
but left them and joined the Sadducees (Au-
tiq. xiii. 10, 5 and 6) ; and his son and suc-
cessor, Alexander Jannaeus, endeavored to
exterminate them by the sword. But his
wife, Alexandra, who succeeded him in 78
B. c, recognizing that physical force is pow-
erless against religious conviction, favored
the Pharisees (15, 5; 16, 1). Thenceforth
their influence was paramount in the reli-
gious life of the Jewish people.

The Pharisees held the doctrine of fore-
ordination, and considered it consistent with
the freewill of man. They believed in the im-
mortality of the soul, in the resurrection of the
body, and in the existence of spirits ; that men
are rewarded or punished in the future life,
according as they have lived virtuously or
viciously in this life ; that the souls of the
wickeil shall be detained forever in prison
under the earth, while those of the virtuous
rise and live again, removing into other
bodies (Acts xxiii. 8; Antiq. xviii. 1, 3;
War ii.8, 14). These doctrines distinguished
them from the Sadducees, but did not con-
stitute the essence of Pharisaism. Pharisaism
is the final and necessary result of that
conception of religion which makes religion
consist in conformity to the law, and prom-
ises God's grace only to the doers of the law.
Religion becomes external. The disposition
of the heart is less vital than tlie outward
act. The interpretation of the law and its
application to the details of ordinary life
accordingly became a matter of grave con-
sequence, lawyers acquired increased im-
portance, and expositions of the law by
recognized authorities grew to a body of
precepts of binding force. Josephus, who
was himself a Pharisee, describes them as
not merely accepting the law of Moses, and
interpreting it more skillfully than others,
but adds that they had delivered to the
people a great many observances by succes-
sion from the fathers which are not written
in the law of Moses (Antiq. xiii. 10, 6), these
being the traditional interpretations of the
elders, which our Lord pronounced to be of
no binding authority (Mat. xv. 2, 3, 6).

At first, when one incurred great danger in
joining the party, the Pharisees were men
of strong religious character. They were
the best people in the nation. Subsequently
Pharisaism became an inherited belief and

Pharosli

575

Philemon

the profession of it was poimlar, aud men of
charaeter very inferior to tiuit of tin- original
members of the sect joineii its ranks. With
the hipse of lime also the essentially vieious
element in the system developed and laid the
Pharisees, as eomnionly represented by the
members of the seet, open to seathing rebuke.
John the Haptist called them and the Sad-
dncees a generation of vipers ; and it is well
known how severelj' our Lord denonueed
them for their self-rigliteousnc'S^s, their
hypocrisy, their inattention to the weightier
matters of the law, while being very par-
ticular as to minute points, with other faults
(Mat. V. 20; xvi. 6, 11, 12; sxiii. 1-39).
They became an intriguing body of men
(Antiq. xvii. 2, 4). They t(»ok a i)ronunent
part in plotting the death of Christ (Mark
iii. 6 ; John xi. 47-57). Yet they always
numbered in their ranks men of perfect
sincerity and the highest character. Paul
in his early life was a Pharisee, aud was
accustomed to bring forward the fact when
he was reasoning with his countrymen (Acts
xxiii. 6 ; xxvi. 5-7 ; Phil. iii. 5). His teacher,
Gamaliel, was of the same sect (Acts v. 34).

Pha'rosh. See P.\.eosh.

Phar'par [swift].

I'rcsumably the less important of the two
rivers of Damascus, for Naaman mentions it
only second {2 Kin. v. 12). According to the
local tradition, which can be traced back to
the middle of the sixteenth century, the Phar-
par is the Taura, one of seven canals which
are drawn off from the Barada as it neare
Damascus. It is more common, however, out-
side of Damascus, to identify the Pharpar
with the A'wa.j, the only independent stream
except the Barada within the territory of
Damascus, but distant a ride of three hours
from the city. It is formed by the conflu-
ence of several streams which take their rise
in mount Hermon. It pursues a tortuous
course through the plain to the .south of the
city and finally enters the most southerly
of three inland lakes. In dry weather its
waters are sometimes absorbed before they
even enter the lake.

Pha-se'ah. See Pase.\h.

Pha-se'lis.

A city fif Lycia, on the gulf of Pamphylia,
with three excellent hart)ors. It enjoj-ed
considerable commerce in early times (Herod,
ii. 17s). It was independent (1 Mac. xv. 23) un-
til the war of 78-75 B. c. when the Eomans
destroyed it because it had become a center
of organized piracy. It was rebuilt, but did
not rise to importance again. Its ruins exist
near Tekrova.

Phas'i-ron.

Probably a Bedouin chief (1 Mac. ix. 66).

Phe'be. See Phcebe.

Phe-ni'ce. See Phcenici.\ and Phcenix.

Phe-ni'ci-a. See Phcexicia.

Phi'col, in A. V. PMchol [possibly, mouth
of all, i. e. commanding all].

The captain of thearmy of Abimelech, king
of Gerar; present when treaty was made
between Abimelech and Abraham, and be-
tween Abimelech or his successor with like
title and Isaac (Gen. xxi. 22; xxvi. 2(i).
There is no need to assume that he was older
than Is;uic.

Phil-a-del'pMa [brotherly love].

1. A city of Lydia, in .\sia Minor, about 27
miles southeast of Sardis, in the plain of tiie
Hermns. It was built by Attains Phila-
delphus, on a part of mount Tniolus. In
A. D. 17 it was destroyed by an earthquake,
but was soon rebuilt. It was the seat of one
of the seven churches of Asia addressed in

Modern Philadelphia.

the book of Kevelation (i. 11 ; iii. 7-13).
Unlike most of the seven, it receives com-
mendation and encouragement, unmixed
with censure. It is now called Allah Shell r,
and continues to be inhabited. The walls of
the ancient city, which are still standing,
enclose several hills, with the remains of a
temple and other buildings.

2. A later name of Kabbah of the Ammon-
ites. See Kabbah.

Phi-le'mon [Greek, loving or aflectionate
(cp. philema, a kiss)].

A convert of the apo.stle Paul's (Philem.
19), who resided in the same citj- with
Archippus and from which Onesimus had
come, viz. Colossse (cp. Philem. 2 with Col. iv.
17; and Philem. 10 with Col. iv. 9). There
was a church in his house (Philem. 2). Paul
calls him a fellow-laborer (1) and speaks of
his kindness to the saints (5-7). As Paul
had never been in Colossse (cp. Col. ii. 1), we
maysuppo.se that Philemon was converted in
Ephesus during the a])ostle's ministry there
(cp. Acts xix. 10). It is not improbable that
Archippus was Philemon's son and Apphia
his wife (Philem. 2).

Philetus

576

Philip

The Epistle of Paul to Philemon is the
brief letter sent by Paul, in conjunction with
Timothy, to Philemon. The latter's slave,
Onesimus, had run away, perhaps taking
with him some of Philemon's money (18,
19) ; and, having made his way to Eome,
had there been converted through the in-
strumentality of the apostle (10). Paul
would gladly have retained him as a free
attendant, but did not feel at liberty to do so
without Philemon's consent (13, 14). He
doubtle-ss felt too that Onesimus, as a Chris-
tian, ought to seek the forgiveness of his
master; and he was equally anxious that
Philemon should both forgive and receive
the converted wrongdoer. So he sent Onesi-
mus back to Philemon, urging the latter to
receive him as a brother beloved (16), telling
of the love he himself bore toward the con-
vert (10, 12), and otTering to repay Philemon
for whatever loss Onesimus had caused him
(18, 19). The letter is an exquisite produc-
tion. It reveals the delicacy of Paul's feel-
ing and the graciousness of his relations
with his friends. It also illustrates the
effect of Christianity on social relationships
generally, the spirit of love and justice
which were destined to reorganize society.
When Onesimus carried this letter to Phile-
mon, he accompanied Tychicus, who also bore
the Epistle to the Colossians (Col. iv. 7-9)
and that to the Ephesians (Eph. vi. 21, 22).
All three epistles were written at the same
time, probably A. D. 61 or 62, and from Rome.
The genuineness of the E])istle to Philemon,
though it is so brief a letter, is well attested,
and it thus strongly supports the genuine-
ness of the other epistles with which it is
associated. G. t. p.

Phi-le'tus [worthy of love].

One who joined with Hymenfeus in propa-
gating the error that the resurrection is
already past (2 Tim. ii. 17, 18).

Phirip [fond of horses].

1. Father of Alexander the Great (1 Mac.
i. 1). He was a son of Amyntas II. of Mace-
don. He took charge of the government
about 360 b. c, as guardian of the royal in-
fant, and by skillful negotiations and success-
ful war delivered the country from the dan-
ger which beset it by reason of the hostility
of the Pseonians, Illyrians, and Athenians.
He then ascended the throne, perhaps by
usurpation. He captured Amphipolis and
annexed it to his dominions in 358, and cross-
ing the river Strymon, he took possession of
Thracian territory and founded Philippi in
356. These achievements marked only the
beginning of his unchecked career of con-
quest in Greece, by which he raised Mace-
donia from an obscure state to be the domi-
nant power in Grecian affairs. He was as-
sassinated in 336 B. c, and was succeeded by
Alexander.

2. Another king of Macedon, and third of
the name. He entered into an alliance with

Hannil)al against the Romans in 215 B. c,
but they held him in check with the cooper-
ation of the iEtolians. After seven years he
was glad to make a separate peace. In 200
B. c. the Romans invaded his kingdom. He
successfully resisted them for two years, but
in 197 he was completely defeated (1 Mac.
viii. 5) by the Roman general Flaminius at
Cynocephahe in Thessaly, and forced to con-
clude a humiliating peace. He died in 179
B. c.

3. Foster brother of Antiochus Epiphanes
(2 Mac. ix. 29), and one of his i)rivileged
friends (1 Mac. vi. 14). When Antiochus
was in Persia, nigh unto death, he appointed
Philip regent during the minority of the
young Antiochus 115). Lysias, however,
who was in Syria, usurped the position (17).
Philip returned in haste, and obtained tem-
porary possession of Antioch, the capital
(55, 63). But Lysias succeeded in capturing
the city. According to Josephus, Philip was
executed (Antiq. xii. 9, 7), but perhaps he
escaped and fled to Egypt before the city fell
(2 Mac. ix. 29).

It has been conjectured, on insufficient
grounds, that he is identical with Philip, the
Phrygian who was made governor of Judaea
by Antiochus (2 Mac. v. 22), and that he was
the master of the elephants at the battle of
Magnesia (Livy xxxvii. 41).

4. A son of Herod the Great, and the first
husband of Herodias and brother or half-
brother of Herod Antipas (Mat. xiv. 3 ; Luke
iii. 19). He is not called the tetrarch, and
there is reason to believe that he was a dif-
ferent person from Philip the tetrarch, half-
brother of Herod Antipas. In giving the
genealogy of a portion of Herod the Great's
family, Josephus states that Herodias mar-
ried Herod, son of Herod the Great by Mari-
amne, daughter of the high priest Simon ;
that she left him to live with Antipas his
half-brother ; and that her daughter Salome
married Philip the tetrarch, son of Herod
the Great by Cleo])atra of Jerusalem, and
after Philip's death took another husband
(Antiq. xviii. 5, 4). Thus, according to
Josephus, the first hu.sband of Herodias was
a different person from Philip the tetrarch.
The writers of the N. T. agree with Josephus
in that they make Herodias' first husband a
brother of Herod Antipas the tetrarch, and
do not identify him with Philip the tetrarch,
whom they also know (Luke iii. 1). They
differ as to his name. It is commonly be-
lieved that both authorities are right, and
accordingly the first husband of Herodias is
often designated Herod Philip. For among
the children of Herod the Great two sons,
born of different mothers, were named after
Herod's father Antipas or Antipater. Three
of his sons, born of three different mothers,
were called Herod ; one of whom, however,
had a second name Antipas, and was spoken
of indiffei'ently either as Herod or Antipas
(Antiq, xvii. 1, 3; xviii. 5, 1 ; 6, 2). One of

Philip

577

Philippi

tho sons whom his wife Cleopatra of Jerusa-
lem l)ore was called IMiilij) ; and it is ])rob-
able that Mariamne's son, who is called
Herod by Josephus, had the name of Philip
also. Herod Philij), after the execution of
his half-brothers Alexander and Aristobulus,
was next in order of birth to Antijiater,
Herod the Great's firstborn, and for a time
he was recojinized as next in succession to
the throne (Antiq. xvii. 3, 2) ; but he was
passed over in Herod's later wills.

5. Philip the Tetrarch. One of the two sons
of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusa-
lem. He was brought up at Home with his
half-brothers Archelaus and Antipas (Antiq.
xvii. 1, .3 ; War i. 28, 4). In A. D. 4 he advo-
cated the claims of Archelaus to succeed
their common father, and was himself ap-
pointed by the emperor Augustus to be over
Batanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis, and certain
parts of Zeno's house about Jamnia (War ii.
6, 1-3; cp. Antiq. xvii. 11, 4). He was still
tetrarch of the region of Itura^a and Tracho-
nitis in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar
when John the Baptist began his public life
(Luke iii. 1) . He married Salome, the daugh-
ter of Herod, Mariamne's son, and Herodias
(Antiq. xviii. 5, 4). He. enlarged the town
of Paneas, at the source of the Jordan, and
named it Caesarea. It was afterwards often
spoken of as Caesarea Philippi (Mat. xvi. 13),
to distinguish it from Cae-sarea on the sea.
He also raised the village of Bethsaida to the
dignity of a city and called it Julias, and,
fortifying Sepphoris, made that town the
capital of Galilee (Antiq. xviii. 2, 1 ; W'ar ii.
9, 1). He reigned thirty-seven years, from
4 E. c. to A. D. 33, dying in the twentieth
year of Tiberius Caesar. His character was
excellent, and his rule was mild and just
(Antiq. xviii. 4, 6). His dominions were
annexed to the province of Syria, but in a. t>.
37 were assigned to Herod Agrippa I. Coins
of his have been found inscribed with his
title, Tetrarchos.

6. Philip the Apostle. One of the twelve
apostles (Mat. x. 3). He was a native of
Bethsaida. Jesus met him, won his faith,
and called him to be a disciple. He found
Nathanael and brought him to Jesus, in the
conviction that an interview with the Master
would convince Nathanael that Jesus was
the ISIessiah. His confidence was justified
(John i. 4.3-48). When our Lord was about
to perform the miracle of feeding the five
thousand, he first proved Philip, and awoke
a conception of the magnitude of the miracle
by asking Philip: "Whence are we to buy
bread, that these may eat'?" (John vi. 5, 6).
On the day of the triumphal entry into Je-
rusalem, certain Greeks desired to see Jesus,
and applied to Philip, who ])ut them in com-
munication with Jesus (xii. 20-23). In
making the acquaintance of Christ, the dis-
ciples had been making acquaintance with
the Father ; but when Christ spoke to them
about their having known and seen the

37

Father, Philip appeared not to understand
and said : "Show us the Father, and it suf-
ficetli us" (xiv. 8-12). He is named after
the resurrection as one of the apostles who
met in the upjier chamber (Acts i. 13). This
is the last authentic notice we have of him,
ecclesiastical traditions regarding his future
life being confused and contradictory.

7. Philip the Evangelist. He was one of the
seven men of good report, full of the Spirit and
of wisdom, chosen to look after the interests
of the Greek-speaking widows and jirobably
the poor generally in the church at Jeru.salem,
and is mentioned next in order to the martyr
Stephen (Acts vi. 5). If this had been all,
he would not have been called, as he is in
Acts xxi. 8, an evangelist. Persecution fol-
lowed the death of Stephen, and the Christians
were scattered abroad. Philip visited Samaria,
preached the gospel, wrought miracles, and
made many converts. Among them was
Simon the sorcerer, popularly known as
Simon Magus (Acts viii. 5-2.5). Afterwards,
by direction of an angel, Philip went along
the road from Jerusalem to Gaza, on which,
after a time, he met, preached to, and bap-
tized the Ethiopian eunuch (26-39). He after-
wards visited Azotus (Ashdod), and then
went on preaching till he reached Caesarea
(40). He was still in that city years after-
wards when Paul passed through it on his
last journey to Jerusalem; and the fact is
noted that Philip had four virgin daughters
who had the gift of prophecy (xxi. 8, 9).

Phi-lip'pi [pertaining to Philip].

A Macedonian city, called originally
Krenides or place of small fountains. It
was within the limits of ancient Thrace, but
in 356 B. c. Philip II. of Macedon annexed
the country as far as the river Nestus and
thus took in the town, which he enlarged
and strengthened and called after his own
name. In its vicinity were rich gold and
silver mines, the produce of which greatly
aided Philip in carrying out his ambitious
projects. In 168 b. c. the Eoman consul
Paulus jEmilius inflicted a decisive and very
sanguinary defeat on Perseus, the last of the
Macedonian kings; and Philippi, with the
rest of the territory, fell into the hands
of the victors. In 42 b. c. two decisive
battles took place in the neighborhood be-
tween Brutus and Cassius, two of Caesar's
leading assassins, and Octavian and Antony,
his chief avengers. After Octavian had be-
come Augustus Caesar he took an interest in
the jilace where he had gained the victory,
and sent a Eoman colony to Philippi. Not
merely does Luke mention that it was a
colony (Acts xvi. 12), but coins exi.st with
the inscription, Colonia Augusta, Jxd. Philip-
pensis. It was the first city of the district;
not the capital, which was Amphipolis, but
either the place of first importance or the
first city reached by a traveler from the sea,
Neapolis belonging to Thrace and not being

Fliilippians

578

Philistia

attached to the Roman province of Mace-
donia until the time of Vespasian. Ahout
A. D. 52 Paul visited the city, making various
converts, of whom the chief were Lydia of
Thyatira, the damsel possessed witli the
spirit of divination, and the Philippian jailer
(Acts xvi. 12-40). Tlie second of these suc-
cesses had brought on persecution and im-
prisonment of the evangelists or they would
not have had access to the jailer to do him
spiritual good (1 Thess. ii. 2). Paul had to
leave the place abruptly on this occasion,
but he visited it again at a future period,
sailing thence to Syria (Acts xx. 6). Philippi
lies inland about 12 miles northwest of its
seaport Neapolis, the two being separated by
a mountain range, the pass over which is
about 1600 feet above the sea level. At first
Philippi was confined to a small hill rising
from the midst of a plain ; in the Roman
period it extended to the plain. The river-
side was the bank of the Gangites, now
called Angista, along the shore of which the
walls of the Roman city ran. The ruins,
consisting of a theater, columns, etc., are ex-
tensive, the most interesting being a gate-
way, supposed to be that by which the
apostle went out to the riverside. No one
now lives on the spot, but there is a Turkish
village, named Bereketli, in the immediate
vicinity.

Phi-lip'pi-ans.

The natives or inhabitants of Philippi
(Phil. iv. 15).

The Epistle of Panl to the Philippians is
the sixth of the epistles as they are arranged
in our IST. T. It was written by Paul, asso-
ciating also Timothy with him, to all the
saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi,
with the bishops and deacons (i. 1). When
he wrote it, the apostle was a prisoner (i. 7,
13, 14, 16). He was also apparently in the
custody of the prtetorian guard (i. 13, R. V.),
and he sends salutations from the saints that
are of Csesar's household (iv. 22). These
references, as well as the whole tone of the
letter, make it clear that the epistle was
written from Rome during the apostle's first
Roman imprisonment ; see Paul. It is also
most probably to be dated toward the close
of that period, in a. d. 62 or 63. This fol-
lows from several facts. 1. He had been for
some time in Rome (i. 12). 2. He was ex-
pecting his release (i. 25; ii. 23, 24). 3.
The Philippians had sent him a gift (iv.
10) by the hands of Epajihroditus (ii. 25) ;
Epaphroditus, however, had been taken sick
in Rome, the Philippians had heard of it,
and Epaphroditus had learned of their
sorrow over his illness (ii. 26). A consider-
able time, therefore, had elapsed since Paul
had reached the capital. The epistle was
written primarily to acknowledge the gift
which they had sent. Contrary to his usual
custom, lie had on more than one occasion re-
ceived such gifts from them (iv. 15). But

the apostle also seized the opportunity to
tell them about himself and to warn them
against error. It is the letter of a pastor to
his flock. It was not called forth, like many
of his epistles, by any crisis iu the church.
It abounds in spiritual advice for the Chris-
tian life. At the same time it is valuable
for the light it throws on Paul's situation in
Rome. It was sent by the hand of Epaph-
roditus (ii. 25, 30) who, having recovered
from his illness, was about to return to
Philippi. It may be divided into the follow-
ing sections: 1. Introduction (i. 1, 2). 2.
Gratitude for their fidelity; expression of
his love for them ; prayer for their sanc-
tification (i. 3-11). 3. Account of how God
had used him, though a prisoner, to extend
the gospel ; of the opposition to him on the
part of some, but of his own contentment ;
of his wish at times to die, but of his devo-
tion to them and confidence that he would
be spared to them ; and of his earnest desire
that they might stand firm (i. 12-30). 4.
Appeal to them for sjiiritual unity, through
self-forgetfulness and love, after the example
of Christ, that they may perfect the work of
service which he had ever set before them
( ii. 1-18). 5. Promise to send to them Tim-
othy and, if possible, to go himself shortly ;
meanwhile he will send Epaphroditus (ii. 1!>-
30). 6. Exhortation to joyfully pursue the
Christian life, based on his own joy in self-
surrender to Christ and iu the eager pursuit
of the reward which Christ offers; to which
he adds a warning against those who misuse
the freedom of the gospel that they may in-
dulge their fleshly appetites (iii.). 7. Con-
cluding exhortations to individuals and to
all, the keynotes of which are joy, content-
ment, holiness (iv. 1-9). 8. Final acknowl-
edgment of the gift they had sent him and
of his joy in their love, with a few parting
salutations (10-23). g. t. p.

PM-lis'ti-a [land of foreigners or immi-
grants] .

A word occurring in Scripture in poetical
passages of the O. T. (Ps. Ix. 8 ; Ixxxvii. 4 ;
and R. V. of Is. xiv. 29), and meaning the land
of the Philistines. It was in the southwestern
portion of Canaan, and was bounded on the
north by the i)lain of Sharon, on the south
by the desert of Shur, on the east by the
lowland of Judah, and on the west by the
Mediterranean. Excluding narrow strips of
territory Ix'voiid its proper limits, its length
may he estimated at 50 miles, and its breadth
at*15. The greater portion of it consists of a
low plain, unhealthy in autumn, but very
fertile, bearing heavy crops of grain, as well
as oranges, figs, olives, and other fruits.
The coast line has a row of sand dunes, con-
tinually encroaching on the cultivated dis-
tricts. Of its five cities, all important in
ancient times, Gaza alone is still a large
place. Ekron and Ashdod are villages;
Ashkelon lies in ruins by the sea ; Gath is so

Philistines

579

Philosophy

much forgotten that its name has disap-
peared, and its site is not quite certain.

PM-lis'tines.

A tribe or nation which is first mentioned
in Gen. x. 14, and taiiulatcd as descended
from Mizraim ; in other words, as htdonging
to Egypt. They went forth from the C'ashi-
him, and were a remnant of the isle or sea-
coast of Caphtor (Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Amos ix. 7) ;
see Caphtor. The country near Gaza was
inhabited tirst by the Avvini, but settlers
from Caphtor destroj-ed these aborigines and
dwelt in their room (Deut. ii. 23). Philis-
tines were in the region about Gerar and
Beer-sheba as early as the time of Abraham
(Gen. XX. 1,2; xxi. 32, 34 ; xxvi. 1). When
the Israelites left Egyjrt, their shortest way
to Canaan would have been through the
Philistine country, but the emancipated
slaves were not sufficiently heroic to tight
their way through the land of so warlike a
tribe, and they were directed to go by
another route (Ex. xiii. 17, 18). No steps
were taken by Joshua to conquer the Philis-
tines, who already w^ere in jiossession of the
five fortified cities with which their names
are associated, Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath,
and Ekron, each under a lord (Josh. xiii. 2,
3; Judg. iii. 3). The judge Shamgar slew
600 of them with an oxgoad (31). Not long
after this Israel, on account of its idolatries,
was sold into the hands of the Philistines
(x. 6, 7). They were delivered (11), but sin-
ning again, came under the same domination
for forty years. From this they were deliv-
ered by Samson, but the Philistines ulti-
mately proved his ruin (xiv.-xvi.). Early in
Samuel's public life they defeated the Israel-
ites, slaying, among others, Hophui and
Phinehas, Eli's sons. Thej^ also captured
the ark of God and kept it seven months;
but as it brought calamities with it, they
sent it back to the Israelite country (1 Sam.
iv.-vi.). Twenty years later Samuel defeated
the Philistines in battle at the same place,
which he called Ebenezer, the stone of help,
becau.se Jehovah had helped him there (vii.
3-12). It was an overwhelming defeat. The
Philistines were permanently humbled, and
came no more within the border of Israel.
Their army often crossed that border, and
intrenched itself in strong positions, and a
Philistine invasion was a constant menace.
But the Israelites had recovered their border
from Ekron to Gath, regaining possession of
the Shephelah or lowland, and the Philis-
tines did not again dis]iossess them (vii. 13,
14). The power of the Philistines was never
more formidable than during the reign of
Saul (x. 5; xii. 9). He and his son Jonathan
smote them at Geba, at Michmash, and
elsewhere (xiii. 1-23; xiv. 47, 52; xxiii. 27,
28 ; xxiv. 1). But they soon appeared again,
and Goliath, whom David slew, was a Philis-
tine champion who stood out from their
army, then in battle array within the terri-

tory of Judah (xvii. 1-58; xviii. 6; xix. >'»;
xxi. 9; xxii. 10). Soon after this, David
more than once encountered the Pliilis-
tines (xviii. 17-21,25, 27,30; xix. 8; xxiii.
1-5) ; but, at last, fearful of falling a victim
to Saul's malice, he twice over took refuge in
the Philistine country (xxi. 10-15; xxvii.-
xxix. ; Ps. Ivi. title). On the second occasion
he obtained as a feudatory possession . the
town of Ziklag, which had hitherto been
under Philistine authority (1 Sam. xxvii. 6).
A glance at the map will show that the Phi-
listines had jienetrated'to the very heart of
Canaan when they defeated the Israelites,
slaying Saul and his sons, at the battle of
Gilboa (xxviii. 4; xxix. 11; xxxi. 1-13; 1
Chron. x. 1-14). David was more successful
than his predecessor in reiielling the inva-
sions of the Philistines, with whom lie liad
several battles (2 Sam. iii. 18 ; v. 17-25; viii.
1, 12; xix. 9; xxi. 15-22; xxiii. 9-17; 1
Chron. xi. 12-19 ; xiv. 8-17 ; xviii. 1, 11 ; xx.
4, 5). After his death the Philistines are
less frequently mentioned, as if their power
was waning. Under Nadab, the son of Jero-
boam I., and some other short-lived kiug.s,
the Israelites besieged Gibbethon, a Philis-
tine city (1 Kin. xv. 27; xvi. 15). The
Philistines sent presents to Jehoshaphat (2
Chron. xvii. 11) ; but they invaded Judah
in the reign of his successor, Jehorani
(xxi. 16), and also in that of Ahaz (xxviii.
18). Uzziah and Hezekiah successfully in-
vaded Philistia (2 Kin. xviii. 8; 2 Chron.
xxvi. 6, 7). Judgment against them is fre-
quently threatened by the projihets (Is. xi.
14 ; Jer. xxv. 20 ; xlvii. 1-7 ; Ezek. xxv. 15-
17; Amos i. 6-8; Obad. 19; Zeph. ii. 4, 5;
Zech. ix. 5-7). Many Philistines accompa-
nied Gorgias, the Syrian general of Antiochus
Epiphanes, in his invasion of Judah (1 Mac.
iii. 41). Judas Maccabseus afterwards cap-
tured Azotus (Ashdod) and other Philistine
cities (v. 68). Jonathan Maccabreus burnt
Azotus, with the temjile of Dagon, and the
city of Ashkelon (x. 83-89). He also burnt
the suburbs of Gaza, but took no further
hostile measures, as the city itself was sur-
rendered on his demand (xi. 60, 61). The
Philistines are not mentioned by name in
the N. T., and seem ultimately to have
merged in the Jewish nation.

Tlie Mediterranean is once called the .^ea
of the Philistines (Ex. xxiii. 31).

Phi-lol'o-gus [fond of words].
A Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent
his salutation (Rom. xvi. 15).

Phi-los'o-phy [love of wisdom].

The spirit of pure iihilosophy, which seeks
to penetrate to the essence of things in them-
selves, is foreign to the Eastern mind. The
great distinction between Eastern and West-
ern philosophy has been historically that
oriental reasoning remained in the sphere of
religion and was never divorced from reli-
gious axioms, while occidental investigation

Philosophy

580

Philosophy-

came to 1)0 conducted, even by profoundly
religious minds, in a far wider Hi)here than
religion and liy the reason unassisted by tlie
postulates of religion. Moral philosojjhy
has characterized the East, metai)hysics the
West. For the biblical student the contrast
between (ireek and Hebrew thought, their
separate development, their eventual contact,
and their mutual influence are important.
The Hebrew mind reflected on the view of
the world which is presented by revelation.
It drew wisdom from the experience of
former generations, which was handed down
by the ancients, from observation of human
life and the results of conduct, and from the
study of the adaptations of nature to an end.
It thus gained true ]iriucii)les for the govern-
ment of conduct, it sought to discover to
what extent religious truth was approved by
the test of human experience, and it wrestled
with the paradoxes of the moral government
of God, esiiecially with the question of the
sufl^eriugs of the righteous and the pros])erity
of the wicked. From these varied sources
and manifold investigations the Hebrew wise
man was confirmed in the conviction that
the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom.
Hebrew philosophy, or wisdom as the Bible
calls it, received a great im])ulse through the
interest of Solomon, who both gathered the
maxims of other men, and out of his own
shrewd observation and varied experience
gave utterance to new proverbs. The prov-
erbs of Solomon largely concern conduct in
relation to the individual and to God, such
as chastity, temperaiu^e in meat and drink,
self-control, honesty, suretyship, behavior in
the presence of the mighty. From these
things Hebrew thought proceeded to view
morality in hvrger relations. F'rom the con-
sideration of a]>parent exceptions to its con-
clu.sions, it advanced to moral questions, and
looked upon events not in their immediate
per.sonal results, but in the light of their eflTect
upon posterity and of divine retribution in
time to come. The Hebrew jihilosopher further
studied nature, and saw that a divine pur-
pose exists everywhere (Ps. civ. 24). Every-
where is the impress of thought. Intelli-
gence is involved in the creation and preser-
vation of the universe (Prov. iii. 19). He
found wi.sdom to be an attribute of God,
which is everywhere revealed in nature. It
existed before God proceeded to create. He
personified wisdom (Prov. i. 20-33 ; viii. 12),
and represented it existing from everlasting,
as brought forth })efore the creation of the
world, present with God when he established
heaven and earth, ordained to rule in the
created univer.sc (viii. 22-31 ; Job xxviii. 12-
27). Wisdom was not itself a person, but it was
looked upon as objective to (jod, as "the reflec-
tion of (Jod's plan of the world," as the princi-
ple which God ordained for the world. By later
writers the thought was developed and wis-
dom was still further distinguished from God
(Wisd. vii. 22-viii. 5 ; ix. 4. 9) ; .see Wisdom.

Greek philosophy is usually said to begin
with Thales about ()40 b. c. Three main
periods are distinguished: 1. The i)re-So-
cratic schools which arose among the Greek
colonies of Asia Minor. The great subject
of inquiry was the constitution of the uni-
verse. Js there one underlying element;
such as moisture, or the subtle and all-per-
vading air, or one eternal, infinite, immova-
ble, unchangeable Being, or the instantaneous
balance of power? 2. The Socratic schools
rejiresented by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle,
469-322 B. c. Athens was the center of
philosophic thought, and inquiry was di-
rected to ideas, form (or essence) of things.
But it was not a barren metaphysics that
was cultivated ; a lofty morality was incul-
cated. Socrates used inductive reasoning by
which he sought to di.scover the i)ermanent
element underlying the changing forms of
appearances and opinions; and the truth
which he thus discovered he attempted to fix
by a general definition or statement. Aristotle
allowed absolute authority to the reason alone,
and accepted nothing which he could not
l)rove by logic. 3. The post-Socratic schools.
Philo.soidiy had culminated in Aristotle, and
discussion reverted to ethics founded on met-
aphysics. Epicurus, 342-270 B. o., declared
that the character of actions is detennmed
by their result, and that permanent pleasure
is the highest good. Zeno the Stoic, about
308 B. c, taught tliat moral character resides
in the act itself, independent of the result;
and inculcated the obligation of absolute
obedience to the commands of duty. The
Skeptics taught that certainty is not attain-
able in human knowledge ; and early mem-
bers of the school held that when we are
convinced that we can know nothing, we
cease to care, and in this way attain hai)pi-
ness.

Alexander the Great died in 323 B. c, and
Aristotle in 322. Thus when Greek philosophy
had reached its climax, Greek oilture ))egan
to be introduced into Palestine and among
the Jews of the dispersion. Epicureanism
and Stoicism were developed in Greece during
the period of the first close contact of Greek
and Hebrew, but they exercised little influ-
ence on Hebrew thought compared with the
power exerted by Plato and Aristotle. The
influence of the Socratic schools was seen in
the Sadducees perhaiis. who seem like Aris-
totle to have rejected everything which un-
aided reasoji did not teach, although they pro-
fessed to be governed by a different principle.
The influence of the Socratic schools was seen
in the Alexandrian school of Jewish thinkers,
whose prominent rei)resentative was Philo, a
contem])orary of Christ. They held to the
teaching of Moses; liut at the same time
they took what they a]>])roved of in (4reek
]>hilosophy, learning especially from divine
Plato, and endeavored to show that it was
already taught in the O. T. They combined
the doctrines of the Greek sage and of Moses

Phinelias

581

Phoenicia

into a uew system, aud removed inconsisten-
cies by arbitrarily allej^orizing Scrii)ture, even
down to its geography. Tlie influence of the
Greek i>hilos(ii>hy was seen in the improved
methods and enhirged scoi>e of debate. Paul
advances a formal iihilosojihic argunu'nt in
his address in the midst of the Areojiagus and
iu the beginning of his Epistle to the Konums
(Acts xvii. 30; Rom. i. 1J», 20). The intlu-
euce of Greek philo.sophy was seen further
in borrowed ideas, such as the preexistence
of the soul (Wisdom viii. lil, 20); in uew
words and uew content of words, as in the
use of the word form iu the Aristotelian
seuse of es.sence or sum total of attributes
(Phil. ii. 0) : and in uicc discrimiuatiou of
thought and precision of definition. Gnostic
spcculatiims later came from the East ; aud
the attempt to combine Gnosticism with
Cliristianity led Paul to combat it by pre-
seutiug the true relation of Christ to God
aud the world iu the Epistle to the Colossiaus.

Phin'e-has, iu A. V. of 1 Mac. Phinees
[perhaps Egyptian, j>«-//f/(s/, the negro
(Petrie)]. A Hebrew etymology is not ap-
pareut.

1. Son of Eleazar, and graudson of Aaron
(Ex. vi. 25). He ran a spear through an
Israelite aud a Midianite woman who had
come into the camp at Shittim together, this
summary punishment terminatiug a plague
which was then raging as a judgment against
the idolatries and impurities into which the
Midianitish women were leading the He-
brews. An everlasting priesthood was there-
fore promised to him and his descendants
(Num. XXV. 1 18; Ps. cvi. 30; 1 Mac. ii. 54).
With a short interra])tion when the house of
Eli, of the lineage of Ithamar, officiated as
high priests, Phinelias and his sons held the
office until sacrifice ceased with the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem and the temple by the Ro-
mans iu A. T>. 70. Phinelias was sent with ten
princes to remonstrate with the two and a
half tribes east of the Jordan on their erection
of an altar, erroneously supposed to be for
schismatic worshiji (Josh. xxii. 13). He re-
ceived as his share of the jiromised land a
hill iu mount Ephraim (xxiv. 33). Through
him the Israelites inquired of the Lord
Avhether they should attack the Benjamites
for condoning the sin of the inhabitants of
Gibeah (Judg. xx. 28).

2. The younger of Eli's two degenerate
sons. He was killed iu the battle with the
Philistiues in which the ark of God was
taken ; aud when the news of the catas-
trophe arrived, they so affected the feelings
of his wife that the i)ains of ]iremature
childbirth came upon her, and she died (1
Sam. i. 3; ii. 34; iv. 11, 19-22).

3. Father of a certain Eleazar (Ezra viii.
33), evidently a priest.

Phle'gon [burning, scorching].
A Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent
his salutation (Rom. xvi. 14).

Phoe'be, in A. V. Phebe [pure, bright,
radiant].

A woman who had been a servant or dea-
coness of the church at Ceuchrea*, the east-
ern i)ort of Corinth, but who removed tem-
jiorarily or iiermauently to Rome. I'aul
warmly commended her to the care and at-
tention of the Christians there (Rom. xvi. 1,
2). See Deaconess.

Phoe-ni'ci-a, in A. V. once Phenicia (Acts
xxi. 2), and twice Phenice (xi. l!i; xv. 3)
[Greek, land of the date ]ialm, or of jiurple
dyeing, or of dark skinned ])eoi)le].

A narrow strip of territory between the
Mediterranean Sea on the west and on the
east the crest of the Lebanon range and the
detached hills running south from it. The
northern limit may be regarded as Arvad.
Southward, after the settlement of the He-
brew's on the coast, Phoenicia pra<tically
terminated at the Ladder of Tyre, about 14
miles south of Tyre, although Ph(enicians
still dwelt in Achzib and Accho (Judg. i. 31).
In the time of Christ Phoenicia extended
southward as far as Dor, about Ifi miles south
of Carmel. The di.stance from Arvad to the
Ladder of Tyre is about 125 miles. The
chief cities were Tyre and Sidon, of which
Sidon was the first to rise to celebrity. Plice-
nicia was called Canaan by the ancient He-
brews (Is. xxiii. 11), and its inhabitants were
reckoned as Canaanites and classed with the
Hamitic peoples (Gen. x. 15). This classifi-
cation makes probable, but does not neces-
sarily imply, that they were of Hamitic
blood. According to their own tradition,
they had migrated from the Erythra'an Sea,
by way of Syria, to the coast of Canaan
(Herod, i. 1 ; vii. 89). According to Arabian
authors, the migration was across the north-
ern Arabian desert. The Phoenicians thus
traced their origin to the neighborhood of
the Persian Gulf, an early abode of the Ham-
itic race. In course of time they adopted
the Semitic language. The territory which
the Phoenicians inhabited had good natural
harbors; mount Lebanon afforded them an
almost inexhaustible supply of timber, with
which ships were constructed, and they be-
came the most skillful navigators known to
antiquity. They not merely traded with dis-
tant countries accessible by Mediterranean
routes, but they colonized spots favorable for
commerce, some of which afterwards rose
into importance. Their most celebrated
colony was Carthage, on the African coast,
uear modern Tunis, which was long a rival
of Rome, by which it was at last destroyed.
Of the Carthaginian leaders who figured in
the Punic wars, some, if not all, had names
purely Phoenician, aud almost Hebrew.
Thus. Hannibal means the grace of Baal,
and Hasdrubal, a help is Haal. When our
Lord visited the coasts of Tyre and Sidon. he
was within the Phoenician territory (Mat.
XV. 21 ; Mark vii. 24, 31). Various Christians

Phoenix

582

Pi-hahiroth

Avlio were scattered abroad, owing to the per-
secution which followed the martyrdom of
Stei>hen, found their way to Phoenicia (Acts
xi. 19). Paul and Barnabas went through it
on their way from Antioch to Jerusalem (xv.
3). Paul, on his last voyage to Jerusalem,
sailed in a Phoenician vessel, which brought
him to Tyre (xxi. 2, 3). See Tyke, Baal,
Jezebel, and Hiram.

Phoe'nix, in A. Y. Phe-ni'ce [date palm].

A haven in Crete (Acts xxvii. 12). It is
now called Lutro, and is the only harbor on
the south of Crete which is safe at every
season of the year.

Phryg'i-a.

A large and important province of Asia
Minor, which, after its original boundaries
were curtailed by the disseverance from it
of Galatia, was bounded ou the north by
Bithynia ; on the south by Lycia, Pisidia,
and Isauria ; on the east by Lycaonia and
Galatia ; and on the west by Caria, Lydia,
and Mysia. The region is a high table-land be-
tween the chain of Taurus on the south, Olym-
jius on the north, and Temnus ou the west. Of
its towns, four are mentioned in the N. T.,
Laodicea, Colosste, Hierajiolis, and Antioch of
Pisidia, which is reckoned by Strabo to
Phrygia. At this period Phrygia had ceased
to be a province and was merely a local
name. Antiochus the Great settled 2000
Jewish families from Babylonia and Meso-
potamia in Lydia and Phrygia (Antiq. xii. 3,
4), and Jews from Phrygia were present at
Jerusalem on that day of Pentecost signal-
ized by the descent of the Holy Spirit (Acts
ii. 10). Phrygia was traversed by Paul on
his second and third missionary journeys
(Acts xvi. 6 ; xviii. 23).

Phu'rah. See Purah.

Phut. See Put.

Phu'vah. See Puvah.

Phyg'e-lus, in A. V. Phy-gel'lus.

A C'hristian in the province of Asia who,
with others, deserted the apostle Paul in the
latter part of his life (2 Tim. i. 15).

Phy-lac'tery [an amulet].

A writing consisting of short extracts from
the law of Moses, and worn on the forehead
or on the arm (Mat. xxiii. 5). The phylac-
tery eventually assumed the form of a small
case, made of jiarchment or black sealskin,
and containing four compartments in which
were placed strips of i)archment inscribed
with the passages of Scripture. It was fas-
tened with straps on the forehead just above
and between the eyes, or cm the left arm.
When bound on the forehead, it is a frontlet;
see Frontlet. The passages used for the
l»urpose were four: Ex. xiii. 2-10, 11-17 ;
Dent. vi. 4-9, 13-22. The first three of these
were interpreted as enjoining the custom.
Phj'lacterics are worn by every Jew on week-
day mornings during the time of prayer.

Phy-si'dian. See Medicine.

Pi-be'seth [Egyptian, Pa-basi, abode of the
goddess Bast].

An Egyptian city (Ezek. xxx. 17), in Greek
form written Bubastos or BuJjastis (Herod,
ii. 59, 137). It is now called Tell Basta, and
is on the delta near Zagazig, on the western
side of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. It
is about 45 miles northeast by north of mod-
ern Cairo, and 30 southwest by south of an-
cient Zoan. Among the ruins are the re-
mains of a once splendid temjde of red gran-
ite, dedicated to the goddess of the place.

Piece.

In O. T., when piece refers to money and
is not italicized, it denotes a certain amount
of precious metal, whether coined or un-
coined (Gen. xxxiii. 19; 1 Sam. ii. 36) The
word piece was chosen by the translators be-
cause it is vague, and they did not know the
value of the money indicated by the several
Hebrew words. Piece is also employed by the
translators, where the unit of weight or the
coin is not expressly mentioned by the He-
brew writer, but where he ordinarily means
a shekel (Judg. xvii.2 ; 2 Sam. xviii 11, in
A. V. shekel ; c]). Deut. xxii. 19; 1 Kin. x.
29, where both versions have .shekel). In N.
T. also a piece of silver commonly denotes
the shekel or its equivalent (Mat. xxvi. 15
with xxvii. 9 and Zech. xi. 12) ; but in Luke
XV. 8 it is a drachma, worth about 16 cents.

Pi'e-ty.

Filial pietv, dutifulness in the family (1
Tim. V. 4).

Pi'geon. See Dove.

Pi-lia-hi'roth [probably, house or place of
sedge].

The last station of the Israelites on leav-
ing Egypt, near Baal-zephon and Migdol, and
on the sea (Ex. xiv. 2, 9 ; Num. xxxiii. 7, 8).
The site is disputed. Brugsch regards the
name as Hebrew, which then might mean
mouth of the caverns; and he identifies it
with the Serbonian bog, which the Greeks
called Barathra, and at the bottom of which
they represented the monster Typhon as
lying. But the name is doubtless Egyp-
tian. Keil asserts that it has incontest-
ably been preserved in 'Ajrud, on the
Pilgrim road, about 16 miles northwest of
Suez. But the two names have only one
letter in common. Naville identifies it with
Pikerehet, or Pikeheret, near Pithom (q. v.).
Not merely is there a similarity of .sound,
but Pharaoh had a farm there ; and the Sep-
tuagint, instead of " before Pi-hahiroth," in-
serts "before the farm." The city was an
important one, which disputed with Pithom
the honor of liemg the capital of the eighth
Home, or district, of Lower Egypt. Its .spe-
cial deity was Osiris. Naville believes that
itwasthesamei)laceas Serapiu, or Serapeum,
the only known sanctuary of Osiris in that
region. Two roads ran from it : the one
to Clusma. 9 miles ofl'. the other to Pelusium.

Pilate

583

Pilate

Pi'late [armed with a javelin, or wearing
tlie j/iliis or felt caj) which was worn by a
manumitted slave as the emblem of liberty].

Pontius I'ilate, fifth Koman i)rocurator in
Judsea after the disposition of Archelaus in
A. D. 6. See PRoef KATOK. Through the in-
fluence of Sejanus he was a]ipointed by the
emperor Tiberius jirocurator of Judtea about
A. D. 26, in succession to Valerius Gratus.
He arrived in juda-a the same year. He was
accomjianied by his wife (Mat. xxvii. 19).
For a Idiig time it was illegal for a Koniau
governor who was ajiiKiinted to a dangerous
province to take his wife with him, but since
the time of Augustus it was permitted (Taci-
tus, Ann. iii. 33).

Pilate sent a detachment of troops into
Jerusalejn by night, carrying with them
their ensigns, which had hitherto always been
left outside the city. On these ensigns were
silver eagles and small images of the em-
jieror, and they gave great offense to the
Jews. De])utatious went to Csesarea, the
official residence of the procurators, to urge
the removal of the ensigns, and Pilate, after
in vain attempting to intimidate the peti-
tioners, was obliged at last to comply with
their request (Antiq. xviii. 3, 1 ; War ii. 9,
2 and 3). Some time afterwards, taking
the sacred money called Corban, he be-
gan to expend it in making an aqueduct
to bring water into Jerusalem from the up-
lands south of the capital. The Jews con-
sidered that this was applying to secular uses
money which had heen dedicated to God ;
and on Pilate's visiting Jerusalem they beset
his tribunal with much clamor and tumult.
Having been told beforehand that such an
occurrence was likely to happen, he had
taken the precaution of mingling his soldiers
in disguise among the multitude, armed with
sticks, if not with concealed daggers. When
the tumult was at its height he gave them a
signal to attack the rioters with the sticks,
Avhich they did so vigorously that some were
killed, and the rest, fleeing in panic, tram-
pled many of their number to death. The
riot seems not to have been renewed, and
the aqueduct was made ; but the affair in-
creased the disfavor with which the people
regarded Pilate (Antiq. xviii. 3, 2 ; War ii. 9,
4). Pilate attempted to dedicate some gilt
shields in honor of the emperor Tiberius and
place them within Herod's ]Kilace at Jerusa-
lem. They Avere inscribed with the imperial
name, but were without the imperial portrait.
Still they gave offense. The people apjiealed
to him in vain to forbear. Then the influ-
ential men of the city forwarded a petition
to the emperor, who ordered Pilate to take
the shields hack again to C'a>sarea (Philo,
Legat. ad t'aium xxxviii.). In narrating this
event, Philo, or rather Agrippa I., in a letter
which Philo cites, describes Pilate as a man
of inflexible dispo.sition, and merciless, as
well as obstinate. He also says that he feared
they might complain to the emperor about

Pilate in respect to his corruption and his
acts of violence, and his habit of insulting
peoi)le, and his cruelty, and liis continual
execution of people untried and uncou-
deinned, his never-ending and gratuitous
and most grievous inhumanity. Pilate was
in othce when John the Pajjtist and our
Lord began their respective ministries (Luke
iii. 1). It was the custom of the procurators
to go up to Jerusalem when the immen.se
gatherings took ])lace at the leading Jewish
festivals. On these occasions they took up
their residence in the i>alace of Herod. It
was probably at one of these that Pilate fell
upon the Galilaeans, and mingled their blood
with their sacrifices (Luke xiii. 1, 2). The
Galilaeans were a turbulent class of men,
prone to misbehave when they came uji to the
festivals (Antiq. xvii. 10, 2 and 9). There is
no reason to believe that Pilate would have
treated them as he did unless they had first
broken out into riot. It is probable that
Herod Antipas took offense at the summary
way in which his subjects were slain by
Pilate on this occasion ; but whatever may
have been the origin of the variance between
the two, Herod's ill-will was ap])eased by
Pilate's acknowledgment of the tetrarch's
jui-isdiction in Galilsean affairs (Luke xxiii.
6-12) on the day when our Lord was put to
death.

The character of Pilate, which these
various incidents of his official career reveal,
is seen in his treatment of Jesus also. Pilate
was a worldling willing en()Ugli to act justly
if this could be done consistently with his
interests, and to avoid criminal acts provided
that this could be done at small cost ; but if
heavy payment were needed, Pilate was not
the man to give it. His secret question to
himself was not, What is my duty? but,
What is my interest ? He acquitted our Lord
of evil, was desirous of releasing him, and
was aware that justice required that this
should be done ; but he knew also that it
would further increase his unpopularity ; so
to please the Jewish people, he gave orders to
scourge him in whom he had just before de-
clared that he had found no crime. He
allowed the Roman soldiers, whom a single
word from him would have restrained, to
inflict new tortures on the already lacerated
body of Jesus, and after many more insults
and injuries to the uncomplaining sufferer,
finally answered the Jewish clamors for the
crucifixion of the Son of God by giving sen-
tence that it should be as they required
(Mat. xxvii. ; Luke xxiii.). Pilate's govern-
ment came to an abrupt end. A certain
Samaritan persuaded his countrymen that
if they would go with him up mount Gerizim
he would show them where certain vessels
of the tabernacle had been hidden by Moses.
It was a mere ]>retext. the ])lotter doubtless
knowing that Moses never was at mount
Gerizim. But multitudes were willing to
accompany the demagogue up the mountain.

Fildasli

584

Pipe

As they carried arms, Pilate seized all the
ways to Gerizim with horse and foot soldiers,
aud attacking the mass of the professed
treasure seekers at a village at the foot of
the mountain, slew a great many, securing
others and sending them to be executed.
The Samaritans forwarded a complaint
against Pilate to his immediate superior,
Vitellius, president of Syria. Vitellius ap-
pointed a new procurator, aud ordered Pilate
to proceed to Rome to answer to the emperor
for his conduct. Before Pilate arrived Ti-
berius had died, March 16th, A. D. 37 (Autiq.
xviii. 4, 1 and 2). It is reported that Pilate
was banished to Vienna, on the Rhone, in
the south of France, and ultimately com-
mitted suicide.

Various Acta Pilati, Acts of Pilate, are
extant, but no two of them agree, and all
are considered to be spurious.

Pil'dash.

A sou of Nahor and Milcah (Gen. xxii. 22).

Pil'tia, in A. V. Pil'e-ha [a slice, plow-

One of those who with Nehemiah sealed
the covenant (Neh. x. 24).

Pill.

To take the skin or rind off, to peel (Gen.
xxx. 38, R. V. peel).

Pil'lar.

1. A stone erected as a sign of the holiness
of a place (Gen. xxviji. 18), as a memorial
of some person or event (xxxi. 45 ; Josh,
iv. 5-9; 1 Sam. vii. 12; 2 Sam. xviii. 18;
and see Garrison), or as a representa-
tive of parties present (Ex. xxiv. 4). Isaiah
prophesied that the time is coming when
the converts to the true faith in Egj'jjt
shall erect an altar and a pillar to the Lord
(Is. xix. 19), as Abraham and Jacob did of
old in Canaan. The pillar was used by the
heathen. The Canaanites erected pillars in
connection with the worship of Baal. The
Israelites were strictly enjoined, in the oldest
legislation, to break them and overthrow the
altars (Ex. xxiii. 24, R. V.), and they were for-
bidden to erect similar ])illars beside the altar
of the Lord (Deut. xvi. 22). Pillars, how-
ever, found favor among the degenerate Is-
raelites of the northern kingdom (Hos. iii. 4 ;
X. 1,2), and even in Judah (Mic. v. 13, R. V.).

2. A support, much used in ancient archi-
tecture for upholding roofs and curtains (Ex.
xxvi. 32 ; Judg. xvi. 26). The earth and the
heavens were often spoken of poetically as
supported by pillars (1 Sam. ii. 8; Job. ix.
6; xxvi. 11). Strong men and fundamental
principles are figuratively called pillars (Gal.
ii. 9; 1 Tim. iii. 15).

Pil'low. See Bolster.

Pil'tai [characterized by deliverance].

A priest, head of the father's house of
Moadiah in the days of the high priest Joia-
kim (Neh. xii. 17).

Pine and Pine Tree.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Ti(lhai\
the name of a tree in Lebanon (Is. xli. 19 ;
Ix. 13; R. V. margin, plane). It has not
been properly identified.

2. The rendering of 'Es shemen, oil tree
(Neh. viii. 15, in R. V. wild olive). See Oil*
Tree.

Pin'na-cle.

A part of the temple, the edge of which
was at a great height above the ground (Mat.
iv. 5). Exact identification is impossible.
The Greek word pterugion, like pinnacle
which is used to translate it, literally means
a little wing ; and it denotes the fin of a fish,
the border of a garment, or the end of the
breastplate (Lev. xi. 9; Num. xv. 38; Ex.
xxviii. 26, in Septuagint). It may be simply
the edge of the roof or court. Lightfoot, in-
fluenced by the meaning of the Greek word,
suggested the porch which projected on each
side of the temple like wings (War v. 5, 4).
Others have thought of the royal jiorch
which adjoined the temple and towered 400
cubits above the valley of the Kidrou (Antiq.
XV. 11, 5 ; XX. 9, 7). The golden spikes
which were erected on the roof of the temple
to prevent birds from alighting, have been
thought of also as most nearly resem])ling
slender towers or pinnacles in the modern
sense ; but they were many, and the evangel-
ists speak of the pinnacle as though there
were but one (R. V.).

Pi'non.

A chieftain of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 41 ; 1
Chron. i. 52), probably catalogued by the
name of his town (Gen. xxxvi. 40) ; see

PUNON.

Pipe.

1. A wind instrument, called in Hebrew
halil, pierced instrument, and in Greek
aulos. It existed in a variety of forms.
The single pipe or reed was held vertically
and blown by a mouthpiece at the end. A
difiereut kind was held and blown like a
flute. The double pipe consisted of right
and left tubes, which were blown at the
same time, and played each with the corre-
sponding hand. The holes of a pipe num-
bered two, three, or four. It was used in
orchestra or was played alone (1 Sam. x. 5;
1 Kin. i. 40), and it accompanied merry song,
religious praise, aud the funeral dirge (Is. v.
12; XXX. 29; Mat. ix. 23; xi. 17). See
Music.

2. A wind instrument of ancient origin,
called 'ugah (Gen. iv. 21), which was used
in merrymaking (Job xxi. 12; xxx. 31), and
was deemed worthy of employment in the
praise of God (Ps. cl. 4). According to the
Targums it was a pipe. The Vulgate and in
Ps. cl. the Septuagint explain it as a wind
instrument, the organon. The A. V. always
ti-anslates it organ, doubtless in the sense of
mouth organ or set of pipes. The R. V. uni-
formly renders it pipe.

Piram

585

Pithom

It is uncertain whether nekeb (Ezek. xxviii.
13) denotes a piereed instrument (E. V. pipe)
or a perforated gem.

Pi'ram [like a wild ass, swift].
A Caiiaanite king of Jarniuth, one of those
defeated by Joshua before Gibeou (Josh. x. 3).

Pir'a-thon, in E. V. of 1 Mac. ix.oOPhara-
thon [nakedness, prominence]. In A. V. of
1 Mac. the adjective I'harathoni is used.

A town in the mount of the Anialekites,
in the Ephraimite territory. Abdon, the
judge, and Beuaiah, the military official,
were Pirathonites (Judg. xii. 13-15 ; 2 Sam.
xxiii. 30; 1 Chron. xxvii. 14). It was forti-
fied by Bacchides (1 Mac. ix. 50; cp. Antiq.
xiii. 1, 3). Robinson identified it plausibly
with Fer'ata, on a hill about 6 miles west by
south of Shechem. Conder suggests Fer'on,
14 miles west by north of Shechem ; see
Ophrah.

Pis'gah [a part, piece, division].

That part of the Abarim range of moun-
tains near the northeastern end of the Dead
Sea (Deut. xxxiv. 1 with iii. 27 and xxxii.
49). The Dead Sea was under its slojtes
(Deut. iii. 17). Its top looked down upon the
desert (Num. xxi. 20). The field of Zophim on
its top was visited by Balaam and Balak (xxiii.
14). From its summit, called Nebo, a large
part of Canaan west of the Jordan was visi-
ble, and from it Moses viewed the promised
laud (Deut. iii. 27; xxxiv. 1-4) ; see Nebo.
It was on the southern border of the
realm of Sihon, king of the Amorites
(Josh. xii. 2, 3). As late as the time of Euse-
bius, the mountainous country adjacent to
mount Peor was called Phasgo. But the
name is no longer attached to the eastern
mountains, but seems to linger in the rocky
headland, Eas el-Feshkah, on the opposite
:ide of the sea.

Pi'shon. See Eden.

Pi-sid'i-a.

A district of Asia Minor, bounded on the
north by Phrygia ; on the south by Lycia
and Paraphylia ; on the east by Lycaonia ;
and on the west by Caria. It formed a part
of the Eoman province of Galatia. The
mountain chain of Taurus runs through it,
and its turbulent inhabitants were so brave
that they were never entirely subdued either
by the Persians or by the Romans. Its chief
town was Antioch, visited by Paul (Acts xiii.
14).

Pi'son. See Eden.

Pis'pah.

An Asherite, sou of Jether (1 Chron. vii.
38).

Pit.

A large deep hole in the ground. It may
be either natural or artificial (Gen. xiv. 10;
xxxvii. 20, 24).

Figuratively it is used for the grave or
death (Job xxxiii. 18, 24), and it is employed

thrice to render sh"ol (Num. xvi. 30, 33 ; Job
xvii. 16) ; see Sheol.
Pitch.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Kopher,
covering. The ark of Noah was daubed
over with it, to render the junction of
wooden ])lanks iini)ervious to water ((Jen. vi.
14). It was probably asjihalt from Hit, in
Babylonia. See Bitumen.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Zepheth,
liquid. The ark of Moses was covered over
with it (Exod. ii. 3). The streams in the
land of Edom were to become pitch of this
character (Is. xxxiv. 9). The last passage
suggests that it also was asi)halt from some
locality. See Bitumen.

Pitch'er.

A water jar of earthenware (cp. Judg. vii.
19), in the East generally having one or two
handles. It is used for drawing water at the
well and carrying it home. Ordinarily
women go for water, carrying the pitcher on
the head or shoulder (Gen. xxiv. 15, 1(5), but
men sometimes do this work (Mark xiv. 13).
The Hebrew word is rendered barrel in 1
Kin. xvii. 12, where the vessel was used for
holding meal. See illustrations, Jacob and
Fountain of the Virgin, article Jerusalem.

Pi'thom [Egyptian pa-tum, abode of Turn
{Turn being the setting sun, worshiped by
the Egyptians as a god)].

One of the two store cities which the
Israelites when in bondage in Egypt built
for Pharaoh (Exod. i. 11). Excavations,
made under the auspices of the Egyptian
Exploration Fund, by Edouard Naville at
Tell el-Maskhuta, showed this to be the
ancient Pithom. It is on the south side of
the sweet-water canal which runs from Cairo
to Suez through the wady Tumilat. There
seems to have been at the spot an ancient
shrine dedicated to Tum ; but inscriptions
dug up indicate that the city and fortifica-
tions did not come into existence till the
time of Eamses II., the Pharaoh, it is be-
lieved, of the oppression. No more ancient
monuments than his have been found in the
place. To the northeast of the temple of
Tum are extensive subterranean buildings.
The walls are 9 feet thick, built of crude
bricks joined by thin layers of mortar. A
most interesting observation was made that
some bricks had been manufactured with
and some without straw (cp. Exod. v. 10-12).
The walls inclosed a number of rectangular
chambers not communicating with each
other, the only access to them being from
above. Naville believes that they were
storehouses or granaries, into which the
Pharaohs gathered the provisions necessary
for armies or even for caravans about to cross
the desert into Syria. At the time of the
Greek dynasty Pithom received the new
name of Heroopolis, city of heroes, which
the Romans abridged into Ero. as is proved by
Latin inscriptions from the locality. Sayce

Pithon

586

Plane

compares Ero with Egyptian ara, a storehouse.
It was in the land of Goshen : for the Sep-
tuagint substitutes Heroopolis for Goshen in
Gen. xlvi. 28, and the Coptic version, trans-
lated from the Septuagint, reads near Pithom,
in the land of Eamses. All around the sacred
buildings of Pithom was the civil city of
Thuku, believed to be the Succoth of Exod.
xii. 37.

Pi'thon.

A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron. viii.
35; ix. 41).

Plague.

An infliction sent by God as a punishment
for sin. In most of the cases mentioned in
the Bible the infliction is an epidemic or
other disease, but it may be also a judgment
of a difl'erent character. A disease to be a
plague need not be miraculous. The particu-
lar disease which God has attached as a pen-
alty for the violation of this or that physical
or mental law may be properly called a
plague, if the act has moral quality. And
even a disease which arises from ignorance
of sanitary laws and from a violation of
nature in no wise criminal, and which in
itself is without moral significance, may be-
come in God's hands an instrument for the
punishment of evil doers, God predetermin-
ing and arranging for the time and place of
its outbreak with this end in view. What is
called in EnglLsh by way of emphasis the
plague is a highly malignant form of typhus
fever, due to neglect of sanitary precautions,
which has frequently originated at Cairo, in
Egypt, and spread to Syria, Asia Minor, and
the adjacent regions. It is probable that it
has been used in times past as a chastening
rod.

The first plague mentioned in Scripture
was that sent on Pharaoh, Abraham's con-
temporary, for the protection of Sarah, the
patriarch's wife (Gen. xii. 17). The next
plagues in point of time were the ten in-
flicted on Egypt. They were not phenomena
■with which the Egyptians were previously
unacquainted ; but in most cases, if not in
all, they were distresses common to the
country. Yet they were not mere natural
phenomena in aggravated form ; they ex-
hibited unmistakably miraculous features;
see Egypt III. 6. The first consisted in the
change of the river water into blood or .some-
thing like it (Ex. vii. 14-25) ; the second, in
the vast multiplication of frogs (viii. 1-15) ;
the third, in lice, sand flies, or fleas, produced
from the dust (16-19) ; the fourth, in swarms
of flies (20-32) ; the fifth, in murrain on the
cattle (ix. 1-7) ; the sixth, in boils and blains
on man and beast (8-12) ; the seventh, in a de-
structive hailstorm (13-35) ; the eighth, in
locusts brought by the east wind (x. 1-20) ;
the ninth, in dense darkness (21-29) ; and
the tenth, in the death of all the firstborn
(xi. 1-xii. 30). A plague was sent upon the
Israelites for making and worshiping the

golden calf (Ex. xxxii. 35) ; and another for
murmuring against the sustenance provided
for them by God (Num. xi. 33, 34) ; another
slew the spies who had brouglit uj) an evil
report of the land (xiv. 37) ; another raged
among the people for murmuring at the
righteous punishment of the rebels Korah,
Dathan, and Abiram. In this visitation 14,700
perished (xvi. 46-50). In another plague
sent upon the people on account of the idola-
tries and impurities at Baal-peor 24,000 died
(XXV. 9 ; Jo.sh. xxii. 17 ; Ps. cvi. 29, 30). The
infliction of the emerods, or piles, upon the
Philistines is called a plague (1 Sam. vi. 4).
A plague or pestilence, in which 70,000 per-
ished, followed on David's numbering the
people (2 Sam. xxiv. 13-25; 1 Chron. xxi.
12-30) A plague was threatened against
Jehoram, king of Judah, and his people
(2 Chron. xxi. 14, 15).

Sometimes the word plague is used of dis-
eases which are not epidemic : it is applied,
for instance, to an issue of blood (Mark v.
29, 34), to leprosy in individuals (Lev. xiii.
3, 5, 6), and even to the spreading of some
inferior forms of vegetation on the walls of
presumably damp houses (xiv. 35).

Plain.

In the A. V. seven different words are ren-
dered plain. Three of these deserve special
notice, sh'phelah, kikkar, and '"rabah. The
term sh'phelah, or lowland, as E. V. renders
it, was the technical designation for the dis-
tricts of southern and in part of central Pal-
estine, between the higher hills on the east
and the low-lying plain along the Mediter-
ranean on the west. In Josh. xv. 33-47
forty-two towns of Judah, with their vil-
lages, are enumerated as being within its
bounds. Some of these were, however, gen-
erally in Philistine hands, and hence Obad.
19 mentions the lowland of the Philistines.
See Lowland.

Kikkar, which means circle, circuit, was
applied especially to the plain of the Jordan
from at least Succoth on the north to Sodom
and Gomorrah on the south (Gen. xiii. 10, 11,
12 ; xix. 17, 28 ; Deut. xxxiv. 3 ; 2 Sam. xviii.
23; 2 Chron. iv. 17). The valley as far
north as the sea of Galilee was probably in-
cluded in the designation (War iv. 8, 2).

The word '"rabah, which is rendered plain
in A. V. of Deut. ii. 8; iii. 17, etc., is gen-
erally left untranslated in E. Y. See Arabah.

Plane.

Tlie rendering of the Hebrew 'Armon,
naked one (Gen. xxx. 37; Ezek. xxxi. 8).
So E. Y. and the ancient versions, except
that the Septuagint renders it pine in
Ezekiel. The A. V., following the rabbini-
cal interpretation, calls it chestnut. The
oriental plane tree (Platanus orientali/t) grows
from 70 to 90 feet high. It has palmately
lobed leaves, resembling those of tlie sycamore
maple, which is the reason why the latter tree
is sometimes called a plane, and has the .specific

■

Plaster

68/

Poetry

name pseudo-platanus. Tlie oriental plane is
indigenous iu southern Europe and western
Asia. In Palestine it is wild by the side of
mountiiin streams, besides being cultivated
in nuuiy places.

Plas'ter. See Mortar I.

Pledge. See Loan.

Ple'ia-des [daughters of sailing, stars
which indicate by their rising the time of
safe navigation ; or perhaps, the full or com-
pact group].

The Hebrew word Kimah is the name of a
brilliant star or constellation (Job ix. 9 ;
xxxviii. 31 ; and Amos v. 8, in A. V. the
seven stars), and in tlie opinion of the
majority of ancient writers it denotes the
Pleiades. An Arabic designation for the
Pleiades is Thuriyya\ which likewise signi-
fies a compact group.

The Pleiades arc a cluster of stars in the
constellation Taurus (the Bull), in the shoul-
der of the animal. For some unknown
reason they were anciently said to be seven ;
and since only six were usually seen, the
notion arose of a lost Pleiad. Six stars are
visible to the naked eye on ordinary nights,
but more may be seen by persons of very
good sight. With the aid of a telescope a
hundred stars may be counted. Josephus
uses the setting of the Pleiades as a note of
time (Antiq. xiii. 8, 2).

Plow.

In Palestine the plow is of primitive
character. It consists of a pole or the
branch of a tree, to one end of which the

ably twelve plows, each with its pair of
bullocks and its man, Elisha being the last
of the twelve (1 Kin. xix. 19, 20).

Plow, Plowshares, and Yokes,

as still used in Asia Minor.

Poch'e-reth-haz-ze-ba'im [perlmps, cap-
turing gazelles].

Founder of a family, members of whii-h
returned from the Babjlonian captivity
(Ezra ii. 57; Neh. vii. 59). The A. V.
divides the name, makes the latter i)art a
place, and calls the man Pochereth of Ze-
baim.

Po'et-ry.

Poetry is one of the earliest forms in which
the literary taste of a people begins to ex-
press itself. It is rhythmical and regular in
•form, like the motions of the dancer which
it so frequently accompanied in ancient

Plowing and Sowing in Ancient Egj'pt.

yoke is attacTied, while from the other end
a small branch projects or else through the
end a beam is thrust which is sheathed in a
thin plate of iron and forms the share (Is. ii.
4j. It was dragged by oxen or cows, and
was guided by the hand (Judg. xiv. 18; Job
i. 14 ; Ecclus. xxxviii. 25, 2H ; Luke ix. 62).
Such an implement can do little more than
scratch the surface of the ground. Hence
the same land has to be plowed over and
over again. When Elisha was plowing
with twelve yoke of oxen there were prob-

times (Ex. xv. 20, 21). It is naturally born
of the emotions, and is called forth by indi-
vidual or national joy or sorrow or deep
concern. The imagination also and the
habit of expressing thought in vivid lan-
guage borrowed from nature, which are vital
elements in ])oetry, come to manifestation
during the childhood of a people. The He-
brews formed no exception to tlie rule. The
words of Sarah at the birth of her son have
the poetic ring (Gen. xxi. (i, 7). The blessing
which Jacob bestowed on his sons as the time

Poetry

588

Poetry

of his death approached was couched in the
sententious and picturesque form of Semitic
poetry (xlix.). The song which sprang spon-
taneously from Moses' lips, when he beheld
the overthrow of Pharaoh's host in the sea
and discerned at once the moral effect which
it would have on the nations of Canaan,
was also an utterance born of strong feel-
ing and cast into the simple form of He-
brew poetry.

Ancient Semitic poetry does not rhyme.
Poems have been discovered which show a
certain csesural arrangement, but this feature
is not essential. Assonance, alliteration, and
rhyme, so common in occidental poetry, oc-
casionally occur in Hebrew poetry, but they
also are not essential and they are extremely
rare. Nor is there a regular recurrence of
long and short syllables or feet ; but the
rhythmical tendency was strongly felt and
unconsciously led to producing lines of nearly
the same number of syllables.

The essential formal characteristic of He-
brew poetry is parallelism. By this is meant
that the sentiment of one line is echoed in the
next. This parallelism is of various kinds :

1. Synonymous, when the thought of the
first line is repeated in other words in the
second line, as in Gen. iv. 23 :

Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
Ye wives of Lamech, hearken unto my
speech.

The couplet :

For I have slain a rnan to my wounding [or,

for wounding me],
And a young man to my hurt [or, for bruising

me],

likewise exhibits synonymous parallelism ;
and at the same time it shows the exegetical
importance of an acquaintance with this
principle, for Lamech must not be under-
stood to speak of two murders. He men-
tions killing but one man. This principle
also enables the expositor of Scripture to
interpret ambiguous words ; for example, in
Ps. xxii. 20:

Deliver my soul from the sword ;

My darling from the power of the dog,

the parallelism determines that the darling
referred to is not a dear friend, but means
the psalmist's soul or his life.

2. Progressive, in which the second line
expresses a new idea more or less closely re-
lated to the first ; as in Job iii. 17 :

There the wicked cease from troubling ;
And there the weary be at rest.

3. Synthetic or constructive, in which there
is parallelism of structure only, while the
thought of one line serves as the foundation
upon which to build a new thought ; as Ps.
XXV. 12 :

What man is he that feareth the Lord?
Him shall he instruct in the way that he
shall choose ;

or Prov. XX vi. 4 :

Answer not a fool according to his folly,
Lest thon also be like unto him ;

or Ps. xxiv. 9 :

Lift up your heads, O ye gates ;

Yea, lift them up, ye everlasting doors :

And the King of glory shall come in.

4. Climactic, in which the characteristic
words are repeated and form the ladder on
which the thought climbs to completion or
to emphatic reiteration ; as in Ps. xxix. 5 :

The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars ;
Yea, the Lord breaketh in pieces the cedars
of Lebanon ;

and in Ps. cxxi. 3, 4 :

He will not suffer thy foot to be moved :
He that keepeth thee will not slumber ;
Behold, he that keepeth Israel
Shall neither slumber nor sleep.

5. Antithetic, in which the thought is made
more clear by contrast ; as in Mat. viii. 20 :

The foxes have holes,
And the birds of the air have nests ;
But the Son of man hath not where to lay
his head.

6. Comparative, in which the thought is
explained by comparison with something else
that is familiar ; as in Ps. xlii. 1 :

As the hart panteth after the water brooks,
So panteth my soul after thee, O God.

The verses are usually distichs, but tristichs
are common, as may be seen from the exam-
ples already cited. Tetrastichs and peuta-
stichs also occur (Ps. xxv. 7; xxvii. 3, 4, 9 ;
xxxvii. 7, 14, 20, 25, 28, 34, 40). The stanza is
not essential to poetry, and it is rare in He-
brew poetry. It is used in Ps. xlii. and xliii.,
which form one poem, divided into three
equal parts by a recurring verse. Ps. xlvi.
consists of three groups of three verses each,
the conclusion of each group being marked
by Selah, and the last two groups closing
with a refrain. There are also alphabetical
psalms, in which the principle is more or
less fully observed of beginning the suc-
cessive verses with the letters of the alphabet
in consecutive order (Ps. xxv. ; xxxiv. ;
xxxvii.). Ps. cxix. consists of twenty-two
groups of eight verses each. The number
of groups equals the number of letters in the
Hebrew alphabet, and the initial letter of
each verse in a group is in the original that
letter of the alphabet which numerically
corresponds to the group. The book of
Lamentations is constructed on a similar
alphabetical plan ; see Lamentations.

Poetry is usually classified as epic, dra-
matic, lyric, and didactic. Neither the epic
nor the drama is found in the Bible ; but the
Book of Job has a .semi-dramatic form, for
there is action, which forms the basis of
drama, in the prologue and epilogue, and
there is a regular alternation of speakers
throughout. See also Song of Songs. The

Poison

589

Pontus

lyrics are the most numerous poems. No
period of Israelitish history after the exodus
is without them. They consist of triumphal
odes which celehrate the deliverance wrought
by Jehovah, like the song of Moses at the
Red Sea, and the song of Deborah ; psalms
of the penitent suing for mercy or expressing
the joy of forgiveness (Ps. xxxii. ; li.), and
of the poor and needy crying out in distress,
calm in faith, or praising God for succor
(xxxviii. ; and iii. ; xxiii. ; Hab. iii. ; and 1
Sam. ii. 1-10 ; Is. xxxviii. 10-20 ; Luke 1.
46-55) ; psalms of the coming Redeemer and
his kingdom (Ps. ii. ; xlv. ; Ixxii.) : and
plaintive elegies, as the lament of David
over Saul and Jonathan, the songs of mourn-
ing for Judah, and the Lamentations (2 Sam.
i. 17-27; Ps. xliv. ; Ix.; Ixxiv.).

Poi'son.

Any substance, vegetable, animal, or miner-
al, which produces a morbid or deadly eftect
when introduced into the animal organism (2
Kin. iv. 39, 40 ; Rom. iii. 1.3). The venom of ser-
pents is denoted in Hebrew either by hemah,
heat (Deut. xxxii. 24, 33; Ps. Iviii. 4), a gen-
eral word which is also used for hot passion
and the heat produced by wine, or by ro'sh
(Deut. xxxii. 33 ; Job xx. 16), which also sig-
nifies a bitter herb ; see G.\i,l. The custom
of anointing arrows with the poison of
snakes is probably alluded to in Job vi. 4. It
was a practice of great antiquity and consid-
erable extent (Homer, Odyssey i. 261, 262 ;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xi. 115 ; xviii. 1). Vegetable
poison was also employed for this purpose, as
thatobtained from the yew tree (Hist. Nat. xvi.
20). The Gauls used a poisonous herb called
limeum. perhaps leopard's bane (xxvii. 76).

The suicide of Ptolemy JIacron by poison,
the alleged murder of Pheroras by poisoned
food, and the fame of Arabian women for
skill in preparing poisonous potions (2 Mac.
X. 13; Antiq. xvii. 4, 1), serve to show that
the crimes prevalent at that time in Rome
were not left uncommitted in Judah and the
East (cp. Mark xvi. 18) ; but the absence of
direct mention of them in the Bible indicates
that they were not common among the Jews.

Pol'lux. See Castor and Pollux.

Pome'gran-ate [apple, having many grains
or seeds].

The pomegranate {Punica granntum), in
Hebrew called rimmon, in Arabic riimmdn, is
a tree from 12 to 15 feet high, having oblong-
oblanceolate entire leaves, without dots.
Here and there on the branches occasional
thorns are found. The flowers have gen-
erally scarlet petals proceeding from a large
leathery calyx. The fruit is about the size
of an orange, and has a hard, red rind,
filled with numerous .seeds enveloped in
bright red pulp ; hence the English name,
which means an apple with many seeds.
The pulp is most refreshing to the ta.ste.
The pomegranate is wild in northern Africa
and western Asia, and possibly so in Gilead.

It was largely cultivated in Palestine in
Scripture times (Num. xiii. 23; xx. 5; Deut.
viii. 8; 1 Sam. xiv. 2; Song iv. 3, 13; vi. 7,
11; viii. 2; Joel i. 12; Hag. ii. 19). The
expressed juice of the fruit made a pleasant
drink (Song viii. 2, E. V.). Pomegranates

Pomegranate.

of blue, purple, and scarlet stufl" alternating
with bells made of gold were put along
the skirts of the robe connected with the
high priest's ephod (Exod. xxviii. 33, 34;
xxxix. 26). The chapiters of the two pillars
at the porch of Solomon's temple had each
around them a double row with a hundred
pomegranates each (1 Kin. vii. 20 ; 2 Kin.
XXV. 17 ; 2 Chron. iii. 16). The fruit is still
much cultivated in Palestine.

Pom'mel.

Rounded portion or bowl of a chapiter
(2 Chron. iv. 12, 13 ; in E. V. and in 1 Kin.
vii. 41, 42, bowl).

Pon'ti-us. See Pilate.

Pon'tus [the sea].

The eastern half of the coast of Asia
Minor on the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea,
from the first word of which the name of
the province was derived. It may be de-
scribed as reaching from the valley of the
Phasis in Colchis to the river Halys, and ex-
tending inland southward across the moun-
tains to Cappadocia. About 400 B. c. an in-
dependent kingdom of this name was estab-
lished. Six of its successive kings were
called Mithridates. Tlie last of them main-
tained, till his death in 63 b. c, a fierce struggle
with the Romans, who reduced the kingdom
to the position of a protected state, united it
with Bithynia, and formed the province of
Bithvnia and Pontus. Jews resided in Pontus

Pool

590

Poratha

(1 Pet. i. 1). Jews from Pontus were at Jeru-
salem during the pentecostal effusion of the
Holy Spirit (Acts ii. 9). Aquila the Jew was
born in the province (xviii. 2).

Pool.

A reservoir for water, supplied by rain or
else by springs, like the pool of Siloam.
From the pool the water was sometimes con-
ducted iu channels to town and garden
{2 Kin. XX. 20 ; Ecc. ii. 6 ; Ecclus. xxiv. 30).
The pools of Bethesda, Siloam, and Gihon
were at Jerusalem, and water was also con-
ducted to the city from the reservoirs at
Etam ; and there were pools at Hebron,
Gibeon, Samaria, and Heshbon (2 Sam. ii 13 ;
iv. 12 ; 1 Kin. xxii. 38 ; Song vii. 4).

Poor.

The unequal distribution of the blessings
of life is not ideal iu the sight of God. Now
God gave Canaan to his peojile (Ex. vi. 4, 8).
Accordingly the Mosaic law provided for a
general participation of the people in the
ownership of the land ; and while it per-
mitted freedom of sale, it secured a readjust-
ment of property and a return to each family
of its inheritance in Canaan every fifty years
(Lev. XXV. 13, 23). But notwithstanding all
that law and instruction can do, the poor are
always present, sometimes through sins of
their own or their ancestors, sometimes
through the inscrutable but wise providence
of God. The poverty which springs from
indolence or personal crime was theoretically
excluded from Israel, the kingdom of God ;
and its poor were regarded from the stand-
point of the theocracy as the unfortunate
and chastened but beloved children of God.
All the poor, especially widows, orphans,
and strangers, enjoyed the care of God and
the godly, and all were specially favored by
the law. Every hungry person had the right
to pluck and eat for present need in the vine-
yard or grainfield of another (Deut. xxiii.
24, 25). Every poor person was authorized
at harvest to glean after the reapers, to cut
the grain that was left standing at the edge
of the field, and to take any forgotten sheaf
which remained in the field when the harvest
was over. At the vintage and in fruit-pick-
ing time what was left hanging on the
branches belonged to the poor (Lev. xix. 9,
10; xxiii. 22; Deut. xxiv. 19-21). In the
seventh year and fiftieth year the land was
not tilled, and what grew of itself was not
harvested, but was free to all to eat (Lev.
xxv. 4-7, 11, 12). The poor man in his ex-
tremity might sell his services to a master
for a term of years, but regained his freedom
in the year of release (38-42). If a loan
were required by a poor man, it was to be
bestowed, even though the near approach of
the release of the seventh year would soon
give him the legal right of not repaying the
debt(Deut. xv.7-10). The poll tax, which each
man had to pay for the ransom of his soul or
life on the taking of a census, was the same

in amount for both rich and poor, being half
a shekel ; but in offerings presented at the
tal)ernacle or temple, a cheaper form of gift
was sometimes prescribed for the poorer wor-
shiper (Lev. xii. 8 ; xiv. 21 ; xxvii. 8). The
pro.sperous were encouraged to invite the
poor to the sacrificial feasts and to remember
them on other joyous occasions (Deut. xvi.
11, 14). There are many beautiful examples
of kindness shown to the needy (Job xxxi.
16-22). There were also warnings in the law
against the oppression of the poor (Ex. xxii.
21-27). At the same time, justice must not
be violated. A judge must not give a verdict
in favor of a man because he was poor ; the
claims of justice were to be paramount over
every other consideration (Ex. xxiii. 3 ; Lev.
xix. 15). The kindly provisions of the law,
however, were frequently ignored in times
of religious declension, and the prophets have
occasion to rebuke hard-heartedness and in-
justice toward the poor (Is. i. 23 ; x. 2 ;
Ezek. xxii. 7, 29 ; Mai. iii. 5). There were
also abuses of the good law itself. There
were those who obeyed the letter, but not
4:he spirit, who bestowed alms to be seen of
men (Mat. vi. 1). Many gracious promises
are made to the pious poor, and the divine
procedure to them is shown to be that of
loving care (1 Sam. ii. 6; Job v. 15; xxxiv.
28 ; xxxvi. 15 ; Ps. ix. 18 ; x. 14 ; xii. 5 ;
xxxiv. 6 ; XXXV. 10). Blessings are also
promised to the man who pities the poor
(Ps. xii. 1 ; Prov. xiv. 21, 31 ; xxix. 7, etc.). Our
Lord in the course of his ministry showed
his great love for the poor (Mat. xix. 21 ;
Luke xviii. 22; John xiii. 29, etc.), and it
was a special characteristic of his ministry
that to the poor the gospel was preached
(Mat. xi. 5; Luke xiv. 21-23). The eariy
church considered it one of its most sacred
duties to look after its poor, and as far as its
limited resources would allow, the poor also
outside its communion (Acts ii. 45 ; iv. 32 ;
vi. 1-6; xi. 27-30; xxiv. 17; 1 Cor. xvi. 1-3;
Gal. ii. 10 ; 1 Thes. iii. 6).

The poor in spirit are the humble, whether
rich or poor in this world's goods (Mat. v. 3).

Poplar.

The rendering of the Hebrew IJbneh,
white, applied to a tree (Gen. xxx. 37). It
ranked with trees of which the shadow is
good (Hos. iv. 13). If it is the poplar, the
species is ropulns alba, a tall tree with white
wood, and the leaves white and cottony on
the lower side. In the first pasf^age the R. V.,
following the Septuagint, has storax on the
margin, referring to Sfprax officinale, some-
times called libnah in Arabic, a resinous
shrub from 10 to 20 feet high, a native of
the Levant ; see Stacte. The Septuagint
understands the white poplar to be meant iu
Hos. iv. 13.

Por'a-tha [probably, having manv chari-
ots].

One of Haman's sons (Esth. ix. 8).

Porch

591

Potter

Porch.

A %v;ilk i)rotet'ted by a roof supiiortod by-
pillars ; a colonnade ; a portico. There were
often porches of this character in royal or
other mansions (1 Kin. vii. ti, 7). and there
was a notable one on the eastern front of
Solomon's temple (vi. 3; Ezek. viii. IG ; Joel
ii. 17). Sometimes there was a colonnade on
an upper floor (Judg. iii. 23). The porches
of the pool of Bethesda, and Solomon's porch
connected with the second temple, were also
colonnades (John v. 2 ; x. 23), called in Greek
sfoa. The porch where Peter's second denial
took place was doubtless the passage from the
street to the court of the house; and in tlie
parallel ])assage it is styled the fore-court
(Mat. xxvi. 71 ; Mark xiv. 68, E. V. margin).

Por'ci-us. See Festus.

Por'cu-pine [a spinous pig].

The rendering of the R. V. in Is. xiv. 23;
xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 14 of the Hebrew Kip-
pod, the one rolling itself together. The
corresponding word in other Semitic dialects
denotes both the hedgehog and the porcu-
pine. The European porcupine (Hystrix cris-
tai(t) is common in Palestine, especially in
the gorges leading down to the valley of the
Jordan. A brush-tailed porcupine (Afhcnira
hirsutirostris) has also been found in Judsea.
The A. V. translates kippod by bittern.

Por'poise.

The rendering of Tnhash in the E. V. on
the margin of Ex. xxv. 5 and elsewhere
where the text has .seal and A. V. has badger.
This marginal rendering follows Niebuhr's
remark that the name tuhas is given to a
.species of porpoise by the Arabs near cape
Musseudum.

Pos'ses-sion. See Demoxi.\c.

Por'ter.

A gate keeper (1 Chron. ix. 22, 23 ; and xvi.
38, in E. V. doorkeeper). Keepers were sta-
tioned at the city gate (2 Sam. xviii. 26 ; 2
Kin. vii. 10), at the doors of the temple (1
Chron. ix. 22), at the entrance of private
houses (Mark xiii. 34). When David organ-
ized the Levites for the service of the taber-
nacle, he assigned the duty of acting as door-
keepers to a large section of them, 4000 in
number. They were not all needed at once,
so he distributed them into courses, officiat-
ing in succession (1 Chron. xxiii. 5 ; xxvi.
1-19).

Post.

1. The upright timber at the side of a door
(1 Kin. vi. 33). A stone pillar sometimes
took the place of wood. A Hebrew slave
who did not desire to embrace the oppor-
tunity of freedom afforded by the arrival of
the seventh year, but preferred to remain
permanently in the master's house, allowed
an awl to be thrust through his ear into the
door or doorpost (Ex. xxi. 6; Deut. xv. 17)
as a sign of attachment to the house.

2. A courier (Esth. iii. 13 ; Job ix. 25).

Pot.

The most frequent word is the Hebrew
sit; a vessel made in various sizes, large and
.small (2 Kin. iv. 38), and of different ma-
terials, earthenware and metal (Ex. xxxviii.
3), and used for manifold purposes, such as
for boiling flesh (xvi. 3 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 13 ;
Job xli. 31; and Ezek. xxiv. 3-5, in E. V.
caldron), for washing (Ps. Ix. 8), for refining
metals (Prov. xxvii. 21). The term dud
mightalsodesignateasimilar pot ( Job xli. 20 ;
in 1 Sam. ii. 14 rendered kettle ; in 2 Chron.
xxxv. 13 rendered caldron) ; so also might
kallahath, which is rendered caldron 1 1 Sam.
ii. 14 ; Mic. iii. 3). In Job xli. 20 the word
translated caldron in A. V. should be rushes.
Water for domestic purposes was kept in
earthen pots (John. ii. 6) ; see W.\terpot.

Pot'i-phar [who is of the sun].

The captain of Pharaoh's guard and owner
of Joseph. His wife attemjited to seduce the
young slave from the path of virtue, and
when she failed, she induced Potiphar to im-
prison him on a charge which she knew to be
false (Gen. xxxix. 1-20).

Pot-i-phe'ra, in A. V. Poti-pherali [Egyp-
tian Pet-p-ia, who is of the sun, belonging to
the sun].

A priest of On, or Heliopolis, the city of
the sun. He was the father of Asenath, who
was given in marriage to Joseph (Gen. xli. 45-
50; xlvi. 20).

Pot'ter.

One who makes earthenware pots and sim-
ilar vessels. The clay was trodden by foot
of man to reduce it to a paste (Is. xli. 25:
Wisd. XV. 7). It was then placed on a hori-
zontal wheel, before which the potter sat,
turning the wheel with his hand as he
shaped the vessel, or keeping the wheel

Eastern Potter.

in motion with his foot, while he fash-
ioned the revolving clay with his hand
and arm. The finished work was glazed and
baked in a furnace (.Ter. xviii. .3, 4 ; Ecclu.s.
xxxviii. 29, 30). The ability of the potter to

Potter's Field

592

Prayer

mold the clay into any shape he desired is
used in Is. xlv. 9 ; Jer. xviii. 5-12 ; Eom. ix.
20-25 to illustrate God's sovereignty over

Potters at the Kiln in Ancient Egypt.

man. God, of course, in the exercise of sov-
ereignty acts only in accordance with his in-
finite perfections of wisdom, justice, good-
ness, and truth.

Pot'ter's Field. See Aceldama.

Pound. See Money and Weights.

Pow'der.

The fine particles into which any substance
is crushed or ground (Ex. xxxii. 20). Pul-
verized spice of any kind, intended to be
Isurnt as incense (Song iii. 6).

Prse-to'ri-um [belonging to a prtetor].

The tent of a general ; the official residence

of a provincial governor ; a palace. In the
N. T. it denotes:

1. The palace occupied by Pontius Pilate
at Jerusalem and where his judgment seat
was erected (Mark xv. 16 ; and margin of
R. V. of Mat. xxvii. 27 ; John xviii. 28, 33 ;
xix. 9, cp. 13). Some have understood the
castle of Antonia ; but Herod's palace was
the building occupied by the procurators.
See Herod, Palace of.

2. Herod's palace at Csesarea, in which
Paul was confined (Acts xxiii. 35, R. V.
margin ; in text, palace ; in A. V., judgment
hall).

3. The praetorian guard at Rome, the duty
of which was to guard the imperial palace
and its occupant, the emperor (Phil. i. 13 ;
in A. v., palace; on the margin, Caesar's
court).

Prayer.

Prayer is communion with God. It im-
plies that God is a person, able and willing
to hear us, who has created the universe and
still preserves and governs all his creatures
and all their actions. He is not the slave of
his own laws. He can produce results by
controlling the laws of nature or cooperating
with them as readily as a man can; nay
more readily, for he is God. He can influ-
ence the hearts and minds of men more
readily than even a man can induce his fel-
low-men to action. God has foreordained
both the prayer and its answer. He has had
a plan from the beginning; and he accom-
plishes this plan both by the manner in
which he established the universe and the
laws which he set in operation, and also by his
constant presence in the universe, upholding
it and controlling it.

Prayer is instinctive with man. In his
extremity of need he cries out to God. And
God requires prayer of all men ; but to pray
to God implies a right relation to him. Ac-
ceptable prayer can be offered unto God by
the righteous only. The prayer of the
wicked is abomination unto him (Prov. xv.
29; xxviii. 9). Only those who have for-
saken sin are authorized to draw nigh unto
God in prayer. There is no propriety in
rebels against the authority of God approach-
ing him, except with renunciation of their
rebellion and a petition for pardon. Prayer
is the communion of the child of God with
his Father in heaven. It consists of adora-
tion, thanksgiving, confession, and petition
(Neb. i. 4-11; Dan. ix. 3-19; Phil. iv. 6).
It has been engaged in by God's people from
the beginning.

Prayer is thus the natural expression of
the religious feelings, and further God's
blessings are given in answer to prayer (1
Kin. ix. 3; Ezek. xxxvi. 37; Mat. vii. 7).
God is attentive to every prayer that is
rightly offered to him. He heareth the young
ravens when they cry ; and God's people have
the promise that he will answer their prayers

Presents

593

Priest

(Ps. Ixv. 2). James, citing history, sjiys tlmt
the supplication of a righteous man availeth
iiuich in its working (Jas. v. KJ. R. V.)- Christ
speaking to his disciples said : " Whatsoever ye
shall ask in my name, that will I do" (Jolin
xiv. 13). God's people present their petitions
to God and leave to him to decide whether it
is wise to grant the request or not. They know
that God alone can tell whether the granting
of the prayer would be for their own good or
for the welfare of the kingdom of God or for
God's glory. The apostle John, writing to
believers, states the doctrine of prayer with
its necessary condition when he says: "This
is the boldness which we have toward him,
that, if we ask anything according to his will,
he heareth us" (l John v. 14. R. V.). "The
answer will be such as we, if duly enlight-
ened, would ourselves desire." God often
blesses his children best when he denies
their requests. And when they pray they
desire him to deny their requests if in his
sight it is best to do so.

We must pray in the name of Christ, be-
cause sinful man cannot approach God. We
must draw near, not claiming any inherent
right of our own to come, but in the name
of him who hath washed us from our sins in
his blood and made us to be priests unto
God.

Prayer is addressed to God in his fullness,
as the triune God. Prayer to each of the
three persons in the Godhead. Father, Son,
and Holy Ghost, is involved in the apostolic
benediction : " The grace of the Lord Jesus
Christ, and the love of God, and the com-
munion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all "
(2 Cor. xiii. 14). Many prayers were ad-
■dres,sed to the risen Christ. Stephen peti-
tioned him, Paul rendered thanks to him,
the redeemed ascribe glory and dominion to
him (Acts vii. 59, 60 ; 1 Tim. i. 12 ; Rev. i.
5,6).

Pres'ents. See Gifts.

Priest [contracted from Latin presbyter,
■Greeyi preshntcros, elderly, an elder].

An authorized minister of a deity who, on
behalf of a community, officiates at the altar
and in other rites. The essential idea of a
priest is that of a mediator between man and
God. The priests formed a distinct class in
the nations of antiquity generally ; as in
Egypt, Jlidian, Philistia, Greece, Rome (Gen.
xlvii. 22; Ex. ii. 16; 1 Sam. vi. 2; Acts
xiv. 13).

In the absence of a regularly organized
priesthood, priestly functions were exercised
from time immemorial by private individ-
iials, as Cain, Abel ; and by patriarchs in be-
half of a family or tribe, as Noah, Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Job. The natural head of a body
of people acted as priest. There were those
among the Israelites at the time of the exodus
who possessed this prerogative by natural
right, and who had been influenced by the
pressure of increasing priestly duties, arising
38

from the growth of the Hebrew population,
and by the spectacle of the Egyptian jiriest-
hood, to devote themselves professionally to
priestly functions (Ex. xix. 22). Even, after
the organization of the Levitical priesthood
priestly prerogatives existed outside of that
order. When God himself dispensed with
the mediation of the ordained priests and
manifested himself immediately to a man,
that man recognized his right to offer .sacri-
fice at once without the intervention of the
regularly constituted mediators (Judg. vi. 18,
24, 26 ; xiii. 16) ; and when for political
reasons it became impossible for these who
feared God in the northern kingdom to avail
themselves of the offices of the Levitical
priests, the primitive law was recalled and
the father of the family or other person in-
dicated by ancient custom erected the altar
and offered sacrifices to Jehovah (1 Kin.
xviii. 30).

When the Hebrew nation was organized at
Sinai a national sanctuary and service were
projected on a noble scale, such as became the
essential dignity of Jehovah, and appeared to
no disadvantage when brought into com-
parison with the purest worship of the most
cultured nations of that age. Priests were
needed for its altar. Aaron and his sons
were appointed to that office, and the priest-
hood was made hereditary in the family and
restricted to it (Ex. xxviii. 1 ; xl. 12-15 ;
Num. xvi. 40 ; xvii. ; xviii. 1-8 ; and cp.
Dent. X. 6; 1 Kin. viii. 4; Ezra ii. 36 seq.).
All the sons of Aaron were priests unless de-
barred by legal disabilities (Lev. xxi. 16 seq.).
Accordingly when they are referred to as a
class, they are mentioned either simply as the
priests or as the priests the sons of Aaron, in
allusion to their descent as a family (i. 5 ; 2
Chron. xxvi. 18; xxix. 21; xxxv. 14; cp.
Num. iii. 3 ; x. 8; Josh. xxi. 19 ; Neh. x. 38),
or as the priests the Levites, in allusion to
the tribe to which they belonged (Dent. xvii.
9, 18; xviii. 1 ; Josh. iii. 3 ; viii. 33 ; 2 Chron.
xxiii. 18; xxx. 27; Jer. xxxiii. 18, 21; cp.
Ex. xxxviii. 21), or later as the priests the
Levites the sons of Zadok, as designation of
a branch of the family (Ezek. xliv. 15 ; cp.
xliii. 19). This method of designating the
priests, as will be seen from the passages
cited, was in vogue at a time when beyond
all question the distinction between priest
and Levite was firmly established. The dis-
tinction is recognized In the history : the
ministers at the allar of the tabernacle and
temple and the users of LTrim and Thummim
always belong to the family of Aaron.

The duties of the priests were mainly three :
to minister at the sanctuary before the Lord,
to teach the people the law of God, and to
inquire for them the divine will by Urim and
Thummim (Ex. xxviii. 30 and Ezra ii. 63 ;
Num. xvi. 40 ; xviii. 5 ; 2 Chron. xv. 3 ; Jer.
xviii. 18; Ezek. vii. 26; Mic. iii. 11). The
priest was subject to .special laws (Lev. x. 8
seq.) ; and in respect to marriage, he could

Prince

594

Proconsul

only take to wife one of his own nation, a
virgin or a widow who had not been divorced,
and her geneah)gy in the ancient records
must be as reguhir as that of the ])riest liini-
self (xxi. 7 ; Ezra x. 18, 19 ; con. Apion. i. 7).
His dress when on duty consisted of 1. Short
breeches, reaching from the hips to the
thighs. 2. A coat fitting close to the body,
woven in one piece without seam, at least in
later times extending to the ankles, and
which was gathered about the loins with
a symbolically ornamented girdle. 3. A cap
shaped like a cup. These several articles
were made of white linen (Ex. xxviii. 40-42;
Autiq. iii. 7, 1-3). Priests and others officially
connected with the solemn service often
wore a linen ephod ; but it was not pre-
scribed and it was not made of varied and
costly materials like the one worn by the high
priest (1 Sam. ii. 18 ; xxii. 18 ; 2 Sam. vi. 14).
On the conquest of Canaan, in view of the
present needs of the descendants of Aaron,
who were then doubtless in the third genera-
tion, but more especially with a view to fu-
ture demands, thirteen towns were designated
where residence and lands for i)asturing cat-
tle were legally theirs (Josh. xxi. 10-19). In
the course of centuries they increased to a
•numerous body. Accordingly David divided
them into twenty-four courses. Except dur-
ing the great festivals, when all the courses
were employed, each course officiated for a
week at a time, the change being made on
the Sabbath before evening sacrifice (1 Chron.
xxiv. 1-19; 2 Kin. xi. 5, 9; Antiq. vii. 14, 7).
Four only of these courses appear to have re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezraii.
36-38) ; but the old number was eventually
reconstructed (cp. Luke i. 5, 9). There were
distinctions in rank among the priests. The
supreme pontifi" was the high priest (q. v.).
Next to him stood the second priest (2 Kin.
XXV. 18), who was probalily the same as the
ruler of the house of God (2 Cliron. xxxi.
13 ; Neb. xi. 11) and the captain of the tem-
ple (Acts iv. 1 ; V. 24). The chief priests who
are mentioned in the N. T. were the offi-
ciating high priest, former high priests still
alive, and members of their families.
They were an anomaly of the times. The
law which regulated the succession to the
high-priesthood had come into abeyance
through political confusion and foreign
domination. High priests were made and
unmade at the will of the rulers.

Prince.

A person of chief rank or authority in any
official relation; as the king of a nation (1
Kin. xiv. 7), satrap over a iirovince (Dan. iii.
2, A. v.), head of a tribe (Num. i. 16) or of a
tribal family (xxv. 14), a sheik (Gen. xxiii.
(>), a chief officer over the servants of a king
(Dan. i. 7). Prince is the rendering of various
Hebrew and Greek words.

Pris'ca and Pris-cil'la [old woman and
little old woman].

The wife of Aquila, who went with him in
his wanderings, and showed at least equal
zeal with her husband in advancing the
Christian cause. Paul's estimate of her was
high (Acts xviii. 1-3, 18, 26; Kom. xvi. 3; 2
Tim. iv. 19), and in three out of five verses
she is named before her husband. See
Aquila.

Pris'on.

A special place was set apart in Egypt for
the confinement of criminals. It was under
the charge, and in the house, of a military
officer, and the prisoners were often bound
as well as kept in ward (Gen. xl. 3, 4 ; xlii.
16, 17). The prison was an institution among
the Philistines also; Samson was imprisoned,
blinded, bound with fetters, and compelled
to labor (Judg. xvi. 21).

Among the Hebrews there was a prison in
Samaria in the reign of Ahab, which was
under the charge of the governor of the city
(1 Kin. xxii. 27). Later there is notice of
the detention of prisoners at Jerusalem in
the court of the guard (Jer. xxxvii. 21), and
in the dry cistern that was in the court
(xxxviii. 6) ; but private houses were also
used for the purpose (xxxvii. 15). The
prison fare was bread and water (1 Kin. xxii.
27). In the Eoman period the ])rocurator's
palace at Csesarea on the sea, the castle of
Antonia, and doubtless the palace of Herod
at Jerusalem, had rooms where accused per-
sons were confined (Acts xxiii. 10, 35). The
prison at Jerusalem into which Herod
Agrippa I. cast Peter was protected by iron
gates, and important prisoners were bound
with chains and guarded by soldiers in the
cell, while other soldiers kept watch before
the door (xii. 6, 10).

The Mamertine prison at Rome, where
Jugertha was left to starve to death, and
where according to tradition Peter was con-
fined, is on the slope of the Capitoline hill
toward the forum. It dates from the earliest
ages of the city. It consists of two cells,
one over the other. The lower one is 19 feet
long, 10 wide, and 6^ high. It is entirely
underground. It is vaulted, the walls
gradually contracting. To judge by the
slope of the v;alls, the chamber was originally
about 10 feet in height, and was closed by a
conical vault, arched in sliape, but not con-
structionally an arch. Entrance to it was
originally obtained only through a hole in
the ceiling, through which criminals were
let down. The floor is the native rock, from
which a spring bursts, said in the legend
to have been miraculously caused to flow by
Peter in order to baptize his jailers.

Proch'o-rus [probably, leading in a choric
dance].

One of the seven men elected to look after
the Greek-speaking widows and probably
the Christian poor at Jerusalem (Acts vi. 5).

Pro-con'sul [one acting for a consul].
The governor of a Roman province which

Procurator

595

Prophet

was administered by tlic senate (Acts xiii. 7;
xviii. 12; xix.UH, K. V.). He was appointed
for one year, exercised in this province all
the powers of a consul, and '■vas attended by
quiestors, who collected the revenues and
paid them into the treasury managed by the
senate.

Proc'u-ra-tor [steward, administrator].

The agent of the Eomau emperor, who re-
sided iu imperial (as distinct from senatorial)
provinces, received the revenues and paid
them into the emperor's i)rivate exchequer.
The military governor and chief magistrate
was called propraetor or legate ; but in the
smaller imperial provinces and sometimes
iu parts of larger ones the otlice of legate
was dispensed with, and the entire govern-
ment civil and military was intrusted to a
procurator. Such was the case in Judaea.
When Archelaus was deposed by the em-
peror Augustus in a. d. 6, Judaea, Samaria,
and Iduma?a were erected into a division of
the prefecture of Syria, called the province
of Judaea, and placed under procurators
(Antiq. xvii. 11, 4; 13, 5; Tacitus, Aunal.
xii. 23; Hist. v. 9). They were successively
Coponius (Antiq. xviii. 1, 1 ; 2, 2 ; War ii. 8,
1) ; Marcus Ambivius ; Annius Rufus, iu
whose time the emperor Augustus died ;
Valerius Gratus, who held oiEce eleven years
(Antiq. xviii. 2, 2) ; Pontius Pilate, who was
appointed by the emperor Tiberius, deposed
after ten years, and arrived at Eome just
after the death of Tiberius, which occurred
iu March 37 (Antiq. xviii. 2, 2; 4, 2; 6, 5;
War ii. 9, 2 ; Tacitus, Annal. xv. 44 ; Luke
iii. 1) ; Marullus, appointed by the emperor
Caius (Antiq. xviii. 6, 11), and after au in-
terval which concluded with the three-year
reign of Herod Agrippa over Judaea (Acts
xii. 1-23) ; Cuspius Fadus, who was ap-
pointed by the emperor Claudiu.s ; Tiberius
Alexander (Antiq. xix. 9, 2; xx. 1, 2; 5, 2 ;
War ii. 11, (i) ; C'umanus, api)ointed after the
death of Herod, king of Chalcis and later
recalled by the emperor Claudius (Antiq. xx.
5, 2; 6, 2 and 3 ; War ii. 12, 1 and G) ; Felix,
appointed bv Claudius (Antiq. xx. 7, 1 ; War
ii. 12, 8; Tacitus, Hist. v. 9; Annal. xii.);
Porcius Festus, sent out by Nero (Antiq. xx.
8, 9; War ii. 14, 1; Acts xxiv. 27) ; and on
the death of Festus, Albinus (Antiq. xx. 9,
1 ; War ii. 14, 1) ; and finally tJessius Florus,
ai)pointed by Nero shortly before the twelfth
year of his reign (Antiq. xx. 11, 1 ; War ii.
14, 2 .seq. ; Tacitus, Hist. v. 10).

As appears from the cited passages and
their context, these i)rocurators were subject
to the governor of Syria ; but in Judaea
itself their authority was supreme. The
Roman garrison stationed iu the ])rovince
stood at their command ; all imi)ortant mat-
ters came before their judgment seat ; they
had the power of life and death (War ii. 8,
1) ; and their sentence was executed by the
soldiers. They commonly resided at Caesarea

by the sea ; but they were wont to go uji to
Jeru.salcm at the fea.sts and sometimes to
winter there (Antiq. xviii. 3, 1), and they
visited various cities of their dominion as
occasion required. When iu Jerusalem, they
were accustomed to occupy the ]ialace of
Herod. See Hkrod, Palack of.

Proph'et.

An authoritative and infallible teacher of
God's will. Sjieaking of the order of iirojjh-
ets couceived of as a unity, God promised to
raise them up from among the chosen jicople,
qualify them by putting his words into their
mouth, enable them to speak all that bo
commanded them, and maintain the authority
of his word which they should sjteak (l)eut.
xviii. 18, 19). Every ijrojihet of God, and
preeminently Christ, was like unto Moses
(18; Acts iii. 22, 23), in similarity of endue-
ment, of doctrine, of attitude; toward the
law, of didactic work. The same authorita-
tive and re])reseutative character of the
prophet is referred to by Zechariah. Words
are given to the projjhet by God ; the words
are sent by his Spirit to the prophets, are
given to be taught to the people, and have
been accredited in the past by their fulfill-
ment (Zech. i. G; vii. 12). The same facts
regarding the prophet are abundantly illus-
trated in individual instances. The call of
the prophet came from God and was often
soul-scarcbing (Ex. iii. 1-iv. 17 ; 1 Sam. iii. 1-
20; Jer. i. 4-10; Ezek. i. 1-iii. 15). The
word of the Lord came to them in various
ways. They are strenuou.sly commanded to
speak and not keep silence. They were
accredited by signs, by the fulfillment of
their predictions, and by their doctrine itself.
Their authority was repeatedly upheld by
divine judgment visited on the disobedient.

Prophecy included the prediction of future
events (Is. v. 11-13; xxxviii. 5, 6; xxxix.
6, 7; Jer. xx. G; xxv. 11 ; xxviii. IG; Amos
i. 5; vii. 9, 17; Mic. iv. 10). Prediction was
an important part of the jirophet's work, and
it furnished his credentials in jiart. But more
important still, the prophet had to deal with
the present and the past, and to instruct men
in God's ways (Is. xii. 2G; xlii.9; xlvi.9). The
u.se of the English word prophet must not be
permitted to unduly emphasize the predict-
ive side of prophecy. The English word
is derived from the Greek prophctrs, which
means one who speaks for another, an inter-
I)reter or proclaimer, and one who .speaks
beforehand, a predictor. This twofold mean-
ing is due to the two .senses of the preposi-
tion pro, for and before.

The Hebrew word iiahV, which is trans-
lated prophet, means one who announces. It
seems to have been a comprehensive general
term at first. The active participle is used
in another Semitic language, the Assyrian,
for an announcer. In the Hebrew Scrip-
tures Abraham is called a ]iroi)het ((tcu. xx.
7). Between him aud God there was direct

Prophet

596

Prophet

personal intercourse, with him was the secret
of the Lord, to him God revealed himself
and his purposes (Gen. xv. 1-18; xviii. 17),
he was able to teach his descendants the true
knowledge of God (xviii. 19), and he had
power of intercession with God (23-32).
Miriam, who expressly claims that the Lord
had spoken by her, was a prophet (Ex. xv.
20 ; Num. xii. 2, fi). Aaron as the spokesman
of Moses is called his prophet (Ex. vii. 1 ; cp.
iv. Ki). The nabi\ or prophet, was a person
qualified by God to be his spokesman to men.
And this is the fundamental idea which
underlies the term as used in Deut. xviii. 18.
One of the qualifications was prophetic vision
(1 Sam. iii. 1). Looked at in this aspect, the
prophet was sometimes called a seer (1 Sam.
ix. 9, in Hebrew ro'eh ; Is. xxx. 10, in He-
brew hozeh). And when this was the main
a.spect in which he was regarded by the
people, and this qualification was the one of
highest value in popular estimation, seer was
the designation in vogue among the people.
This was the case for a considerable period
in the early history of Israel. Samuel and
Gad and Iddo were known by this title. But
Samuel ceased to be merely a seer to whom
the people resorted when they w^ould inquire
of the Lord, desiring to know God's will as
to duty, or seeking direction in national
affairs, or craving light upon private matters.
Samuel went out among men as an authori-
tative teacher of the nation sent by God,
and this public proclamation was the distinc-
tive idea in prophecy (1 Sam. x. 10-13 ; xix.
20). The teaching function, as seen in Moses,
became prominent again ; and beginning with
Samuel and his followers, and with renewed
force several centuries later, the prophet
became a constant presence in the national
life, an ambassador of heaven to the kingdom
of Israel, an authoritative preacher of right-
eousness, an interpreter of past and present
history on its moral side, an admouisher of
the consequences which God the judge has
a.nnexed to conduct, a forewarner of the cer-
tainty of the divine judgment on sin, and a
fosterer of fidelity toward Jehovah. To
foretell the future or make known the secret
counsel of God, as did Nathan when he for-
bade David to build the temple and an-
nounced God's purpo.se to establish David's
throne, forever remained functions of the
prophet; but they became a comparatively
small part of his work. Other features were
more constantly in evidence, and as a result
the restricted name of seer gave place again
to the broader designation of prophet (1 Sam.
ix. 9). Samuel was called a seer by his con-
temporaries, but his great successors, whom
God raised up and inspired to teach the na-
tion, were commonly designated prophets by
the men of their generation. Seer was not
banished from use, but the title of prophet,
which had never been entirelv disused
{Judg. iv. 4; 1 Sam. x. 10-13;"^ xix. 20),
was raised again to its former prominence

(iii. 20). Amos had prophetic vision (Amos i.
1 ; viii. 1 ; ix. 1) and was called a seer by
the priest of Bethel (vii. 12) ; but he was
also called to prophesy on the basis of this
prophetic sight, and he did so (vii. 15).

Kefeiring to tiie prophet's special endue-
ment from on high, he was called a man of
the Spirit (Hos. ix. 7). In common with
other ministers of God, official or private, he
is a man of ({od, a servant of God, a messen-
ger of the Lord, a shepherd of God's people,
a watchman, an interpreter.

That the prophet was to be raised up from
the i)eople of Israel alone did not prevent
God, who worketh when and where he will,
in caring for his kingdom to send a dream to
a Philistine, an Egyptian, a Midianite, a
Babylonian, a Roman (Gen. xx. 6 ; xli. 1 ;
Judg. vii. 13 ; Dan. ii. 1 ; Mat. xxvii. 19).
Even Balaam, who was a soothsayer, and as
such was invited by the king of Moab to
curse Israel, was temporarily used by God.
These foreigners were in momentary contact
with the kingdom of God. For its protec-
tion and advantage a glimpse of the future
was given to them. They did not thereby
become prophets, any more than did Hagar
or Manoali and his wife, to whom the angel
of the Lord appeared and afforded a glimpse
of the future. They were not men of the
Spirit, the intimates of God.

The prophets were taught of the Spirit of
God. In this God worked in accordance
with the psychological nature of man. An
audible voice or an angelic messenger occa-
sionally came (Num. vii. 89 ; 1 Sam. iii. 4 ;
Dan. ix. 21) ; but the instruction was ordi-
narily imparted by dreams, visions, and in-
ward suggestions recognized by the prophets
as not of themselves. They were not under
the permanent influence of the Spirit. The
word of the Lord came unto them. They
waited for revelation (Lev. xxiv. 12). And
their natural mental discernment is distin-
guished from the divine word which came to
them. Samuel's private thought is distin-
guished from God's (1 Sam. xvi. 6, 7). Nathan
at first approved of David's purpose to build a
temple for the Lord, but afterwards told the
king that God had forbidden its construction
(2 Sam. vii. 3). The prophets did not exer-
cise the prophetic power at all times, but
when God told them to speak.

From the time of Samuel the office was
regularly transmitted. Though the prophets
who are mentioned by name are few, there
were many anonymous ones (1 Kin. xviii. 4;
2 Kin. ii. 7-16). The office seems not to have
ceased until the death of Malachi. At the
approach and advent of Christ the tongue of
prophecy was again loosed (Luke i. 67 ; ii.
26-38). In the church of the N. T. also there
were prophets (1 Cor. xii. 28). They were
not an t)rder, like apostles and elders. They
were men and women (Acts xxi. 9), and they
were specially illumined expounders of God's
revelation. They spake by the Spirit, occa-

Prophetess

597

Proverbs, The

sionally foretold the future (xi. 27, 28; xxi.
10, 11), and taujjht and oxliortod to great
edification (1 Cor. xiv. ;5, 4, 21). Paul ironi-
cally gives the title to a heathen writer, who
so correctly described the immoral character
of the Cretans that he had proven himself
to that extent a mouthpiece of the truth
(Tit. i. 12).

There were men who possessed and exer-
cised the prophetic gift, who wvtq not offi-
cially i)rophets. David was a prophet; he
wrote of Clirist; but lie was not a prophet
officially. He was king, and his writings
were not assigned a place among the pro-
phetic Scriptures. Daniel had the gift of
prophecy in an eminent degree ; but he did
not devote his life to teaching the people; he
was officially a statesman and governor under
Babylonian and Persian kings. His writings,
like those of David, were placed among the
Hagiographa or sacred writings, and not with
the works of official prophets. See Canon.
The F'ormer Pi'ophets and the Latter Proph-
ets are designations in the Hebrew canon for
the authors respectively of the historical
books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel. 1
and 2 Kings, and of the strictly prophetical
books beginning with Isaiah. The authors
■were prophets; anonymous in the case of the
Former Prophets, but named in the case of
the strictly prophetical books. The reason
was that i>i"opbecy, not history, required au-
thentication. The designation does not refer
to the time when the books were composed,
but to the respective places of these two
groups of books; Kings, for example, being
written after Isaiah, but holding a place
among the Former Prophets. There were
great prophets, like Elijah and Elisha, who did
not commit their discourses to WTiting. They
are termed oral prophets by modern scholars.
The literary productions of other prophets
who recorded their prophecies are cited, ex-
cerpted from, and incor]iorated in the books
of the Former Prophets and other Scripture.
See Book.

Of the Latter Prophets Hosea, Amos, and
Jonah labored in the northern kingdom ; the
rest exercised their office among the people
of Judah and Benjamin, either in Palestine
or in the land of exile. Classed chronologi-
cally, they are : 1. In the Assyrian period,
from shortly before the accession of Tiglath-
pileser, 745 b. c, to the decay of the Assyrian
power, about 625 b. c, Hosea, Amos, and
Jonah in the north, and Joel, Obadiah, Isaiah,
Micah, and Nahum in Judah. 2. During the
Babylonian period in Judah, from 625 B. c. to
the fall of Jerusalem, in 587 B. c, Jeremiah,
Habakkuk and Zephaniah. 3. During the
exile in Babylonia, Ezekiel and Daniel. 4.
During the period of the restoration, Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi. See Music, Naioth,
School.

Proph'et-ess.

1. A woman called of God to the prophetic

office. Deborah was a i)roj)lictess (Judg. iv.
4). The Israelites resorted to lier for judg-
ment, and the Lord revealed his will through
her to the nation (5, 6, 14). Huldah also was
a jirophetess. She was consulted l)y the higli
priest at the command of the king in regard
to the teaching of Deuteronomy, a)id she
declared the counsel of the Lord (2 Kin.
xxii. 12-20). Four virgin daughters of
Philip the evangelist prophesied (Acts xxi. 9|.
2. A prophet's wife, as is probably meant
in Is. viii. 3.

Pros'e-lyte.

In the X. T., a convert to Judaism. The
Pharisees compassed sea and land to make
one proselyte (Mat. xxiii. 15). The Roman
poet Horace mentions the trait as character-
istic of the Jews (Sat. i. 4. 142 and 143). Pros-
elytes were present when the jientccostal
eflusiou took place (Acts ii. 10). One of the
men chosen to look after the poor in the
early Christian church was Nicolas, a pros-
elyte of Autioch (vi. 5). They were quite
numerous in Antioch (War vii. 3, 3). At
Damascus great numbers of women were
converts to Judaism (ii. 20, 2). The cham-
berlain of queen Candace was evidently a
convert (Acts viii. 27), and the royal family
of Adiabene, east of the Eui>hrates, adopted
the Jew's religion (Antiq. xx. 2-4). At
Antioch, in Pisidia, many proselytes followed
Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii. 43). The rab-
bins recognized two orders of proselytes. One
were jiroselytes of righteousness. They con-
sented to be circumcised and baptized, and
to offer sacrifice. They adopted Judaism in
its entirety. The proselytes of the gate or
of sojourning were much less advanced.
They agreed to observe what were called the
seven precepts of Noah (see Noah), but de-
clined to be circumcised or to embrace
Judaism.

Prov'erbs, The.

A poetical book on practical piety. It follows
the Book of Psalms in the Hebrew collection
and also in the Greek, Latin, and English
versions. The Hebrew word which has been
rendered proverb embraces more than a max-
im. It includes also the fable, the riddle,
the satire, the parable (Num. xxiii. 7; Is.
xiv. 4 ; Ezek. xvii. 2). The several parts of
the book of Proverbs are : 1. Title, i. 1-6, de-
scriptive of the entire book ; declaring the
purpose of the collection to be "to know
wisdom and instruction; . . . the words of the
wise and their dark sayings," and designat-
ing it the proverbs of Solomon, son of David,
king of Israel. This title, however, docs not
affirm that the book in all its parts is froui
Solomon (cp. Ps. Ixxii. 20, although each psalm
in the book is not thereby ascribed to David ;
see titles of Ps.xlii.-l.). 2. Main contents. I.
Praise of wisdom, i. 7-ix. 18; a didactic,
poem in the form of addresses by a father to
his .son. and specially designed for young
men. II. The proverbs of Solomon, x.-xxii.

Proverbs, The

598

Psalms, Book of

16 ; maxima arranged in no precise order
and consisting in each case mostly of two
contrasted sentences. III. Without formal
superscription, but which maybe called from
the opening verse, compared with xxiv. 23,
the word.s of wise men, xxii. 17-xxiv. 22,
descriptive of the evil effects of wine and
drunkenness; and supplemented by the say-
ings of the wise, xxiv. 2:}-.34, in regard to
the sluggard. IV. Proverbs of Solomon
copied out by the men of Hezekiah, xxv.-
xxix. ; having all the characteristics of the
popular proverb, and consisting of pithy
sentences not only of two, but also of three,
four, or five parallel clauses each. Three
appendices: (1) The words of Agur, xxx. ;
enigmatical sayings in which numbers play
a significant part. (2) The words of king
Lemuel, xxxi. 1-9; maxims on practical life
addressed to him by his mother. (3) Praise of
the virtuous woman, xxxi. 10-31; a poem in
which each of the twenty -two verses begins
with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet in
regular order.

The particular ascription of certain sec-
tions of the book to Solomon, and of other
sections apparently to other aiithorsliip, in-
dicates that Solomon was not the author of
the entire work ; and the title of the fourth
section, "These also are proverbs of Solomon,
which the men of Hezekiah king of Judah
copied out," is valid evidence that the book
of Proverbs did not receive its present shape
before the reign of Hezekiah. The brief in-
troduction (i. 1-6) fittingly describes the en-
tire book, and the poem in praise of wisdom
(7-ix. 18) is not ascribed to Solomon, and
forms the preface to the proverbs of Solomon,
which immediately follow, or more probably
to all the maxims of wisdom which consti-
tute the remainder of the book. The intro-
duction and poem may, therefore, be safely
attributed to the hand and brain of another
literary man than Solomon, and dated not
earlier than the reign of Hezekiah. The
second and fourth sections, chap, x.-xxii. 16
and xxv.-xxix., or nearly two-thirds of the
book, are ascribed to Solomon. The absence
of a polemic against idolatry has been urged
as evidence that the proverbs in these sec-
tions originated or were collected after the
cessation of the great struggle which the
pt-ophets carried on with encroaching heathen-
ism. It may with equal justice be advanced
as proof that these sections antedate that
.struggle. If the absence of polemic proves
anything, it affords evidence that these pro-
verbs were collected either before the division
of the kingdom and the encroachments of
idolatry, or after the exile, when idolatry had
lost its attractiveness. The language of these
sections favors, though it does not establish,
the ascription to Solomon, for it is i)ure He-
brew. It is free from foreign orthography
and forms, such as are found in some books
which were written immediately before the
exile or subsequently to it. Furthermore

proverbial literature is very ancient. It
ai)])eared early among the Hebrews also (1
Sam. xxiv. 13; 2 Sam. xii. 1; Judg. ix. 7).
Tliat Solomon composed and collected prov-
erbs has early attestation (Prov. xxv. 1 ; 1
Kin. iv. .32 ; x. 1 seq. ; Ecclus. xlvii. 13-17).
The titles, therefore, which attribute the
maxims in these two sections of the book of
Proverbs, may safely be regarded as authentic.

Prov'ince.

The rendering of the Hebrew and Aramaic
M'dinnh, jurisdiction, and the Greek Epnr-
chia, government.

The young men or .servants of the princes
of the provinces, who fought under Ahab
against Benhadad (1 Kin. xx. 14), were not
Israelites (15). They probably served the
chieftains who ruled various districts in
Gilead and the Hauran, and made common
cause with Israel in resisting the encroach-
ment of the Syrians upon the country south
of Damascus.

The provinces of the Babylonian and Per-
sian empires were divisions of the realm for
administrative purposes (Dan. ii. 49; iii. 3).
In the Persian empire the province was a
division of a satrapy : for under Darius Hys-
taspis the empire was divided into twenty
.satrapies; but under Xerxes the provinces,
from India to Ethiopia, were one hundred
and twenty-seven (Esth. i. 1 ; Herod, iii. 89) ;
see Satrap. After the exile Judah was at
first under the jurisdiction of the governor
beyond the river (Ezra v. 3, 6), but by royal
decree it was made a separate province and
granted a governor of its own (ii. 63; v. 8).

The provinces of the Roman empire were
of two classes, imperial and senatorial. The
imperial provinces were under the direct and
sole control of the emperor; they compre-
hended all the frontier provinces which were
supposed to need the presence of an army of
occupation to hold them in subjection ; they
were governed by a military ollicer called a
legate, who was appointed by the emperor ;
their revenues were received by imperial
agents termed procurators, and were ]iaid
into the private exchequer of the emperor.
The smaller imperial provinces, and parts
of larger ones like the suhprovinfe of Judasa,
were ruled by a procurator only, the presence
of a legate not being deemed necessary.
Cilicia (Acts xxiii. 34), Galatia, and Syria,
of which Judjea was a part, were imperial
provinces. The senatorial provinces were
administered by the senate ; they did not
require to be kept under control by military
force ; their governor was styled a proconsu].
He was attended by quaestors, who received
the revenues and paid them into the public
trea.sury, which was managed by the senate.
Cyprus (Acts xiii. 4, 7), Macedonia (xvi. 12),
Achaia (xviii. 12), and Asia (xix. 10) were
senatorial provinces.

Psalms, Book of.

A collection of religious poems which were

Psalms, Book of

599

Psaltery

specially employed in the public worship of
the (iod ol' Israel. In llctirew it is called
Book of Praises. The title in tlie English
version is borrowed from the Greek transla-
tion (cp. Luke x.x. 42). The general designa-
tion Psalms of David is derived from the num-
lier of p.salms, seventy-three in all, expressly
ascribed to David in the Hebrew titles (cp.
lleb. iv. 7).

The psalms number 150. They are divided
into five books; in imitation, it is thought,
of the fivefold division of the Pentateuch ;
see footnote, Pent.\teuch. This division is
ancient. It is indicated in the Septuagint,
and is marked by headings in the Hebrew
text. Its existence in the chronicler's day is,
however, scarcely evidenced by 1 Chron. xvi.
35, 36, compared with Ps. cvi. 47, 48, as De-
litzsch believes, for the passage in the psalm is
as probably derived from the words in Chron-
icles as vice versa. These books begin respect-
ively with Ps. i., xlii., Ixxiii., xc, and cvii.
Each book is arranged to close with a doxology.
In the first book all the psalms are attributed
to David except four (i., ii., x., sxxiii.). These
are so-called orphan psalms ; that is, they are
anonymous. In the Septuagint all except i.,
which is introductory, and ii. are ascribed to
David ; x. being united to ix. and xxxiii.
bearing the title "To David." The divine
name Jehovah is generally employed in the
psalms of this book. In the second book, of
the thirty-one psalms the first eight are a
collection of songs of the sons of Korah.
Seven are expressly ascribed to them ; and
xliii., whether written by them or not, was
composed as the conclusion of xlii. This
group is followed by a psalm of Asaph.
Then conies a group of twenty psalms at-
tributed to David with the exception of two
(Ixvi., Ixvii.). Of the two exceptions, how-
ever, Ixvii. is ascribed to David in the
Septuagint. The book closes with an anony-
mous and a Solomonic psalm (Ixxi., Ixxii.).
In this book the divine name is prevailingly
Elohim, God ; and two psalms duplicate two
of the first book, substituting the word God
for Jehovah (liii. and Ixx. ; cp. xiv. and xl.
13-17). The third book contains seventeen
psalms. The first eleven are attributed to
Asaph, four to the sons of Korah, and one
each to David and Ethan. This collection
of psalms was gathered after the destruction
of Jerusalem and burning of the temple
(Ixxiv. 8, 7, 8; Ixxix. 1). The fourth book
likewise contains seventeen psalms. The
first is ascribed to Moses, two to David ; and
the remaining fourteen are anonymous. The
Septuagint gives eleven to David, leaving
only five anonymous (xcii., c, cii., cv., cvii.).
The fifth book has twenty-eight anonymous
psalms, while fifteen are assigned to David
and one to Solomon. The ascriptions difler
considerably in the Septuagint. This col-
lection was made late, for it includes
psalms which refer to the exile (cxxvi.,
cxxxvii.). It will be seen that the composi-

tion of the psalms ranges over a long period
of time. That David was the author of
l)salms is su])porte(l by abundant early testi-
mony, direct and indirect. See David.

The titles of the psalms are ancient. They
were not only in their place when the Greek
version was made, but they were old at that
time ; for musical and other terms which
occur were not understood by the trans-
lators. As they stand, they are not infallible ;
Ixxxviii., for example, luiving two titles.

Technical termsused are Neginah, a stringed
instrument, and its plural Negiuoth ; and
Nehiloth, wind instruments (iv., v., Ixi.).
Terms probably musical : Alamoth, maidens,
perhaps maiden or treble voices (xlvi. ; 1
Chron. xv. 20); Gittith, a cither of Gath,
perhaps, or a march of the Gittite guard
(viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv.) ; Selah, an orchestral
interlude or a (diange from piano to forte
(iii. 2) ; Sheminith, the eighth (vi. ; xii. ; 1
Chron. xv. 21). Terms indicative of the
character of the psalm : Maschil, a didactic or
reflective poem (xxxii., and twelve others) ;
Michtam, perhaps epigrammatic (xvi., Ivi.-
Ix.) ; Mizmor, a lyric poem, regularly trans-
lated psalm (iii., et passim) ; Shiggaion,
probably a wild dithyrambic (vii. ; Hab. iii.
1). Other terms are undeistood to indicate
familiar melodies : Aijeleth hash-Shahar, hind
of the dawn (xxii.) ; Jonath elem rehokim,
the silent dove of them that are afar otf,
or, changing the pronunciation of the second
word, the dove of the distant terebinths
(Ivi. ); Mahalath, heaviness (liii., Ixxxviii.);
Muth-labben (ix.) ; Shoshannim and Shoshan-
nim Eduth and Shushan Eduth, lilies the
testimony (xlv., Ix., Ixxx.). The songs of
ascents or degrees were probably designed
for pilgrims going up to Jerusalem.

Psal'ter-y.

The usual rendering of the Hebrew Nehel,
when a musical instrument is intended. In
four passages it is translated viol (Is. v. 12,
in K. V. lute; xiv. 11; Amos v. 23; vi. 5).
Nebel is doubtless the Greek vabla, which
was reputed to be of Sidonian origin; and it
is usually translated by this Greek M'ord in
the Septuagint (1 Sam. x. 5 ; 2 Sam. vi. 5 ; 1
Chron. xiii. 8; xv. 16, 20). The body of the
in.strument was made of wood (2 Sam. vi. 5;
2 Chron. ix. 11), or, later, of metal (Antiq.
viii. 3, 8). The strings were of gut (minnim),
and their number in the common instru-
ment is unknowTi, but in a special variety
they were ten (Ps. xxxiii. 2 ; xcii. 3). It
was tuned to the soprano register (1 Cliron.
XV. 20). It could be carried about while it
was played (1 Sam. x. 5 ; 2 Sam. vi. 5). The
name psaltery, which is occasionally given
to this instrument in the Septuagint (Ps.
xxxiii. 2; Ivii. 8), has been tliouglit to iden-
tify it with the mntir of the Arabs; but the
history of the santir and its name seems
to be as follows: The Assyrians used a
musical instrument consisting of a long,

Ptolemais

600

Ptolemy

^

low, horizontal body over which strings
were strung. It was played with a plectrum.
See illustration under Music. The Greeks
adopted it as the twenty-stringed magadis
and the forty-stringed epigoneiou. Later the
magadis received the name psalterion, and
was apparently borrowed with its new name
from the Greeks by the Aramaeans (Dan. iii.
5, if p'sant'rin does not represent a different
instrument here) and by the Arabs. By the
latter it was called santir. In the light of
this probable history of the santir, the iden-
tity of its name with psaltery is seen not to
identify it with the Hebrew nebel. The
tradition regarding the nebel indicates that
it was a kind of harp. Josephus saj's that
the difference between the kinura [Hebrew
Jcinnor, harp] and the 7iabla was that the
former had ten strings and was played with
the plectrum, while the latter had twelve
notes and was played with the baud (Antiq.
vii. 12, 3). According to Eusebius, the psal-
terion was called nabla by the Hebrews and
had the metallic sounding-board above ; and
Augustine on Ps. xlii. describes it as having
the sounding-board above the strings, and
not below as in the cither, the strings of the
psalterj' being stretched between a curved
arm and the drum or resonance box in which
it terminates above. Isidorus and Cassiodorus
describe the psaltery as triangular in shape,
like the Greek letter delta. If they do not
confound it with the trigonon, which had a
triangular frame, and, if they correctly give
the shape of the psaltery, it appears to have
resembled the upright harp which Assyrian
musicians carried while they played it. See
illustration under Music. The original form
of the sounding-board and the arm probalily
bore resemblance to a skin bottle and its
neck, and obtained for the musical instru-
ment its name of nebel, bottle. It was one
of the instruments which the company of
prophets whom Saul met were playing when
he came in their way (1 Sam. x. .5), and one
of those used at David's removal of the ark
to Jerusalem (2 Sam. vi. 5). When he per-
manently organized the instrumentalists into
an orchestra for the sanctuary, some were
appointed toperform on the psaltery (1 Chron.
XV. 16, 20, 28; xvi. 5; xxv. 1, 6) ; audit was
subsequently in continual use for divine wor-
ship (2 Chron. v. 12). It was played also at
festive gatherings (Is. v. 12 ; Amos vi. 5). It
was often combined with the harp (1 Sam. x. 5 ;
2 Sam. vi. 5 ; 2 Chron. ix. 11 ; Ps. Ixxxi. 2 ;
cviii. 2). For its use in the sanctuary, see
Music.

Ptol-e-ma'is. See Accho.

Ptol'e-my.

The name borne by all the male rulers of
Egypt of the house of Lagus, which began
with Ptolemy Soter, one of the generals of
Alexander the Great, and lasted until the
Roman conquest of Egypt and the death of
Cleopatra. The early Ptolemies, especially

the first three, were wise and efficient rulers
and raised Egypt to a high position of power
and influence. They held many foreign pos-
sessions, among which were Phcenicia, Ccele-
syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica, and for a while
Palestine. They patronized art, letters, and
science, and raised Alexandria, their cajjital,
to be the leading university center of Grecian
culture. They were friendly to the Jews,
encouraging them to settle in Alexandria,
granting them special privileges and giving
to many of them high civil and military
positions.

The later rulers of this house were, how-
ever, weak and wicked. Wars with their
neighbors were frequent, revolts on the part
of their people at home became common,
incest and the murder of relatives were well
known in the palace, and the loss of all the
foreign possessions heralded the loss of the
throne itself

Three of the rulers of this line and sev-
eral men of humbler rank are mentioned in
the Books of the Maccabees :

1. Ptolemy IV., called Philopator. He was
suspected of causing the death of his father,
and his first act on coming to the throne was
the murder of his mother and younger
brother. His whole reign was a series of
debaucheries and crimes. Encouraged by
the weakness and profligacy of Ptolemy,
Antiochus III., king of Syria, made war on

Ptolemy Philopator.

him with a view to wresting Phcenicia from
Egypt, but was utterly defeated by the
Egyptian army at the battle of Eaphia, 217
B. c. (3 Mac. 1. 1-5). After this battle, Ptol-
emy sacrificed in Jerusalem, but being pre-
vented from entering the holy of holies, at-
tempted to assassinate all the Jews in Alex-
andria in revenge. A somewhat fanciful ac-
count of this is found in the Third Book of
Maccabees. He died in 205 b. c.

2. Ptolemj- VI., called Philometor, began to
reign in 181 b. c. , at the age ofseven, under the
regency of his mother, Cleopatra. He reigned
for some years alone and for some years
conjointly with his brother, Physcon, called
Ptolemy VII. Later, the kingdom was di-
vided between them, Physcon ruling over
Cyrene and Libya, and Philometor over
Egypt and Cyprus. His generals invaded
Syria and so came into contact with Antiochus
Epiphanes, by whom they were completely

Pua

601

Publican

defeated at Pelusium 171 b. c. Cyprus also
was taken by Antiochus, and Alexandria
would doubtless have fallen but for the in-
terference of the Romans, who began at that

Ptolemy Philometor.

time to exercise a quasi protectorate over
Egypt. Philometor interfered frequently in
the atlairs of Syria, siding one time with the
pretender Alexander Balas (1 Mac. x. 51-57)
and afterwards with Alexander's rival, De-
metrius Nicator (xi. 1-18). While engaged
in battle in Syria, he fell from his horse, and
died shortly afterwards from the efi'ects of
the injury, 145 B. c. Ptolemy showed sjjecial
favor to the Jews. It was by his permission
that Onias built a Jewish temple at Leon-
topolis copied after the temple at Jerusalem.

3. Ptolemy VII., Physcon, also called
Energetes, was first co-regent with his
brother Philometor, 170-164 B. c, but after
the death of the latter reigned alone, 145-
117 B. c. He is sometimes reckoned as
Ptolemy VIII., his nephew Eupator, son
of Philometor, reigning for a few days after
his father's death. The early part of his
reign was a series of crimes against his own
family and such debauchery as alienated
and disgusted his subjects, who revolted sev-
eral times. Like his predecessors, he inter-
fered in the atfairs of Syria, lending aid
first to Zabinas, and then against him. He
is mentioned (1 Mac. xv. 16) as in corre-
spondence with Eome, and it is probably he
who is meant in 1 Mac. i. 18.

4. Ptolemy, a general of Antiochus Epiph-
anes (2 Mac. iv. 45; vi. 8; viii. 8). He took
part in the expedition which Lysias organized
against Judas Maccabfeus (1 Mac. iii. 38). It
is possible that he is identical with Ptolemy
Makron (2 Mac. x. 12), who, first served
Ptolemy Philometor in Cyprus, then passed
into the service of Antiochus Epiphanes and
later into that of Antiochus Eupator. Fall-
ing into disfavor with the latter, he ended
his life by taking poison. 164 B. c.

5. Ptolemy, son-in-law of the high priest
Simon. He murdered his father-in-law and
two of his brothers-in-law in the stronghold
of Dok, near Jericho (1 Mac. xvi. 11 seq.).

Pu'a. See Puvah.

Pu'ah.

One of the Hebrew midwives who dis-
obeyed the command of the Egyptian king
to kill the male children at their birth (Ex.
i. 15).

For others called Puah in the English ver-
sions, but which is a difl'erent word in He-
brew, see PuvAU.

Pub'li-can.

A farmer of the Roman taxes and customs.
In place of appointing revenue officers to
raise fixed taxes from the community, the
Romans and their deputy princes like the
Herods were accustomed to put up to auction
the privilege of farming the public revenues,
or some specified i)art of them, in the several
provinces, cities, towns, and districts. Those
who bid at the auction were necessarily
wealthy men or representatives of wealthy
companies ; for they undertook to pay a
given sum into the treasury (in publiaim),
and they were obliged to give security to the
government for the sums they i)roniised to
pay. In some cases they in turn sold the
right of farming portions of the revenue to
subcontractors, in others they engaged a
number of subordinate agents to do the
actual work of collecting the taxes. They
themselves were generally Romans of eques-
trian rank, while their subordinates, of
course, were of inferior dignity. The sub-
ordinates or actual collectors of the taxes
and customs are called publicans in the
English version of the N. T. It was under-
stood that the farmers were to repay them-
selves for their labor and the risk they had
undertaken by taking from the taxpayers a
fraction more than they paid over to the
government. No proper means were adopted
to prevent that fraction from assuming great
proportions. With a few honorable excep-
tions, the publicans, great and small, were
extortioners (cp. Luke iii. 12, 13 ; xix. 8).
They were unpopular among all classes in
the provinces, except, perhaps, with the
Roman governors, who often received part
of the plunder for conniving at the oppres-
sions practiced. Sometimes the subcontrac-
tors, and in most cases the subordinate tax-
gatherer, in the conquered countries be-
longed to the native population. Thus
Zacchseus, a Jew, seems to have been sub-
contractor for the revenues of Jericho (Luke
xix. 1, 2), and Matthew, or Levi (also a Jew),
apparently a tax collector paid by the farmer
for the revenues of Capernaum (Mat. ix. 9) ;
Mark it. 14 ; Luke v. 27). It added to the
unpopularity of the Jews who accepted office
as the agents of the Roman publicans, or
themselves became farmers of the revenue
from particular towns, that they raised taxes
for a foreign and heathen government. They
were not admitted into society ; nay, it was
considered disreputable for anyone to be
their friend and associate. It was one of
the charges brought against our Lord that
he ate with publicans and sinners (Mat. ix.
10-13) and that he was their friend (xi.
19). He honored them by choosing one of
their number as an apostle (ix. 9 ; x. 3).
Quite agreeing with popular opinion as to

Publius

602

Punishment

the low moral state of the average publican
(v. 46, 47 ; xviii. 17), he still invited them as
freely as others into the Christian fold. His
kindness touched their hearts, and not a
few of them were baptized (xxi. 31, 32;
Luke iii. 12; vii. 29; xv. 1; xviii. 13, 14).
He introduced a penitent publican into his
parable of the Pharisee and the publican
(9-14).

There is no passage in the N. T. in which
publican signifies the keeper of a public
house.

Pub'li-us.

The chief man in the island of Melita
(Malta) while Paul was there. His name
suggests that he was a Eoman. He gave the
apostle and his associates hospitality for three
days, and was rewarded by having his father
miraculously cured of fever and dysentery
(Acts xxviii. 8).

Pu'dens [bashful, modest].

A Christian at Eome who joined Paul in
sending salutations to Timothy (2 Tim. iv.
21). In an inscription found in that capital,
a man of the same name and perhaps the
same as he is stated to have been a servant
of Tiberius, or Claudius. The facts that in
the letter to Timothy Pudens, Linus, and
Claudia go together, and the poet Martial,
who went to Rome about A. d. 66 and abode
there many years, mentions three persons
bearing the same names, have suggested that
the poet may have referred to Paul's three
friends. If so, Pudens was an Umbrian, who
became a centurion and was sent on military
duty to the remote north ; and Claudia was
the wife of Pudens and apparently of Brit-
ish origin, being probably the daughter of
king Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, men-
tioned in a Latin inscription found at Chi-
chester in A. D 1723. With the sanction of
king Tiberius Oaudius Cogidubnus, a man
named Pudens gave the site at Chichester for
the erection of a temple by a guild of car-
penters.

Pu'hites. See Puthites.

Pul.

1. An African country and people. The
latter are coupled with Tarshish and Lud,
apparently all three being skillful in archery
(Is. Ixvi. 19). One opinion is that Pul is the
island of Philae on the Nile in Upper Egypt
on the confines of Ethiopia. It is, however,
more probably a copyist's error for Put (q. v.).

2. A king of Assyria ; see Tiglath-

PILESEK.

Pulse.

Leguminous plants or their seeds, specially
peas and beans, which are eminently nour-
ishing. On these Daniel and his companions
desired to be fed (Dan. i. 12, 16, R. V. margin,
herbs). Parched pulse is mentioned in 2
Sam. xvii. 28, but the M'ord pulse is plausibly
supplied by the translators ; it is not in the
original.

Pun'ish-ment.

The penalty due for sin inflicted for the
satisfaction of justice. So Adam, Eve, and
Cain were punished by God. Punishment is
not inflicted for the good of the offender.
The destruction of the men of Sodom for
their wickedness was not intended to benefit
them. The execution of the murderer does
not aim at his reformation. Chastisement,
not punishment, is intended to reform the of-
fender. Nor is punishment primarily inflicted
with a view to the prevention of crime, al-
though thisisa great end. The civil authority
enforces law bj^ penalty for the protection of
the state, since purely moral considerations,
such as the inherent righteousness of an act
or the sense of justice, fail to prevent men
from violating the rights of others. Deter-
ring the evil-disposed was an object in the
infliction of punishment which the Mosaic
law had in view, but it was not the principle
on which the law was based (Deut. xiii. 11 ;
xvii. 13; xix. 20; xxi. 21). If the preven-
tion of sin were the main end, justice would
be merged into benevolence toward the citi-
zens of the state. Yet the chief end of pun-
ishment is not to restrain the criminal from
further crime nor to deter others from doing
similar acts of violence. Sin ought to be
punished irrespective of the efiTect which the
punishment may have in preventing others.
The indignation which men feel toM'ard the
offender himself, when they witness a flagrant
act of wrongdoing, such as murder, oppres-
sion, or cruelty, and the demand which they
instinctively make for his punishment show
that they discern guilt in the sinner, and
that they do not think in the first instance
of the need of deterring others from the
commission of like crimes. The wrongdoer
is punished because he deserves to be. So,
under the Mosaic law, the state must execute
justice and punish the offender, or be held
guilty of participating in and condoning the
crime (Lev. xx. 4, 5; Num. xxv. 4, 11 ; Deut.
xxi. 8; Josh. vii. 11-15). The people must
cleanse Jehovah's land from the blood of
murder. The execution of the murderer
was an expiation of the land (Num. xxxv.
33, 34 ; Deut. xxi. 8).

The majesty of the law is maintained only
when the punishment bears an adequate pro-
portion to the crime committed, neither too
little nor too much. The penalty need not
be, and seldom is, an exact equivalent. The
penalty for theft is not the restitution of the
stolen property nor its exact value in money.
Enforced restitution does not clear the thief.
Law has been violated, guilt incurred, and
punishment is demanded.

The laws of the Hebrews were stern, but
the punishments were not cruel. In rare cases
the family of the criminal was extirpated by
the immediate act of God or by his express
command (Num. xvi. 32, 33; Josh. vii. 24,
25 ; 2 Kin. ix. 25, 26) ; but this extent of
punishment was recognized as extraordinary ;

Punishment

603

Punishment

it was not appointed by the law as the pre-
scribed penalty for any crime, and the law
expressly forbade that fathers should be
punished for the children (Deut. xxiv. 16).
For a special case of impurity, the heinous-
ness of which was aggravated by the relation
of the party concerned to the sanctuary of
God, and for incestuousness of peculiar ab-
horrence, the penalty was burning with fire
(Lev. XX. 14 ; xxi. 9 ; cp. Gen. xxxviii. 24).
But there was no cruelty involved. The
guilty ones were not burnt alive ; they were
first stoned to death, and then their bodies
were consumed bj' fire (cp. Josh. vii. 15, 25 ;
see also Deut. xxi. 22, 23). The hand of a
woman who had used it in a .shameless act
to assist her husband in his struggle with an
adversary was cut off (Deut. xxv. 11, 12).
Was this undue severity? Retaliation for
bodily injury, when inflicted willfully and
not in a quarrel, eye for eye, tooth for tooth,
was legalized. So it was by ancient Greek
law and by the Roman laws of the twelve
tables. In the later Jewish law (Antiq. iv.
8, 35), and perhaps in the earlier law as well,
a ransom in lieu of the maiming might be
accepted by the injured person. This ex-
emption was based on Ex. xxi. 29, 30 on the
principle that, since in so great a matter as
the infliction of death by one's ox, a fine
might take the place of the surrender of the
owner's life, in all lesser cases of injury a
fine might also be accepted. In its humanity
the Hebrew administration of justice com-
pares favorably with Roman methods. Un-
like Roman law. the Hebrew penal code
did not authorize the punishment of the
parricide by scourging him to the efi'usion
of blood and then sewing him up in a sack
and drowning him; nor did it sanction the
torture of witnesses, who were slaves, and
of accused persons to extract testimony (Acts
xxii. 24; see Deaconess), the punishment
of the condemned by stocks and cruel scourg-
ing (Mat. xxvii. 26; Acts xvi. 24; War ii.
14, 9), the mockery of those about to be exe-
cuted (Mat. xxvii. 27-31), crucifixion (26, 32,
44; Antiq. xvii: 10, 10), condemnation of
criminals to fight with each other as gladia-
tors or with wild beasts (1 Cor. xv. 32 ; War
vi. 9, 2; vii. 2, 1), scourging to death, starv-
ing to death (see Prison), and burning to
death, not infrequently by clothing the vic-
tim in a shirt steeped in pitch and setting it
on fire.

The Hebrew law did not rudely abolish
established usage, even when custom fell
short of the standard erected by God (see
Slave, Concubine. Divorce) ; it recognized
the people's hardness of heart (Mark x. 5) ;
but it brought custom under law. checked
excesses, reformed abuses; it took .solemn
account of man's conception of right and
justice as prevalent in that age, guarded
against vengeance and vindictiveness. satis-
fied the sense of justice, and thus maintained
the august majesty of law ; and it set higher

standards before man and was a distinct ad-
vance toward perfection. The form of puni-
tive justice was further determined by the
essential idea of the theocracy, which re-
quired that not only crimes against the state
and society, but also violations of religious
ordinances should be punished. The relation
of the Israelites to their divine King re-
sulted in God's punishing sin when man
failed to do so, and in God's reserving to him-
self the right to punish certain specified sins,
e. g., to inflict childlessness (Lev. xx. 4-6,20,
21). Furthermore, the administration of
justice was a matter in which the entire
community was concerned, and consequently
the people participated in its execution.
The people stoned the criminal condemned
to death.

The offenses mentioned in the penal law
were :

1. Violation of the religious duties of
the covenant. There were (1) capital offen-
ses, which the human tribunal punished with
death. They were five : sacrifice to idols
Ex. xxii. 20; Lev. xx. 2; Deut. xiii. 6-17 ;
xvii. 2-7), sorcery, professed intercourse with
a familiar spirit, soothsaying (Ex. xxii. 18 ;
Lev. XX. 27), profanation of the Sabbath
(Ex. xxxi. 14, 15; xxxv. 2), blasphemy (Lev.
xxiv. 10-16), and false prophecy, whether
uttered in behalf of heathen deities or in
the name of Jehovah (Deut. xiii. 1-5; xviii.
20). The penalty was death by stoning. In-
stances of the infliction of the death penalty
on persons charged with these offenses are
recorded in the history ; for sacrificing to
idols (2 Kin. x. 18-25 ; xi. 18 ; xxiii. 5, 20),
for exorcising the dead (1 Sam. xxviii. 3, 9),
for profaning the Sabbath (Num. xv. 32-36),
for blasphemy (1 Kin. xxi. 13), for uttering
false prophecy (xviii. 40 ; xx. 27, 28). (2)
Offenses punishable by cutting off the offen-
der from his people. They endangered cov-
enant institutions and the fundamental ordi-
nances of worship. They were refusal to
receive circumci.sion, the sign of the cove-
nant (Gen. xvii. 14), neglect of the passover,
the covenant sacrifice, and consumption of
leavened bread during the feast of unleav-
ened bread (Ex. xii. 15 ; Num. ix. 13), per-
formance of work and refusal to fast on the
day of atonement (Lev. xxiii. 29, 30), use of
blood or fat for food, since they belonged to
sacrifice and atonement (vii. 25-27 ; xvii. 14),
offering elsewhere than at the sanctuary
(xvii. 4), slaughtering .sacrificial animals with-
out making a peace offering, and eating the
peace offering after the prescribed limit (vii.
18; xvii. 9 ; xix. 8), use of the holy anoint-
ing oil and the incense for common purposes
(Ex. XXX. 33, 38), neglect to purify one's .self
from defilement, and eatingsacrifice in an un-
clean condition (Lev. xxii. 3; Num. xix. 20).
The punishment of cutting off" is in some
instances accompanied by the death penalty
or by threat of divine judgment. When ac-
companied by the death penaltj^ the execu-

Punishment

604

Purification

tion of the ofl'euder was committed to man.
The threat of diviue judgment reserved the
infliction to God himself. The question
whether the punishment of cutting off in all
cases implied death, even when the death
penalty was not expressly annexed, has given
rise to much debate. The phrase has been
interpreted to mean excommunication, as
rabbinical writers understand ; or loss of the
rights belonging to the covenant; or death,
which in breaches of the ritual was intended
to be commuted to banishment or deprivation
of civil rights , or death in all cases, either
invariable and without remission, or else
voidable by repentance and use of the means
of propitiation for ceremonial defilement. It
probably means expulsion from the fellow-
ship of Israel or, as is otherwise stated, the
congregation of Israel (Ex. xii. 15, 19 ; Num.
xvi. 9; xix. 13), and, whether specifically
stated or not, includes divine intervention
for the extermination of the evil-doer (Gen.
xvii. 14 with Ex. iv. 24 ; Lev. xvii. 10 ; xx.
3, 5, 6 ; xxiii. 30). Accidental breach or
mere neglect did not involve this dire pun-
ishment. Only when a person otfended with
high hand and showed bold contempt for the
law was he cut off from his people (Num. xv.
30, 31).

2. Unchastity. (1) Abominations that de-
file the people and the land. The penalty
was death. They were adultery and the se-
duction of a betrothed virgin, not a slave
girl (Lev. xx. 10 ; Deut. xxii. 21-27), unnat-
ural lust, both beastiality and sodomy (Ex.
xxii. 19 ; Lev. xx. 13, 15, 16), incestuous re-
lations with mother-in-law or daughter-in-
law (11, 12, 14). Unchastity on the part of
a priest's daughter, since it defiles at the same
time the father who was set apart to holy
service, was punished not only by death, but
also by burning the body (xxi. 9). (2) Un-
clean, but less repugnant, conjugal relations
were punished by cutting the offenders off
from their people or by childlessness (Lev.
XX. 17-21). (3) The hand of a woman,
which was used in a shameless and unchaste
act to distress the adversary of her husband,
was to be cut off (Deut. xxv. 11, 12). (4) Un-
chastity which is neither adulterous, un-
natural, nor incestuous. The seduction of a
virgin entailed marriage, the payment of the
usual price for a wife, and in certain cases a
fine (Ex. xxii. 16, 17) ; and the ravisher was
obliged to marry the maid and pay her father
fifty shekels, and forfeited the right of di-
vorce (Deut. xxii. 28, 29).

3. Insubordination to the constituted au-
thorities. The penalty was death. (1) Im-
piety toward parents : striking or cursing
father or mother (Ex. xxi. 15, 17; Lev. xx.
9), incorrigibility coupled with habitual
drunkenness (De'ut. xxi. 18-21). (2) Re-
fusal to submit to the decree of the priest or
judge (xvii. 12). (3) Treason, which is not
treated in the law. but, according to the his-
tory, was punished by death and confiscation

of property (1 Sam. xx. 31 ; xxii. 16 ; 2 Sam.
xvi. 4 ; xix. 29 ; 1 Kin. ii. 8, 9 ; xxi. 13, 15).

4. Crimes against the person, life, charac-
ter, and property of another. (1) Willful mur-
der and man-stealing were punished by death
(Ex. xxi. 12, 16 ; Deut. xxiv. 7) ; see Murder.
(2) Bodily injuiy, inflicted intentionally
or through carelessness, was punished accord-
ing to circumstances by compensation or re-
taliation, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth (Ex. xxi. 18-36). (3) A false witness
incurred the penalty of the crime for which
the accused was on trial (Deut. xix. 16, 19),
and a false accusation against a young wife's
honor was punished by chastisement, a fine
of 100 shekels, and forfeiture of the right of
divorce (xxii. 13-19). (4) For injury to prop-
erty the law required, according to circum-
stances, either simple compensation or a fine
paid to the owner and amounting to several
times the value of the stolen goods (Ex.
xxii. 1-15).

The punishments recognized by the Mosaic
law were death, chiefly by stoning, and in
extreme cases the burning or hanging of the
body ; chastisement, the stripes not to exceed
forty (Deut. xxv. 3) ; retaliation, compensa-
tion, which is scarcely a punishment, and
fine ; forfeiture of rights ; and in a special
case the loss of a hand. Deatlr was some-
times inflicted by the sword, spear, or arrow,
but without the forms of Hebrew law and in
extraordinary cases (Ex. xix. 13 ; xxxii. 27;
Num. xxv. 7; 1 Kin. ii. 25). The sword of
the magistrate did not symbolize Hebrew
judicial authority. Imprisonment, chains,
and stocks were used by the authority of
priests and kings, but they were not an in-
stitution of the early days of the Hebrew
nation (Ezra vii. 26; Jer. xx. 2; Acts v. 40).

Pu'non [perhaps, darkness or fog].

A station of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness not long before their arrival in Moab
(Num. xxxiii. 42, 43). Probably the small
town called Phainon by Eusebius, in the
desert east of mount Seir, between Petra and
Zoar ; cp. Pinon.

Pu'rah, in A. V. Phurah [bough].

The servant, doubtless armor-bearer, of
Gideon (Judg. vii. 10, 11).

Pu-ri-fi-ca'tion.

Under the Mosaic law these were of four
kinds : 1. Purification from uncleanness con-
tracted by contact with a corpse (Num. xix. ;
cp. V. 2, 3), not a carcase (Lev. v. 2). For
this purpose the ashes of a heifer were re-
quired, a female animal as in the case of the
sin offering for the common people. It was
necessary for the heifer to be red, the color
of blood in which the life resides ; to be
without blemish, and never to have been
used in the service of man. It was slain
without the camp, its blood was sprinkled
toward the sanctuary, and the carcase was
burned together with cedar, hysso]), and
scarlet. The ashes were gathered and pre-

Purification

605

Purple

served without the camp. When needed,
they were mingled with living water; and a
clean pei-son, with a bunch of hyssop,
sprinkled them upon the unclean on the
third and seventh day. It only remained
for the defiled to wash his clothes and bathe,
in order to be ceremonially clean. The de-
filement of a Nazirite, whose consecration
had been interrupted by contact with a
corpse, was of greater moment, for he was
specially dedicatetl to ceremonial purity.
After a week's separation, on the seventh
day he shaved oil' his hair, the sign of his
vow. On the eighth day he brought the
same oflerings as a man who had been defiled
by an Lssue or as a mother might after child-
birth (Num. vi. 9-12). A guilt ofTeriug fol-
lowed (ver. 12), preparatory to his reinstate-
ment as a Nazirite ; cp. the guilt otrering of
the leper.

2. Purification from uncleanuess due to an
issue (Lev. xv. ; cp. Num. v. 2, 3). On the
seventh day after recoverj-, the unclean per-
son after bathing in living water and wash-
ing the raiment was clean ; and on the eighth
day he repaired to the sanctuary and oflered
two doves or young pigeons, one for a sin
oflTering, the other for a burnt offering. Un-
cleanuess due to contact with a jierson having
an issue, or with anything rendered unclean
by such a person, was in ordinary cases
cleansed by a bath, the uncleanness remain-
ing until evening (Lev. xv. 5-11).

3. Purification of a mother after childbirth.
After the days of uncleanness, which were
seven for a man child and fourteen for a fe-
male child, were over, those of purification
followed, during which she touched no hal-
lowed thing, lest she defile it, and for the
same reason was forbidden access to the
sanctuary. For a son these were to continue
thirty-three, and for a daughter sixty-six
days, after which she brought a lamb of the
first year or, in case of poverty, two pigeons
or two doves for a burnt ofiering and a young
])igeon or dove for a sin oflfering (Lev. xii. 8 ;
Luke ii. 21-24).

4. Purification of the leper (Lev. xiv.).
The candidate for purification i)resented him-
self on the appointed day at the gate of the
camp, later at that of the city. The priest
killed a clean bird, holding it so that the blood
flowed into an earthen vessel of living water.
He made a sprinkler by binding a bunch of
hyssop with a scarlet cord on a cedar handle,
and dipped the sprinkler and a living bird
into the bloody water, sprinkled the person
undergoing purification, and released the
bird ; see Azazel. This much of the ritual
was also performed in purifying a house of
leprosy. The candidate was then pronounced
clean ; and having washed his clothes, shaved
off all his hair, and bathed, he might enter
camp or city, but must remain outside of his
habitation seven days. On the seventh day
he again washed his raiment, shaved and
bathed, and was i lean. On the eighth day

he appeared at the sanctuary with two male
lambs and a ewe lamb of the first year or, if
his means were limited, with one lamb and
two doves or pigeons, togther with a meal
offering and a measure of oil. One he lamb
was taken for a guilt ofiering. The priest
put some of its blood on the candidate's right
ear, right thumb, and right great too. He did
likewise with some of the oil, after sprink-
ling a little of it before the Lord, and poured
the rest on the candidate's head. The cere-
mony was completed by offering the remain-
ing lambs or pigeous for a sin ofl'ering and a
burnt offering.

Pu'rim [from Persian pur, a lot (Esth.
ix. 26)].

A Jewish festival, instituted to celebrate
the deliverance of the exiles in Per.sia from
the wholesale mas.sacre of their race planned
by Haman. He had cast pur, or a lot, to as-
certain a favorable day for carrying out his
scheme. The festival was kept on the four-
teenth and fifteenth days of the month Adar,
approximately Februarj- (Esth. ix. 24-28).
In 2 Mac. xv. 36 it is called the day of Morde-
cai. Josephus mentions that in his time all the
Jews in the inhabited world kept the festival
(Antiq. xi. 6, 13). Some have thought that
the feast of the Jews mentioned in John v. 1
was that of Purim ; but the statement that
Jesus went up to Jerusalem is opposed to this
view, for Purim was celebrated throughout
the land, and only at three great feasts was a
visit to Jerusalem compulsory. Purim was
not one of the three. From the time of its
institution it has enjoyed great popularity
among the Jews. On the evening of the 13th
of Adar, which they keep as a fast day, they
assemble in their synagogues. After the even-
ing service the Book of Esther is read. When
the name of Haman is reached, the congrega-
tion cry out, ■' Let liis name be blotted out,"
or '"The name of the wicked shall rot,"
while the youthful worshipers spring rattles.
The names of Haman's sons are read all in a
breath, to indicate that they were hanged
simultaneously. Next morning the people
repair again to the synagogue, and finish the
day in mirth and rejoicing, the wealthy giv-
ing gifts to the poor. The keeping of the
Purim festival on the 13th of Adar from age
to age is a strong argument for the historic
character of the startling incidents recorded
in the Book of Esther.

Purple.

A color which in ancient and modern usage
comprehends violet and all the hues inter-
mediate between violet and crimson. In an-
cient times it included crimson and other
reds (Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 61, 62; Mark xv.
17 with Mat. xxvii. 28). Purple raiment was
costly, and consequently its use was the priv-
ilege of the rich exclusively. It w^as worn
by persons of wealth and high official posi-
tion (Esth. viii. 15; cp. Mordecai's elevation
to office, 2 ; Prov. xxxi. 22 ; Dan. v. 7 ; 1

Purse

606

Pygarg

Mac. X. 20, 62, 64 ; 2 Mac. iv. 38 ; cp. 31 ;
Luke xvi. 19 ; Rev. xvii. 4), and especially
by kings, as by the kinglets of Midian (Judg.
viii. 26). Indeed, it was a sign of royalty
(1 Mac. viii. 14 ; Homer, Iliad iv. 144), and
was put on Jesus in mockery of his claims.
Rich cloths of purple were used as coverings
for the seats of princely palanquins (Song
iii. 10), awnings for the decks of luxurious
ships (Ezek. xxvii. 7), and drapery for idols
( Jer. X. 9). It was largely employed in the
hangings of the tabernacle (Ex. xxv. 4 ;
xxvi. 1, 31, 36), and in the garments of the
high priest (xxviii. 5, 6, 15, 33; xxxix. 29).
The Jews interpreted the color symbolically
(War V. 5, 4).

Purple dye was obtained from various kinds
of shell fish (1 Mac. iv. 23 ; War v. 5, 4), and
was yielded by a thin liquor, called the
flower, secreted by a gland in the neck. The
amount yielded by each fish was very small,
much labor was required to collect it in
quantity, and the price was correspoudiugly
great. The larger purples were broken at
the top to get at the gland without injuring
it, but the smaller ones were pressed in mills
(Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 60). Two species of
Murex were used by the ancient Tyrians,

Murex Irunculus.

Murex trunculus and Murex brandaris, and
yielded crimson. The Murex is common
throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but the
shade of color varies with the coast.

Purse.

A bag for carrying money (Luke x. 4 ; xii.
33 ; xxii. 35), which, however, was not a
necessity, as money was often carried in the
girdle (Mat. x. 9, R. V. margin). The purse
or common treasury of the disciples was in
charge of Judas (John xii. 6; xiii. 29, R. V.
margin, box) ; the same word was used to
describe it as that which designated the

chests for ofi'erings at the temple. Before
coins came into use, pieces of silver and gold
of various sizes and shapes were tied in a
bag or in the girdle, or rings of the precious
metal were strung on a cord (Gen. xlii. 35 ;
Prov. vii. 20), and weights and scales were
carried for weighing out the desired quantity
(Deut. xxv. 13; Mic. vi. 11).

Put, in A. V. Phut in Gen. x. 6 ; Ezek.
xxvii. 10; xxxviii. 5, margin.

A people related to the Egyptians (Gen. x.
6), and the country inhabited by them. The
prevalent opinion is that the name denotes
Libya in whole or in part. It is mentioned
in association with Egypt and other African
countries, especially with Lubim (Nah. iii.
9) and Lud (Ezek. xxvii. 10; and Is. Ixvi. 19
in Septuagint; between Cush and Lud, Jer.
xlvi. 9; Ezek. xxx. 5); it is rendered Lib-
yans by the Septuagint in Jeremiah and Ezek-
iel ; it is also identified with Libya by Jo-
sephus ( Antiq. i. 6, 2) ; and the western part
of Lower Egypt is called in Coptic Phaiat.
Another view is strenuously defended by
Ebers and Brugsch, which connects Put with
Punt. Punt lay south or southeast of Cush,
and is commonly identified with the Somali
country in Africa, east of the straits of Bab
el-Mandeb, and on the adjacent coasts of Asia,
near Aden, in Arabia.

Pu-te'o-li [little wells].

A seaport in Italy which Paul's vessel
reached the day after it had been at Rhegium.
The apostle found Christians there, and en-
joyed their hospitality (Acts xxviii. 13).
Founded in the sixth century B. c, it was
originally called Diciearchia, and was the
ordinary landing place of travelers to Italy
from Egypt and the East (Antiq. xvii. 12, 1 ;
xviii. 7, 2 ; Life 3). It was on the southern
shore of the bay of Naples, near the site
where the modern city of that name now
stands. Its old name of Puteoli still exists,
little changed, as Pozzuoli. The whole
region round is volcanic, and the crater of
the Solfatara rises behind the town.

Puth'ites, in A. V. Puhites.

A family in Kirjath-jearim (1 Chron.
ii. 53).

Pu'ti-el [probably, afllicted by God].

Father-iu-law of Eleazar, Aaron's son (Ex.
vi. 25).

Pu'vah and Puah ; instead of first form
A. V. has Phuvah (Gen. xlvi. 13), Pua (Num.
xxvi. 23).

1. A son of Issachar and founder of a
tribal family (Gen. xlvi. 13; Num. xxvi. 23;
1 Chron. vii. 1).

2. A man of Issachar and father of the
judge Tola (Judg. x. 1).

Py'garg.

The rendering of the Hebrew Dishon,
treader or leaper, the name of a-clean animal
(Deut. xiv. 5). The pygarg of the ancients
was a white rumped antelope. It seems to

Quail

607

Qmcksand

have been the addax (Antilope addax, or
Addax nuwinucidaius). The horns, which ex-
ist in both sexes, are twisted and ringed. It
has a white patcli on the forehead, and the
hinder parts are grayish-white. It is about the
size of a large ass. It is a native of north-
eastern Africa (cp. Herod, iv. lH'i), but its
range extends to the southeastern frontier of
Palestine.

Q.

Quail.

A bird which the children of Israel twice
during their journeying near Sinai provi-
dentially had for food in great abundance.
In tlie wilderness of Sin the birds covered
the camp on one evening (Ex. xvi. 12, IS) ;
at the graves of lust they were driven by
the southeast wind from the sea, and fell in
vast (juantities in and around the camp,
lying in places three feet deep (Num. si. 31-
34; Ps. Ixxviii. 26-31). Each time it was
the spring of the year. The bird was called in
Hebrew s'lar, and the similarity between the
Hebrew word and the Arabic Sidtcd, a quail,
proves that to be the bird intended. It is

Quail {ColurnLc daclylisonang).

the quail of Europe, not of America, is
called Cotnrnix dactylisonans, or communis,
and is placed in the Tetraonidx or grouse
family, and the Perdk-iuDe, or partridge sub-
family. It is the smallest species of the
partridge type, being only about 7| inches
long. Its general color is brown, with buify
streaks above and buff below. It is migra-
tory, arriving in Palestine from the south in
immense numbers in March, and going south-
ward again at the approach of winter. Quails
fly rapidly and well, and take advantage of
the wind ; but if the wind changes its course,
or the birds become exhausted from long
flight the whole immense flock is apt to fall
to the ground, where they lie stunned (cp.
Antiq. iii. 1, 5). In this condition they are
captured in great quantities on the coasts
and islands of the Mediterranean Sea. The

Israelites spread the quails, which they could
not eat at once, round about the camp (Num.
xi. 32) in order to dry them in the sun and
air, as the Egyptians did with fish (Herod,
ii. 77).

Quar'tus [fourth].

A Corinthian t'hristian who joined with
Paul in sending a salutation to the church of
Eome (Kom. xvi. 23).

Qua-ter'ni-on.

Four united persons or things; a guard of
four soldiers (Acts xii. 4). Four quaternions,
i. e., four companies, each of four soldiers,
sixteen in all, were set to look after Peter
when he was in prison at Jerusalem, each
quaternion discharging the duty for one
watch of three hours. During the night
watches, two soldiers slept with the apostle
in his cell, while the other two mounted
guard before the door.

Queen.

The consort of a king, or a woman who
reigns bj' her own right. Vashti and Esther
were queen consorts (Esth. i. 9 ; ii. 22). Even
after the death of the king her husband, the
queen, especially if mother of the new mon-
arch, retained respect and influence (2 Kin.
X. 13) ; for the practice of polygamy made
the position of even the chief wife pre-
carious, and at any time the king might capri-
ciously promote over her head some one of
her rivals; but the queen mother, i. e., the
mother of the king, had an unalterable rela-
tion to the monarch, and was often the most
potent female jiersonage. Three queens reg-
nant or women who occupied the throne are
mentioned in Scripture: Athaliah, who, after
perpetrating a massacre of the seed royal,
usurped the throne of Judah ; the queen of
Sheba (1 Kin. x. 1-13 ; 2 Chron. ix. 1-12) ;
and Candace, queen of the Ethiopians (Acts
viii. 27). The last two, it is believed, came
to their high dignity in a perfectly legitimate
way.

The queen of heaven was a false divinity,
in honor of whom the Jews in Jeremiah's
time made cakes, burnt incense, and poured
out drink offerings (Jer. vii. 18; xliv. 15-30).
She was probably the Phoenician goddess
Ashtoreth (q. v.), partly the moon and partly
the planet Venus personified.

Quick'sand.

A sandbank which moves, quick being used
in the nearly obsolete sense of living. The
quicksands of which the sailors on board
Paul's ships were afraid (Acts xxvii. 17),
and which were the terror of ancient mari-
ners, were two in number, the Greater
and the Lesser Syrtis, the ffirmer consti-
tuting the southeastern, and the latter the
southwestern part of that great indenta-
tion in the north African coast south of
Sicily. The Greater Syrtis, now called the
gulf of Sidra, curves inward on the African
coast for about 126 miles, and measures
264 miles between the two promontories

Quirinius

608

Babbah

at its mouth. It is shallow, and full of
quicksands. The Lesser Syrtis does not run
so far inland. At its mouth it measures
about 69 miles from the island of Kerkenna
on the north to that of Jerba on the south.
It is dangerous to navigate, owing to its
winds and tides. It is now called the gulf
of Cabes.

Qui-ri'ni-us, in A. V. Cyrenius ; the former
being the original Latin name, the latter the
modification it underwent among the Greeks.

A Roman who became governor of Syria
(Antiq. xviii. 1, 1). Under him an enroll-
ment was made which led Joseph to go with
Mary his espoused wife to Bethlehem. This
visit to Bethlehem took place in the reign of
Herod the Great, at the close of the year 5 or
beginning of 4 B. c. The enrollment was not a
local atl'air, but was made in pursuance of a de-
cree of the Roman emperor Augustus that all
the world should be taxed. This was the first
enrollment made when Quirinius was gov-
ernor of Syria (Luke ii. 1-5, E. V.). Quiri-
nius was made governor of Syria about the
time of the deposition of Archelaus from
office in Judjea, A. t>. 6 (Antiq. xvii. 13, 5) ;
but it is probable, as Zumpt has shown, that
lie was twice governor, succeeding Quintilius
Varus who held office from 6 b. c. until after
the death of Herod the Great in 4 b. c. ; and
that the enrollment was merely complelied in
the time of his first governorship, having
been begun by Sentius Saturninus, governor
from 8 to 6 B. c. Satui-niuus was succeeded
by Varus. The first enrollment was probably
a census proper, undertaken to ascertain the
population. The other enrollment during the
governorship of Quirinius was au appraise-
ment of property, was made in a. d. 6-7,
and was the occasion of disturbances in
Judiea, stirred up by Judas, a Galiltean (Acts
V.37; Antiq. xvii. 13, 5; War ii. 8, 1). Luke
connects the first enrollment with Quirinius,
without mentioning Saturninus and Varus,
because it was commonly spoken of as the
firstenrollmentunder Quirinius in distinction
from the notable enrollment under him which
gave rise to the tumults.

A brief biography of Quirinius is furnished
by Tacitus (Annal.iii. 48). He says: "About
this time he [the emperor Tiberius] asked
the senate that the death of Sulpicius Qui-
rinius [which occurred in A. D. 21] might be
celebrated by public obsequies. Quirinius
was in no way related to the old and patri-
cian family of the Sulpicii. but was born at
Lanuvium, a municipal town. As a reward
for his military and administrative services,
he obtained the office of consul under Augus-
tus [in 12 B. c], and soon afterwards the
honor of a triumph for having taken the
strongholds of the Homonaden.ses in Cilicia.
While attending Caius Ctesar as rector, when
the former was canipaiguing in Armenia, he
secretly paid court to Tiberius, who was then
at Rhodes. Tiberius mentioned the fact in

this letter, praised him for his good offices,
and found fault with Marcus LoUinus for
sowing dissensions between himself and Caius
Caesar. But to other people the memory of
Quirinius was by no means dear, because of
his persistence in the trial of Lepida [his
wife, whom he had convicted of adulteries,
poisonings, and treasonable dealings, but who
yet succeeded in gaining the compassion of
the people], and also of his sordid avarice in
his old age, although very powerful."

Quiv'er.

A case for containing arrows (Is. xlix. 2 ;
Lam. iii. 13). The Assyrian archers on foot
carried the quiver on the back, with the
opening usually at the right shoulder, but
archers who fought from chariots hung the
quiver at the side of the vehicle ; see illus-
tration under Bow and Ram. The Egyp-
tians also slung the quiver across the back,
but they seem to have allowed it to hang
horizontally and to have drawn out the
arrows from beneath the left arm.

K

Ra'a-mah, in R. V. once Raama (1 Chron.
i. 9), the Hebrew spelling in this instance
[shaking, quivering, trembling].

Collective name for a Cushite people, asso-
ciated with Sheba (Gen. x. 7; 1 Chron. i.
9). Men of the two tribes brought precious
stones and gold to the markets of Tyre
(Ezek. xxvii. 22). Raamah is mentioned in
inscriptions of Sheba as a place near Ma'in,
in southwestern Arabia.

Ra-a-mi'ali [trembling caused by Jeho-
vah]. See Reelaiah.

Ra-am'ses. See Rameses.

Rab'bah, in A. V. twice Rabbath (Deut.
iii. 11 ; Ezek. xxi. 20), the Hebrew form when
joined with a following word [great, i. e., the
capital].

1. A city on the southern tributary of the
Jabbok, 23 miles east of the nearest point
on the Jordan. It was the chief city of
the Ammonites. In the war which was
waged against the children of Amnion to
avetige the disgrace put upon the ambassa-
dors of David, Abishai drove the Ammonites
into their city. In the following year Joab
besieged them. During a sally from the
gate, Uriah the Hittite was killed. That
part of the city lying between the citadel
and the river, and called the city of waters,
fell into the hands of Joab, but the citadel
held out. David was then sent for to com-
plete the conquest and associate it with his
name. He did so, treating the vanquished
inhabitants with cruel severity (2 Sam. xi. 1 ;
xii. 26-31 ; 1 Chron. xx. 1-3). In time the
Ammonites recovered the city. Judgments
M'ere denounced against it by Jeremiah
(xlix. 2-6) and Ezekiel (xxi. 20). It was

Babbath

609

Rachel

embellished by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-
247 B. c), and in his honor uametl Pliiladel-
l>hia, thoii<rh the old name never ceased to
be used by the natives. Philadelphia was
the eastern limit of Pera-a (War. ill. 3, 3) ;
and it was the southernmost of the ten cities
of the Decajiolis. The commercial highway
between Damascus and Arabia which skirted
the desert passed through the city, and there
was also a trade road from Philadelphia by
way of Gerasa and Pella to Scythopolis. The
city was once the seat of a bishopric, and
;imong the chief ruins are those of a churcli.
As in various other cases, the more modern
name has lapsed, and 'Amman, a curtailment
of Kabbath Ammon, has taken its place.

2. A city, with dependent villages, in the
hill country of Judah (.losh. xv. 60). Per-
haps its site is the ruin Kubba, about 14
miles west by south of Bethlehem.

Rab'bath. See P.\p.kah.

Rab'bi, and Rabboni.

A doctor, teacher, or master ; a respectful
term applied by the .Tews to their spiritual
instructors (^lat. xxiii. 7; .John i. 38). The
later Jewish schools are s;iid to have had
three grades of honor: ran (master), the
lowest; rabbi (my master), the second; and
rabboni (my lord, my master), the highest
of all. When John wrote, the termination
which denotes my had lost its especial sig-
nificance as a possessive pronoun, for John
explains rabbi and rabboni as meaning
simjily master (John i. 38; xx. 16).

Rab'bith [multitude].

A frontier village of Issachar (.Tosh. xix.
20). Conder doubtfully identities it with the
present village of Raba, among hills 8 miles
south of mount Gilboa, and 7 southeast of
Jen in.

Rab-bo'ni. See Eabbi.

Rab'-mag.

A title of high office, borne by Nergal-
sharezer, a chief officer in Nebuchadnezzar's
army (Jer. xxxix. 3). Four explanations
have been offered, none of which rests on a
sure foundation. 1. It denotes the chief of
the Magi. According to this view, the
Median and Persian religious caste was in-
fluential in Babylonia in the reign of Neb-
uchadnezzar, who had a Median princess for
his wife, and its head man accompanied the
array. The Magi are, however, called in
Greek 3fiifioi, singular Mngoi. which appears
in Semitic as Mn(jiishn, not as vmfi. 2. It is
the Hebrew modification of rubii imga, ex-
alted prince, a title which Nabuna'id ascribes
to his father and which Nebuchadnezzar
assumes. The word imf/a is not well under-
stoo<l. and its long initial vowel is a strong
argument against its identity with nxifi. 3.
It represents rub niahhu, chief prophet or
soothsayer, who appears from this passage in
Jeremiah to have accompanied the army, as
did the augurs of Rome. 4. Since wnh denotes
a prince, as does rab, the combination priuce-
39

jirince is the title for a high militar.v official.
IJut such a title seems scarcely distinctive.

Rab'-sa-ris [mh sha rcshu, chief who is
head, the latter part being modified to suit
the Hebrew ear into saris, eunuch].

An olKcial title. A rab-.saris accompanied
the armies of Sennacherib and Nebuchad-
nezzar (2 Kin. xviii. 17 ; Jer. xxxix. 3). The
officer at Nebuchadnezzar's court, who is
called master of the eunuchs in the English
version and whose title is given in Hebrew
as rab sarisiin, perhaps, held the same office
(Dan. i. 3).

Rab'sha-keh [Assyrian rab shak, head
officer, general].

Title of a military official, associated with
the tartan and the rab-saris of Sennacherib in
command of an expedition against Jerusalem
(2 Kin. xviii. 17). On this occasion he con-
ducted the parley with the officials of Heze-
kiah (19, 26, 27, 37i, and was perhaps head
of the expedition (xix. 8).

Ra'ca.

An Aramaic term rela', worthless: an ex-
pression of contempt (Mat. v. 22).

Ra'cal, in A. Y. Rachal [trade, commerce].

A place in Judah to which David sent some
of the recovered spoil of Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx.
29). Site unknown.

Race. See Games.

Ra'chab. See Rahab.

Ra'chal. See Racal.

Ra'chel, in A. V. once Rahel (Jer. xxxi.
15) [ewe].

The younger daughter of Lahan. She was
possessed of much jiersonal beauty, and .Tacob
fell in love with her at first sight, when he
met her at the well near Harau, in Meso-
potamia, where she was watering her tiock.
As he possessed no jiroperty and it was cus-
tomary to pay the parents a ]n'ice for the
bride, he served her father seven years for
her, and then, being cheated by the substi-
tution of the elder sister, Leah, who was
much less highly favored, served another
seven for the younger maiden, the only one
who had gained his afl'ections. He married
her also (Gen. xxix. 1-30). and she became
the mother of Joseph (xxx. 22-25) and Ben-
jamin, dying when the latter was born
(xxxv. 16-18). She was buried a little to
the north of Ephrath, better known as Beth-
lehem. The grave was situated at a place
which a traveler from Bethel would reach
before he came to Bethlehem. Jacob erected
a pillar to mark the spot. This jiillar long
remained (19, 20). It was near Zelzah (1
Sam. X. 2). The reputed site was alluded
to l)y Jerome and the Bordeaux ))ilgrim in
the fourth century, and is accepted as cor-
rect by Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans.
The erection called Kubbet Rahil, tomb of
Rachel, is a small building like a mosque,
with a dome. It has an open apartment to-

Rachel

610

Rainbow

ward the east aud a small enclosure toward
the west. The preseut structure is of no
great antiquity.

Tumi) of Rachel.

The prophet Jeremiah represents Eachel
as weeping for her children, the descendants
of her son Josejjh, the people of Ephraim
and Manasseh who were in captivity (Jer.
xxxi. 15 : cp. 9, IHK At Eamah was her
voice heard : not because the prophet foresaw
that the captives of Judah aud Benjamin
would be l)rought to Ramah after the fall of
Jerusalem before being led into exile (xl. 1),
for Rachel is not weeping over the Jews ; but
either because a town called Ramah was
perhaps near Rachel's grave (cp. 1 Sam. x. 2 ;
and Ramah 2), or more probably because
Ramah was a height in the territory of
Rachel's remaining children, the descendants
of Benjamin, and near the border of de-
populated Ephraim. whence the desolation
of the land was visible. This picture which
the projjhet drew of weeping Rachel found
fulfillment in the slaughter of the innocents
at Bethlehem in the laiul of Judah (Mat. ii.
18), although the descendants of Leah, not
Rachel, wept. Rachel looking on the wasted
land of Ephraim, and bewailing her slain aud
exiled children, was witness that the process
had liegun which terminated in the posses-
sion of the promised land by foreigners, the
occupation of the throne by an Edomite,
and the slaughter of Leah's children in the
endeavor to slay the legitimate king and
destined saviour of all Israel, Ephraim, Ben-
jamin, and Judah alike. The picture of
Rachel found more than a counterpart in
the sorrow of the women of Bethlehem. It
found completion, and it found renewed
realization. Rachel wept again, this time
with Leah. Rachel's hope for the return of
her children to the Lord their God and David

their king (Jer. xxx. 9) was bound up in
Leah's yearning for that son of David m
whose days Judah should be saved and Israel
dwell in safety (xxiii. fi). Rjichel's cry was
the first wail of that lamentation which con-
tinued through the centuries and was heard
at Bethlehem when a foreign king, in hos-
tility to the son of David, legitimate king
of the Jews, was able to send armed men to
the city of David and slay the children.
The process begun when Rachel first wejjt
was being completed. The jjrophetic j)ic-
ture was finding final fulfillment.

Rad'dai [cutting under, subjugating].
A sou of Jesse, and brother of David (1
Chron. ii. 14).

Ra'gau. See Eeu.
Ra-gu'el. See Reuel.

Ra'hab I. [ferocitj% insolence, violence].

A poetical name for Egypt (Ps. Ixxxvii. 4 ;
Ixxxix. 10; Is. xxx. 7, R. V.; Ii. 9). In Is.
Ii. 9 it is parallel with dragon ; see Dragon.
In Job. ix. V3 ; xxvi. 12, R. V., especially,
some interpreters understand a sea monster,
and some even discern an allusion to the
Semitic myth of the sea monster Tiamat
who attempted to reduce the ordered uni-
verse to chaos, but was subdued by the
sun-god Marduk. This interpretation is not
necessary, but it is possible. The inspired
poets and prophets might, of course, borrow
the creations of fancy to illustrate truth ; cp.
Leviathan.

Ra'hab II., in A. V. of N. T. once Rachab
(Mat. i. .')) [broad].

A harlot whose house was on the wall of
Jericho. She harbored the spies sent by
Joshua to explore the city, hid them when
they were searched for, and, finally, let them
down by a cord on the outer side of the wall,
so that they escaped to the Israelite camp
(Josh. ii. 1-24). When Jericho was taken,
Rahab and her family were spared, and in-
corporated with the chosen people (vi. 22-25 ;
Heb. xi. 31 ; James ii. 25). It was probably
she who became the wife of Salmon and
the mother of Boaz. and a link in the chain
of ancestrv both of king David aud of our
Lord (Mat. i. 5).

Ra'ham [affection, tenderness].

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Caleb (1 Chron. ii. 44).

Ra'hel. See Rachel.

Rain. See Year.

Rain'bow.

A bow appearing in the part of the heavens
opposite to the sun, con.sisting of the ])ris-
matic colors, and formed by the refraction
and reflection of the sun's rays from drojis
of rain or vapor. It is exceeding beautil'ul
(Ecclus. xliii. 11, 12). After the flood (iod
selected the rainbow, which had often l)efore
been seen in the sky, and apj)ointed or conse-
crated it as the token of the promise that he

Raisin

611

Eamah

would nut again destroy the eartli by a flood
(Gen. ix. 12-17). It Itecanio the symbol of
God's laithfulness and of his beneficence
toward man (Eev. iv. '.i).

Rai'sin. See Vine.

Ea'kem [variegated]. The Hebrew word
is elsewhere rendered Kekem.

A .Mauassito (1 Chrou. vii. It)).

Rak'kath [a shore].

A fenced city of Xaphtali, and, from its
etymology, presumably on the sliore of the
sea of Galilee (Josh. xix. 3.5). The rabbins
place it where Tiberias now stands.

Rak'kon [thinness, or perhaps a shore].

A village of Dan (Josh. xix. 4(5). Conder
suggests as its site Tell er-Rekkeit, 2i miles
north of the mouth of the 'Aujah, and 6
north of Jojipa.

Ram, I.

1. The male of the sheep (Ezek. xxxiv. 17) ;
see illustration under Sheep. It was used
as food (Gen. xxxi. 38), might be brought as
a burnt otlering or a peace offering (xxii. 13;
Lev. i. 10; viii. IH; and iii. fJ ; ix. 4), and
was appointed for a guilt or tresjjass ofl'ering
(v. 1.5; vi. (j). Earns' skins dyed red were
used, with other appliances, as coverings of
the tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 14), and rams'
horns as war and api)arently jubilee trumpets
in the time of Joshua (Josh. vi. 4-6, 8, 13).
The two-horned ram seen by Daniel in pro-
phetic vision was the Medo-Persian power,
the first or smaller horn that came up being
the emjiire of the Medes, the second or
greater horn which ro.se at a later period
that of the Persians (Dan. viii. 3-7. 20).

Attack on a ("ity by means of Battering-ram and Archers

2. The battering-ram was an instrument of
war, used to beat down the gates and walls
of a besieged city (Ezek. iv. 2 ; xxi. 22 ; War
T. R. 4). It consisted of a log of wood iron-
pointed, swung by ropes from a support
above and generally within a tower (War v.
11. .5). In attacking a fort or city, it was
often necessary to throw up a mound of earth
to serve as an inclined plane and enable the

besiegers to bring the battering-ram and other
military engines again.st the walls (Ezek. iv.
2) , see also illustration under Lachish.

Ram, II., in A. V. of N. T. Aram, in imi-
tation of the Greek form [high]

1. A man of Judah, a son of Ilezron, and
brother of Jerahmeel (Ruth iv. I'J ; 1 Chron.
ii. 9; Mat. i. 3).

2. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Jeralimeel (1 Chron. ii. 25, 27).

3. A descendant of Buz, founder of a fam-
ily of the Buzites, and an ancestor of Elihu
(Job xxxii. 2). He has sometimes been iden-
tified with Aram of Gen. xxii. 21 ; but Aram
was not descended from Buz (nor rice versa),
and Aram and Ram are different names in
Hebrew.

Ra'mah, in A. V. of N. T. Rama, in imi-
tation of the Greek [a height].

1. A town in Benjamin (Josh, xviii 2.5),
not far from Gibeah, Geba, and Bethel (Judg.
iv. .5 ; xix. 13, 14 ; Is. x. 29). It was fortified
by Baasha, king of Israel, to keep the jieople
of Judah from making military excursions
northward (1 Kin. xv. 17, 21, 22; 2 Chron.
xvi. 1-6) ; hence ajjjiarently .south of Bethel.
It seems to have been the place where the
captives of Judah were massed together bc-
foie their deportation to Babylon (Jer. xl 1).
The town was reoccupied after the captivity
(Ezra ii. 26 ; Neh. xi. 33). Accordnig to Jose-
phus, Ramah was distant 40 stades from Jeru-
salem (Antiq. viii. 12, 3). Robinson located it
at er-Ram, on a height .5 miles north of Jeru-
salem. His views have been generally ac-
cepted. It isnowasmall Arab village, having,
however, hewn stones and fragments of pil-
lars, the remains of antiquity.

2. A town where the parents of
Samuel lived (1 Sam. i. 19; ii. 11 ;
cp. with i. 1), where he himself was
born and had his residence (vii.
17; viii. 4; xv. 34; xvi. 13; xix.
18, 19, 22, 23; xx. 1), and where
he was buried (xxv. 1 ; xxviii. 3).
For the sake of distinction from
other towns of similar name it was
called Ramathaim-zophim (cp. i 1
with 19, etc.). The town cannot
be located with certainty. 1. It has
been identified with Ramah of I^en-
jamin. On this theory the place
is rightly described, so it is con-
tended, as situated in tlie lull
country of Ejdiraim (1 Sam. i. 1),
and it is different from the un-
named town in the land of Zuph
where Saul first met Samuel (ix. .5 seq ).
Robinson called this identification in (lues-
tion, and probably justly, although his
opinion has not been followed by all authori-
ties. 2. It lay south of Benjamin, for (a) The
passage 1 Sam. i. 1 does not clearly locate
Ramathaim in the hill country of Ephraim,
but rather states that a certain man of the
family of Zuph dwelt in Ramathaim. a city

Bamath

612

Raven

of the Zophites, who were a branch of the
Kohathite Levites, and were called Ephraim-
ites because their assigned liome was in the
hill country of Ephraim, whence they had
migrated (cp. Josh xxi. 5 ; 1 Chron. vi. 22-26,
35, an seq.). (b) If this be the true interpre-
tation, then the unnamed city where Saul
met Samuel is doubtless Raniathaim-zophim,
for it is in the land of Zuph. This district
lay outside the borders of Benjamin (1 Sam.
i.K 4-6), and south of Benjamin, i. e., in such
a situation that a person going from a city in
or quite near it to Gibeah of Benjamin came
to liiichel's sepulcher on the borders of Ben-
jamin (x.2), between Bethel and Bethlehem
(Gen. XX.XV. 16, 19). (c) It is now plain why
Saul did not know the prophet Samuel by
sight, which could scarcely have been the
case had the prophet resided at Ratnah of
Benjamin, only 2| miles from Saul's home
(cj). also 1 Sam. viii. 1, 2). 3. Another loca-
tion for Ramathaim may be sought in the
territory of Ephraim (Antiq. v. 10, 2) where
the Zophites dwelt; but not in Benjamin
and not the nameless town of 1 Sam. ix. .5.
Beit Rima, 13 miles northeast of Lydda,
has lieen suggested. Compare with caution
Ramathaim.

3. A town on the boundary line of Asher
(Josh. xix. 29). Robinson's location of it
at Rameh, about 13 miles S. W. by S. of Tyre,
has met with favor.

4 A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
36). It is believed to have lieen situated at
er-Rameh, about 5 miles southwest of Safed
and 17 east of Acre.

5. Ramoth-gilead (cp. 2 Kin. viii. 28 with
29, and 2 Chron. xxii. .5 with 6).

6. A village in Simeon (Josh. xix. 8 ; in
A, V. Ramath). It is doubtless the same as
Eamoth of the South (1 Sam. xxx. 27) ; and
was also known as Baalath-beer (q. v.).

Ra'math [height], the Hebrew form of
Ramah when joined to a following word.

A village of Simeon (Josh. xix. 8, in R. V.
Ramah), known also as Ramoth of the South
(I Sam. xxx. 27). See Ramah 6.

Ra-math-a'im, in A. V. Ram'a-tliem [twin
heights].

A town which gave name to one of three
governmental districts which were detached
from Samaria and added to Judaea (1 Mac.
xi. 34; cp. X. .30, 38). Its location must be
sought near the southern border of Ephraim.

Ra-math-a-im-zo'phlm [the twin heights
(of the) Zophites].

The residence of Samuel's father (1 Sam.
i 1) ; .see Ramah 2.

Ra'math- ite.

A native or inhabitant of any town called
Ramah (I Chnm. xxvii. 27). Which of them
is referred to in the passage is not known.

Ra-math-le'hi. See Lehi.

Ra-math-miz'peh. See Mizpah 2.

Ram'e-ses [Egyptian, Ra-mesu, son of the
sun].

A town of Egypt in the most fertile dis-
trict in the land (Gen. xlvii. 11). It was in
the land of Goshen (6). By Pharaoh's orders,
Joseph located his father and brothers there.
The store city Raamses or Ramses, which the
Israelites afterwards built for Pharaoh (prob-
ably Ramses II ), is probably meant (Exod. i.
11) ; see Egypt III. 8. When the exodus
took place the Israelites marched from
Eameses to Succoth (Exod. xii. 37; Num.
xxxiii. 3).

Ra-mi'ah [exalted is Jehovah].

A son of Parosh, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 25).

Ra'moth [high places, height].

1. A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 29). "The
R. V. reads Jeremoth in the text, and rele-
gates Ramoth to tlie margin.

2. A town of Lssachar, assigned for resi-
dence to the Gershonite Levites (1 Chron. vi.
73) ; see Jarmuth.

3. A town in Gilead ; see Ramoth-gilead.

4. A town of the south (1 Sam. xxx. 27) ;
see R.^mah 6.

Ra-moth-gU'e-ad [heights of Gilead]. See
Mizpah 2.

Ram'ses.

A method of anglicizing the Egyptian Ra-
mean. See Phar.\.oh and R.a.meses.

Ra'phah and Rapha [he has healed].

1. A son of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii. 2) ;
but he is not enumerated with those who
accompanied Jacob into Egypt (Gen. xlvi.
21), and was probably born after the descent
into Egypt. He did not found a tribal fam-
ily ; his descendants, if there were any,
were included in other families of the Ben-
jamites. Compare remarks under Nobah.

2. A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron.
viii. 37). Called in ix. 43 Rephaiah, a syn-
onymous name.

Ra'phon.

A town of Gilead, besieged by the Ammon-
ites, but relieved by Judas Maccabfeus (1 Mac.
V. 37). It was apjiarently not far from Car-
naim (43). It maybe identical with Raphana,
which was one of the original cities constitu-
ting the Decapolis, and was situated south of
the sea of Galilee and east of the Jordan.

Ra'phu [healed, cured].

A Benjamite, father of Palti (Num. xiii. 9).

Ra'ven.

A bird, black in color (Song v. 11), om-
nivorous, feeding even on carrion (Prov. xxx.
17), and hence ceremonially unclean (Lev.
xi. 15). Noah .sent one forth from the ark.
It did not return to him, finding, doubtles.s,
floating carcases on which it was able to feed
(Gen. viii. 7). It frequents valleys (Prov.
xxx. 17), and makes its nest in solitary
places (Is. xxxiv. 11). By divine providence

r

Razor

613

Rechah

raveus fed Elijah with bread and flesh morn-
ing and evening at tlie l)rook Cherith during
the drought and famine (1 Km. xvii. 2-7).
Tlie consonants of the words for ravens and
Arabians are the siime in Helirew ; and when
the text is written witliout vowels, as origin-
ally, it is impossible to determine, if the
context does not decide, whether Arabs or

Ka\cu.

ravens are meant. It is generally admitted
now that the Septuagint and Vulgate are
right, and that the Hebrew writer intends to
state that Elijah was fed by ravens. The bird
referred to in Scripture is undoubtedly the
common raven (Corrtis corax], which is found
in every part of Palestine. It is black,
with steel-i)lue and ])urple iridescence, and is
about 2f) inches long. The name is broad
enough, however, to include other Corridx.
Another species (Cornifs umhiitiitx) occurs in
southern Palestine and in the valley of the
Jordan.

Ra'zor.

A sharp instrument for removing the beard
or hair (Is. vii. 20; Ezek. v. 1). See Knife,
Beard, H.\ir.

Re-a'iali, in A. V. once Reaia (1 Chron.
V. 5) [Jehovah has seen, or provided for].

1. A son of Shobal, and descended from
Judah through Hezron (1 Chron. iv. 2),
called in ii. 52 Haroeh. i. e.. the seeing One.

2. A Reubenite (1 Chron. v. 5).

3. Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-
bers of which returned from captivity (Ezra
ii. 47 ; Xeli. vii. 50).

Re'ba [perhaps, a fourth part or quarter].

One of the five !Midianite kings, allies or
vassals of Sihon, slain by the Israelites in
the war waged by Moses against Midian,
because they seduced Israel to licentious
idolatry (Xum. xxxi. 8; Josh. xiii. 21).

Re-bek'ah, iu X. T. Rebecca (Rom. ix. 10)
[a rope with a noose, ;'. e.. a young woman
whose beauty ensnares menl.

A daughter of Bethuel. When she came
with her pitcher to a well near the city of

Xahor, in Mesopotamia, the .servant of Abra-
ham, who had been sent to obtain a wife for
Isaac, presented himself and asked permis-
sion to drink from her i>itcher. She not only
granted his request, but volunteered to draw
water for his camels. He had asked (lod for
this very sign ; her conduct showed that she
was of a generous disposition, lie sjiw that
she was beautiful ; and he at once gave her
expensive presents, as for a future bride. He
did not at the time know her name, but
asked what it was, and then added the in-
quiry whether he might lodge at her father's
house. She was w'illing , and when her
brother Laban's consent had been obtained,
the delegate took up his temporary residence
in their dwelling, and explained the object
of his journey to Mesopotamia. He ended
by petitioning that Rebekah should accom-
pany him to Canaan and become the wife of
Isaac. Laban gave his consent, and the
maiden, adding hers, went with the servant,
married Isaac, and became the mother of
Esau and Jacob ((ien. xxiv. l-fi"). She pre-
ferred Jacob to Esau ; and although she had
the jirophecy that Jacob should have the pre-
eminence, she did not leave the matter in
God's hands, but suggested a deceit by which
the younger obtained the bles.sing belonging
by birth to the elder (xxv. 28 , xxvii. 1-
xxviii. 5). She died apparently while Jacob
was in Mesopotamia, and was buried in the
cave of Machpelah (xlix. 31). •

Re'cah, in A. V. Recbah.
An unknown place in the tribe of Judah
(1 Chron. iv. 12).

Re'cbab [a horseman].

1. A son of Rimmon. a Beerothite. He
was a captain of a band under Ish-bosbeth
and one of Ish-bosheth's murderers (2 Sam.
iv. 2, 6).

2. A Kenite (1 Chron. ii. .55), ftither of that
Jehonadab who was invited by Jehu to mount
his chariot and see his zeal for the Lord
(2 Kin. X. 15. 23i, and who placed his tribe
under a rule of life. See Rechakitep.

3. Father of Malehijah, the ruler of Beth-
haccherem (Xeh iii. 14).

Re'ehab-ites.

A Kenite tribe, which dwelt among the
Israelites. Their chief Jonadab. son of
Eechab, commanded them to abstain from
wine and all intoxicating li<|Uor, not to live
in houses, or plant or j>ossess vineyards, but
to dwell in tents. The object of these regu-
lations was the preservation of primitive
simplicity of manners. When Jeremiah
tested their obedience years later he found
them faithful. A promise was therefore given
them that they sliould never want a man to
represent them in all succeeding time (.Ter.
XXXV. 1-19). Professed descendants of the
sect still exist in Mesopotamia and Yemen.

Re'cbah. See Eecah.

Red Sea

614

Eeed

I

Red Sea.

The name, borrowed from the Septuagint,
for the sea called by the Hebrews Yam su2)h,
or sea of sedge. The Greek term, of which
Eed Sea is the literal translation, is Eruthra
Thalassa, often rendered Erythraiau Sea.
The name probably denotes .sea of king
Erythras, a fabulous hero, representative of
the red-skinned peojde, including Edomites,
Himyarites, and original Phoenicians; or else
sea of the red land, contrasted with the l)lack
spil of Egypt (Ebers). Speaking of the Eed
Sea of modern geography, Dawson says :
" The Eocene and Cretaceous limestones as-
sume by weathering a rich reddish-brown
hue, and under the evening sun the eastern
range glows with a ruddy radiance, which in
the morning is equally seen on the western
cliffs, while these colors contrast with the
clear greenish-blue of the sea itself. Such
an appearance would naturally suggest to
early voyagers the name Red Sea " {E(jypt and
Syria, 59). By the designation Erythrsean
Sea, the ancients undenstood not merely
the Eed Sea as limited by modern geogra-
phers, but also the Indian Ocean, and ulti-
mately the Persian Gulf. The Hebrew term
Yam siiph denotes the Red Sea of modern
geography, or at least so much of it as em-
braces the peninsula of Sinai ; for it lay to
the east of Egy])t (Ex. x. 19), on it was an
encampment of the Israelites not far from
Sinai (Num. xxxiii. 10, 11), by taking the
way of the Ynm suph the Israelites com-
passed the land of Edom (xxi. 4), and Ezion-
geber in the land of Edom was on this sea
(1 Kin. ix. 26). The Yam suph was crossed
by the Israelites, and the pursuing Egyptian
hosts sank into its depths (Ex. xv. 4, 22).
Brugsch advocated the view that the sea
crossed was not the Eed Sea, but the weedy
Serbonian bog, which is separated from the
Mediterranean by a narrow isthmus. The gen-
eral opinion, however, based on constant Scrip-
ture representation, is that the sea crossed
by the Israelites was the gulf of Suez, the
most northwesterly prolongation of the Red
Sea. The Eed .Sea is about 1490 miles long,
with an average breadth of about 150 miles.
At its northern part it terminates in two
gulfs, Suez and Akaba, which enclose be-
tween them the Sinaitic Peninsula. The gulf
of Suez is about 180 miles long by 20 broad ;
but it formerly extended fiirther north-
ward, and included, in prehistoric times at
least, the Bitter Lakes. The gulf of Akaba
is about 100 miles long by 15 in breadth.
The navigation of the sea is at all times
somewhat perilous, from the sudden changes
of the wind and the strength with which it
often blows. The voyage from end to end
was rendered slow liy the prevalent wind in
the northern part of the sea blowing toward
the south during nine months of the year,
and in the southern part blowing northward
during the .same period. Besides this, the
mariner has to be on his guard against coral

reefs and small islands, which in many-
places rise above the surface of the sea.

Re-cord'er.

An otticial of high rank in the Hebrew
government from the time of David on-
ward. He was called maskir, one who brings
to mind, and probably dei'ived his title from
his official duty of recording imi)ortant
events and advising the king respet-ting
them. At any rate he held one of the
highest offices of state. He was numbered
among the chief officials of David and Solo-
mon (2 Sam. viii. 16; 1 Kin. iv. 3). The
prefect of the jjalace, the scribe, and the
recorder represented Hezekiah in ])ublic
business (2 Kin. xviii. 18, 37) ; and in the
reign of Josiah the scribe, the governor of
the city, and the recorder were placed in
charge of the repairs of the temple (2 Chron.
xxxiv. 8).

Reed.

1. Any tall, broad-leaved grass growing in
a wet place. It is called kaneh in Hebrew,
kalamos in Greek (Is. xlii. 3 with Mat. xii. 20).
When an odorous variety is intended, it is
translated calamus or cane. It grows or
grew in the Nile and elsewhere in the water
(1 Kin. xiv. 15; Is. xix. 6; xxxv. 7), and is
so tall and in such abundance that it helps
to furnish shelter and concealment even for
the bulky hippopotamus (Job xl. 21). It is
easily shaken by the wind (1 Kin. xiv. 15),
and so fragile that if one lean upon it, it will
break with a ragged fracture, the projecting
points entering and piercing the hand (2
Kin. xviii. 21 ; Is. xxxvi. 6 ; Ezek. xxix. 6,

Kued (Ariindo donax).

7). In this last respect, it affords a lively
])icture of the treatment Egypt had given to
the Israelites when they leaned upon that
power in seasons of emergency. It was a
reed which the persecutors of our Lord
thrust into his hand for a scepter, and with
which they afterwards struck him on the

Reelaiah

015

Rehoboam

hejul ; and it was to this or another stem of
the same i>lant that the sponge was atlised
which thev dipped in vinegar and put to liis
lips (Mat.'xxvii. 29, 30, 48). The plant re-
ferred to is prol)ably Arundo donax, which
^rows in the Nile and is common throughout
Palestine, is at least 10 I'eet high, and has
lea%'es as long and as broad as those of a
sword. It is cultivated in France, where its
long, straight, and light stems are made into
fishing rods, arrows, fences, poles for vines.

A reed stalk was used as a measuring rod,
and came to denote a fixed length of six
long cubits (Ezek. xl. h\ xli. p^i. Likewise
in Babylonia six cubits made a reed or kanii.

2. The rendering in Jer. li. 32 of the He-
brew '"ttdm, a marsh. It does not seem to
be a i>lant. and is translated marsh on the
margin of the E. V.

Re-el-a'iali [tremblingcaused by Jehovah].

One of the leading men who accompanied
Zerubbabel and Jeshua from Babylon (Ezra
ii. 2). Called in Neh. vii. 7 by the synony-
mous name of Eaamiah.

Re-fin'er.

One who refines the precious metals, as
silver or gold, by causing them to pass re-
peatedly through the furnace till their dross
is taken away (Zech. xiii. 9; cp. Ps. xii. 6).
It is said that the refiner knows when the
process is complete by seeing his image re-
flected in the ])recious metal purified. God
is compared to a refiner of .silver, by which
is meant that he ca.sts his people into the
furnace of affliction, till they are refined
and jiurified (Mai. iii. 2, 3). Then they
clearly reflect his image in their souls.

Refuge. See City of Refuge.

Re'gem [friend].

A man of Judah, a son of Jahdai (1 Chron.
ii. 47).

Re-gem-me'lech [friend of the king].

A man .sent from Bethel with companions
to put a question to the priests regarding
fasting (Zech. vii. 2).

Re-ha-bi'ah [Jehovah is comprehensive].

Son of Eliezer, and grandson of Moses (1
Chron. xxiii. 17; xxiv. 21; xxvi. 25).

Re'hob [an open space, a broad street].

1. A place situated toward Hamath ; see
Beth-kehob.

2. A town on the boundary line of the ter-
ritory of Asher (Josh. xix. 28), perhaps the
same as Rehob, which belonged to Asher (30).
From Rehob the Canaanites were not ex-
pelled (Judg. i. 31). Rehob was assigned to
the Levites (Josh. xxi. 31 ; 1 Chnm. vi. 75).
The site is unknown.

3. Father of Hadadezer, king of Zobah (2
Sam. viii. 3, 12).

4. A Levite who sealed the covenant (Neh.

X. 111.

Re-ho-bo'am, in A. V. of N. T. Roboam
[the people is enlarged].
Son of king Solomon by Naamah, an Am-

monitess, one of his wives (1 Kin. xiv. 31).
Altliough son of a wise father, he was him-
-self a man of small mind. On the death of
I Solomon about 931 B. c, representatives of
all the twelve tribes promptly assembled at
the central city of Shechem to make Re-
hoboam, who was his lawful successor, king.
Various causes more or less remote had led
to jealousy and a growing coldness between
Judah and the tribes to the north and east ;
see History. Recently the peo])le had suf-
fered under grievous taxation levied to sup-
port Solomon's splendor, and opportunity
was taken to lay the grievances of the people
I before the future ruler. The spokesman was
I .Teroboam, an able man who had been told
by the prophet Ahijah that he should become
king of ten tribes, and on account of this
destiny or of some premature attempt on his
part to bring about the fulfillment of the
prophecy, had been compelled to flee to
Egypt from Solomon, but had been recalled
by the people when Solomon died. The
popular demand was that taxation might
now he somewhat lightened. Rehoboam
asked three days for deliberation. He con-
sulted the old men who had till lately been
counselors of his father, who advised liim to
i accede to the request and speak good words
[ to the petitioners, and assured him that the
people would then be his servants forever.
! He next consulted the young men who had
grown up with him, and they urged him to
! say to the people: "My little finger is
i thicker than my father's kiins. And now
whereas my father did lade you with a
: heavy yoke, I will add to your yoke : my
father chastised you with whips, but I will
chastise you with scorpions." It indicated
the mental caliber of Rehoboam that he
rejected the counsel of the sages, and
when the people reassembled, uttered the
words of transcendent folly which his young
com])anions had put into his mouth. The
efl'ect was instantaneous. Ten out of the
twelve tribes renounced their allegiance to
Rehoboam, depai-ted to their tents, and were
forever lost to the house of David. The
king sent after them Adoram, who was over
the tribute, apparently with a more concili-
atory message ; but it was too late. The
unhappy ambassador was stoned to death,
on which his master, fearing that the next
missiles would be directed against himself,
hastily mounted his chariot, and drove to
Jerusalem (1 Kin. xii. 1-20; 2 Chron. x.
1-19). Judah and a large part of Benjamin,
together with the Simeonites, were left him.
He brought together a great army to attempt
the subjugation of the revolted tribes, but
the prophet Shemaiah forbade the enterprise
(1 Kin. xii. 21-24; 2 Chron. xi. 1-4). He
therefore contented himself with fortifying
a number of cities in Judah and Benjamin
(5-12). The erection of the golden calves by
his rival at Bethel and Dan drove south-
ward almost the whole body of the priests

Rehoboth

616

Rephaim

and Levites, which greatly increased the
strength of the kingdom of Eehoboani ; but
after three years he himself lapsed into idol-
atry (1 Kin. xiv. 21-24 ; 2 Chrou. xi. 13-17;
xii. 1). In the fifth year of his reign, Shishak,
king of Egypt, invaded his kingdom, captur-
ing some of the fenced cities, ultimately tak-
ing Jerusalem itself, and plundering the tem-
ple and the i)alace (1 Kin. xiv. 25-28; 2
Chron. xii. 2-12) ; see Pharaoh. Rehoboam
had eighteen wives and sixty concubines,
twenty-eight sons and sixty daughters (21).
Abijah his son claimed that at the time of
his great mistake he was young and tender-
hearted ; in reality, he was at that time forty-
one years old. He reigned seventeen years,
and died about 915 b. c , leaving his son,
Abijah, to ascend the throne (1 Kin. xiv. 21,
31 ; 2 Chron. xii. 1,3, 16).

Re-ho'both [broad places, streets ; figura-
tively roominess, freedom].

1. A well dug by Isaac in the valley of
Gerar. Since the Philistine herdsmen did
not claim it, as they had its two predecessors,
he named it Rehoboth, meaning room (Gen.
xxvi. 22). Robinson identified the valley as
the wady Ruheibeh, a day's journey south
of Beer-sheba; but he could find no wells.
Stewart met with one, which was subse-
quently seen also by Rowlands. Palmer and
Drake fell in with a second one, which had
previously escaped notice from having been
covered by fallen masonry.

2. A suburb of Nineveh (Gen. x. 11) ; see
Rehoboth-ir.

3. A town "by the river" (Gen. xxxvi.
37; 1 Chron. i. 48). "The river" commonly
denotes the Euphrates. Chesney suggested
as its site Rahabeh, 3 miles from the right
(the west) bank of the river, 8 miles below
the mouth of the Khabour. There is a castle
at the spot, with extensive ruins around.
Four or five miles lower down, and on the east-
ern bank, is a second Rahabeh, called Raha-
beh Malik (Royal Rahabeh). One or other
is probably the proper site, but it is not pos-
sible to decide on their relative claims. Jew-
ish tradition is in favor of the second.

Re-ho'both-ir [open spaces or markets of
the city] .

A city which formed part of the great city
Nineveh or, as we would say. Greater Nine-
veh (Gen. X. 11 ; in A. V. the city Rehoboth).

Re'hum [beloved].

1. A chancellor of Persia in the country
beyond the river, who in the time of Ar-
taxerxes complained against the Jews for re-
building the temple (Ezra iv. 8, 9).

2. One of the principal men who returned
with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra ii. 2).
Called in Neh. vii. 7, probably by a copyist's
error, Nehum.

3. A chief of the priests, who returned
with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Neh. xii. 3,
7). In the next generation a father's house,
occupying the corresponding position in the

enumeration, bears the name Harim (ver. 15).
One of these names has probably been mis-
written by transposing the Hebrew letters.

4. One of those who with Nehemiah sealed
the covenant (Neh. x. 25).

5. A Levite, son of Bani. He repaired
part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 17).

Re'i [friendly, sociable].
One who did not join in Adonijah's attempt
to usurj) the throne (1 Kin. i. 8).

Reins.

The kidneys. They were supposed by the
ancient Hebrews and others to be the seat of
longing and desire (Ps. vii. 9; xvi. 7; xxvi.
2 ; Ixxiii. 21 ; Prov. xxiii. 16 ; Jer. xii. 2).

Re'kem [variegation].

1. One of the five kings of Midian, allies or
vassals of Sihon, slain in the war waged by
Moses against the Midianites because they
had seduced Israelites to licentious idolatry
(Num. xxxi. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 21).

2. A son of Hebron, a descendant of Caleb
(1 Chron. ii. 43).

3. A city of the Benjamites (Josh, xviii.
27). Site unknown.

Rem-a-li'ah [Jehovah hath adorned].
Father of king Pekah (2 Kin. xv. 25).
Re'meth [probably, a high place].
A frontier town of Issachar (Josh. xix. 21).
See Jarmuth.

Rem'mon and Rem-mon-meth'o-ar. See
RiMMON 1 and 2.

Rem'phan. See Rephan.

Re'pha-el [God hath healed].

A Levite, son of Shemaiah, of the family
of Obed-edom, and a doorkeeper of the sanc-
tuary (1 Chron. xxvi. 7).

Re'phah [riches].

An ancestor of Joshua and probably son
of Beriah (1 Chron. vii. 25).

Re-pha'iah [Jehovah hath healed].

1. A man of Issachar, family of Tola (1
Chron. vii. 2).

2. A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron. ix.
43). Called in viii. 37 Rapha, a synonymous
name, he hath healed.

3. A cai)tain of the Simeonites. who made
a successful expedition against the Amalek-
ites (1 Chron. iv. 42, 43).

4. A son of Hur and ruler of half the dis-
trict about Jerusalem, who aided in repair-
ing the wall (Neh. iii. 9).

5. The founder of a family which is loosely
registered with the royal descendants of
David, and is presumably a collateral line
sprung from David (1 Chron. iii. 21).

Reph'a-im, in A. V. twice Rephaims (Gen.
xiv. 5 ; XV. 20) [probably, giants].

1. A people of large stiiture who in ancient
times, even before the arrival of Abraham,
dwelt in Palestine, east and west of the Jor-
dan (Gen. xiv. 5; Deut. ii. 11, 20; and Gen.
XV. 20; Josh. xvii. 15; 2 Sam. xxi. 16).

Rephan

617

Reuben

2. A valley near Jerusalem and Bethlehem
(Anticj. vii. 4, 1 ; 2 Sam. xsiii. i;{, 1-1), pre-
sumably onee inhabited by the Kephaiui. It
was situated south of the valley of Hiunom
(Josh. XV. !S ; xviii. l(j). TJie Philistines
twice assembled there, and both times were
defeated by David (2 Sam. v. 18-22; xxiii.
13 ; 1 C'hron. xi. 15 ; xiv. 9). It was very
fertile (Is. xvii. 5). It is considered to be the
valley which, commencing at the southern
extremity of that of Hiunom, runs south-
southwest for about 3 miles, or half way
to Bethlehem. Thomson mentions that it is
stony and uneven, and declines rajudly to-
ward the west. Its fertility still continues.

Re'pban, in A. V. Remphan.

A god who has a star associated with him,
and who was worshiped by the Israelites in
the wilderness (Acts vii. 43). The passage is
quoted from the O. T. The name represents
Kniphan, a corrupt transliteration in the Sep-
tuagint of Kaivan, which was a name of
Saturn among the Syrians, and was under-
stood to be the god Chiun (Amos v. 26). In
view of this extremely probable origin of the
name Rephan, the proposed identification of
it with au Egyptian god Renpu falls to the
ground.

Reph'i-dim [expanses, stretches].

A camping ground of the Israelites in the
wilderness between the wilderness of Sin and
Sinai (Ex. xvii. 1; xix. 2; Num. xxxiii. 12,
lo). There was no water obtainable, and the
people murmured till Moses, accompanied by
elders, went forward to Horeb by divine
command and smote a rock, from which
water at once issued (Ex. xvii. 5, 6). The
water flowed down the wady to the camp of
the Israelites and supplied them during their
sojourn at mount Sinai also. Rephidim was
the scene of the battle with Amalek, when
Moses with u])lifted hand pointed to Jehovah
as the ensign under which Israel fought (Ex.
xvii. 8-16). The situation is not i)roperly
determined. Robinson, and after him, but
independently, Wilson, lixed it at the spot
where a wall of rocks called Wateiyah, run-
ning northeast and southwest, ap])roachesthe
wady esh-Sheikh ; while Burckhardt, Stanley
and others locate it in the beautiful and com-
paratively well-watered M'ady Feiran. See
Mkkibau.

Re'sen.

A city of Assyria, a suburb of Nineveh,
and part of the complex of towns known as
the great city. It was situated between
Nineveh and Calah (Gen. x. 11, 12), and,
therefore, it is not the town Resh-eni, north
of Dur-sharrukin. Its exact situation is un-
certain.

Resh.

The twentieth letter of the Hebrew alpha-
bet. English R comes from the same source,
and represents it in anglicized Hebrew
names. It heads the twentieth section of

Ps. cxix., in which section each verse of the
original begins with this letter.

('()I)yists exi)erienced some difficulty in dis-
tinguishing resh from daleth (q. v.).

Re'sheph [a flame].

A descendant of Ephraim and probably
son of Beriah (1 C'hron. vii. 25).

Re'u, in A. V. once Ragau (Luke iii. 35)
[friend].

A descendant of Ebcr and an ancestor of
Abraham (Gen. xi. 18-26).

Reu'ben [behold a son].

1. Jacob's eldest son, the first by his
wife Leah (Gen. xxix. 31, 32 ; xxxv. 23 ;
xlvi.8; IChron.ii. 1; v. 1). Reuben wasguilty
of gross misconduct (Gen. xxxv. 22) ; but
when his brothers plotted to kill Joseph,
Reuben came forward with the pnjjiosal to
cast him into a pit, designing to restore him
eventually to his father. He was not with
them when Joseph was sold to the Midianite
Lshmaelites, and was greatly moved when,
visiting the ])it, he found it empty (xxxvii.
21-29). When the brothers found themselves
in trouble in Egypt twenty years later,
Reuben was quick to remind his brothers that
he had not concurred in their plot to take
Joseph's life (xlii. 22-24). When Jacob was
reluctant to send Benjamin to Egypt, Reuben
ofl'ered two of his sons as pledge that he
would bring Benjamin home again in safety
(37). Reuben had four sons in all: Hanoch,
Phallu, Hezron, and Carmi (Gen. xlvi. 8, 9;
Ex. vi. 14; 1 C'hron. v. 3). Jacob, when
about to die, pronounced Reuben to be un-
stable as water and declared that he should
not have excellence. By his heinous deed
he had forfeited the birthright (Cien. xlix.
3,4).

2. The tribe formed by descendants of
Reuben, and the territory in which they
dwelt. The tribe was divided into four great
tribal families, the posterity of Reuben's four
sons (Num. xxvi. 5-11). Its prince at the
beginning of the sojourn in the wilderness
was Elizur (Num. i. 5; ii. 10; vii. 30-35; x.
18). At that time the tribe numbered 46,500
fighting men (i. 20, 21) ; at the second census
thirty-eight years later, they had decreased
to 43,730 (xxvi. 7). The Reubenite chief
was head of the camp made up of the three
tribes, Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, the aggre-
gate military strength of which was 151,450
(Num. ii. 10, 16). The .spy from the tribe
wasShammua,s()n of Zaccur (xiii. 4). Dathan,
Abiram, and On, who joined the Levite
Korahin revolt against Moses and Aaron, were
Reubenites (xvi. 1-50 ; xxvi. 9 ; Deut. xi. 6) -
.see KoRAH 4. After the battles with Sihon
and Og, the Ciadites and Reubenites, with
whom half the tribe of Manesseh joined,
being rich in cattle, petitioned Moses to be
allowed to settle east of the Jordan, that
region being well adapted for flocks and
herds. Their reipiest was granted on condi-
tion that they would send the greater num-

Reuel

618

Revelation

ber of their warriors across the Jordan to
help their brethren in the war with the
Canaanites (Num. xxxii. 1-42; Josh, xviii. 7).
They did so, and took part in all of Joshua's
wars in Canaan (Josh. iv. 12). Afterwards
they returned with honor to their own ter-
ritory ; but the erection of a memorial altar
by them and their Israelite brethren east of
Jordan led to a temporary misunderstand-
ing which nearly involved them in civil war
(xxii. 1-34). The Reubenites took no part in
the contest with Sisera, and were referred to
reproachfully in Deborah's song (Judg. v. 15,
Iti). They joined in war with the Hagar-
ites, in which they prevailed, the victors
making a great slaughter of the enemy,
and living in their territory to the time of
the captivity (1 Chron. v. 18-22). Ezekiel
allotted them a place in the reoccupied
Canaan (Ezek. xlviii. 6, 7), and named a
gate after them in the restored Jerusalem
(31). When the book of Revelation records
the sealing of the 144,000, it assigns Reuben
a quota of 12,000 (Rev. vii. 5). The boundary
of the territory of Reuben was on the east
the country of the Ammonites, on the south
the river Arnon (Num. xxi. 24), on the west
the Dead Sea and the river Jordan (Josh.
xiii. 23), while on the north the boundary
line ran from the Jordan south of Beth-
nimrah to Heshbon (Josh. xiii. 17, 26 ; xxi.
37; and Num. x.x'xii. 36; Josh. xiii. 27).
Included in these limits were Aroer, on the
edge of the valley of Arnon, and the city
in the middle of the valley, all the plain
by Medeba, Heshbon and its subordinate
towns, Dibon, Bamoth-baal, Beth-baal-meon,
Jahaz, Kedemoth, Mephaath, Kiriathaim,
Sibmah, Zereth-shahar, Beth-peor, the slopes
of Pisgah, Beth-jeshimoth ; in short, the
southern part of the Ammonite kingdom
which had been ruled over by Sihon (Josh,
xiii. 15-23). The four cities of Bezer,
Jahaz, Kedemoth, and Mephaath, with
their suburbs, were assigned to the Mera-
rite Levites (Josh. xxi. 7, 36, 37 ; 1 Chron.
vi. 63, 78, 79) ; the first of these, Bezer, was
a city of refuge (Josh. xx. 8; 1 Chron. vi.
78). The Reubenites had an exposed posi-
tion, the Moabites being in their immediate
vicinity, while desert marauders could in-
vade their territory both from the east and
the south. If the list of Reubenite cities
given in this section be compared with those
in Moabite possession incidentally mentioned
in Is. XV., xvi., Jer. xlviii., and on the
Moabite stone, it will be seen that in the
times of Mesha and these prophets Reuben
had its limits greatly curtailed by Moabite
conquest. The whole territory, which is a
table-land quite capable of cultivation, is now
deserted by its settled inhabitants, and is
given up to the nomad and plundering tribes
of the desert.

Reu'el, in A. V. once Raguel (Num. x. 29) in
imitation of the Greek form [friend of God].

1. A descendant of Esau and also of Ish-
mael (Gen. xxxvi. 2-4).

2. Moses' father-in-law (Ex. 11. 18). See
Jethro.

3. A Benjamite, a son of Ibnijah (1 Chron.
ix. 8).

4. A Gadite, father of Ellasaph (Num. 11.
14) ; see Deuel.

Reu'mah [exalted].

A concubine of Nahor, Abraham's brother
(Gen. xxii. 24).

Rev-e-la'tion [an unveiling]. It is derived
from the Latin revelatio, unveiling; hence
to reveal, to expose to sight, and, meta-
phorically, to disclose to the mind truth
otherwise unknown. Greek Ajtokahipsis ;
whence English Apocalypse.

In the O. T. the noun revelation does not
occur ; but the verb reveal is used in the
sense of making known secrets (e. g. Prov.
xi. 13) and then of God's disclosure of his
will to man {e. g. Deut. xxix. 29; Is. xxii.
14; Dan. ii. 19, 22, 28; Amos iii. 7). In
the N. T. revelation is used for the disclosure
by God or Christ or the Spirit of truth con-
cerning divine things previously unknown
(e. g. Rom. xvi. 25; 1 Cor. xiv. 6, 26; 2 Cor.
xii. 1 ; Gal. i. 12; Rev. i. 1) or of duty spe-
cially required (Gal. ii. 2), and then for the
manifestation or appearance of persons or
events previpusly concealed from sight (e. g.
Rom. ii. 5 ; 1 Pet. 1. 13). In theology reve-
lation means the communication of truth by
God to man, and is usually applied to
such communications as have been conveyed
through supernatural agencies.

The Revelation of St. John the Divine is
the last book of the N. T., also called, from
the Greek, the Apocalypse. The name is
given to it because, as its opening words
state, it Is a disclosure of the future, and,
therefore, preeminently a revelation. Its
author describes it as a communication con-
cerning " things which must shortly come to
pass," which God gave to Jesus Christ, and
which Christ gave by his angel to his ser-
vant John, to be In turn communicated to
the church (Rev. 1. 1-3). The work is ad-
dressed to seven churches of the Roman
province of Asia: Ephesiis, Smyrna, Perga-
mum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and
Laodicea (4, 11), the number seven being se-
lected probably because, as the sacred num-
ber, it signified completeness, and thus indi-
cated that the book was really addressed to
the whole church. The author calls himself,
after the manner of the Hebrew prophets
(cp. Is. i. 1 ; Joel i. 1 ; Amos 1. 1, etc.), simply
John (Rev. 1. 1, 4, 9; xxii. 8), and relates
that the visions of the book were seen by
him when confined in the island of Patmos
"for the word of (iod and the testimony of
Jesus" (i. 9). Patmos lies off the south-
western coast of Asia Minor, and John had
been banished to It because he was a Chris-
tian. This points to a period of persecution

Revelation

619

Revelation

by the Roman government. The opening
vision was of the exalted Christ, who is rep-
resented in a sj'inbolic portraiture as stand-
ing in the midst of seven goUlen candlesticks
which represent the seven churches (10-20).
Christ gives to the seer messages to the seven
churches, and after tluit follows a succession
of other visions. The revelation is said to
have been given on the Lord's day (10), by
which we are doubtless to understand the
first day of the week. The visions described
are of a highly symbolical character. Many
of the figures and much of the language are
taken from the O. T. prophets, especially
from Daniel and Ezekiel, and the meaning
cannot be understood without constant refer-
ence to them.

Examining the book more closely, we find
that after the introduction (i. 1-3) and saluta-
tion (4-8), it consists of seven chief divisions,
extending to sxii. 7, after which the book
closes with an epilogue (8-21). These divi-
sions constitute in fact seven visions, or series
of visions, and are themselves subdivided
usually into seven parts. Each series opens
with a vision, which presents as a whole the
idea of the series, and which is then followed
in most instances by a sevenfold representa-
tion of its elements. These visions are prob-
ably not to be understood as representing
events which were to follow one another in
history in the order of time, but as symboli-
cal portraitures of certain religious truths or
principles which were to be realized in the
experience of the church. The whole is in-
tended for the church's comfort and warning
amid the conflicts of time and in preparation
for the second coming of her Lord (i. 7, 8;
xxii. 7, 10, 17, 20). The seven series of
vi.sions, which show the analysis of the book,
are the following :

1. The vision of the glorified Christ amid
his church, followed by seven messages to
the seven churches of Asia (i. 9-iii. 22).
Here the main thought is of instruction,
warning, and encouragement for the church
in her present condition.

2. The v'ision of God, presiding over the
destinies of the universe and adored by all
creation, and of the exalted, but redeeming,
Lamb of God, who holds in his hand the
sealed book of the divine decrees (iv., v.), fol-
lowed by the breaking of the seals in seven
visions, whereby is portrayed the sevenfold
purpose of God from the going forth of
Christ to conquer unto the last judgment
(vi. 1-viii. 1). Between the sixth and seventh
seals an episode is introduced, which shows
the safety of the people of God amid the
judgment which befalls the world (vii.).

.3. The vision of the trumpets (viii. 2-xi.
19). It opens with the vision of an angel
offering the prayers of the saints to God
(viii. 2-6). Then each trumpet is followed
by a vision of destruction upon the sinful
world, ending again with the last judgment.
Between the sixth and seventh trumpets an

episode again is introduced, descriptive of
the preservation of the witnessing church
(x. 1-xi. 14). The main thought here appears
to be that in rejdy to the prayers of the
saints for God to vindicate his truth, they
are shown the desolations which befall the
sinful world amid which they are to bear
their testimony.

4. The vision of the church, under the
figure of a woman, bringing forth the Christ,
against whom the dragon, or Satan, wages
war (xii.). followed by visions of the beasts,
which Satan will use as his agents (xiii.), of
the militant church (xiv. 1-5), and of the
advancing stages of Christ's conquest (6-20).
This may be called the vision of conflict.

5. The vision of the vials, or bowls,
containing the la.st plagues, or judgments
of God (xv., xvi.). The opening vision (xv.)
depicts the triumph of the saints, while the
seven bowls represent the sevenfold judg-
ment of God on a wicked world (xvi.).

6. The vision of the harlot city, Babylon
(xvii.), followed by the victory of Christ
over her, and over his enemies in league
with her, ending again in the last judgment

I (xviii. 1-xx. 15). Between the sixth and sev-
enth scenes of this triumph an episode is in-
troduced (xx. 1-10), which isprobaV)ly descrip-
tive of the complete safety and spiritual de-
liverance of Christ's people throughout the
j whole period of the age-long battle. Some
I scholars, however, place the division between
j the sixth and seventh series of visions at
j xix. 11.

I 7. The vision of the ideal church, the
bride of Christ, or new Jerusalem (xxi. 1-8),
followed by a description of her glory (9-
xxii. 7).

That the author of the book of the
Eevelation was John the apostle has been
the constant tradition of the church from
the earliest time. It is specifically so stated
by Justin ilartyr in the middle of the
second century. It is confirmed also by a
comparison of the book with the Gospel and
First Epistle of John, for all three books
have in common many doctrinal ideas and
many more peculiarities of language. The
Eevelation, indeed, is less smoothly written
than the Gospel or Epistle ; but that is partly
because of its subject, which led the author
to employ unusual expressions in his de-
scriptions, and partly because he was bent on
repeating and combining the language of the
older ])rophets. Some scholars, indeed, lioth
in ancient and modern times, have contended
that the Eevelation and the Gospel could not
have been written by the same person. But
further examination, as well as the steadfast
tradition of the church, makes the division
of authorship both improbable and unneces-
sary. As to the date of Eevelation, two
principal opinions have been held. One as-
signs it to the year or two immediately pre-
ceding the fall of Jerusalem in a. d. 70.
This was after the persecution of the Chris-

Revenger

620

Rhodes

tians by Nero had broken out, and it is suj)-
posed that the terrors of the fall of Jerusa-
lem, combined with those of the Neroniau
persecution, provide many of the lurid
figures used by the seer. Most rationalistic
critics also accept approximately this date,
and see in Eevelatitm no insiiired prophecy
at all, but only a human vaticination sug-
gested by the calamities of the age. But the
traditional opinion has ever assigned Revela-
tion to the close of the reign of Domitian,
A. I). 96. The testimony is strong that John
was imprisoned in Patmos by Domitian, and
returned to Ephesus after that tyrant's death.
It is unlikely that so specific and unanimous
a tradition should be mistaken. The condi-
tion of the seven churches likewise suits the
later date better than the earlier ; the style
does not require the Revelation to precede
the Gospel, nor are most of the reasons ad-
vanced for the earlier date satisfactory to
those who believe in the inspiration of the
book.

The interpretations of Revelation have
been innumerable. Four general classes of
interpretation may, however, be distin-
guished. (1) The praiterist interpretation,
which regards the work as a description of
what was taking place when the book was
written. This view destroys its prophetic char-
acter, and is certainly to be rejected. (2) The
futurist interpretation, which sees in the
book predictions of events yet to be fulfilled.
This view is met by the difficulty that all
prophecy, and this one in particular, closely
connects itself with the situation of the
church and prophet, to whom it was given.
(3) The historico-prophetical interpretation,
which sees in the visions a successive por-
trayal of the events of Christian history.
The difficulty with this view is that few ex-
positors can agree on the details of the ful-
fillment, and that it disregards the contem-
])orane()us character of the seven series of
visions. (4) The spiritual, symbolic inter-
pretation, which regards the visions as figu-
rative portraitures of certain truths or prin-
ciples, destined to find their place in the
history of the church, and the contemplation
of which in pictorial re])resentation is in-
tended to encourage and comfort Christ's
people until he comes again in glory and to
judgment. While no expositor can feel sure
that he has understood the meaning of all
the contents of the Revelation, the last
method of interpretation has the advantage
of directing the attention of readers to cer-
tain large and important truths, under the
form of pictures, thus making this most
mysterious book of Scripture practically
helpful. G. T. p.

Re-ven'ger. See Avknger op Blood.

Re'zeph [a hearthstone for cooking upon,
a pavement].

A place which the rabshakeh boasted that
the Assyrians had destroyed (2 Kin. xix. 12;

Is. xxxvii. 12). It is doubtless the town
Rasappa, long residence of an Assyrian gov-
ernor, the modern Rusafa, some miles west
of the Euphrates on the route to Palmyra.

Re-zi'a. See Rizia.

Re'zin.

1. A king of Damascus. About 7.38 b. c.
he paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser, king of
Assyria. Four years later, in the time of
Ahaz, he joined with Pekah, king of Israel,
in an effort to capture Jerusalem and place a.
creature of their own upon the throne of
David. They failed, after eliciting from
Isaiah a celebrated prophecy (Is. vii. 1-ix.
12). On this campaign, before attempting to
unite his troops with those of Pekah, Rezin
marched to Elath on the gulf of Akaba and
took the town from Judah (2 Kin. xvi. G).
The aid of Tiglath-pileser had been pur-
chased by Ahaz ; and the Assyrian king,
after chastising the Philistines for their par-
ticipation in the hostilities against Judah,
marched against Damascus, besieged it dur-
ing the years 733 and 732 b. c, ravaged the
surrounding district, finally captured the
city, and slew Rezin (7-9, and Assyrian in-
scriptions).

2. Founder of a family of Netbinim, mem-
bers of which returned from the captivity
(Ezra ii. 48 ; Neh. vii. 50).

Re'zon [importance, princeliness].

A son of Eliada, and a subject of Hadad-
ezer, king of Zobah. When David cap-
tured Zobah, Rezon gathered a band of men,
seized Damascus, and founded the Syrian
kingdom, with which, while it lasted, the
Israelites had continual relations, hostile or
friendly (1 Kin. xi. 23-25).

Rhe'gi-um.

A city of Greek origin on the coast of
Italy, opposite to Messina in Sicily. Paul's
vessel touched at Rhegium after having
made a circuit from Syracuse (Acts xxviii.
13). Rhegium is now called Reggio, and is
the capital of C'alabria. It is a town of con-
siderable size, and exports oranges, lemons,
wine, oil, etc.

Rhe'sa.

A descendant of Zerubbabel, and an an-
cestor of Christ (Luke iii. 27).

Rho'da [a rose bushl.

A servant girl of Mary, the motlior of
Mark. When Peter, after having been
miraculously released from prison, knocked
at the door of the gate of Mary's house,
Rhoda was sent to see who was there. On
hearing Peter's voice, she was elated with
joy, and, forgetting in her excitement to let
him in, ran back to tell that it was Peter.
The apostle had for some time to continue
the knocking before he could gain admit-
tance (Acts xii. 1.3-16).

Rhodes, in A. V. of 1 Mac. xv. 23 Rhodus
[a rose bush].

An island off the coast of Caria, in the

Eibai

621

Rimmon

southwest of Asia Minor. It is about 45
miles long by 8 broad, and is remarkable for
its orange and citron groves. The island was
at the junction of great commercial routes for
coasting vessels, and became a conmiercial
center which ranked with Alexandria and
<'arthage. Its capital, also called Rhodes,
was famed for its Colossus, a great lighthouse,
said to have been 70 cubits, or about 105
feet, high. It was erected between 300 and
288 B. V. The Rhodians were semi-inde-
pendent under the Romans (1 Mac. xv. 23),
except during nine years in the reign of
Claudius, beginning A. D. 44, and again
in the time of Vespasian. The vessel in
which Paul sailed to Palestine from Assos
touched at Rhodes (Acts xxi. 1) which was
then a splendid city. As the Rhodians
long remained unsubdued by the Romans,
so, led by the knights of St. John, who in
A. D. 1310 had possessed themselves of the
island, they defied the power of the Turks
till 1522, when they had to surrender on
terms, the knights being allowed to transfer
themselves to the isle of Malta. Since that
time Rhodes has remained subject to the
Turks.

Ri'bai [contentious].

A Benjamitc of Gibeali, and the. father of
Ittai, one of David's mighty men (2 Sam.
xsiii. 29; 1 Chron. xi. 31).

Rib'lah [fertility].

A town in the land of Hamath (2 Kin.
xxiii. 33; xxv. 21). The Egyptians were en-
camped there when Jehoahaz was brought in
as a prisoner (xxiii. 33). When Zedekiah
was captured after his escape from Jerusa-
lem, lie was brought to Nebuchadnezzar,
then encamped at Riblah, who jiut out his
eyes, and had him bound to be carried to
Babylon. His sons aiid the princes of Judah
were also slain at Riblah (xxv. 6, 7, 21 ; Jer.
xxxix. 5-7; lii. 9-11, 27). Buckingham, in
1816, met with ruins at a place called by him
Rubla, but now more generally spelled Rib-
leh, on the right bank of the Orontes, about
36 miles north by east of Ba'al-bek, in the
midst of the great plain of Ccelesyria, very
suitable for the encampment of a great army,
and with easy access southward or north-
ward if commotion arose. The ruins consist
of low mounds surrounded by the remains
of old buildings. It is extremely doubtful
whether it is identical with Riblah on the
northern boundary of Palestine, east of Ain
{Num. xxxiv. 11).

Rid'dle.

lu biblical usage, any dark saying, of
which the meaning is not at once clear and
must be discovered by shrewd thought (Num.
xii. 8, in E. V. dark speeches; Prov. i. 6,
R. V. margin). It may be a parable (Ps.
xlix. 4; Ixxviii. 2; in E. V. dark saying),
and be proposed merely in order to arouse
attention and start inquiry, and make
the truth more vivid and impressive, the

propounder intending to give an explanation
immediately (Ezek. xvii. 2-24) ; or the riddle
may be set forth for men to guess, as the
riddle of Samson and those of Solomon and
Hiram to which .Tosephus refers (Judg. xiv.
12-19; Antiq. viii. 5, 3). The riddle of
Samson was jjrojxtsed in verse. It was not
projierly a riddle at all, since the discovery
of its meaning was not within the realm of
possibility for the Philistines. It was not
guessable, for they were not ac(iuainted with
the fiicts on which it was based.

The Greeks and Romans were fond of the
riddle or enigma. One of the most cele-
brated was put into the mouth of the
monster named the sphinx, which had been
sent to ravage the territory of Thebes. She
asked : " What animal goes on four feet in
the morning, on two at noon, and on three
in the evening?" After many had failed,
ffidipus answered that it was man, who in
infancy creeps on all fours, at maturity
walks on two feet, and in old age uses a
staff. Thereupon the sphinx flung herself
to the ground and perished.

Rie, obsolete spelling of Rye. See Spelt.

Rim'mon I., in A. V. twice Remmon (Josh.
xix. 7, 13) ; in R. V. once Rimmouo (1 Chron.
vi. 77) [a pomegranate].

1. A Benjamite, M'hose two sons were cap-
tains under Ish-bosheth, and became his mur-
derers (2 Sam. iv. 2).

2. A town in the south of Judah near Ain
(Josh. XV. 32 ; 1 Chron. iv. 32 ; Zech. xiv. 10),
so near indeed as to form, apparently, one
community with it (Neh. xi. 29). It was
soon transferred with Ain and other towns
to Simeon (Josh. xix. 7). It is identified
with the ruin Umm er-Rumamin, about 10
miles northeast by north of Beer-sheba.

3. A border town of Zebulun, but assigned
to the Levites (Josh. xix. 13 ; 1 Chron. vi.
77; and Josh. xxi. 35, where Dimnah is
doubtless a misreading, resh being mistaken
for daleth, q. v.). Methoar in A. Y. of Josh.
xix. 13 is imi)roperly regarded as part of the
name ; whereas it describes the boundarj' as
"stretching" to Neah. The name of the
town is preserved in Rummaneb, a village
6 miles north, slightly east, of Nazareth.

3. A rock near Gibeah, where 600 van-
quished Benjamites took refuge and re-
mained four months (Judg. xx. 4.5-47; xxi.
13). It is probably the detached limestone
eminence 3i miles east, slightly north, of
Bethel. It is separated from all apjiroach
on the south, the north, and the west by
ravines, and has caverns, in which the
refugees may have lived. The name still
lingers in Rammun, a village on the summit.

Rim'mon II. [thunderer].

A Syrian god, who had a temple at Damas-
cus, in which Naaman and his royal master
were accustomed to bow themselves for wor-
ship (2 Kin. V. 18). In Assyria Rimmon, or
Ramman as his name was pronounced there,

Rimmono

622

Rock-badger

was nnmtiercd among the twelve great
deities. He was the god of rain and storm,
lightning and thunder. Sometimes he was
dreaded as the destroyer of crops and the
scatterer of the harvest, and at others was
adored as the lord of fecundity. He was
identical with Hadad, the supreme god of
the Syrians. The two names are combined
in Hadad- Rimmon.

Rim'mo-no. See Rimmon.

Rim-mon-pe'rez, in A. V. Rimmon-parez
[pomegranate of tlie breach or cleft].

A camping ground of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 19, 20). Situation
unknown.

Ring. See Ornament and Seal.

Rln'nah [a wild cry, a shout].

A man of Judah, a son of Shimon (1 Chron.
iv. 20).

Ri'phath.

A people descended from Gomer (Gen. x.
3 ; in 1 Chron. i. fi Diphath ; see Daleth).
Josephus identifies them with the Paphla-
gonians (Antiq. i. 6, 1). The name is per-
haps preserved in the Eiphaan mountains,
which were supposed by the ancients to skirt
the northern shore of the world.

Ris'sah [a ruin, or dew, rain].

A camping ground of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 21, 22). Exact
situation unknown.

Rith'mah [broom, plant].

A camping ground of the Israelites in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii. 18, 19) ; perhaps
hard by Kadesh in the wady known as Abu
Retemat, the equivalent of the ancient
name ; see Kadesh 1.

Riv'er.

Of several words translated river, only
three require mention here : 1. Nahar, a
stream, in Greek potamos, applied to the
largest rivers known to the Hebrews, as the
Tigris and Euphrates (Gen. ii. 14 ; Rev. ix.
14), the Abana and Pharpar (2 Kin. v. 12),
the Jordan (Mark i. 5), and the affluents
of the Upper Nile (Zeph. iii. 10). The river
or the great river usually denotes the Eu-
phrates (Gen. XV. 18; xxxi. 21). 2. Nahal,
sometimes a perennial stream like the Jab-
bok (Dent. ii. 37), but usually a winter
torrent, the bed of which is dry in summer ;
a wady. See Brook. 3. Y^'or, a stream,
used almost exclusively of the Nile and its
mouths, and sounding much like the native
Egyptian name of that river (Gen. xli. 1 ; 2
Kin. xix. 24 ; Ezek. xxix. 3). It once de-
notes the Tigris (Dan. xii. 5-7; cp. x. 4, E.
V. margin).

Riv'er of E'gypt.

1. The Nile, and specifically its most east-
ern channel, the Pelusiac branch (Gen. xv.
18) ; see Shihor. In this passage the two
great rivers, the Nile and the Euphrates, are
named broadly as the boundaries of the

promised land. The brook of Egypt or
wady el-*Arish was commonly regarded as
the southwestern limit of Palestine ; but the
country between this wady and the east-
ern branch of the Nile was mainly desert,
and the Nile was virtually 6n the boundary
of Egypt. The passage means that the de-
scendants of Abraham should possess the
land as far as Egypt. The distinction be-
tween the Nile and the wady el-'Arish is
well established ; for the former is a nahar
and the latter a nahal.

2. A great wady or nahal, uniformly called
in the R. V. the In-ook of Egypt. It was tlie
southwestern border of Canaan (Num. xxxi v.
5; 1 Kin. viii. 65; 2 Kin. xxiv. 7), and the
limit in the same direction of the tribe of
Judah (Josh. xv. 4, 47). It was known to
the Assyrians by the same name as to the
Hebrews, and likewise as a boundary. It is
the wady el-'Arish, a watercourse nominally
dry, but which after heavy rains runs north-
ward from the desert, being fed by tribu-
taries, one of which passes Kadesh-barnea.
It falls into the Mediterranean, about 50
miles south of Gaza.

Ri-zi'a, in A. Y. Rezia [delight].

An Asherite, a son of Ulla (1 Chron. vii.
39).

Riz'pah [a hot stone].

A daughter of Aiah and concubine of Saul.
On her account the quarrel arose between
Ish-bosheth and Abner, which resulted in
Abner's going over to David (2 Sam. iii. 6-8).
Her children, Armoni and Mephibosheth,
were put to death during the famine which
arose in David's reign on account of Saul's
treatment of the Gibeonites (2 Sam. xxi. 8-
11).

Road.

An inroad, a raid, an incursion into an
enemy's countrj"^ (1 Sam. xxvii. 10, in R. V.
raid). This sense is now ob-solete in ordinary
language. When a road in the modern sense
is intended, the A. V. and R. V. generally
use the term way, or sometimes path. See
Palestine 5.

Rob'ber. See Thief.

Ro-bo'am. See Rehoboam.

Rock.

Rocks were found nearly everywhere in
the hilly and mountainous districte of Pales-
tine. Some had definite names, as the rock
of Oreb (Judg. vii. 25), the rock of Etam
(xv. 8). See Oreb, Etam.

Rock-badg'er.

The rendering of the Hebrew Shaphan, on
the margin of the R. V., where coney appears
in the text. The animal intended by the
Hebrew word is small and wary, dwells
among the rocks (Ps. civ. 18; Prov. xxx.
24, 26), and chews the cud, but does not part
the hoof (Lev. xi. 5; Dent. xiv. 7). The
corresponding name in the dialect of south-
ern Arabia denotes the Hyrax syriacus, the

Bodanim

623

Eomans

so-called rook-badjser. The hyrax looks like
a rabbit or badger, but lias more allinity to
the rliiiioeeros and tlie tajjir; indeed, its
structure is so anomalous that it has been
given a whole order, Hi/racoiden, to itself.
It moves its jaws as if it were chewing the

Koek-badger {Hyra syriaai!<).

cud, bnt it does not really ruminate. The
species syriacns is found in the peninsula of
Sinai, northern Palestine, and the region
round the Dead Sea. Its fur is tawny, with
a yellow spot on the back. It lives in clefts
of rocks, but does not scoop out a hole.
Small parties meet together, with a sentinel
on some eminence to give warning of danger.
It is rarely seen except in the morning and
evening, when it comes forth to feed.

Rod'a-nim [a plural form, Rodanites].

A people descended from Javan (Hebrew
text of 1 Chron. i. 7; and Septuagint and
Samaritan text of Gen. x. 4). If Rodanim is
the correct reading, the people of Rhodes
and of the neighboring islands of the ^Egeau
Sea are probably intended. See Dodanim.

Roe.

A deer ( Capreolus capr.ra, the Cervn.^ capre-
olus of Linnaeus) which is described under
Roebuck 2 (2 Sam. ii. IS ; 1 Chron. xii. 8, in
Hel)rew -fbi; and Prov. v. 19, A. V., iu He-
brew ya'Hnh) ; see Gazelle and Doe.

Roe'buck.

1. The rendering in A. V. of the Hebrew
S'bi in Deut. xii. 15, 22; xiv. 5; xv. 22; 1
kin. iv. 23. R. V. substitutes gazelle (q. v.).

2. The rendering in R. V. of the Hebrew
Yalimur. The animal was ceremonially clean
and used for food (Deut. xiv. 5; 1 Kin. iv.
23, in A. V. fellow deer). Etymology indi-
cates that its cfilor was reddish. According
to Arabian authorities, it casts its horns
every year, which is characteristic of deer.
In northern Galilee the name yahmur is still
given to the roebuck (Capreolus cnpriea, or
CfrvHs capreolus). In Europe it is a small deer
about two feet high at the shoulder, but
in Asia it attains to a larger size. In summer
it is dark reddish-brown, in winter yellowish-
gray. It has a large patch of white on the
rump. The antlers are about a foot long,
with three points. It is wild over a great
part of Europe and Asia. In Palestine it is
found on mount Carmel and mount Lebanon.

Ry many, however, the yahmur is identified
with the bubale, one of the bovine antelopes.
It is about the size ol' a large stag, lias a long
head, a narrow forehead, and reddish or pale
brown hair. Its flesh is most .savory.

Ro'ge-lim [place of fullers or .spies].
A town in Gilead where Karzillai lived
(2 Sam. xvii. 27; xix. 31). Site unknown.

Roh'gali [clamor].

An Asherite, family of Beriah, house of
Heber (1 Chron. vii. 34).

Roll.

The sheet of papyrus or the parchment on
which documents were frequently written in
ancient times was rolled up or wound around
a stick, like a modern map, and thus consti-
tuted a roll (Jer. xxxvi. 2) or a volume in
the original sense of the term (Ps. xl. 7,
A. V.) ; see Book. The word rendered roll
in Is. viii. 1, A. V., should be translated
tablet.

Ro-mam-ti-e'zer [I have exalted help].

A singer, a sou of Heman (1 Chron. xxv. 4).
He obtained the twenty-fourth lot among the
courses of the singers (31).

Ro'mans.

1. Inhabitants of Rome (1 Mac. viii. 1 ;
Acts ii. 10, " sojourners from Rome," R. V.).

2. Those who represent the Roman gov-
ernment (John xi. 48 ; Acts xxv. 16; xxviii.
17).

3. Those, wherever born or of whatever
race, who possessed the rights of citizenship
in the Roman empire (Acts xvi. 21, 37, 38 ;
xxii. 25, 26, 27, 29). By the Porcian Law,
which was so named because it was pro-
posed and carried by P. Porcius Lseca, a
tribune of tlie people, 248 B. c, it was de-
clared that no magistrate had the right to
bind, scoui-ge, or kill a Roman citizen. The
life of one so privileged could not be taken
away except by a decision of the whole
people met in the comUia centuriaia, a gen-
eral assembly of the people, voting in divi-
sions called centuries. If a magistrate or
ruler of any kind gave orders to .scourge one
entitled to the protection of this law, the
latter had only to utter the words, "I am a
Roman citizen," and all procedure was stayed
till the people had decided on his case. When
the power formerly possessed by the people
was transferred to the emperor, it was to
him that the right of appeal lay. The privi-
leges of Roman citizenship were first limited
to residents in Rome itself: then they were
extended to various Italian tribes and cities;
then to the greater part of Italy ; then to
places beyond the Italian peninsula ; and so
on and on till, it is said, Caracalla (a. d. 211-
217) conferred them on every inhabitant of
the Roman empire. During the transition
period individuals who had rendered service
to Rome might be declared citizeii.s, or the
privilege miglit be purchased for money, even
iu towns or districts which were not as yet

Romans, Epistle to the

624

Romans, Epistle to the

enfranchised. Sometimes also manumitted
slaves were granted citizenship. These ex-
planations make it easy to understand how
Paul, though of Jewish descent (Phil. iii. 5),
could still bo a Roman citizen ; and how
Claudius Lysias thought it worth his while
to purchase the privilege for a great sum of
money (Acts xxii. 2!S) ; and how, when he
had given orders that Paul should be scourged,
and was informed by the centurion that the
apostle was a Roman citizen, procedure was'
immediately stopped (25-29). One can also
understand the alarm of the authorities at
Philippi when they had taken the responsi-
bility of having Paul and Silas openly beaten,
and, to make matters worse, uncondemued,
without first taking means to ascertain
whether or not they were Roman citizens
(xvi. 3t)-38). It will appear also that Paul
simply exercised his legal right when he
took his ai)peal to Cfesar; that is, to the
Roman emperor (xxv. 11).

Ro'mans, E-pis'tle to the.

The first of St. Paul's epistles according to
the order in which they are placed in our
N. T. In order of composition, however, it
was the sixth, since it was written from
Corinth, as appears from the salutations (cp.
xvi. 23 with 1 Cor. i. 14 and 2 Tim. iv. 20),
and from the fact that it was carried to Rome
by Phoebe, a servant or deaconess of the church
at Cenchreje (Rom. xvi. 1), which was near
Corinth (Acts xviii. 18) ; and, if so, it must
have been written during the visit to Greece
mentioned in Acts xx. 2, 3. That was in the
•winter of A. D. 57-58. The apostle had long
wished to visit Rome (Rom. i. 10-12; xv. 23),
and it was his purpose, his work in the east
having been finished (xv. 23), to visit the
•capital on his way to Spain (28). Before
doing so, however, he was determined to re-
turn to Jerusalem to present the gifts of the
gentile churches (25, 26). Not knowing,
however, what might be his fate on this dan-
gerous journey (30-32 ; Acts xx. 22), he sent
this letter to the Christians at Rome, where
he had many friends (cp. Rom. xvi.), for, as
the apostle of the gentiles, he considered the
church at Rome to be under his care (xv. 15,
16), although he had never visited it. The
theme of the epistle, which is one of the
most elaborate ever written by him, was
naturally determined by the controversies
through which he had passed and by the
need of stating, formally and completely,
the gospel which he preached among the
gentiles. It is a full presentation, therefore,
of the way of salvation. Hence its supreme
importance. That he addressed it to the
Christians at Rome indicates, no doubt, his
appreciation of the influence which the
church of the world's metropolis would exert,
and the consequent necessity of establishing
it in the faith that it might resist the assaults
of error. The epistle may be analyzed as
follows: After the salutation (i. 1-7) and

statement of his interest in them (8-15), he
epitomizes the character of his gospel and,
in doing so, gives the theme of the epistle:
"The gospel is the power of God unto sal-
vation to every one that believeth. For
therein is the righteousness of God revealed
from faith to faith" (16, 17).

He then proves the universal need of
righteousness (i. 18-iii. 20). He first shows
that the gentile world is in a state of sin and
just condemnation (i. 18-32), and then that
the Jewish world is no exception, but is like-
wise guilty before God (ii.). To the objection
that this destroys the privileges of the Jew,
he replies by showing that their privilege
consisted in being the trustees of revelation,
but that their own Scriptures declared them
to be sinful (iii. 1-19), so that there is no ex-
ception to the universal guilt. In fact, the
law only increases the consciousness of sin
(20).

He then states the righteousness which
God has provided for every believer through
the redemptive and sacrificial work of Christ
(iii. 21-30), and proves that this way of salva-
tion is that taught in the O. T. (31-iv. 25), that
it is the basis of Christian experience (v. 1-11 ),
and that it proceeds upon the same principle
of moral government, on which God acted
when he dealt with mankind in the person
of their first head and representative, Adam
(12-21).

The apostle then refutes three objections
which would be brought against his doctrine
of salvation by the work of Christ for us re-
ceived through faith alone. The first objec-
tion is that on this doctrine men may con-
tinue in siu and yet be saved, to which he
replies no, because faith in Christ involves
vital union with him, whereby the believer
rises with Christ into a new moral life (vi. 1-
14). The second objection is that Paul's doc-
trine of deliverance from the law released
men from moral obligation, to which he re-
plies no, because the believer accepts a new
and higher obligation, whereby he devotes
himself to the will of God (vi. 15-vii. 6). The
third objection is that Paul's doctrine makes
the law of God an evil thing, to which he
replies no, for the reason that the law cannot
save is not that the law is evil, but that man
is sinful and cannot keep it (7-25).

Having refuted objections, he shows (viii.)
that on the basis of Christ's redemptive work
provision is made for the spiritual renewal,
complete sanctification,and final glorification
of those who are in Christ, and who, being
cho.sen and called by God, will certainly
enjoy the perfect fruition of God's love.
Having thus stated the gospel way of salva-
tion, the apostle proceeds to adjust it to the
fact that Israel, the chosen people, had as a
nation rejected it. He does this by teaching
that the saving promise of God had never
been made to the Jews as a nation, but only
to the "election," the true seed of Abraham,
whom God had chosen (ix. 1 13), and he jus-

Rome

625

Rose

tifies from Scripture this doctrine of sover-
eis'i election (14-29); then, further, that the
rejection of the Jews was due to their refusal
of the very way of salvation taught by their
own Scriptures (30-x. 21), yet that the re-
jection of Israel was not complete, for the
promised remnant, the election, did believe
(si. 1-10), and, finally, that in the end the
Jews will be converted, and with the gentiles
trust in the promised Redeemer (ll-.3()).

The rest of the epistle consists of an ex-
hortation to Christian living (xii.), to the
l>erformance of civil and social duties (xiii.),
and to Christian charity and unity (xiv. 1-
XV. 13), ending with personal messages and
salutations (14-xvi. 27). G. t. p.

Rome.

The date 7.j3 B. c. is accepted by the best au-
thorities for the traditional founding of Rome
by Romulus, who became its first king. The
little kingdom grew in size and importance,
absorbing its immediate neighbors through
the reigns of seven kings, until the tyranny
of Tarquinius Superbus drove the people to
take the government into their own hands
and establish a republic. In the beginning,
the power was entirely in the hands of a few
patrician families, the plebeians merely ac-
quiescing in measures taken. The plebs,
however, demanded and obtained privilege
after privilege until every Roman citizen
had a voice in the government. During the
period of the republic, Rome extended her
boundaries at first over all Italy, and finally
over the whole known world.

Rome's first contact with Asia occurred 190
B. c, when the Roman army defeated An-
tiochus the Great, king of Syria, at the battle
of Magnesia, and Rome assumed a protectorate
over certain cities in Asia Minor (cp. 1 Mac.
i. 10). Most of Rome's conquests after this
were of a peaceful nature, other nations
Avillingly acknowledging her superiority.

In 63 B. c. Judiea became formally
subject to Rome, being taken by Pompey
after he liad reduced the Seleucidan kingdom
to the level of a province. It was required
to pay tribute, but was left for a time under
native rulers.

Meantime, several parties jealous of each
other had been growing up in the state. As
the result of an internal political struggle,
the triumvirate of Ciesar. Pompey, and
Crassus was formed to rule, but by the death
of Crassus, and the defeat of Pompey in a
civil .struggle, the power fell into the hands
of Caesar alone. This did not last long.
Cfesar was murdered by his enemies in 44 B. c,
civil war again broke out. a second triumvi-
rate was formed by Antony, Octavian. and
Lepidus, and. like the first, was soon reduced
to one man, Octavian. Full of ambition,
Octavian had himself proclaimed emperor
with the title of Augustus, and the Roman
empire began.

It was during the reign of Augustus that
40

Christ was born ; during tliat of his successor
Tiberius, that the crucifixion took place.
The martyrdom of James the brother of
j John took place in the reign of the emperor
i Claudius I Acts xi. 28; xii. 1,2). It was to the
emperor Nero that Paul ajipealed (xxv. 11).
I The destruction of Jerusalem ])rophesied by
I our Lord (Mat. xxiv. ; Mark xiii. ; Luke xix.
41-44 ; xxi. 5-36) was accomi>lished in the
year a. d. TO by Titus, who afterwards be-
came emperor.

When the empire was at its great^^st size
it extended 3000 miles from east to west, and
2000 from north to south, and contained a
population of about 120,000,000.

Weakened by excesses and corruption
within, and attacked by enemies without,
the empire began to fail, receiving its first
serious check on the final separation of the
eastern empire in 395, and coming finally to
an end by the capture of Rome by the Goth
Odoacer in 476.

During the decline of Rome's civil power
the Christians there had V)cen growing in
power and influence. Although it had been
the policy of Rome to tolerate the religions
of her conquered peoples, the Christians were
persecuted almost from the first. This was
due mainly to two causes : their uncompro-
mising attitude toward all heathen rites and
religions, and their unceasing efforts to make
converts. The persecutions were especially
severe under Nero, who attempted to throw
on the Christians the blame for some of his
own nefarious deeds. Persecutions were also
very severe under Domitian, but notwith-
standing constant imprisonment and death
the Christians continued to grow in numbers
and influence until the church in Rome and
the bishoi)of Rome became no inconsiderable
factor in the general growth of Christianity.
The Christian religion was otEcially adopted
and declared the religion of the state by the
emj)eror Constantine early in the fourth cen-
tury.

Roof. See House.

Room.

1. A chamber or other apartment in a
house (Acts i. 13). See House and P.\l.\ce.

2. In A. V. room is also u.sed in the sense
of place or position in society, a meaning
which is now obsolete (Mat. xxiii. 6; Luke
xiv. 7, 8; XX. 46). Uppermost or chief room
is the translation of the Greek proiollixia,
first place for reclining: see Meals. The
scribes and Pharisees were censured for seek-
ing the place of honor at feasts, desiring to
recline on the most important couch. R. V.
substitutes place or seat for room, when used
in this obsolete sense.

Rose.

The rendering of the Hebrew H"ha-fxeleth
(Song ii. 1 : Is. xxxv. 1). in the Engli.<h ver-
sions and by several Jewish scholars of tlie
Middle Ages. Modern interpreters are di-
vided in opinion. The most important sugges-

Rosh

626

Eumah

tions are the following: 1. Some expositors,
incliuling Tristram, following the Targiim
of Song ii. 1, and sometimes appealing to a
doubtful etymology, understand the beauti-
ful, white sweet-scented narcissus {Na)-cissus
tasetta), common in spring in the plain of
'Sharon and in the hill country. 2. A Syriac
word, seemingly kindred to the Hebrew
name, denotes colchicum and the crocus,
which are strikingly alike and which, when
the rainy season sets in, carpet the fields
with bright flowers. The prevalent opinion,
perhaps represented by E. V. margin, is that
meadow .saffron (Colchicum aidumnale) is
meant, with its pale lilac flowers. 3. An As-
syrian word still nearer to the Hebrew form,
refers to marsh plants, so that the Hebrew
has been understood by some interpreters of
late to denote Cyperus syriacus, known also
as Cuperus papyrus, which grows on the Nahr
el-'Aujah in the plain of Sharon and in other
marshy districts of Palestine. It flowers
toward the end of autumn.

The true rose is a native of Media and
Persia. It was early transplanted to the
countries on the Mediterranean, and grows
on the mountains of Palestine. The maid
who recognized the voice of Peter at the
gate, was named Rhoda, a rose (Acts xii. 1.3) ;
and the true rose is probablj- intended in
Wisd. ii. 8 ; Ecclus. xxiv. 14 ; xxxix. 13 ; 1. 8,
where the Greek word is used. Tristram,
however, judges from its growing at Jericho
and by the waters, that the oleander is meant
in these passages.

Rosh [in Hebrew a head, a chief, a prince],

1. A son of Benjamin, who went down to
Egypt with Jacob and his sons (Gen. xlvi.
21). He did not give rise to a tribal family
(Num. xxvi. 38), because probably, like Er
and Onan of Judah, he died without issiie.

2. A northern people mentioned with
Meshech and Tubal (Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3;
xxxix. 1, both R. V. text). Gesenius be-
lieves Eosh to be the Russians, though they
are nowhere else mentioned by this or any
similar name for centuries afterwards. The
text of the A. V. and the margin of the E. V.
render Rosh "chief prince," in which case
Rosh as a proper name disappears.

Ru'by.

1. The plural, rubies, is the rendering
of the Hebrew P'nhum, which occurs only in
the plural. The margin of the R. V. has
coral, red coral or pearls. The name may
signify branches and thus aptly describe
coral ; but this signification is not estab-
lished. It was ruddy in hue (Lam. iv. 7),
and was i)recious (Job xxviii. 18 ; Prov. iii.
15). The color is a good reason for not re-
garding it as a pearl. The true or oriental
ruby is, like the sapphire, a variety of
corundum. It is a clear, bright gem, rich
red in color. The spinel ruby is a deep red,
and the balas ruby a rose-red, variety of
spinel.

2. The marginal rendering of the Hebrew
'Odem, red gem (Ex. xxviii. 17 ; Ezek. xxviii.
13). In the text it is translated sardius,
which is the better rendering.

Rue.

A iilant, in Greek pcqanon, of which the
Pharisees, careful about minute points, were
scrupulously accurate in paying tithes (Luke
xi. 42). It is Ruta graveoleiis, a half shrubby
plant, two or three feet high, with pinnate
bluish-green leaves, all dotted over with

Rue.

odoriferous glands and yellowish corymbose
flowers, mostly with eight stamens. Its odor
is very powerful. It is a native of the
Mediterranean region. It was cultivated in
Palestine as a medicine, and perhaps as a
condiment for food. Had it been wild, it
would not have been a tithable plant.

Ru'fus [red].

A son of that Simon of Cj'rene who was
compelled to bear the cross of Christ (Mark
XV. 21). He may have been the same as the
Rufus at Rome to whom Paul sent a saluta-
tion (Rom. xvi. 13).

Ru-ha'mah [she hath obtained mercy] .

One of the symbolical names with which
the children of Judah and Israel shall event-
ually greet each other (Hos. ii. 1).

Ru'mali [height, high place].

The place to which the father of Jehuia-
kim's queen belonged (2 Kin. xxiii. 36). An
ancient opinion is that it was the same as
Arumah in the neighborhood of Shechem.
It may, however, have been the town in
Galilee (War iii. 7, 21).

n

Rush

627

Sabbath

Rush.

The rendering of the Hebrew Gome in Job
viii. 11 and Is. xxxv. 7. See Papyrus.

Rust.

A corrosive or disfiguring accretion, in
Greek ios, which denotes the rust of iron,
the verdigris of brass, the tarnish on gold
and silver (Jas. v. .3). The Greek word brosis,
eating, corrosion, is used in Mat. vi. 19, 20.

Ruth [possibly, sightly].

A Moal)itess married first to Mahlon of
Bethlehem, who was sojourning in Moab with
his parents and brother because of a famine
in Judah. The three men died. Ruth left her
native land and accompanied her mother-in-
law Naomi to Bethlehem. While gleaning
in the field of Boaz, a kinsman of Naomi's
deceased husband, she found favor in his
eyes. Custom required a kinsman of Mahlou
to marry Kuth : and Boaz took her to wife,
after one nearer of kin than he had refused.
By this marriage Ruth became an ancestress
of David. The transaction between Boaz and
Ruth was not a levirate marriage (Deut. xxv.
7-10; cp. Ruth i. 11-13), for Boaz was not a
brother of Ruth's deceased husband. Qistom
required that when the widow of a childless
man desired to sell his estate if there was no
brother, then the nearest of kin and heir to
the deceased should buy or redeem it of the
widow (iv. 3, 4, 9). The property was thereby
retained in the family. Custom was also
urgent that the kinsman voluntarily assume
levirate duties or take the woman to wife,
if he would not thereby endanger his own
inheritance (iii. 9; iv. .5, 6). It was consid-
ered magnanimous to do so. and a mark of
loyalty to the family. A son born of such
union was legally the son of the deceased
(iv. .5, 10. 14, 17) : and doubtless ultimately
received the firstborn's right in the estate.

In the Hebrew collection the Book of Ruth
is placed among the rolls which were pub-
licly read on specified anniversaries : be-
cause, its .scenery being the harvest field, it
was read at Pentecost, the harvest festival.
In the Septuagint and in Josephus" enumera-
tion of the canonical books it stands im-
mediately after Judges, as in the English
version. The events recorded occurred in
the days of the judges (i. 1), 60 years or
more before David's birth (iv. 21, 22). The
marriage of a pious Israelite with a ^loabitess
is recounted, and the issue of the marriage is
an ancestor of David. After the exile such
a marriage would have been regarded as
discreditable, and would not have been in-
vented. The narrative is. accordingly, his-
torical. Its historical character receives
confirmation from the appropriateness of
the event to the period, for about that time
friendly intercourse prevailed between Israel
and Moab (1 Sam. xxii. 3, 4). The event is
related without disapi)robatiou and without
explanation or apology : an indication that
it was committed to writing before the exile.

The language is also as pure as admittedly
early writings, such as Judges v. The book
did not receive its final literary form until
a considerable time after the event ; for it
explains the drawing oflT of the shoe in mat-
ters of attestation as a custom of former
times (iv. 7), and it brings down the geueal-
og^• to David.

Rye. See Spelt.

s.

Sab'a-oth [in Hebrew, hosts, armits].

The Lord of Sabaoth is the same as Lord
of hosts, the second part of the title being
left untranslated (Rom. ix. 29 with Is. i. 9;
Jas. v. 4). See Lord.

Sa'hat. See Shebat.

Sab 'bath [rest].

The divinely instituted day of rest, or-
dained for all men. God having completed
the work of creation in six days ceased from
creative work on the seventh day. And (Jod
blessed the seventh day. and hallowed it ;
because that in it he rested from all his work
which he had made in a creative manner
(Gen. ii. 1-3) ; see Creation. The next ref-
erence to a division of time into periods of
.seven days occurs in the account of Ihe
flood, when Noah was forewarned of the im-
minence of the storm a week before it broke
in its fury, and again when he sent forth the
birds at intervals of seven days to discover
through them the stage of water (Gen. vii.
4 ; viii. 10, 12). But it is not only in this
express mention of the week, but also in the
entire chronology of the flood, when inter-
preted according to its own principles, that
the hebdomadal division of time is found to
have existed at that early date. The events
are measured by intervals of the week both
in the Hebrew narrative and in the Assyrian
account ; see Flood. And what is more,
there is repeated evidence that the seventh
day was regarded as a season of divine be-
nevolence toward man. According to both ac-
counts, and reckoning from the day when the
flood began, the divine jiower which caused
the storm was restrained at the close of a sixth
day. and the first day that dawned fair and
beautiful was a seventh day ; and the day
when the inmates of the ark w'ere jiermitted
to disembark, and when they ofl'ered sacri-
fices of thanksgiving, was likewise a seventh
day. A glance at the chronology will show
that not improbably Noah disjiatched the
birds in connection with the conventional
seventh day because it was a day of divine
favor.

From the days of Noah until the exodus
there is no express mention in the Hebrew
records of a sanctification of the s<'venth day
by rest from labor and by religious worship.
There is no reason why there should be.

Sabbath

628

Sabbath

There was no event specially to emphasize
the day. And probably in that age the Sab-
))ath was somewhat less sharply marked ott"
from the other days of the week, even
among the ])eople of God, than it was later;
for the nomad sliei)herds had certain labors
which must be performed, and the Israelites
in Egypt were not their own masters and
could not rest on the seventh day : but when
the nation was organized at Sinai a diflereut
mode of life was adopted, the people were
al)le to frame their own laws, they formed
an independent community, they led camp
life in the wilderness and exchanged it for the
settled life of agriculturists and traders, and
as a natural result rest on the Sabbath made
a greater outward difference than it had done
before. Still, in both the Hebrew and Baby-
lonian literature relating to the period before
the exodus there are incidental references to
a period of seven days (Gen. xxix. 27, 28).
These are doubtless to be understood in the
sense in which we use the term week, reck-
oning seven days from any date we please.
At any rate time was frequently measured
by periods of seven days. Several causes
doubtless contributed to make this custom
general, among others the phasing of the
moon. But over and beyond the appropri-
ateness of a lunar subdivision of the lunar
month, there was the conception, traceable in
the narrative of the flood, that the seventh
day was one of divine rest and favor toward
men.

It is dis])uted whether the name Sabbath
was used for the recurring .seventh day in
Assyria and Babylonia. A day of propitiat-
ing the gods was called by a name which
may be pronounced shabaUu, Sabbath. But
other pronunciations are equally possible,
and yield a sense which satisfies the given
description of the day. There is no evidence
that it was a particular day of the week or a
day when labor was suspended. Tablets,
copied in the reign of Ashurbanipal, about
Grub B. c, show that the seventh, fourteenth,
nineteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth
days of each month were regarded as inaus-
j)icioiis for certain specified acts. These
unlucky days, it will be observed, are not
con'nected with the phasing of the moon ;
for it does not quarter on the nineteenth
day, and in months of thirty days, as were
those in question, it would only occasionally
quarter on the seventh day. The unluckiness
of the day was connected with the number
seven. Not only was the recurring seventh
day ill-fated, but also the nineteenth, that is
the forty-ninth day, the seventh .seventh day
reckoned from the first day of the preceding
month. These recurring .seventh days were
not days of national rest when the tablets
Wete in force ; a few specified acts only were
daiigerous on those days. Business and toil
l'>ro'ceeded as usual. The most that can at
I>rcsent be claimed is that if these tablets
bear witness to the Sabbath at all, they tes-

tify to the degradation of the nobler concep-
tion of an earlier age. They do not per-
petuate the thought which is discoverable in
even the Assyrian narrative of the flood.
They are not up to the standard of the fourth
commandment as promulgated in Israel cen-
turies before at Sinai, and familiar in all its
loftiness to the Israelites of the time of Jere-
miah, who was a younger contemporary of
Ashurbanipal.

As in these tablets, so among the Hebrews,
it was not the moon which determined the
Sabbath ; for among the Hebrews it was not
the seventh day onlj^ which was sacred, but
the day which began and which consecrated
the seventh month, and the entire seventh
year, and the completion of the seventh
seventh year. And these seasons were all
associated with the idea of rest, of worship,
of liberty, of good will to man, and of divine
favor.

The first occurrence of the name Sabbath
in the Hebrew records is in Ex. xvi. 23.
The Israelites had not reached mount Sinai,
nor had the ten commandments been spoken
from its summit, but in the wilderness of
Sin when manna began to be given a double
amount fell on the sixth day ; and Moses
said: "This is that which the Lord hath
spoken. To-morrow is a solemn rest, a holy
sabbath unto the Lord : bake that which ye
will bake, . . . and all that remaineth over lay
up for you to be kept until the morning." None
fell on the morrow, and Moses said in regard
to what had been kept over : " Eat that
to-day ; for to-day is a sabbath unto the
Lord : to-day ye shall not find it in the field.
Six days ye shall gather it; but on the sev-
enth day is the sabbath, in it there shall be
none" (23-26; cp. 5).

Shortly afterwards the connnandment re-
quiring the Sabbath to he kept was promul-
gated with nine other laws by Jehovah at
Sinai, and afterwards written by the finger
of God on tables of stone (Ex. xxxi. 18;
Dent. ix. 10). Like its com]ianion laws, it
was of perpetual obligation. It commences,
" Remember the sabbath day to keep it
holy," the word remember being appropri-
ately used, since the ])eople did not now for
the first time learn that tlie Sabbath existed.
In repeating the laws forty years later at
Shittim, Moses recalls the fact that the Lord
their God had commanded them to observe the
day ; and then instead of staling the reason for
the ordination of the Sal)l>ath. lie assigns Jeho-
vah's deliverance of his ]ie<)i)le from bondage
or labor in Egypt as the reason why Israel
s])ecially is under obligation to keep the day
of rest instituted by (Jod (Deut. v. 1.5). The
Sabbath was to be kejit by a holy convoca-
tion for the ■worship of the Ijord (Lev. xxiii.
3; cp. Ezek. xlvi. 3), and sliould be a sign
showing that God was their sanctifier (Ex.
xxxi. 13). The doctrine clearly was that
the day was ordained by God; that it was
established as a day of iihysical rest and re-

Sabbath

629

Sabbath

freshment for man ; that the obligation to
keep it arises from God"s own example, his
connecting a blessing with it. and his ex-
plicit command, and that his redemption of
his people lays them under special obligation
to set the day apart ; that it is to be observed
by God's people as a Sabbath unto him, and
is to include a holy assemblage for worship.
It was a reminder of God's complacency in
the Contemplation of his finished work, and
of Jehovah's redemption of his people from
Egyptian service. In the tabernacle and
temple worship the preeminence of the Sab-
bath over the other days of the week was
shown by the offering upon it of two lambs,
while one was sacrificed on an ordinarj-
week day (Num. xxviii. 9. 19). The twelve
cakes of showbread were also to be presented
on that day I Lev. xxiv. 5-6; 1 Chron. ix.
32 1. In enforcing the law. no fire was al-
lowed to be lit by an I.^raelite in his habita-
tion ou the Sabbath day ; anyone doing work
on it was to be put to death : and one who
gathered sticks on the Sabbath in the wilder-
ness was in fact stoned to death ( Ex. xxxv. .3 ;
Num. XV. .32-36) ; see Poishmext. Isaiah
(Ivi. 2-6: Iviii. 13) and Jeremiah (xvii. 21-
27) strongly counseled the keeping of the
day. A psalm or song was composed for
the Sabbath, in which delight is expressed
in the worship of Jehovah and thought is
directed to God's works of creation (Ps.
xciii. Ezekiel complains that the Sabbaths
had to a large extent been profaned or pol-
luted (Ezek. XX. 12. 24: xxii. 6. 26: xxiii.
3t). In Nehemiah's time, traders, espe-
cially those of Tyre, continually brought
merchandise to Jerusalem for sale on the
sacred day. till Xehemiah peremptorily for-
bade the practice to be continued, and took
strong measures against those who attempted
to disregard his directions (Neh. x. 31:
xiii. 15-22). At the commencement of the
war of independence under the Maccabee
family, the Jews were of opinion that they
had no right to defend themselves on the
Sabbath if they were attacked by an enemy.
The campaign therefore began with the
slaughter of ICHJO unresisting Jews, consist-
ing of patriots and their families. The sur-
vivors resolved in future to defend them-
selves if they were directly attacked on the
sacred day. but not to engage in offensive
operations (1 Mac. ii. 31-41). Even then
they were at a disadvantage with the gen-
tiles, who labored under no such restriction.
The latter pushed on siege and other opera-
tions on the Sabbath unmolested, provided
they abstained from directly attacking the
Jews. Pompey rai.sed his banks and mounted
his battering-rams against Jerusalem on the
Sabbath without any interference from the
inhabitants, but delayed the effort to breach
the walls till the sacred day was over ( Antiq.
xiv. 4. 2 and S'. In the time of our Lord
the Pharisees applied the law to the most
trivial acts, and forbade manv works of

necessity and mercy. They denounced Jesus
because he healed sick people on the Sabbath,
though if ox, or ass. or sheep fell into a
pit on that day, they did not consider it at
all unlawful to take him out without delay.
They also led forth the animals to be watered
just as on ordinary week days (Mat. xii. 9-
13 : Luke xiii. lf»-17). It was not merely to
healing on the Sabbath that they objected.
When the disciples of Jesus, psissing on the
Sabbath through the grain fields, plucked
some of the ears, and, rubbing them in their
hands, ate them, being hungry, the Pharisees
denounced this as though it were in essence
the same as reaping, threshing, and grinding.
Our Lord made a notable reply: "The sab-
bath was made for man, and not man fur the
sabbath : so that the Son of man is Lonl
even of the sabbath" 'Mark ii. 23-28). The
Sabbath was instituted for the benefit of
mankind, its obligation lasts as long as man
has the same needs as at creation, the Son
of man is not the slave of the Sabbath, but
its lord.

The day for synagogue worship was the
seventh day of the week. Saturday (Mat.
xii. 9. 10 ; Acts xiii. 14). The apostolic Chris-
tian church from the beginning held a.ssem-
blages for worship on the first day of the
week, which was the day on which Christ
rose from the dead for our justification (Acts
ii. 1, probably: xx. 7). On that day the
apostle Paul directed the Christians of
Oialatia and Corinth to make their weekly
contribution to the charities of the church
(1 Cor. xvi. 1. 2). It was designated the
Lord's day (Kev. i. 10); see Lord's Day.
This day, like the former appointment of the
seventh day. sets apart one whole day in
seven to be a Sabbath unto the Lord. It is
equally a reminder of the Lord's redemption
of his people. It is accompanied by the same
evidence of divine favor in the form of
physical and spiritual blessings.

The Sabbath of the land was a year in
which the land of Canaan had a solemn rest.
It came round once every seven years. In
it the ground was not sown or reaped, nor
the vineyard pruned, nor its fruits gathered
in. The spontaneous growth of field and
orchard was free to all. In the Sabbatic year
also the creditor released the Hebrew debtor
from his obligation and freed the Hebrew-
slave (Ex. xxiii. 10, 11 ; Lev. xxv. 3-7: Deut.
XV. 1-18; Neh. x. 31 1. On the completion
of seven such Sabbaric years, that is, at the
end of forty-nine years, the trumpet was
blown to proclaim liberty throughout the
land, and the year of jubile was ushered in
(Lev. XXV. >^10) ; see Jubilk. Reliable
historical notices of the observance of the
Sabbatical year are the covenant of Nehe-
miah's time (Neh. x. 31). the 1.50th year of
the Selencidan era or 164-163 B. c. (1 Mac.
vi. 49. .53 ; cp. Antiq. xii. 9. 5). the 178th Se-
lencidan year or 13<i-135 B. c. (Antiq. xiii. 8,
1 ; War i. 2. 4i, the decree issued by Caesar

Sabbath

630

Sackcloth

exeniptiiif^ the Jews from tribute during the
Sabbatic j'ear (Autiq. xiv. 10, 6 ; cp. Tacitus,
Hist. V. 4), the year 38-37 B. C. (Autiii- xiv.
16, 2 ; XV. 1, 2), and the year before the fall
of Jerusalem, A. D. 68-(JS) (Talmud). See
also Antiq. xi. 8, 5. If the Israelites dis-
obeyed God's laws, they were to be carried
into captivity, the land lying desolate, hav-
ing rest and being left to enjoy its Sabbaths,
or the rest which the Israelites had not al-
lowed it on their weekly and septennial Sab-
baths (Lev. xxvi. 34-43). Jeremiah prophe-
sied that the people should be punished
for their idolatry by the desola^tion of
their land and their bondage to the Baby-
lonians for seventy years (Jer. xxv. 7-11).
The chronicler also connects the captivity
with the disobedience of the people and the
pollution of the temjjle ; and he adds that
they were servants unto the Babylonians for
seventy years, as Jeremiah had foretold they
should be, until the land had enjoyed her
Sabbaths ; for as long as she lay desolate she
kept Sabbath, to fulfill three score and ten
years (2 Chron. xxxvi. 14, 16, 20, 21).
It must not be inferred from these words-that
the people had ignored the Sabbatic year ex-
actly .seventy times, or that the neglected
Sabbatic years were continuous ; and it is not
stated that the Sabbatic year was neglected.
Doubtless it had been neglected sometimes,
for an idolatrous' and disobedient people
would scarcely obey an injunction when
obedience would apparently involve i)ecuni-
ary loss.

Evidently any period of time which was
kept as a Sabbath could be called a Sabbath.
Not only were the seventh day and the sev-
enth year Sabbaths, but also the day of atone-
ment on the tenth day of the seventh mouth
(Lev. xxiii. 32).

A Sabbath-day's journey was a journey of
limited extent proper, in the estimation of
the scribes, on a Sabbath day. The expres-
sion occurs in Acts i. 12, where this is stated
to be the distance between mount Olivet and
Jerusalem, or from Jerusalem to a place on
the mountain from which Bethany was visible
(Luke xxiv. 50). If the measurement be made
from the eastern gate of Jerusalem (the Jew-
ish method of reckoning) to the site of the
church of the Ascension, crowning the
mount of Olives, the distance, as the crow
flies, will be about 2200 English feet; but in
actual travel it will be considerably more.
According to Josephus, the mount was dis-
tant 6 or 7 stades from the city (Antiq. xx. 8,
6; War v. 2, 3). The regulation of the Sab-
bath-day's journey liad its origin in the in-
junction not to leave the camp on the Sab-
bath (Ex. xvi. 29). It was reckoned at 2000
cubits, partly on the erroneous interpretation
of Num. XXXV. 5, according to wliirh the
district pertaining to a Levitical city ex-
tended 2000 cubits from the wall on every
side, and partly on the belief, derived from
Jo.sli. iii. 4, that the camp of the Israelites

was 2000 cubits from the tabernacle, to which
of course they might go on the Sabbath. A
man might travel on the Sabbath within the
city where he resided as far as its limits al-
lowed, lie the city never so large.

Sa-toe'ans.

The people of Sheba (Is. xiv. 14), a nation
far off (Joel iii. 8) ; also the people of Seba
(Is. xiv. 14 ; cp. Ezek. xxiii. 42).

Sab'tah and Sabta.

A Cushite people (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chron. i. 9),
probablj' of southern Arabia. The important
city of Sabbatha or Sabota in the country of
the Chatramotites (Hadramaut) is strongly
advocated, but the identification is doubtful.
Gesenius suggests Sabat, Saba, or Sabai, near
the modern Arkiko, an Abyssinian town on a
bay of the Red Sea.

Sab'te-ca, iu A. V. Sabtecha and Sabte-
chab.

A Cushite people (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chron. i. 9),
probably of southern Arabia. More precise
geographical details cannot be given.

Sa'car [merchandise].

1. A Hararite, father of one of David's
mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 35). In 2 Sam.
xxiii. 33 Sharar.

2. A son of Obed-edom (1 Chron. xxvi. 4).
Sack'but.

A mediaeval wind instrument, having a
long bent tube of brass with a movable slide
for changing the pitch of the tone, as in the
trombone. The instrument referred to by
this name in the English version of Dan. iii.
5, belonged to an entirely different class. It
was a stringed instrument. It is called iu
Aramaic sabb'ka', which, if Semitic, jirobably
describes the lacing of the strings. The name
is evidently identical with the Greek s<ini-
huM, which was an instrument of music
somewhat like the harp or lyre, but with
only four strings. Stralio ailirms that the
Greek word is of barbarian, i. e. oriental, ori-
gin ; and Athenseus states that the instru-
ment was invented by the Syrians.

Sack'cloth.

A coarse cloth, of a dark color, usually
made of goat's hair (Rev. vi. 12). It was
called in Hebrew sal-, from which the Eng-
lish word is derived. It was worn customarily
by mourners (2 Sam. iii. 31 ; 2 Kin. xix. 1, 2),
often, if not habitually, by ])rophets (Is.
XX. 2 ; Rev. xi. 3), and by captives (1
Kin. XX. 31 ; cp. Is. iii. 24). The garment
of sackcloth probably resembled a sack, with
openings made for the neck and arms, and
slit down the front. It was cast about the
loins (Gen. xxxvii. 34 ; 1 Kin. xx. 31), and
girded on (2 Sam. iii. 31 ; Ezek. vii. 18; Joel
i. 8) ; and was usually worn over other rai-
ment (Jon. iii. 6; cp. 2 Sam. xxi. 10), but
.sometimes next to the skin (1 Kin. xxi. 27 ;
2 Kin. vi. 30; Job xvi. 15; Is. xxxii. 11).

The cloth was also used for making sacks,
which were known by the san)e name as the
material ((ien. xlii. 25; Josh. ix. 4).

Sacrifice

631

Saffron

Sac'ri-fice. See Offerings.

Sad'du-cees.

A Jewish jmrty, the opponents of the
Pharisees (Autiii. xiii. 10, H). They were
I'umpardtively few in number, but they were
educated men, and mostly wealthy and of
good jiosition (ibid. ; xviii. 1, 4). The
name. Judged by the orthography, is derived
from Zadok. which was often written Sad-
diiuk in Greek. The rabbins say that the
]iarty took its name from its founder Zadok,
w ho lived about 300 B. f. ; but since it
appears that the members and adherents of
the highest priestly aristocracy constituted
the party, it is now generally believed that
the name refers to the high priest Zadok,
who otHciated in David's reign, and in whose
family the high-priesthood remained until
the political confusion of the Maccabsean
times, his descendants and partisans being
Zadokites or Sadducees.

In opposition to the Pharisees, who laid
great stress on the tradition of the elders,
the Sadducees limited their creed to the doc-
trines which they found in the sacred text
itself. They held that the word of the
written law was alone binding (Antiq. xiii.
10. <3i. They maintained the right of private
interpretation (xviii. 1, 4). They held to
the letter of Scripture, even when it led to
severity in the administration of justice (xx.
9. 1). In distinction from the Pharisees,
they denied : 1. The resurrection and future
retribution in Sheol, asserting that souls die
with the body (Mat. xxii. 23-^33; Acts xxiii.
b : Antiq. xviii. 1, 4 ; War ii. 6, 14). 2. The
existence of angels and spirits (Acts xxiii.
8). 3. Fatali.sm : contending for the freedom
of the will, teaching that all our actions are
in our own power, so that we are ourselves
the causes of what is good and receive what
is evil from our own folly, and affirming that
God is not concerned in our doing good or
not doing what is evnl (Antiq. xiii. o, 9; War
ii. 8, 14). In denying immortality and the
resurrection, they were relying on the ab-
sence of an explicit statement of these doc-
trines in the Mosaic law, and they failed to
hold the faith of the patriarchs regarding
Sheol. which, though it was undeveloped, yet
contained the germs of the later biblical doc-
trine of the resurrection of the body and a
future retribution. The patriarchs unques-
tionably believed in the continued existence
of the soul after death. In affirming that
there is neither angel nor spirit, the Saddu-
cees were setting themselves against the
elaborate angelology of the Judaism of their
time ; but they went to the other extreme,
and again fell short of the teaching of the
law (Ex. iii. 2; xiv. 19). They probably at
first emphasized the truth that God directs
affairs with respect to man's conduct, pun-
ishing or rewarding in this life according as
man's deeds are good or evil. If they actu-
ally taught, as Josephus affirms they did,

that God is not concerned in our doing
good or refraining from evil, they rejected
the clear teaching of the Mosaic law which
they professed to believe (Gen. iii. 17 ; iv. 7 ;
vi. 5-7). It is probable that they began by
! denying what is not expressly taught in the
letter of Scripture; but as they yielded more
fully to Greek influence, they adopted the
, princijdes of the Aristotelian philosophy,
and refused to accept any doctrine which
they could not prove by pure reason.
As to the origin and growth of the Saddu-
I cees, Schiirer suggests that the priestly house
j of Zadok, which was at the head of afl'airs
I in the fourth and third centuries B. c. under
the Persian and Grecian kings, began, un-
consciously perhaps, to place political above
religious considerations. In the time of Ezra
and Nehemiah the family of the high priest
was worldly and inclined to resist the strict
separation of Jew from gentile. See Elia-
SHIB o. In the time of Antiochus Epiph-
anes a large number of priests were friendly
to Greek culture (2 Mac. iv. 14-16), and the
high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus
were pronounced Hellenizei-s. The people
took a determined stand under the Macca-
bees for purity of Israel's religion ; and when
this party triumphed and the Maccabees se-
cured the high-priesthood, the Zadokites
were forced into retirement and driven to
politics, and they continued to be ready to
neglect the customs and traditions of the
elders and favor Greek culture and influ-
ence. John Hyrcanus. Aristobulus, and
Alexander Jannseus (135-78 B. c.) favored
the Sadducees, and the conduct of political
aflairs was largely in their hands under the
Romans and the Herods, for the high priests
of this period were Sadducees (Acts v. 17;
Antiq. xx. 9, 1). The Sadducees, as well as
the Pharisees, who visited John the Baptist
in the wilderness, were addressed by him as
a generation of vipei"s (Mat. iii. 7). They
joined with the Pharisees in demanding
from our Lord a sign from heaven (Mat. xvi.
1-4), and .Jesus warned his disciples against
both (6-12). The Sadducees attempted to
embarrass him by putting to him an ensnar-
ing question regarding the resurrection, but
he refuted their arguments, and reduced
them to silence (xxii. 23-33). They joined
with the priests and the captain of the
temple in persecuting Peter and John (Acts
iv. 1-22). Both Pharisees and Sadducees
were in the sanhedrin which tried Paul,
and the apostle, taking note of the fact,
deverlv set them at variance with each other
(xxiii. 6-10).

Sa'doc [Hebrew i^adol: just, righteous].
An ancestor of Christ, who lived after the
exile (Mat. i. 14).

Saffron.

A fragrant plant (Song iv. 14), called in
Hebrew Larkom, in Arabic larlam. It is the
saffron crocus {Crocus satirus), a native, appa-

Sala

632

Salt

n

rently, of northern Italy and of western
Asia. From a remote period of antiquity it
has been largely cultivated in southern Eu-
rope and Asia. The flowers are light violet
in color, veined with red. Tlie dried stigmas,
pulverized or pressed, yield a yellow dye.
Clothing and rooms were sprinkled with
water scented with saffron, olive oil perfumed
with it was used as an ointment, food was
spiced with it, and it was employed in medi-
cine.

Sa'la and Salah. See Shelah.

Sal'a-mis.

A city on the east or southeast coast of
Cyprus, traditionally reported to have been
built by Teucer, from the island of Salamis,
ofl" the coast of Greece. It contained syna-
gogues of the Jews, in which Paul on his
first missionary journey preached (Acts xiii.
4, 5). The place was subsequently named
Constantia, and is now called Famagusta.

Sa-la'tM-el. See She.\ltiel.

Sal'e-cah, in A. V. Sal'cah and Sal'chah
[perhaps, a road].

A city of Bashan, near Edrei (Deut. iii.
10; Josh. xii. 5; xiii. 11). It was on the
boundary of Og's kingdom, and afterwards
constituted the northei'n limit of the Gadites
(1 Chron. v. 11). It is now known as Sal-
khad, a slight modification of the ancient
name, 35 miles east of Edrei, and 66 east,
very slightly north of the Jordan, opposite
to Beth-shean, in Samaria.

Sa'lem [complete, peaceful, peace].

A natural abbreviation of the name Jeru-
salem, the city or foundation of peace (Ps.
Ixxvi. 2; and probably Gen. xiv. 18). See
Mklchizedek and Shalem.

Sa'lim [perhaps, Aramaic sh'lim, com-
pleted].

A place near which were the waters of
^non (John iii. 23) ; see jEnon.

Sal'lai [perhaps, exalted].

1. A chief of a family of Benjamites who
resided at Jerusalem (Neh. xi. 8).

2. A father's hou.se among the priests after
the captivity (Neh. xii. 20) ; see Sallu.

Sal'lu [elevation, exaltation].

1. A Benjamite, a son of Meshullam and a
chief of a family resident af Jerusalem (1
Chron. ix. 7; Neh. xi. 7).

2. A chief of the priests who came from
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 7). In
the next generation a father's house, which
occupies the same position in the correspond-
ing catalogue, bore the name Sallai (ver. 20).
One of the two names has probably been
misread, the difference being merely that
between a jod and a vau (q. v.).

Sal'ma. See Salmon.

Sal'mai, in A. V. Shalmai, in R. V. of
Ezra ii. 46 Shamlai ; the forms being con-
fused in the Hebrew text itself.

Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-

bers of which returned from captivity with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 46; Neh. vii. 48).

Sal'mon or Salmah or Salma.

Father of Koaz. He was a man of Judah,
descended through Perez, Hezron, and Kam
(Ruth iv. 18-21 ; Mat. i. 4 ; Luke iii. 32). In
the Hebrew text of Ruth. iv. 20, not 21, the
form Salmah is used, of which Salma is the
later orthography (1 Chron. ii. 11). He lias
sometimes been thought to have been the
ancestor of the inhabitants of Bethlehem,
mentioned in 1 Chron. ii. 51, 54. But the
genealogy of Salma, ancestor of the Betlile-
hemites, is traced back by the line of Caleb,
not of Ram. The difl'erent lineage i)ro))at)ly
indicates a difie rent person ; though, of course,
genealogies may intertwine. For Salmon of
Ps. Ixviii. 14, see Zalmon.

Sal-mo'ne.

A promontory, constituting the most east-
erly portion of Crete. It still retains its
ancient name (Acts xxvii. 7).

Sa'lom. See Salu.

Sa-lo'me [probably, whole, perfect, integ-
rity, peace].

The wife of Zebedee, and the mother of
James and John (cp. Mat. xxvii. 56 with Mark
XV. 40 and xvi. 1). She was one of the
Christian women who from a distance saw
the crucifixion (Mat. xxvii. 56), and who
went to the sepulcher of our Lord on the
resurrection morning with sweet spices to
anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1).

Salt.

Salt of poor quality could be scraped up
on the shore of the Dead Sea, when the
salty water had evaporated, or be cut from
the neighboring cliffs. It was used in Canaan
and the adjacent regions as a condiment and
preservative for animal food (Job vi. 6 ;
Ecclus. xxxix. 26). Under the law, it was
presented with offerings of all kinds (Lev.
ii. 13; Ezek. xliii. 24: Antiq. iii. 9, 1). Salt
land is unfruitful (Job xxxix. 6), and when
a captured city was doomed to utter destruc-
tion the final step sometimes was to sow it
with salt. Abimelech thus treated Shechem
(.Tudg. ix. 45). Salt preserves from corrup-
tion and renders food ])alatable, and is there-
fore used figuratively for the true disciples
of Jesus, who by their precepts and exam-
ple raise the moral tone of society (Mat. v.
13; Mark ix. .50; Luke xiv. 34). Salt is also
used for wholesome character and speech
(Mark ix. 50 ; Col. iv. 6). Salt when exposed
to the rain and sun or stored in damp houses
is apt to lose its taste and become useless. It
cannot be used like much other refuse as a
fertilizer, for it is good for nothing (Mat. v.
13; Luke xiv. .35). During the convulsion
in which the guilty cities of the plain were de-
stroyed. Lot's wife, lingering in the doomed
region, perished, and was transformed into a
pillar of salt (Gen. xix. 26; Wisd. x. 7;
Antiq. i. 11, 4). She was probably over-

Salt, City of

633

Salutation

•whelnipd by a shower of salt or incrusted
witli sjilt.

A fovt'iiaiit of Kilt was a covenant of per-
manent rontinuanee and perpetual <)l)liga-
tion (Lev. ii. lo ; Num. xviii. li) ; 2 Cbrou.
xiii. 5).

Salt, Cit'y of.

A litv in the wilderness of Judah. It is
mentioned along with En-gedi on the shore
of the Dead Sea, from which therefore, pre-
sumably, it was not far distant (Josh. xv. 62).
Exact situation unknown.

Salt, Valley of.

A valley in which the army of Da-
vid slew 18,000 men of Aram (2 Sam.
viii. 13) or rather Edoni (14 ; 1 Chron.
xviii. 12 ; cp. 1 Kin. xi. 15-17; Ps. Ix. title) ;
see D.\LETH. Amaziah, king of Judah, slew
10.000 Edomites in the valley of Salt, and
then took their capital. Sela (2 Kin. xiv. 7 ;

2 Chron. xxv. 11). The natural locality in
which to look for the valley of Salt is at the
southern end of the Dead Sea, where there
is a range of hills 5 miles in length, con-
sisting of layers of salt, and between this
chain and the sea is a valley 6 or 8 miles
long. It is against this identification, how-
ever, that the Hebrew word ge' applied to
it is the appropriate one for a glen rather
than a broad valley. It may have been a
gorge descending from the Edomite hills, in
the direction of the salt range.

Salt Sea.

The name given in the O. T. to what is
now generally called the Dead Sea (Gen. xiv.

3 ; Num. xxxiv. 3, 12 ; Deut. iii. 17 ; Josh.
XV. 2. r>). See Dead Sea.

Salt'wort.

The rendering of the Hebrew MaUuah, sa-
line plant (Job XXX. 4 ; in A. V. mallows).
It was used as food by the very poor. Two
genera of plants are commonly so designated,
Snlicortiia and F^alsola, but neither is suitable
for food. The plant intended is probably
some other chenopod, as spinach or better
sea purslane (Atriplei halimus). This latter
is a bush. It grows abundantly in salt
marshes along the Mediterranean and on the
shores of the Dead Sea. Its small, thick,
.sour leaves would, in extreme need, furnish
a miserable food.

SaTu [elevated, exalted].

A Simeonite, father of Zimri whom Phine-
has slew (Num. xxv. 14 ; in A. Y. of 1 Mac.
ii. 26 Salom).

Sal-u-ta'tion.

Among the Hebrews salutation on meeting
consisted in the expression of good wishes or
a solemn blessing. The forms most prevalent
were: 1. "Blessed be thou of the Lord," or
" God be gracious unto thee," or the equiv-
alent (Gen. xliii. 29 ; Ruth iii. 10 ; 1 Sam. xv.
13). 2. " The Lord be with thee," to which
the rejoinder was, " The Lord bless thee "
(Ruth ii. 4). 3. " Peace be unto thee," or

" Peace be upon thee," jieace meaning wel-
fare (Luke xxiv. 36). This was the common-
est of all salutations, and is still in useanmng
the Jews. Tln' rejily is: "Upon thee l>e
peace." If the occasion made the words aji-
propriate, the form was: "Peace be unto
thee, and to thine house" (1 Sam. xxv. 6;
Luke X. 5). 4. "Hail!" a common saluta-
tion in the Greek jieriod (Mat. xxvi. 4!):
xxvii. 29; xxviii. 9; Luke i. 28). 5. "Let
the king live forever" was the salutation
addressed by a subject to the Hebrew mon-
arch (1 Kin. i. 31), and was employed in the
Babylonian and Persian courts (Neh. ii. 3;
Dan. ii. 4 ; iii. 9 ; v. 10 ; vi. 6. 21).

At parting a blessing was invoked (Gen.
xxiv. 60; xxviii. 1 ; xlvii. 10 ; Josh. xxii. 6),
which eventually assumed the conventional
form, " Go in peace," or " Farewell " (1 Sam.
i. 17; XX. 42; 2 Sam. xv. 9; Mark v. 34;
Acts xvi. 36) ; and the rejoinder to a superior
might be, " Let thv servant find grace in thr
sight" (1 Sam. i. 18).

Abraham and Lot rose up to meet passing
strangers, bowed before them to the earth,
and pressed hospitality upon them (Gen.
xviii. 2 ; xix. 1) ; Boaz exchanged greeting
with his reapers (Ruth ii. 4) ; travelers on
the road saluted workmen in the field (Ps.
cxxix. 8) ; members of a family greeted each
other in the morning and after long separa-
tion (Ex. iv. 27 ; Prov. xxvii. 14). The salu-
tation was often withheld from men f>f a dif-
ferent religion (Mat. v. 47) ; and rightly so,
when it was apt to lead to fellowship and to
imply a wish for the success of a bad cause
(2 John 11). Messengers might be charged
to salute no man by the way (2 Kin. iv. 29 ;
Luke X. 4), for the formality incident to of-
fering a greeting and receiving a response in-
volved delay. The bow was not a mere nod,
but profound obeisance or prostration ; and
in deferential greeting a rider dismounted
from his beast or left his chariot (1 Sam. xxv.
23: 2 Kin. v. 21).

Letters in Palestine, before the conquest
of the country by the Hebrews, and in
Egypt, always began with salutations. The
greetings are all framed on the same model.
A son begins a letter to his father thus : " To
Dudu, my lord, my father, speaketh thus
Aziru thy son, thy servant. At the feet of
my father I prostrate myself. Unto the feet
of my father may there be peace." A sub-
ject addresses his liege, the king of Egyjit.
after this manner: "To the king my lord,
my god, my sun-god. speaketh thus Yapahi
thy servant and the dust of thy feet. At the
feet of the king my lord, my god, my sun-
god, .seven times seven times I prostrate my-
.self." The governor of a district writes to
his equals: "To the kings of Canaan, ser-
vants, my brothers, thus the king." And
Pharaoh begins a letter to a neighboring
monarch with the words: "To Kallima-Sin,
king of Karduniyash, my brother, .speaketh
thus Nibnuariya [Amenophis iii.] the great

Samaria 634

Samaria

king, king of Egypt, thy brother. To me is
peace [welfare]. May peace be to thee and
thy house, to thy children, magnates,
horses, chariots, in thy land may there be
abundant peace."

The usual epistolary salutation in the
Greco-Roman period in Palestine was briefer,
more direct, more businesslike, and in it
the name of the writer commonly stands
first. " King Alexander to his brother Jon-
athan, greeting" (1 Mac. x. 18). "King
Demetrius unto the nation of the Jews,
greeting " (25 ; and so Acts xv. 23 ; xxiii. 26 ;
Jas. i. 1). The letter was frequently con-
cluded with a salutation, derived from Latin
usage, "Farewell" (Acts xv. 29; xxiii. 30).
To the brief salutation after the Latin man-
ner, the Hebrews, following their own cus-
toms, often added a prayer for peace (2 Mac.
i. 1). Their salutation also was often elab-
orate (1-5), and the old order was frequently
observed (ix. 19, 20). The salutations with
which Paul begins his letters are equally
manifold (Rom. i. 1-7). In the epistles to
Timothy he wishes his true child in the faith,
grace, mercy, and peace ; but his usual greet-
ing is, "Grace unto you and peace," and he
was apt to close his letters with salutations
from himself and others (1 Thcs. i. 1 ; v. 26-
28, his first letter).

1

Shemer ; and as it expressed the idea of
watching, guarding, keeping, it suggested an
appropriate designation for a city on a hill.
Accordingly Omri called the city Shom'ron,
place of watch (1 Kin. xvi. 24). The emi-
nence which the city crowned was some-
times denominated the mountain of Samaria
(Amos iv. 1 ; vi. 1). It stood in the midst of
a fertile valley (Is. xxviii. 1). The site was so
well chosen that the city continued to be the
capital of the kingdom to the captivity of the
ten tribes, the successive sovereigns reigning,
and at their death being buried, there (1 Kin.
xvi. 28, 29; xx. 43; xxii. 10, 37, 51, etc.).
Scarcely was Samaria built before hostilities
arose between Benhadad I., king of Syria,
and Omri. The former, if his son spoke the
truth, had the advantage, and, to please the
victor, Omri had to make streets in Samaria
for Syrian merchants (1 Kin. xx. 34). Dur-
ing the reign of Ahab, Omri's son and suc-
cessor, the city was unsuccessfully besieged
by Benhadad II. (1-21). In or near the cap-
ital was a pool, on the side of which the royal
attendants washed the blood-stained chariot
ill Avliirh Ahab'sbody was brought home from
Ramdth-gilead (xxii. 38). In the days of
probably Joram it was unsuccessfully be-
sieged by Benhadad II. (2 Kin. vi. 8-vii. 20).
The elders of Samaria, afraid of displeasing

Sebustiuh, ancitully .Samaria, as seen from the east-northeast, with Mountains of Ephraim in the
background and the Mediterranean Sea in the distance.

Sa-ma'ri-a.

1. The capital of the ten tribes during the
longest period of their history. It was built
or commenced by Omri, king of Israel, on a
hill purchased for two talents of silver or
about $3900. The former owner's name was

Jehu, obeyed his order to murder Ahab's
seventy sons (x. 1-10). All along from the
commencement of the city it had been a
place notorious for its idolatry. Ahab had led
the way in this heathen worship by rearing
a temple and an altar to Baal (1 Kin. xvt.

Samaria

635

Samaria

32), and as in his reign reference is made to
400 prophets of the Asherah who ate at
Jezebel's table (xviii. 19), it is probable that
the idol so named remained till Jehu's reign
(2 Kin. xiii. 6). Attendant on this idolatry
was great corruption of morals (Hos. vii. 1-8 ;
xiii. 16; Amos iv. 1; viii.l4). Against these
idolatrous practices Elijah worked (1 Kin.
xviii.). Elisha made the city his headquar-
ters (2 Kin. V. 3-9 ; vi. 32). And doubtless
Hosea labored there. Samaria and the king-
dom were threatened with judgment by many
prophets (Is. vii. 9; viii. 4; Jer. xxxi. 5;
Ezek. xvi. 46, 51, 53, 55 ; xxiii. 33 ; Hos. viii.
5, 6 ; xiii. 16 ; Amos iii. 12 ; Mic. i. 5-9). At
length, the menaced infliction came. The
siege was begun by the Assyrians under Shal-
maueser, 724 B. C, and three years later, in
722. the city was captured by the king of As-
syria (2 Kin. xvii. 3-6). The glory of the cap-
ture is claimed by Sargon, Shalmaneser's suc-
cessor, who in that year ascended the throne ;

province of Syria. Gabinius fortified it anew
(Antiq. xiii. 15, 4 ; xiv. 4, 4 ; 5, 3). It was
rebuilt and refortilied by Herod the Great,
who called it SeV^aste, a Greek word corre-
sponding to Augustus, the title of his patron,
the first Eomau emperor (xv. 8, 5). At Sa-
maria the evangelist Philip labored success-
fully (Acts viii. 5-8), and the doubtful con-
version of Simon Magus took place (9-13).
To follow up Philip's success, Peter and John
came for a time from Jerusalem (14-25). The
site has been thoroughly identified as es-Se-
bustieh, a village and ruin on a hill 6 miles
northwest of Shechem, in the center of
Palestine. The sides are steep, the summit
a table-land aljout a mile from east to west.
There are broken columns, large, sometimes
carved, stones, evidently from important
buildings, and heaps of rubbish. Some of
this debris has descended from higher to
lower levels, recalling the proi)hecv of Micah
(i. 6).

Herod's Colonnade at Sebustieh.

see Sargon. The conquerors repeopled the
town with foreigners (24) ; see Samaritan.
In 332 or 331 B. c. Alexander the Great took
Samaria, and transferred its inhabitants to
Shechem, placing Syro-Macedouians in their
room. About the year 109 B. c. Samaria was
besieged by John Hyrcanus, who drew
around it a wall of circumvallation 80 stades
or about 9 miles in extent. The city held out
for a year, but was ultimately forced by fam-
ine to surrender. The victor demolished
it entirely, attempting to efl'aceall proofs that
a fortified city had ever stood on the hill
(Antiq. xiii. 10, 2 and 3 ; War i. 2, 7 and 8).
It was again inhabited in the time of Alex-
ander Jannjeus. Pompey annexed it to the

2. The territory occupied by the ten tribes,
or the kingdom of Israel personified (1 Kin.
xiii. .32 ; xxi. 1 ; 2 Kin. xvii. 24 ; Neh. iv. 2 ;
Is. vii. 9 ; Jer. xxxi. 5 ; Ezek. xvi. 46; Amos
iii. 9). See Ii?RAEL.

3. The district of Samaria, occupying cen-
tral Palestine, between Galilee on the north
and Juda?a on the south (1 Mac. x. 30^.
Josephus' description of its limits (War iii.
3, 4, and 5) is not very intelligible, but he
makes it plain that the northern limit passed
through " a village that is in the great plain
called Ginea." This is apparently En-gan-
nim (Josh. xix. 21 ; xxi. 29 >, at the southern
angle of the plain of Efdraelon. The south-
ern limit was the toparchy Acrabattene, some

Samaritan

6 or 7 miles south of Shechem. Samaria ex-
tended to the Jordan on the east, hut did not
reach the Mediterranean on the west. Accho
belonged to Judaja. The Talmud makes
Antipatris the western limit. It compre-
hended the old territories of Manasseh west
of the Jordan, and of Ephraim, with a por-
tion of Issachar and Benjamin. I'omj)ey, in
(>3 B. c, attached it to the province of Syria
(Antiq. xiv. 4, 4). In A. D. 6 the emperor
Angustus erected Juda?a, Samaria and Idu-
msea into a division of the prefecture of
Syria, called the province of Judsea, and
placed it under procurators (xvii. 13, 5; cp.
11, 4), and this arrangement obtained in the
time of our Lord.

Sa-mar'i-tan.

In the only passage in which the word is
found in the O. T. (2 Kin. xvii. 29) it means
an individual belonging to the old kingdom
of northern Israel. In later Hebrew litera-
ture it signifies an inhabitant of the district
of Samaria in central Palestine (Luke xvii.
11). How, then, did the Samaritan nation-
ality or race arise ? When Sargon captured
Samaria, he carried into captivity, by his
own account, 27,280 people. That he left
many Israelites in the land is evident. Find-
ing that the remaining Israelites were re-
bellious, he began a systematic course for
their denationalization. He introduced col-
onists from Babylonia and Hamath (2 Kin.
xvii. 24) and Arabia, who continued to prac-
tice idolatry in their new home. The popula-
tion of the country had been thinned, and the
cultivation of the soil interrupted, by these
wars, so that opportunity was afforded for
wild beasts to multiply, which God used as a
scourge. Lions killed some of the idolaters.
The newcomers concluded that they did not
understand how to worship the particular
god of the country, and they informed the
king of Assyria. He sent them a priest from
among the captive Israelites, who took up
his residence at Bethel and began to instruct
the people regarding Jehovah. He was un-
able to persuade them to abandon their an-
cestral idolatry. They erected images of
their gods on the high places of the Israel-
ites, and combined their idolatries with the
worship of Jehovah (2.5-33). This dual wor-
ship they kept up until after the fall of Je-
rusalem (34-41). Esarhaddon continued the
policy of his grandfather, Sargon ( Ezra iv. 2),
and the great and noble Asnapper, perhaps
Ashurbanipal, completed the work by adding
to the population people from Elam and else-
where (9, 10).

The new province of the Assyrian em|)ire
was weak, and Josiah or his agents traversed
its whole extent, everywhere destroying the
high places with which it abounded (2 Chron.
xxxiv. 6, 7). The idols wore still on these
high places, but it is probable that idolatry
was decreasing under the influence of the
Israelites who remained in the land and

636

Samaritan

^^^■j

through the teaching of the priests. And
this act of Josiah's was another blow to it.
Several decades later some among the Samari-
tans were in the habit of visiting the temple
at Jerusalem for worshij) (Jer. xli. 5). When
Zerubbabel led back his band of exiles from
Babylonia to Jerusalem, the Samaritans
asked permission to jiarticipate in the erec-
tion of the temple on the ground that they
had worshiped the God of Israel ever since
the time of Esarhaddon (Ezra iv. 2).

There was early a repugnance on the part
of most of the Jews to social and religious
association with the Samaritans, and this
feeling developed into intense antipathy as
years rolled on (Ezra iv. 3 ; Ecclus. 1. 25, 26 ;
Lukeix. 52, 53 ; John iv. 9). The Samaritans
were neither of pure Hebrew blood nor of
uncontaminated worship. Josephus (Antiq.
ix. 14, 3) says that when the Jews were in
prosperity, the Samaritans claimed that they
were allied to them in blood ; but when they
saw them in adversity, they declared that
they had no relationship to them, but were
descended from the Assyrian immigrants.
When the offer of the Samaritans to assist
in rebuilding the tem])le was rejected by
Zerubbabel, Je.shua, and their associates, the
Samaritans made no further efforts at con-
ciliation, but did their best with other ad-
versaries to prevent the completion of the
work (Ezra iv. 1-10) ; they also opposed the
rebuilding later on of the walls of Jerusalem
by Nehemiah (Neh. iv. 1-23). Their leader
on the latter occasion was Sanballat, the
Horonite. It was he whose son-in-law was
put out of the priesthood by Nehemiah ; and
the father-in-law probably founded the Sa-
maritan temple on mount Gcrizim, which he
designed for the use of the expelled digni-
tary ; see Sanballat. Henceforward fugi-
tives from discipline at Jerusalem were ac-
customed to go to the rival edifice on mount
Gerizim where they were sure of obtaining a
warm welcome (Antiq. xi. 8, 7). During the
persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes they
declared that they were not of the same race
as the Jews, and gratified the tyrant by ex-
pressing a desire that their temple on mount
Gerizim might in future be dedicated to
Jupiter, the defender of strangers (2 Mac. vi.
2). About 129 B. e. John Hyrcanus took
Shechem and Gerizim, destroying the Sa-
maritan temple (Antiq. xiii. 9, 1) ; but the
worshipers continued to offer their adora-
tions on the summit of the hill where the
sacred edifice had stood. They did so when
our Lord was on earth (John iv. 20, 21).

In the time of Christ their theological
tenets did not essentially differ from those
of the .Tews, and especially of the Sadducean
sect. They shared with them the expecta-
tion of a coming Messiah (John iv. 25). They,
however, accepted no more of the O. T. than
the Pentateuch. The main cause for the
Samaritans' receiving the gospel so gladly
when Philip preached to them was the mira-

Samaritan Pentateuch

637

Sampsames

cles whifli he wrouglit (Arts viii. 5, 6) ; but
another ini<h)iil)ti'illy was tliat, unlike Juda-
ism, Christianity followed the example and
teaching of its founder and admitted Sa-
maritans within its pale and to the same
privileges as those possessed hy the Jewish
converts (Luke x. 'J!»-37 ; xvii. l(i-18; John
iv. 1-42). About 150 Samaritans still exist at
and around Nablus, the ancient Shechem.

Sa-mar'it-an Pen'ta-teuch.

The Samaritans possessed the Pentateuch
in Ilebri'w. It was quoted by Jerome, Euse-
bius, and other Christian fathers. In A. D.
161G Fietro della ^'alle pui-ehased a copy from
the Samaritans of Damascus, which was
placed in 1623 in the library of the Oratory
in Paris. By the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury fifteen other copies, more or less com-
plete, had reached Europe, and the number
has since been increased. INIorin, or Morinus,
who first studied it, considered the Samaritan
text vastly superior to that of the Masoretes.
Controversy on the subject went on, with
occasional intervals, for nearly two centuries,
till, in 1815, the great Hebrew scholar Gese-
nius, who had made a very careful examina-
tion of the Samaritan text, jiroved it to be
far inferior to that of the Hebrew Masoretes,
and of small critical value. Most of the
Samaritan rolls, containing the whole or a
part of the Pentateuch, are supposed not to
be older than the tenth century of the Chris-
tian era ; one or two in the custody of the
Samaritans at Nablus, the ancient Shechem,
are considered to be older. The several
rolls are in the Samaritan character, that on
the Maccabjean coins, which was also that of
the Hebrews before they introduced the
present square letters. The Samaritan text
frequently diflTers from the Hebrew text of
the Masoretes. In Deut. xxvii. 4 we read
that Moses directed the people when they
passed the Jordan to set uji certain stones in
mount Ebal, plaster them, and write on them
the law. Here the Samaritans have substi-
tuted Gerizim for Ebal, to increase the ven-
eration for their sacred mountain. There are
various other less important variations; see
Chronology. Most of them are manifestly
due to the haste of the scribes or to altera-
tions which they deliberately made In
about 2000 places the text agrees with that
of the Septuagint against the Hebrew read-
ings, which indicates that the Greek trans-
lators used a Hebrew text much like that
possessed by the Samaritans. An interesting
inquiry is : At what date and how did the
Samaritans obtain this Pentateuch ? An old
and still widely-received opinion is that they
did so by transcribing copies of the sacred
volume which had existed among them prior
to the disruption of the monarchy, under
Eehoboam 931 B. c. Another view is that
the volume was circulated among them by
the priest who was sent to instruct the
heathen colonists brought from Assyria to

repeoi)le Samaria after its original inhab-
itants had l)een carried captive, about 722
B. c. A third opinion is that the Samaritan
Pentateuch was carried from Jerusalem by a
renegade priest about the time that the tem-
ple was built on mount Gerizim. The form
of the letters and the alteration already
mentioned of Ebal into (ierizim in the sacred
text atford a certain slight sujijiort to the
third hypothesis. At any rate the change
was made after Gerizim had become the
scene of temjile worship.

The Samaritan Pentateuch must not be
confounded with the Samaritan version of
the Pentateuch, made into the dialect of the
Samaritans early in the Christian era. They
possess an Arabic translation also, made in
the eleventh or twelfth century, a book of
Joshua, founded on the canonical book of
the same name and written about the thir-
teenth century A. D., and some other litera-
ture.

Sa'mech.

The fifteenth letter of the Hebrew alpha-
bet. No letter of the English alphabet orig-
inally corresponds to it, and s is forced into
service in anglicizing Hebrew names which
contain it, as Joseph. It heads the fifteenth
section of Ps. cxix., in which section each
verse of the original begins with this letter.

Sam-gar-ne'bo [Shumgir-Nabu, be gracious,
Nebo !]

One of Nebuchadnezzar's princes who en-
tered Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix. 3j.

Sani'lah [a garment].

A king of the Edomites, a native of Mas-
rekah (Gen. xxxvi. 36, 37).

Sa'mos [a height by the seashore].

An island about 80 miles in circumference
off the coast of Asia Minor, south by west
of Ephesus, and nearly opposite to the
promontory of Trogyllium. After the defeat
of Antiochus the Great by the Romans at
Magnesia, in 190 B. c, it was independent
(1 Mac. XV. 23) ; but it was under the influ-
ence of Pergamos, and along with Pergamos
it passed into the hands of the Romans in
134 B. c. At the time Paul reached it (Acts
XX. 15), it still enjoyed the autonomy con-
ferred upon it by the Romans in 19 b. c. Its
inhabitants were noted for commercial enter-
prise. Many of their coins still exist.

Sam-0-thra'ce, in A. V. Sam-o-thra'ci-a
[Sam OS of Thrace].

An island in the archipelago off the coast
of Thrace and oppo.site the mouth of the
Hebrus. It has an area of about .30 square
miles, and has in it a mountain 5000 feet
high. Paul's vessel made a straight course
to the island from Troas, in Asia Minor (Acts
xvi. 11).

Samp'sa-mes.

A country, rather than a king, which was
friendly to Rome (1 Mac. xv. 23). Not iden-
tified.

Samson

638

Samson

Sam'son [sunny, little sun, perhaps, de-
stroyer].

Oue of the most eminent of the Hebrew
judges. He was the son of a Daiiite called
Manoah, was born at Zorah, within the limits
of the southern territory of Dan, and had
his birth and his subsequent career announced
beforehand to his parents by the angel of the
Lord. He was a Nazirite from his birth,
no razor coming upon his head, and no wine
or strong drink entering into his mouth. As
long as he submitted to these restrictions he
was capable of heroic achievements against
the Philistines (Judg. xiii. 1-24). Circum-
stances conspired at this time to separate
Judah and Dan from the rest of the Hebrews
and to compel these two tribes to act alone.
They were at the mercy of the Philistines,
who had promptly embraced the opportunity
to oppress them. Isolated, Judah was able
to do little more than harass the oppressors
by bold deeds and stratagems. The Spirit
of the Lord early moved Samson to com-
mence his lifework in the camp of Dan (25) ;
but almost from the outset he showed one
conspicuous weakness in his character. He
was the slave of passion. He was betrothed
to a Philistine woman, a native of Timnath ;
but she married another man, and in revenge
Samson, aided perhaps by his friends, caught
300 jackals or foxes, tied them together in
pairs by the tails, with a burning torch be-
tween, and turned them loose amidst the rip-
ened grain of the Philistines (xiv. 1-xv. 5).
The Philistines invaded Judah and demanded
that Samson be delivered unto them. He
permitted his craven countrymen to bind
him in whom they failed to perceive their
deliverer. But when he was about to be
surrendered to the uncircumcised Philistines
the Spirit of the Lord came mightily upon
him, and he snapped the ropes asunder. The
Philistines, amazed at his display of strength,
feared him. He seized the jawbone of an
ass, and as the Philistines turned to flee, he
pursued them and slew a thousand men in
round numbers. They fell in several heaps.
Samson acknowledged that the work was of
Cxod, and confessed his own need of help lest
he die of thirst. God in his providence
caused a spriug to give forth its water. The
men of Judah now recognized him as their
deliverer (6-20). Afterwards he fearlessly
went to Gaza, and there he fell into sin. The
Gazites thought that their opportunity had
come to seize him, and they shut the city
gates ; but at midnight he came to the gate,
and, finding it closed, laid hold of its doors
and plucked them and the bar away and
carried them to the top of a hill in the direc-
tion of Hebron. An entanglement with the
woman Delilah, from the valley of Sorek,
caused his ruin. By direction of her country-
men, she importuned him to tell her in what
his great strength lay. At first he gave her
deceitful answers, but at last he revealed the
secret. If his head were shaved, he would

become weak as another man. The Philis-
tines at once shaved his head, and found
that his strengtli had departed. They there-
fore put out his eyes, and made him grind in
the prison house at Gaza. They brought hiin
out to exhibit him to the people on occasion
of a great festival and public sacrifice to
their god Dagon. His hair had by this time
begun again to grow, and he was again ful-
filling his Nazirite vow. The great temple
was full of people, and some three thousand
more were on the roof. Samson knew the
structure of the building, for he had been in
Gaza before when he possessed his sight. He
asked the lad who attended him to let him
rest himself against the two middle pillars
on which the roof was supported, and grasp-
ing them he prayed to God for one more
manifestation of favor and the gift of strength
that he might be avenged on the Philistines.
He then dragged the jtillars from their posi-
tion, brought down the roof and perished with
a multitude of his foes (xvi. 1-31). Notwith-
standing the defects in his character, the N. T.
names him with those Hebrew heroes whose
animating principle was faith (Heb. xi. 32).

Samson had the strength of a man in a
preternatural degree. When the Sj)irit of
the Lord impelled him from time to tiuie, he
accomi)lished his great deeds. His strength
did not reside in his long hair. His unshorn
locks were the external evidence of his rela-
tion to God, a public profession that he was
acting as the servant of the Lord. When he
allowed his hair to be cut, he broke his vow,
and it is significantly said that the Lord
abandoned him. His marvelous strength
failed when God left him, and it returned
when God granted his prayer. His preter-
natural strength was a sign, testifying to the
men of Judah that this Nazirite was indeed
called of God to deliver them from their
enemies, and bearing witness among the
Philistines to the superiority of the servant
of Jehovah.

Various attempts have been made to group
the deeds of Samson. Ewald, led by a
favorite theory of his, thought he could dis-
cover a drama in five acts. In -fact the nar-
rative itself describes five groups of related
deeds. 1. Those that resulted from his
wooing of the woman of Timnath ; namely,
his rending the lion, slaughter of thirty
Philistines at Ashkelon, release of the jack-
als bearing burning torches among the
ripened grain of tlie Philistines, and a defeat
of the Philistines who had l)urned the woman.
2. The events at the rock of Etam, when his
fellow-countrymen asked permission to de-
liver him into the hands of tlie Phili.stines,
and he broke hisbondsof rope in the presence
of the uncircumcised, slew a thou.sand of
their number with the jawbone of an ass,
and by prayer obtained watt^r to quench his
thirst. 3. The visit to Gaza, when he car-
ried off the doors of the city gate. 4. His
passion for the Philistine woman Delilah,

Samuel

C39

Samuel

when lie broke the seven green withes
wherewith she had bound him and then tlie
nine eords with which she next l)ound him,
and tore away the web with which she had
woven his locks. 5. A blind slave at Gaza,
when he pulled doAvn the pillars on which the
roof of Dagon's temple rested. The particu-
lar achievements in the five groujis are
twelve as enumerated. Samson's name may be
interpreted as meaning sunny, and a strenu-
ous eti'ort has been made by Koskoff, Stein-
thal, and others like minded, to connect them
with the twelve labors of Hercules or with
the Babylonian Izdubar or otherwise with
the sun-god Shamash. Hercules wandered in
search of adventures, slew a lion, slept, was
sold as a slave, immolated himself volun-
tarily. Izdubar overcame the lion, rejected
the advances of Ishtar, the goddess of love.
Hercules is a sun-myth. The story of Izdu-
bar is the history of an ancient king of
Erech embellished with legend and wrought
out into an epic in twelve parts; see Nim-
BOD. But with neither the sun-god nor the
king of Erech is Samson to be identified ;
for — 1. The ancient Hebrews themselves as-
signed Samson to a time well within their
historical i)eriod, in the generation before
Samuel and Saul. 2. The Hebrew account
of Samson states definitely the place of his
birth and his deeds, and gives the location
of his grave. 3. The enumeration of twelve
labors is a matter of some importance to
those who would identify Samson with Her-
cules or Izdubar, but in itself the number is
not of consequence. And the number twelve
is not so readily made out. The cry of Sam-
son to God for drink can scarcely be called a
labor of Samson's. The narrative speaks of
other deeds of Samson which it does not spe-
cify (Judg. xiii. 25), showing that the narrator
did not think of tw^elve achievements only.
4. While the stieugth which Samson exer-
cised was the gift of God and was not in-
herent in him as a man, while it failed when
he was left to himself, yet it was preter-
natural in the sense that what he accom-
j)lished by it might have been a work of
nature, but was not. In most of the exam-
ples aflorded of it, it finds parallels in human
annals. David without a weapon slew a lion
and a bear ; Jonathan and his armor-bearer,
and Eleazar and Shammah and Abishai each
single-handed performed prodigies of valor
equal to Samson's (1 Sam. siv. 1-17; 2 Sam.
xxiii. 9-12, 18), and modern history i>resents
other parallels. The nature of the feats per-
formed in carrying oflT the doors of Gaza's
gate and in dragging the two columns from
their position cannot be determined until
information is at hand regarding the struc-
ture of these particular doors and the archi-
tecture of Dagon's temple. The deeds may
have been superhuman and miraculous.

Sam'u-el, in A. V. once Shemuel (1 Chron.
vi. 33) [name of God].

The earliest of the great Hebrew prophets
after Moses and the last of the judges. His
father, Elkanah, was a Levite, family of
Kohath, house of Izhar (see Elk.\nah 4);
he was a Zophite, because descended through
Zophai or Zuph (1 Sam. i. 1 ; 1 Chron. vi.
26, 3.')) ; and he was a man of the hill
country of Ephraim or an Ephraimite, be-
cause the family had been assigned resi-
dence in that tribe (Josh. xxi. 5 ; 1 Chron.
vi. 66). Elkanah lived in Ramah or, as it
was called to distinguish it from other towns
of the name, Eamathaim of the Zophites (1
Sam. i. 1, 19; ii. 11). He had two wives.
Peninnah and Hannah. Hannah had no
child and prayed earnestly to God that she
might give birth to a boy, vowing that if her
prayer were answered the infant should be
devoted for life to Jehovah, apparently as a
Nazirite, for she added, "There shall no
razor come upon his head" (cp. Num. vi.
1-5). Her petition was granted. She named
the boy Samuel ; and when he was weaned
she brought him to the tabernacle at Shiloh,
and put him in charge of the high i)riest,
Eli, to train him for his sacred duties (1
Sam. i. ; ii. 1-17). While yet a child he
ministered before God, clad in the simple
linen ephod which was worn by ordinary
priests when engaged in the sanctuary and
^ven by laymen (ii. 18). He lived at the
tabernacle, sleeping in some chamber con-
nected with it, opened the doors of the sanc-
tuary in the morning, and otherwise assisted
Eli in his ministrations (iii. 1, 3, 15). He
had not advanced beyond early boyhood
when Jehovah revealed to him the approach-
ing doom of Eli's house for the foolish in-
dulgence which the father had shown to his
unworthy sons (iii. 1-18). Josephus says that
Samuel was twelve years old at this time
(Antiq. v. 10, 4). His statement is about
right; but his authority for it is unknown.
By the time that the child had reached man-
hood all Israel, from Dan even to Beer-sheba,
knew that he was established to be a prophet
of the Lord, for the Lord revealed himself
to Samuel in Shiloh (1 Sam. iii. 20, 21). Soon
afterwards the judgment threatened against
Eli and his house began by the death of Eli's
two sons in battle, the cai)ture of the ark by
the Philistines, and the death of Eli on hear-
ing the fatal news (iv. 1-22). The ark was
soon restored to the Israelites ; but it was
kept in seclusion and placed for safe keeping
with a proper guardian at Kirjath-jearim
until the people should be sjiiritually pre-
pared to receive it. Samuel was an ac-
credited prophet and, since the death of Eli,
the chief religious authority in the land.
He addressed himself to the work of reform-
ing the people. Twenty years after the
restoration of the ark he found the moral
condition of the nation improved, and he
convoked an assembly at Mizpah, near the
place where the ark had been lost, to make
confession of sin, to fast before the Lord,

Samuel, Books of

640

Samuel, Books of

and to beseech a return of his favor. The
Philistines gathered their forces to battle
when they heard of this assembly ; but
Samuel exhorted the people to pray for de-
liverance, and he himself besought the Lord
for Israel. A thunderstorm discomfited the
Philistines, the Israelites discerned the hand
of God, embraced the opportunity, pursued
the enemy, and gained such a victory over
the Philistines as deterred those pertinacious
foes from again invading the land while Sam-
uel was at theheadof afiairs(l Sam.vii. 3-14) ;
see Philistines and Samuel, Books of.
This signal deliverance indicated that Gtod
had raised up Samuel to be judge, in the
usual sense of defender and director. Like
Deborah, and more fully like Moses, Samuel
was accredited prophet and judge. In the
discharge of his duties he went annually in
circuit to Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah ; but
his residence was at Ramah, where a com-
pany of prophets gathered about him to be
at his service in the work of reform (vii.
15-17; xix. 18-20). Here he built an altar
to the Lord ; for God had forsaken Shiloh,
the ark was in necessary seclusion, the cov-
enant was in abeyance because the Israelites
had broken it by their idolatries and sacri-
lege, and he was Jehovah's representative;
see Altar. During the years of his vigorous
administration the land enjoyed freedom
from foreign domination. When he was old
he made his two sons judges at Beer-sheba.
They proved themselves unworthy of their
high trust, taking bribes and perverting jus-
tice. Their misconduct and the threatening
attitude of the surrounding heathen nations
])roduced the request on the part of the
Israelite elders and people for the institution
of kingly government; and Samuel was di-
vinely commissioned to anoint first Saul,
and when he was rejected, David ; see the de-
tailed account in Samuel, Books of. Samuel
died while David was a fugitive from Saul in
the wilderness of En-gedi. He was buried
in his house at Ramah, all Israel lamenting
his loss (xxv. 1). On the night before the
battle of Gilboa, Saul desired the woman
with the familiar spirit at En-dor to call up
Samuel from Sheol (xxviii. 3-25); see Saul.
Heman, one of David's singers, was a grand-
son of Samuel (1 Chron. vi. 33, R. V. ; cp. 28).
Samuel is in the list of O. T. heroes whose
animating principle was faith (Heb. xi. 32).

Sam'u-el, Books of.

Two ])ooks of the O. T. They were orig-
inally one, as appears from the Masoretic
note to 1 Sam. xxviii. 24, which states that
this verse is the middle of the book. They
are treated as one by Josephus in his enu-
meration of the books of the O. T., and in He-
brew manuscripts. The division was intro-
duced into the printed Hebrew Bible in 1517,
and was derived from the Septuagint and
Vulgate. As Samuel is the leading person
during the first half of the period covered.

as he was one of the greatest of the prophets
that Israel ever had, the organizer of the
kingdom, the agent in the selection of both
Saul and David for the throne, and the coad-
jutor of Saul so long as the king remained
faithful to his theocratic obligations, the book
appropriately bears Samuel's name. As it
contains the history of the first two kings,
it is divided in the Septuagint into two books,
and called Fir.st and Second of Kingdoms;
and the two books which continue the liis-
tory, and are known in the English version
as First and Second Book of the Kings, are
called Third and Fourth of Kingdoms in the
Septuagint. Jerome substituted Book of
Kings for Book of Kingdoms in his Latin
version.

The work is divisible into three sections :
1. Samuel, the ])rophet and judge (i.-vii.),
including his birth and early life, the causes
which led to his call to the prophetic office
(iii. 20), and which left him as prophet in
possession of the .sole authority and opened
the way for his judicial administration (iv.),
his reformatory work, and the attestation of
his right to the judgeship, which was afforded
by the deliverance of Isi'ael from Philistine
oppression by his hand (vii. 1-12). Summary
of his administration (13-17). 2. Saul the
king (viii.-xxxi.), including (a) The popular
demand for a king in Samuel's old age and
Samuel's promise to accede to it (viii.), the
interview between Samuel and Saul and the
anointing of Saul in private (ix. 1-x. 16), the
public assembly called by Samuel at Mizpah,
and tlie selection of Saul by lot (17-26),
the dissatisfaction of a portion of the people
(27), the occasion which won the people for
their divinely appointed king and his induc-
tion into office (xi.), Samuel's farewell ad-
dress (xii.). (b) Revolt against the Philis-
tines, and Saul's failure to observe his theo-
cratic obligations (xiii.), the feat of Jonathan,
leading to the rout of the Philistines (xiv. 1-
46), summary of Saul's wars (47, 48), his
family (49-51), the particulars of one of
these wars, that with Amalek, in which Saul
again and in aggravated manner shows his
c(mtempt for his theocratic obligations (xv.).
Then follows (c) An account of the latter
years of Saul's reign, with special reference
to the relations between the king and David
(xvi.-xxxi.) ; Saul having been rejected by
God, Samuel by divine direction anoints
David (xvi. 1-13), Saul troubled by an evil
spirit summons David as harpist to court
(14-23), David slays Goliath and l)ecomes a
permanent attache of Saul's court (xvii. 1-
xviii. 5). jealousy of Saul and his attempts
on David's life (6-xix. 17), flight of David
from court and his wandering life (18-xxvii.
12), invasion of the Philistines and Saul's
inquiry of the woman with the familiar
si)irit (xxviii.), David, expelled from the
Philistine camp, pursues a marauding band
of Amalekites (xxix., xxx.), battle of (iilboa
and death of Saul (xxxi.). 3. David the

Samuel, Books of

641

Samuel, Books of

kiiij; (2 Sam. i.-xxiv.). Announcenu'iit of
Siiul's ileatli to David (i.), contest for \hv
throne between David, supjjorted by tlie men
of Judah, and Isb-boslieth as head of the
otlier tribes (ii.-iv.), David made king by all
Israel (v. 1-3), his reign (4-xxiv.). See
David.

The autlior of the double book was a
I)ropliet, for it is placed among the prophets in
the Hebrew canon. Samuel wrote a book and
laid it up before the Lord (1 Sam. x. 25), and
part of tlie double book may be derived from
tlie History of Samuel the Seer (1 Chron.
xxix. 29); but scarcely half of the book
<'ould have come from his pen, for he died
before the end of Saul's reign (1 Sam. xxv. 1).
It was written after David's death (2 Sam.
V. 5). An allusion to the kings of Judah
probably indicates that the book was not
-completed until after the division of the
Israelites into the kingdoms of Judah and
Israel (1 Sam. xxvii. 6), but the distinction
between Israel and Judah existed in the
time of David (xi. 8; xvii. 52; xviii. 6; 2
Sam. iii. 10; xxiv. 1). From Jer. xv. 1
it has been inferred that Jeremiah was ac-
quainted with 1 Sam. xii. There is no refer-
ence to the captivity, and it is universally
believed that the book was composed before
the fall of Jerusalem.

There were several documents relating to
the period treated in the book, such as the
History of Samuel the Seer, the Hi.story of
Kathan the Prophet, and the History of Gad
the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29), but the author
does not mention the sources whence he de-
rived his information, as do the authors of
Kings and Clironicles, and it is uncertain
what records he used. Wellhausen presents
an analysis of the books and their sources
(Prolegomena^). 1. Samuel as a youth. He
is in training for the priesthood, and he
foretells the collapse of the government
which existed before the kingdom was estab-
lished (1 Sam. i.-iii.). The .story was in-
vented after Samuel's career had made him
noted. Chap. ii. 1-10 is an addition of un-
known origin, and verses 27-3fi are a Deuter-
onomistic but preexilic insertion (pp. 126,
281,415; cp. Kittel ii. 29, Anm. 6). 2. Ac-
count of the fall of the house of Eli (iv.-vi.) ;
but iv. IS*" is an addition (p. 254). 3. Saul's
elevation to the throne. "There are two ac-
counts of this, (a) According to one account,
Saul was privately appointed king by Samuel,
who is a seer, and uses his authority to arouse
Saul to the help of Israel (ix. 1-x. 16) ; but
ix. 9 is a gloss, and x. 8 is from a later hand.
Samuel bade Saul to await the fitting oppor-
tunity to come forward (x. 7), and about a
month later (ver. 27'', E. V. margin) the
opportunity is afforded by the investment of
Jabesh-gilead by the Ammonites. Saul sum-
mons the people to arms, leads them against
the foe, is victorious, is hailed as deliverer,
and is taken to Gilgal and made king (xi.) ;
but verses 12-14 are an interpolation bv the
41

author of viii. and x. 17 .seq., intended to
luunionize this account with bis own. The
Philistines in Israel and tlieir defeat by Saul
and Jonathan (xiii., xiv., except that xiii.
7-15, with x. 8, are from a later hand, but older
than cliap. vii.). (b) According to the other
account, Samuel called the peoi'le to repent-
ance (vii. 2-4). Then he summoned them to
Mizpah, near Jerusalem, to pray for relief
from the oppression of the Philistines. The
Philistines fell upon the assembly, but were
routed and driven fn)m the borders (5-14).
Samuel administered the government suc-
cessfully until he became old (15-17). Samuel
having grown old and his sons proving ill-
fitted to rule, the elders of Israel ask for a
king, desiring to cast off" the rule of (iod
and become like other nations (viii.). Saul
was accordingly chosen king by lot at Mizpah
(x. 17-27"), and Samuel delivered a farewell
address (xii.). 4. Chap. xv. is a secondary pro-
duction. It is the original from which xiii.
7-15 is copied, and it is closely related to
xxviii. 3-25. 5. There are two comi)lete
documents about David, which sui>plenient
each other. The first is contained in 1 Sam.
xvi.-2 Sam. viii. The second account em-
braces 2 Sam. ix.-l Kin. ii. It is mutilated
at the beginning, but is otherwise intact, ex-
cept that 2 Sam. xxi.-xxiv. are additions.
The first account embodies a history of David
from his anointment by Samuel to his flight
from Saul. It is connected with 1 Sam. xiv.
52 in xvi. 14. David, as a brave man, recom-
mended by his skill in playing the harj),
comes to Saul's court and is made his armor-
bearer (xvi. 14-23) ; but ver. 14 shows marks
of the redactor. Something followed this
originally, telling of wars with the Philis-
tines, but quite different from the fight be-
tween David and Goliath, which now stands
here. In the conflict witli the Philistines
David acquits himself with distinction, is pro-
moted step by step, and is given the king's
daughter to wife (xviii. 6-30) ; but the reflec-
tions on Saul are due to a late reviser. Chap,
xviii. 29^ Septuagint, is ctmtinued in the ref-
erence to the popular applause which is ac-
corded David, and which arouses the jealousy
of Saul, so that in a fit of madness he hurls
a spear at David (xix. 9, 10). After discus.s-
ing the matter with Jonathan, David fled.
Saul slew the priests at Nob, because their
chief had befriended David (xxi. 2-7, E. V.
1-6 ; xxii. 6-23). The fugitive gathered
a band of desperate men about him and
abode in the wilderness of Judah (xxii.
1-5). There are various additions to this
continuous history of David. The anointing
of David fxvi. 1-13), which depends on the
legend of the battle of the shepherd boy
with Goliath (xvii. 1-xviii. 5). Saul's pur-
pose to slay David is urged by Jonathan as a
reason why David should bide him.«elf (xix.
1-7), which is a late addition, for it shows
acquaintance with cha]). xvii. After Saul
had hurled his spear at David, the latter fled

Samuel, Books of

642

Samuel, Books of

for the first time (xix. 8-10). But David is
still at home, and with the aid of his wife
escapes a second time, ileeing to Samuel in
Ramah (xix. 11-24) ; but verses 18-24 are
corrupt and were unknown to the author of
XV. 35. Verse 18 seems to look back to xvi.
1-13. David is in Gibeah. The king misses
him at the feast; and when the deadly-
hatred of Saul is proven, David finally flees
for good (xx.) ; l)ut this account is impossible
in its present setting. David at Nob obtains
the sword of Goliath from the high priest
(xxi. 8-10, E. V. 7-9). For fear of Saul
David flees that day to Achish, king of
Gath (11-16, E. V. 10-15). The account
of David's life in the wilderness, a fu-
gitive from Saul (xxiii.-xxvii.), contains
three additions to the early document,
namely, xxvii. 7-12; xxvi. 1-25; and xxiii.
14-xxiv. 23, E. V. 22. The last two
are parallel. Chapter xxvi. was placed be-
fore chapter xxvii. on account of xxvi. 19,
and the passage xxiii. 14-xxiv. 23 was placed
before xxv. to avoid juxtaposition with
xxvi. Chapter xxviii. 1, 2 is the immediate
continuation of chapter xxvii., and is itself
continued in xxix.-xxxi. Verses 3-25, Saul's
interview with the woman of En-dor, is
closely related to xv., which is the original
from which xiii. 7-15 is copied. Neither
XV. nor xxviii. belongs to the fundamental
tradition. Each is a prelude to the events
that follow.

Biblical critics of- all schools are agreed
that the author of the Books of Samuel de-
rived the material for his history from various
sources, and all critics would rejoice to have
these sources definitely determined. But all
are not agreed that Wellhausen's analysis,
which is essentially that of the divisive
school, is successful nor that his method is
legitimate. The analysis is based upon con-
tradictions which are alleged to exist be-
tween certain parts of the narrative. To
this allegation of contradictions and conse-
quent evidence of diversity of document it
is replied :

I. The author saw no contradictions be-
tween these .separate parts.

II. The argument that contradictions exist
in the account re.sts upon a special private
exposition of the narrative, and upon a
manipulation of the text, which combine to
produce inconsistencies. Other interjireta-
tion is valid which, without effort, .shows a
consistent narrative throughout. 1 Sam. vii.
13, 14 is said to be irreconcilably contradic-
tory to all else that has been transmitted.
Subsequently we find the domination of the
Philistines in no wise overthrown ; they not
only continue to press across the borders in
Samuel's lifetime, but they are in possession
of the Israelite land, one of their otficials
dwells at Gibeah of Benjamin (Wellhausen).
Driver, with more caution, says: "The con-
sequences of the victory at Ehcn-ezer are in
vii. 13 generalized in terms hardly reconcil-

able with the subsequent history : contrast
the picture of the Philistines' ascendancy
immediately afterwards (x. 5 ; xiii. 3, 19), etc."
The passage does not afiirm, as Wellhausen
assumes it does, that the Israelites captured
Ekron and Gath. They may have done so ;
the passage states that Israel recovered pos-
session of its ancient territory. The Philis-
tines came no more as occupants within the
border of Israel, but Israel delivered its
border from Ekron to Gath out of the hand
of the Philistines (vii. 13, 14 ; cp. border, Jer.
xxxi. 17). The hand of the Lord was against
the Philistines all the days that Samuel ruled
(ver. 13) ; all his days being equivalent, as
the expression frequently is in Scripture, to
his administration. The Philistines, how-
ever, repeatedly crossed the border of Israel
afterwards. They did so before Samuel
died. They even placed ofiicers in towns of
Judah for the collection of tribute, as David
did in Damascus (2 Sam. viii. 6 ; in E. V.,
garrisons). But they did not settle in the
country again, nor did they expel the He-
brews who inhabited it (as Judg. i. 34-36).
By the victory at Eben-ezer Samuel de-
livered the Israelites from the dominion of
the Philistines and recovered the borders of
Israel, and during his vigorous administra-
tion the dread of his name deterred the
Philistines from renewing their invasions,
and his presence inspired the Israelites with
confidence ; but when he grew old, and began
to relinquish the reins of government to his
ineflicient sons, the people lost heart at the
thought of their inveterate enemies. Samuel
was too old to lead them to battle, his sons
were despicable, the Ammonites and the
Philistines were as mighty as ever and only
biding their time. The senility of a ruler,
or the accession of a new and untried king,
was usually the opportunity for which a
waiting foe watched. Nahash the Ammonite
may have already begun to harass the Israel-
ites across the Jordan (1 Sam. xii. 12), though
this interpretation is not absolutely necessary.
"Make us a king," the elders of Israel said
to Samuel, "that he may go before us and
fight our battles" (viii. 5-20). The claim of
a foreign prince to suzerainty over a people
might be ignored for years : but in time,
when the former lord became strong enough,
he himself visited the refractory with an
army and punished them, or else trusting to
the fear which his prowess had begun to in-
spire, on noting the weakness and helpless-
ness of his former tributaries, he sent his
oflicials to inquire why the tribute had been
withheld, and to receive it anew. If the
demand was acceded to, the domestic gov-
ernment of the subject people was not dis-
turbed. This latter course the Philistines pur-
sued. When the inability of Israel to offer
resistance became evident, perhaps after the
rejection of Samuel by the representatives of
the peoi'le was known, the Philistines as-
serted their authority (ix. 16), sent oflicials

I

Samuel, Books of

643

Samuel, Books of

into the country (x. 5), and nltinuitoly, as a
prewiutionary uioasurc, jaTliaps not until
Saul was proclaimed kiiij; at (iilj^al, went so
far as to forbid tires in the forges lest tlie
Israelites should jirovide themselves with
WH'apons (xiii. 19-:i2).

When the elders of Israel, dismayed by
the strength of tlie hostile nations by which
they were surrounded, demanded a king, the
aged Samuel was hurt at llie slight which
was apparently put upon him ; but he was
divinely informed that the people were not
rejecting him, but through lack of faith
were repudiating the rule of the invisible
King, and he was instructed to accede to the
popular request. Accordingly he dismissed
the elders with the promise that he would do
as they desired (1 Sam. viii.).

Shortly after this God revealed to the
prophet that a man of Benjamin should come
to him, and that he should anoint this Ben-
jamite to be king and the deliverer from the
Philistines (1 Sam. ix. 16). When Saul arrived
Samuel entertained him, and in the evening
the two sat on the housetop and communed
together. The sulyect of their conversation is
not hard to divine. The pro])het told Saul
of his call to deliver Israel from the newly
reimposed yoke of the Philistines, instructed
him out of his experience how to meet the
foe, and informed him upon what conditions
he might have God's help in war. On the
morrow, before Saul left, Samuel privately
anointed him, gave him several signs by
which he should know of a surety that God
had called him to the work, and dismissed
him with the charge to be governed by provi-
dential indications, "and," said the prophet,
" go down to Gilgal and tarry seven days till
I come and show thee what thou shalt do "
(x. 7, 8). The meaning of this charge must be
gathered from the housetop conference and
from the event (ix. lG-25; xiii. 8). Saul was
not to proclaim himself king nor to attempt to
free the nation from Philistine domination
until circumstances indicated the time, and
then he was to make Gilgal the rendezvous
and wait seven days for the prophet to come to
offer sacrifice, to entreat the favor of the Lord
on the undertaking, and to instruct him (x.
8; xiii. 12). The object of tliis delay at Gil-
gal was to declare publicly that the king was
merely the vicegerent of heaven, to show
the people that Saul recognized that his royal
authority did not include the priestly office,
that king and prophet must work together.
It was clearly the idea of the two men that
they should cooperate. Saul observed the
principle that underlay this advice. For a
time he exalted the prophet and ranked him-
self only as a colaborer (xi. 7), and he felt
that he needed to know the will of the Lord
through the prophet (xxviii. 15) ; and Samuel
for his part, when Saul was established on
the throne, pui-posed still to assist the people
of God (xii. 23), and even after Saul's sin and
God's rejection of him Samuel went up to

Gibeah of Benjamin, where Saul held court,
to assist him in the administration of the
kingdom by instructing him as to God's will
(xiii. 15).

As directed by Samuel, Saul returned to
his father's house. The signs occurred, and
especially when he met a band of prophets,
})rophesying as they pa.ssed the station of
the Philistine official, the Sjiirit of the Lord
smote him there, and he, too, prophesied.
His countrymen were worshiping God while
their enemies triumjjhed over them. He dis-
cerned the anomaly and prophesied. The
man was awakening to the religious aspect of
his appointed work (1 Sam. x. 9-13).

Samuel now fulfilled his promi.se to the
representatives of the nation. He did not
use his authority to place Saul on the throne ;
the matter was too delicate and the issues too
great. He summoned the people to Mizpah
and the choice was left to God. The lot was
cast before the Lord, and Saul was chosen, a
man of fine appearance, fitted to call forth
the admiration and win the confidence of the
people ; a man of the tribe of Benjamin, the
border tribe between north and south, in
order to avoid the ancient and growing dis-
sension in the nation. The choice was pub-
licly committed to God in order to secure the
allegiance of the pious part of the people for
the divinely appointed king. The people
shouted "God save the king," and the king-
dom was formally established (1 Sam. x. 24,
25). The precautions taken by Samuel were
fully justified by the event. The selection,
although made by God himself, did not ap-
prove itself to all the people ; there were
jealousies, and the dissatisfied asked in dis-
dain, " How shall this fellow, out of one of
the smallest families of a small tribe, save
us?" (27). But Saul quietly retired to his
father's house, accompanied by certain men
of valor, to bide his time and await devel-
opments. He made no claim to the throne
in the face of disaffection ; he did not begin
a civil war to secure the crown ; but he let
the matter drop until God should change the
heart of the people and place him on the
throne without shedding the blood of his
brethren. He devoted himself to attending
to his father's estate.

About a month elapsed in this manner (1
Sani.x.27, R. V. margin). Nahash the Ammon-
ite had pushed his invasion almost to the Jor-
dan and was now besieging Jabesh in Gilead.
The people of that town were in sore straits.
Nahash imposed ignominious conditions of
surrender, as a taunt to all Israel. The men
of Jabesh, however, secured a week's respite
in order to send me.ssengers into all the
coasts of Israel. Some of these messengers,
or all of them, came to Gibeah and made
known their distress. Saul was in the field,
but when he returned and learned the ex-
tremity of his fellow-countrymen, and the
reproach offered to Israel by their heathen
foe, the Spirit of God came mightily upon

Samuel, Books of

644

Samuel, Books of

him, aud he sent through all the borders of
Israel calliug the i)eople to follow him and
Samuel. They responded as one man. Saul
led them to victory, raised the siege of Ja-
besh, and put Nahash to flight (xi. 1-11).
The Philistines had no cause to forbid the
relief of .labesh in Gilead ; on the contrary,
it was to their advantage that the country
tril)utary to them should be kept intact. The
same story of subject peoples being left by the
sovereign state to settle their own domestic dis-
putes aud fight out their quarrels with their
neighbors is familiar in the annals of Assyria
and Egypt. Flushed with victory and proud
of their leader, the people asked : " Who is he
that said. Shall Saul reign over us? bring
the men that we may put them to death."
Saul forbade slaughter, and at Samuel's sug-
gestion the people went to Gilgal, which was
not far ofl', renewed the kingdom and made
Saul king, and this act being accomplished,
Samuel formally delivered the government
into Saul's hands (xi. 12-xii. 25).

Saul was now king, but the work which he
had been raised up to do was only begun.
The Ammonites were driven from the b(n--
ders, but the Israelites still sufl'ered the hu-
miliation of subjection to the Philistines,
They managed indeed their own internal
affairs ; they had a king of their own with
a royal guard of three thousand men ; but
they paid tribute to the Philistines, must
tolerate Philistine officials in their borders,
and were compelled to keep their forges idle.
Saul was biding his time. Two years, accord-
ing to the present questionable Hebrew text,
passed by, when the opportunity arrived.
Jonathan smote the Philistine official at Geba,
and the Philistines assembled their armies to
avenge the insult and quell the insurrection.
The time for action had come ; Saul blew the
trumpet for war, and the Israelites assembled
after him at Gilgal. This was what Samuel
had charged him to do (1 Sam. xiii. 1-7). Well-
hausen excludes the interview between Sam-
uel and Saul at Gilgal from the original nar-
rative as being a late addition. Pie bases his
exclusion of it on the change of place be-
tween verses 4 and 16. Wellhausen identi-
fies Gibeah of Benjamin with Geba of Benja-
min (vers. 3, 4, 16). He may be right in so
doing, for the two names are confused also
in the text of Judges. But he does not ac-
curately give the statements of the Het)rew
account. "At the beginning of the narra-
tive," he says, "Saul is at Gibeah, and there
the Philistines seek for him, stojiping Ix'fore
the place because they meet with resistance
there. Suddenly it is silently assumed (xiii.
7) that Saul has remained at Gilgal since his
selection as king." In view of verse 4, this
is misrepresentation on the part of Well-
hausen. What the ])as.sage plainly says is
quite different. Saul's troops were in Mich-
mash and Bethel and Jonathan's in Gibeah
of Benjamin when Jonathan smote the Phi-
listine otlieial in Geba (2, 3). Then Saul blew

the trumpet and the people gathered together
after him to Gilgal (3, 4; cp. 7). According
to the analysis of Wellhausen, xiii. 1-6 is
continued in verse 16, " Now, as for Saul and
Jonathan and the peo])le that were found
with them, they were dwelling in Geba of
Benjamin and the Philistines had encamped
in Michmash." This is straightforward and
consistent; but Wellhausen continues: "In
xiii. 16 the reader again has the impression
that Saul had l^een long at Gibeah with his
men, when the enemy jiitched their camp
ojjpositc. Only thus can the contrast be-
tween the circumstantial i>artici])le and the
inchoative jierfect be understood." But the
statement of Wellhausen is again inaccurate.
The narrative had left the Philistines at
Michmash (ver. 5) and Saul at Gilgal accord-
ing to Wellhauseu's analysis (ver. 4), and
still at Gilgal, if verse 7 be included in the
narrative. Now it states that Saul and his
men were abiding at Geba of Benjamin,
but the Philistines had encamped in Mich-
mash. The same difficulty, if difficulty
it be, lies against the narrative which Well-
hausen calls original, as against the narrative
which appears in the present Hebrew text.
This simply means that the section which
Wellhausen omits, verses 7 to 15, is in place,
which tells of the events at Gilgal, and
concludes by saying that Samuel arose and
went up from Gilgal unto Gibeah of Ben-
jamin ; and Saul after having numbei-ed his
troops, was with Jonathan and these men at
Geba of Benjamin. The departure from
Gilgal is expressly stated with regard to
Samuel, and it is not necessary explicitly to
re]jeat it in regard to Saul and his men, it is
understood of itself. And the author u.sed
the participle to indicate the continuing cir-
cumstance that Saul was abiding at Geba.

The passage is intelligible with the present
Hebrew text. The supposed difficulty like-
wise vanishes when the text is emended by
the aid of the Sei)tuagint. The Greek trans-
lation has an additional clause, and Driver
conjectures that the original text read :
"And Samuel arose and gat him up from
Gilgal [and went on his way. And the rest
of the people went up after Saul to meet the
men of war ; aud they came from Gilgal] to
Gibeah of Benjamin and Saul numbered,"
and so forth. " The omission in the Maso-
retic text is evidently due to the recurrence
of ' from Gilgal ' " ( Text of Samuel, p. 78). In
view of verse 16 this new text justifies Well-
hausen's identification of Gibeah and Geba
in this chapter ; but it implies that verses 7
and 8'' form an integral part of the original
narrative. And this result Driver accepts,
rejecting Wellhausen's exclusion of x. 8 and
xiii. 7-15. from the original narrative {In-
troduction^, ]). 176). Thus either with the
Masoretic text upon which the English ver-
sion is based, or with the text as emended
by the aid of the Septuagint, the entire chap-
ter is a unit.

Samuel, Books of

645

Samuel, Books of

But while 1 Sam. xiii. is a unit in itself, it is
asserted to l)e distiuct in authorsliip from
chap. XV. ; for in these two chapters there
is a double and contradictory account of
Saul's rejection by God. But the assertion
cannot stand examination. Samuel indeed
twice rebuked Saul at Gilfjal, l)ut he only
once decjiared that God had rejected Saul
from being king. When at the beginning of
his reign, when about to undertake the spe-
cial work to which he had been called, Saul
failed to obey Samuel's charge to wait seven
days until the prophet should come to im-
plore God's aid by sacrifice, he was rebuked
but he was not rejected : " Hadst thou been
faithful to the theocratic requirements, thy
kingdom would have been established for-
ever ; but now it shall not continue. God
hath chosen a man after his own heart and
appointed him to be prince over his people "
(xiii. 13, 14). Saul is not declared unworthy
to be king over God's people, Samuel does
not abandon him, but goes to the capital,
where he can still assist him. The ]>rophet
only declares that Saul's kingdom shall not
continue forever ; it shall eventually pass
from Saul's family under the control of
another. But after Saul's second flagrant
violation of his theocratic obligations, when
he disobeyed the command of God in the
war with Amalek, he was rejected from being
king (xv. 23) ; and Samuel abandoned him
and came no more to see him until the day
of his death (34, 35), a man of a diflerent
tribe was anointed (xvi. 1, 13), the spirit
which qualified the theocratic king for his
high office departed from Saul and came
mightily upon David (1.3, 14), and not Saul,
but David, became the deliverer of Israel
(xvii.).

The account of Samuel's judgeship and of
Saul's elevation to the throne, the earlier
years of his reign, and his rejection by
God, is thus found to be capable of consist-
ent interpretation throughout. Examination
of the history of David reveals its consistency
likewise. See D.A.viDaud Jox.\th.\n. There
is no ground, therefore, for the assumption
that contradictory documents have been
combined to form the First Book of Samuel.

III. It further appears that while the con-
tents of the alleged documents into which
the narrative has been distributed are con-
sistent, they also imply each other. (1) The
original narrative in 1 Sam. ix. 16, and x. 5,
implies that the Philistines had renewed the
exercise of sovereignty over Israel. The ex-
planation is found in the preceding chapter,
which is alleged to be a later narrative ; for
the threatening attitude of the Philistines
and other ancient foes, when Samuel began
to relax the reins of government, is implied
in viii. 1. 5, 20. The original narrative thus
requires chap. viii. as an integral part. The
only escape is to magisterially declare that
the Israelites had been subject to the Philis-
tines ever since the ark was taken, that

Samuel never delivered Israel from the Phi-
listine yoke, that the story of the second
battle of Ebenezer is a pure fabrication (vii.
2-17). And this dogmatic assertion Well-
hausen does not hesitate to make. He saj's
that "there cannot be a word of truth in
the entire narrative." Driver does not ex-
plicitly deny that the event occurred, but he
admits that chaps, ix. and x. do not connect
directly with vii. 1, and says that "it is
probable that the original sequel of iv. l*" to
vii. 1, has here been omitted to make room
for vii. 2 11'." In other words, vii. 2-17 and
viii. afford a consistent picture of the times,
as has been already shown ; and it is the
theory of the divisive critics which fails to
explain the existing phenomena. (2) The
original narrative in xi. implies the public
selection of Saul to be king which is related
in the alleged later narrative (x. 17-27). If,
as asserted, Saul had only been anointed in
private (x. 1), what gave him such respect in
the eyes of the people a month later that
men from all the tribes sprang to arms at his
summons and followed him to the relief of
Jabesh in Gilead? Chapter xi. requires that
some event preceded like that which is re-
corded in the alleged later narrative (x. 17-27).
(3) The original narrative of David's career,
it is said, first mentions him as an adult man,
accustomed to arms, who is skillful in play-
ing the harp and is accordingly summoned
by Saul to court, to soothe him with music
whenever he is suffering from his malady
(xvi. 14-23), and it is continued in xviii. 6-
30. "But it is manifest that these two pas-
sages do not connect ; xviii. 6 refers to the
return of David from the slaughter of the
Philistine (R. V. margin, Philistines). The
account of the combat between David and
Goliath, which is assigned to a different and
later author, intervenes and supi)lies the
missing link ; but this has been eliminated
from the original narrative by the divisive
critics, largely on the allegation that in xvii.
33 David is represented as a youth, and in
verses 55-58 Saul does not know David. On
other equally valid interpretation these al-
leged inconsistencies with the original narra-
tive do not exist. See David. To make
them out the divisive critics are obliged to
discard xvii. 14. Saul is not asking who
David is, but is inquiring who and what
David's father is. That something is needed
between xvi. 23, and xviii. 6, is admitted.
Wellhausen says it was something quite dif-
ferent from what now .stands there, because
chap, xvii, tells of David's killing but one
man, whereas xviii. 7 speaks of him as
having .slain his ten thousand. As though
the slaying of their champion, and thereby
putting the Philistines to flight, was not in
the language of song the slaying of ten thou-
sand ! The author of the Book of Samuel
evidently understood it so. Thus the original
narrative of David's career implies the exist-
ence of the alleged later story, and again the

Sanballat

646

Sarah

only escape from this dilemma is to assert
that some part of the origiual narrative has
heen replaced by something quite ditferent.
The Book of Samuel does not make the dif-
ficulty. It is the theory which fails to ex-
plain the existing phenomena.

San-bal'lat [the moon-god Sin hath given
life].

An influential Samaritan (Neh. ii. 10). He
was a Horonite. This designation scarcely
means a native of Horonaini in ^loab, else he
would probably be called a jNIoaljite; but
rather describes him as a man of Beth-horon
(cp. iv. 2; vi. 2). He was opposed to the re-
building of the wall of Jerusalem by Nehe-
miah and tried, unsuccessfully, to stop it (iv.

7, 8). Next he plotted with others to invite
Nehemiah to a conference, and assassinate
him when he came (vi. 1-4). This new de-
vice failing, he tried intimidation, but in
vain (5-14).

Sanballat the Horonite was a contemporary
of the high priest Eliashib, great-grandfather
of Jaddua ; was associated with Tobiah the
Ammonite ; and opposed the rebuilding of
the wall of Jerusalem by Nehemiah in the
twentieth year of Artaxerxes. A son of the
high priest Joiada took Sanballat's daughter
to wife, and for this ofl'ense was expelled
by Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 1 ; iv. 3, 7 ; xiii.
4, 28). Josephus mentions one Sanballat, a
Cuthean by birth, whom Darius, the last king
[of Persia, 336-330 B.' c] sent to Samaria
as governor (Antiq. xi. 7, 2 ; 8, 2), but who,
on the defeat of Darius, went over to Alex-
ander the Great, 332 B. c. (8, 4). His daugh-
ter Nicaso was taken to wife by Manasseh,
brother of the high priest Jaddua. This for-
eign marriage offended the Jewish authori-
ties, and they drove Manasseh from the altar
at Jerusalem ; but Sanballat, with the appro-
bation of Alexander, built a temple on mount
Gerizim and made his son-in-law its priest
(7, 2 ; 8, 2 and 4). These statements of the Jew-
ish historian do not accord with the facts of
Sanballat's history already recited. The older
commentators thought that Josephus speaks
of a later Sanballat. Jose])hus, however,
doubtless has in mind Sanballat the Horonite
and the marriage referred to in Neh. xiii. 28;
but he has probably lowered the date of San-
ballat 100 years to conform the facts to his
belief that the son-in-law of Sanballat not
only founded or greatly promoted the Samari-
tan religion, but also built the temple on
Gerizim, and that this temple was erected
after Alexander's conquest of the country
(Antiq. xiii. 9, 1 ; 200 years before 128 B. c.
or thereabout), and that Alexander and the
high priest Jaddua were contemporaries (xi.

8, 5). Josephus assigns a false date here ; as
he also does when he dates Nehemiah' s com-
mission in the twenty-fifth year of Xerxes,
who reigned but 21 years (Antiq. xi. 5, 7), in-
stead of in the twentieth year of his succes-
sor, Artaxerxes (Neh. ii. 1), and when he

dates the arrival of Ezra in Jerusalem in the
seventh year of Xerxes (Antiq. xi. 5, 2), in-
stead of 21 years later, in the seventh year
of Arta.xerxes (Ezra vii. 1, 8), and when he
confounds Onias I. with Onias III., who lived
a century later (1 Mac. xii. 7, 20 ; Antiq. xii.
4, 10).

San'dal. See Clothing, Shoe.»

San'he-drin and Sanhedrim [Talmudic
Hebrew, from Greek sioietlriun, a council].

The name generally given by writers on
Jewish antiquities and history to the highest
Jewish assembly for government in the time
of our Lord. The English version uses the
more familiar word council ; see Council.

San-san'nah [a i)alm leaf].

A town in the extreme south 6t Judah
(Josh. XV. 31) ; perhaps the same as Hazar-
susah, which occupies the corresponding po-
sition in the list of cities assigned to the
Simeonites (cp. Josh. xix. 5).

Saph [a basin, foundation, threshold].

A Philistine giant, slain by Sibbechai in a
battle at Gob (2 Sam. xxi. 18). Called in 1
Chron. xx. 4 Sippai.

Sa'phir. See Shapuir.

Sap-pM'ra [beautiful, or, less probably, a
sapphire] .

The wife of that Ananias who was struck
dead for having lied unto God. She shared
her husband's sin and its penalty (Acts v.
1-10).

Sap'phire.

A precious stone (Tobit xiii. 16), called in
Hebrew sajjjnr, in Greek sappheiros. It was
the middle gem in the second row of the high
priest's breastplate (Ex. xxviii. 18), and
adorned the second foundation of the New
Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19). It was susceptible
of a fine polish (Lam. iv. 7), and was of great
value (Job xxviii. 16 ; cp. Song. v. 14 ; Is.
liv. 11). The sapphire is one of the three
varieties of corundum, the others being
corundum proper and emery. It is of a blu-
ish color, and transparent or translucent (cp.
Ex. xxiv. 10). It is inferior in hardness only
to the diamond, and is still greatly prized.
The ancients obtained it from India and
Ethiopia. Fine specimens are brought from
Ceylon.

Sa'rah, in A. V. of N. T. twice Sara (Heb.
xi. 11 ; 1 Pet. iii. 6) [a princess].

1. The wife of Abraham, ten years his
junior, married to him in Ur of the Chal-
dees (Gen. xi. 28-31 ; xvii. 17). .She was also
his half-sister, being the daughter of his
father, but not of his mother (xx. 12). Her
name was originally Sarai, meaning perhaps
])rincely or contentious. When Abraham
departed frcmi Haran to go to Canaan, Sarai
was about sixty-five years old (xii. 4). Evi-
dently .she was a well-preserved woman : for
she lived to be one hundred and twenty-seven
years old ; and shortly after leaving Haran,
when about to enter Egypt, Abraham feared

Sarai

647

S argon

lest her beauty should attract the Egyptians
and lead to his murder, and he represented
that she was his sister, keeping back the fact
that she was his wife (10-20). Yeai-s
later he did so again at the court of Abime-
lech, king of (ierar (xx. 1-18). Why he did
so is uiit stated, nor is it said that Abimelech
was influenced by her beauty. The king of
Gerar may have thought of the desirability
of an alliance with the powerful Hebrew
chieftain, and, with this end in view, deter-
mined to take a woman of the immediate
family of Abraham into his harem, as was
frequently done by princes of that period
when they coucluded alliances. Sarai had
a female slave, Hagar, but she herself
worked for the household with her own
hand (xviii. tJ). Sarai was childless; and
when about seventy-five years old she con-
cluded that she was an ob.stacle to the
promi.se made to Abraham of numerous pos-
terity, and she entreated her husband to
fcike Hagar as a .secondary wife. He did so,
apparently without asking divine direction
before doing so, and became the father of
Ishmael (xvi. 1-16). Afterwards Sarai, when
about eighty-nine, received a promise from
God that she should herself bear a son (cp.
Heb. xi. 11, 12), and in the course of a year
gave birth to Isaac the child of promise. It
was when this promise was made to her that
God changed her name to Sarah, meaning
princess (Gen. xvii. 15-22 ; xviii. 9-15 ; xxi. 1-
5). When Isaac was weaned, his parents made
a great feast, at which Sarah saw Ishmael,
Hagar's son, mocking. She insisted that both
mother and son should be sent away (9-21).
Sarah died at Kirjath-arba (Hebron) at the
age of 127 (xxiii. 1, 2), and was buried in
the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham pur-
chased at that time for a family sepulcher.

2. For Sarah of Num. xxvi. 46, A. V., a
different word in Hebrew, see Seeah.

Sa'rai. See Saeah 1.

Sar'a-mel. See Asaramel.

Sa'raph [burning, fiery].

A descendant of Shelah, the son of Judah.
At one time he exercised dominion in Moab
(1 C'hron. iv. 22).

Sar'dlne. See Saedius.

Sar'dis.

A city first of the Maeonians and then the
capital of Lydia. It was situated at the foot
of mount Tmolus, on the banks of the river
Pactolus, a tributary of the Hermus. Most
of the city was on a somewhat swampy plain,
but the citadel was on a hill flanked on one
side by a precipice. It was the capital of a
very fertile region. One of its kings was
Croesus, who was proverbial for his wealth.
In 546 B. c. it was captured by Cyrus the
Great, and afterwards became the seat of a
Persian satrap. The burning of Sardis by
the Athenians. 499 b. c, brought on the
Persian invasion of Greece in the reigns of

Darius and Xerxes. In 334 B. c. it sur-
rendered to Alexander the Great, after his
victory at the Grauicus. In 214 B. c. it was
taken by Autiochus the Great, but he lost it
again, after having been severely defeated, in
190 B. c, by the Romans at the battle of
Magnesia. They annexed it for a time to
the kingdom of Pergamos, but in 129 b. c.
constituted the Eoman province of Asia,
within the limits of which Sardis fell. Jews
dwelt in the city (Antiq. xiv. 10, 24), and a
Christian community early grew up there
(Rev. i. 11 ; iii. 1, 4). Sardis (now called
Sert-Kalessi) is only a miserable hamlet, con-
sisting of a few houses. But there are re-
mains in its vicinity of a magnificent temple,
coming down, it is believed, from Lydian
times, with the ruins of a course for foot-
racing, a theater, and Christian churches.
The citadel is of sandstone, partly rent
asunder as if by one of the earthquakes
which have frequently visited the region.

Sar'di-us, in A. V. of Rev. iv. 3 Sardine.

A variety of chalcedony, which the Greeks
called snrdios and sardion. It was a precious
stone (Rev. iv. 3), and constituted the sixth
foundation of the wall about the New Jeru-
salem (xxi. 20). Two sorts, distinguished by
their color, were known by the name of
sardius : the transparent red being our car-
nelian and the brownish red being the variety
of caruelian to which we restrict the name
sardius. According to Pliny, it was found
near Sardis, whence it derived its name, but
the finest qualities were brought from Baby-
lon. The best carnelians now come from
India ; some also occur in Arabia, whence
the ancient Hebrews may have obtained
them.

In the O. T. sardius is the rendering of
the Hebrew 'Odem, reddish gem. It was the
first stone in the first row on the high priest's
breastplate (Ex. xxviii. 17), and was one of
the stones with which Tyre adorned itself
(Ezek. xxviii. 13). The marginal reading is
ruby, but the Septuagint renders 'odem by
sardion. So does Josephus in one place
(War V. 5, 7), while in another he has sar-
donyx, which is but another variety of chal-
cedony (Antiq. iii. 7, 5).

Sar'do-nyx.

A variety of chalcedony, called- by the
Greeks snrdonvx, finger-nail onyx. It forms
the fifth foundation of the wall surrounding
the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). It is like
the onyx in structure, but includes layers of
camelian along with others of white, whitish-
brown, or sometimes of black color. It was
obtained chieflv in India and Arabia (Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xxxvii. 23).

Sa-rep'ta. See Zaeephath.

Sar'gon [Assyrian Sharrukinu, the consti-
tuted king].

A king of Assyria, mentioned by name in
Scripture in Is. xx. 1 only. He succeeded
the last Shalmaueser. He was perhaps of

Sargon

648

Satan

royal blood, as he claims ; but it is believed
that he usurped the throne, assuming the
name of Sargon, an ancient and celebrated
Babylonian king. He either secured the
throne and then completed the siege of Sa-
maria, which Shalmaneser had begun in 724
B. c, or else he ascended the throne immedi-
ately after the fall of Israel's capital, and,
perhaps as the general who had brought
these military operations to a successful ter-
mination, claimed the capture as an act of
his accession year. The biblical record is
not clear (2 Kin. xvii. 1-ti). The Hebrew
writer relates that Shalmauesercame against
Hoshea, and proceeds by saying that the
king of Assyria found conspiracy in Hoshea
and cast him into prison, and that the king
of Assyria besieged Samaria three years, and
in the ninth year of Hoshea took the city.
Until the claim of Sargon to have captured
Samaria came to light, readers of the Hebrew
narrative inferred that Shalmaneser was the
conqueror of Samaria. But the inference
was not warranted, for the writer continues
to speak of the king of Assyria, where it is
probable that he does not mean the conqueror
of Samaria (ver. 24, 26, 27). He does not
specify the particular king, but uses the gen-
eral title ; and when he recurs to the siege,
he names Shalmaneser as the besieger, but
continues by saying, " They took it" (xviii.
9, 10). At any rate, Samaria fell in the clos-
ing months of 722 B.C., and Sargon ascended
the throne on the 12th of Tebet, the tenth
month, of that year. Immediately after his
accession, the Babylonians, as.sisted by the
Elamites, revolted, and Sargon was for a
time unable to reduce them to subjection.
In 720 the remaining Israelites of Samaria
in alliance with the men of Hamath rebelled,
but Sargon subdued them, and placed captive
Hamathites as colonists in Samaria. In the
same year he defeated the allied forces of
Hanun, king of Gaza and Sib'e, better known
to readers of the Bible as So, the tartan of
Egypt in a battle fought at Riphia. Sargon
took Carchemish, the capital of the Hittites,
in 717, and with the capture of their capital
the empire of the Hittites fell. In 716 his
armies waged war in Armenia, in 715 they
were still engaged in war in Armenia, and
were carrying on operations in Media. In
this year also Arab tribes were planted as
colonists in Samaria by his orders, and he re-
ceived tribute from Pharaoh of Egypt. He
boasts of having subjugated Judah. The
tablet on which this boast appears was in-
scribed before the close of 714, to judge from
its contents. The combined Assyrian and
Hebrew data point to the end of 715 or the
beginning of 714 as the date when Hezekiah
acknowledged the suzerainty of Assyria by
beginning to pay tribute. Merodach-baladan
incited the nations from Elam to the Medi-
terranean Sea to revolt from Assyria. In 711,
therefore, Sargon dispatched troops against
Ashdod, and in 710 he captured Babylon and

n

assumed the title of king of Babylon. He
began to erect a new palace and town 10
miles northeast of Nineveh in 712 and named
it Dur-shurrukin, Sargonsburg. The ruins
are known as Khor.sabad ; see Nineveh.
He took up his residence there about 707.
He was murdered in 705 and was succeeded
by his son Sennacherib.

Sa'rid [survivor].

A village on the southern frontier of Zebu-
lun (Josh. xix. 10, 12). Conder, reading with
Septuagint and Syriac version d instead of
r, places it doubtfully at Tell Shadud, on the
northern part of the plain of Esdraelon, 5
miles southwest of Nazareth.

Sa'ron. See Sharon.
Sar'se-chim.

One of Nebuchadnezzar's princes who en-
tered Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix. 3).

Sa'ruch. See Sekug.

Sa'tan [Hebrew satan, an adversarv].

The devil (Mat. iv.'l with 10, 11 ; Mark i.
13) ; preeminently " the adversary " (Job i. 6 ;
Zech. iii. 1, margin), because animated by
a disposition iKjstile to all goodness and
the chief opponent of God and man (Job ii.
3; Luke xxii. 3; cp. 1 Chron. xsi. 1 and Ps.
cix. 6, but see R. V.), aiming to undo the
work of God (Mark iv. 15), seeking to per-
suade men to sin (Luke xxii. 3 ; Acts v. 3 ;
xxvi. 18), desirous of leading them to re-
nounce God (Job ii. 5 ; Mat. iv. 9, 10), and
endeavoring to prevent their acceptance and
salvation by God (Zech. iii. 1, 2). lie is sonie-
times influential in bringing about ])by.^ical
sickness, pecuniary loss, bereavement (Job i.
11-22; ii. 4-7; Luke xiii. 16). He is, how-
ever, under the control of God. Only by
God's permission can he pursue his malicious-
designs (Job i. 12; ii. 5, 6; Luke xxii. 32).
When permission is granted him to carry
out his evil plots, it is only that he may be-
come an instrument in furthering the divine
plan. In Job's case, the vain efforts of Satan
to induce the patriarch to sin resulted in dis-
ciplining his character and maturing his faith
in God. In the fully revealed doctrine of
Satan, which is seen in the N. T., he is the
god of this world who has access to the hearts
of men. deceives them, and receives their
witting or unwitting obedience (Luke xxii.
3 ; Acts V. 3 ; xxvi. 18 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4 ; 2 Thes.
ii. 9 ; Rev. xii. 9). He is the ruler of a king-
dom, having principalities, powers, and de-
mons under him (Mat. xii. 24, 26; Luke xi.
18 ; Rev. xii. 7).

Satan was the seducer of Adam and Eve
(2 Cor. xi. 3 ; Rev. xii. 9). This fact may
have become known to them. If not, it was-
discerned as soon as the existence of the
devil and his work became known, for the
temptation of Eve came from without through,
the persuasions of an irrational creaturc
The malignant spirit behind the serjtent,
hostile to good, seeking to undo the work of

Satrap

God, and siipernaturally lending speech to the
reptile, or communicating with the mind of
the woman, so that she thought she heard
articulate speech, was evidently Satan. This
doctrine went hand in hand with the
doctrine concerning the devil, and received
the highest sanction (Wisd. ii. 24 ; John
viii. 44; Eom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3; Ecv.
xii. 9) ; see Serpent. Satan produced de-
moniacal possession (Mat. xii. 22-29; Mark
111.22-27; Luke xl. 14-23). He approached
Jesus with temptation (Mat. iv. 1-11). He
steals the word from the heart of the igno-
rant or inattentive hearer (Mark iv. 15). He
entered into the heart of Judas before the
commission of the great crime (Luke xxii. 3 ;
John xiii. 27). He had to do with Peter's
fall (Luke xxii. 31). It was under tempta-
tion by Satan that Ananias and Sapphira lied
to the Holy Ghost (Acts v. 3). He hindered
Paul in his ministrj^ (1 Thes. ii. 18), having
previously sent a messenger to buifet him
(2 Cor. xii. 7). Pergamos, where a faithful
Christian, Antipas, sutfered martyrdom, was
a place where Satan dwelt (Rev. ii. 13).
Men with hearts unchanged are under Satan's
power (Acts xxvi. 18). An assembly of those
who have grievously erred from the faith,
and perhaps from morality, is the synagogue
of Satan (Rev. ii. 9 ; iii. 9"^; cp. 1 Tim. v. 15).
Those who are expelled from the church are
said to be delivered to Satan ; but this is de-
signed to produce their reformation, and not
their destruction (1 Cor. v. 5 ; 1 Tim. i. 20).
There are depths in Satan which inexperi-
enced Christians fail to fathom (Rev. ii. 24).
He is, moreover, so plausible that he seems
to be an angel of light (2 Cor. xi. 14). He
sometimes gains advantages over Christians
(ii. 11), but he shall ultimately be bruised
under their feet (Rom. xvi. 20). He is the
real agent in the operations carried on by
the man of sin (2 Thes. ii. 1-12), but the day
■will come when, after a temporary triumph,
Satan shall be expelled from the earth, and,
being bound, shall be cast into the abyss
(Rev. xii. 9; xx. 1, 2). See Devil.

Simon Peter was called Satan when he
took it upon him to contradict Christ's proph-
ecy of his death and resurrection, for he
was a stumbling-block to Christ, opposed him,
and minded not the things of God (Mat. xvi.
23; Mark viii. 33).

Sa'trap [from Persian khshutrapiiwan, ab-
breviated khshatrapd, protector of the land,
in Hebrew '"hnshdrapan].

The official title of the viceroy, who, in
behalf of the Persian monarch, exercised
the civil and military authority in .several
small provinces combined in one government.
Each of these provinces had its own governor
(Ezra viii. 36 and Esth. iii. 12, in A. V. lieu-
tenant). The title is used in Aramaic his-
torical documents written after the Persian
conquest, in referring to high officials of the
Babylonian empire and of the kingdom ruled

649 Saul

j —

by Darius the Mede (Dan. iii. 2 and vi. 1, in
A. Y. prince).

Sa'tyr.

A sylvan god of the Greeks and Romans,
a companion of Bacchus. At first he was
represented with long-pointed ears, snub nose,
and goat"s tail. At a later period goafs legs
were added. He was supposed to possess a
half brutal and lustful nature. Satyr is the
rendering of the Hebrew S^ir, he goat, and
is applied to wild animals or demons which
should dance among the ruins of Babylon
(Is. xiii. 21) and of the Edomite cities (xxxiv.
14). The word commonly signifies a he goat.
In two passages it denotes an object of idola-
trous worship (Lev. xvii. 7 ; 2 Chron. xi. 15,
both R. v.). In the latter place it is mentioned
with calf idols, suggesting that it refers to idols-
having the likeness of goats. In Is. xiii. 21, 22
it is associated with wild animals, in xxxiv. 14
with a creature of the night also, which may
be either some nocturnal animal (in A. V.
the screech owl) or a nocturnal demon ; see
XiGHT MoxsTEE. In the adaptation of
Isaiah's words in Revelation, the language is
quoted from the Septuagint and the word
demons is used (Rev. xviii. 2, R. V.). Accord-
ingly, interpreters dispute whether the He-
brew prophet meant that wild goats, ostriches,
wolves, jackals, and other beasts of the desert
should wander among the forsaken ruins, or
whether he introduced into the imagery of
his poetic description a popular belief in de-
mons which appeared in the fonn of goats
and haunted desert places.

Saul [asked (of God)].

1. A king of Edom, from Rehoboth, on the
Euphrates (Gen. xxxvi. 37, 38, in E. V.
Shaul).

2. The first king of Israel, son of Kish, a
Benjamite ; see Kish. The prophet Samuel
had grown old ; his sons showed Ijy their con-
duct that they did not possess his upright
character and could not carry on his work ;
and the surrounding nations were evidently
ready to harass and oppress Israel (1 Sam. viii.
1, 3. 20 ; xii. 12). The elders of Israel accord-
ingly came to Samuel and demanded that the
form of government be changed and that a
visible king be set over them, so that they
might be like the well-organized nations
about them, and have one who could lead
them to victory over their foes (viii. 4, 5, 19,
20). Although the ultimate organization of
the Hebrews as a kingdom, with an earthly
monarch as the representative of Jehovah,
had long been contemplated (Gen. xvii. 6,
16; XXXV. 11; Dent. xvii. 14-20i, yet the
spirit of the people in demanding a king at
this crisis was irreligious. They lacked
abiding faith in God, without which the rule
of Jehovah as theocratic king was impossi-
ble. They were turning from faith in the
invisible God to put confidence in a visible
king. By divine direction Samuel informed
the elders what the people would have to en-

Saul

650

Saul

dure from a king, btit on their persisting iu
their demand, be ]irumised to do as they de-
sired and dismissed them.

The elevotion of Saul to the throne. About
this time the asses of Kish, a Benjamite,
went astray, and his sou, Saul, was sent to
seek them. Saul was at the time a young
man, perhaps thirty-five years okl ; and lie
was head and shoulders taller than any of the
people. Not finding the asses, after three
days' search, he was about to give up the
quest and return home. His servant, how-
ever, suggested one further ett"()rt. Persons
of whom the servant made inquiry concern-
ing the asses probably told him that there
was a man of God in the neighboring city
who might give the desired information, and
he persuaded Saul to go to him. The man
of God was Samuel, who had been told by
God to expect a Benjamite and to anoint him
prince over Israel. Saul and his family in
Gibeah knew Samuel well by report (1 Sam.
X. 14-16), but Saul seems not to have met the
prophet before and not to have understood
that Samuel was the man of God of whom
the people spake. He refers to him as the
man (ix. 7), and on meeting him at the city
gate does not know him (18, 19). Samuel in-
formed Saul that the asses had been recov-
ered, intimated to him that he would be chosen
king, and put him in the place of honor at
the sacrificial feast which he was about to
celebrate. Next morning, as the guest was
leaving the town, the prophet took a vial of
oil, poured it upon his head, and having
kissed him, said, " Is it not that the Lord
hath anointed thee to be prince over his in-
heritance?" and charged him not to disclose
the secret, to go to Gilgal at the proper time
and tarry there seven days, until he himself
should come and ofier sacrifice and give in-
struction (ix. 20-x. 16). Samuel soon sum-
moned the people to Mizpah. The choice was
left to God. The lot was cast, and Saul was
chosen. But he had hidden himself. When
he was brought from his hiding place and stood
forth, towering above the multitude, he was
received with enthusiasm. God had selected
a man of fine appearance in order to win the
admiration and confidence of all the Israel-
ites, and a man of the tribe of Benjamin,
which stood on the border between Ephraim
and Judah, in order to satisfy both north and
south. Samuel had committed the choice to
God iu order to secure the allegiance of the
godly men for the king. A large company of
men, obedient to God, escorted Saul home ; but
certain men of Belial were nevertheless dissat-
isfied, and Saul retired to private life until
private jealousies should be overcome. He
devoted himself to the cultivation of his
father's fields. A month later (x. 27, R. V.
margin) the town of Jabesh in Gilead was
straitly besieged by the Ammonites. At the
request of the citizens, the besiegers scorn-
fully granted a truce of seven days in order
that the townspeople might invoke the aid

of their fellow-countrymen. The messen-
gers, or some of them, came to Gibeah with
their mournful story. Saul heard it when
he returned from the field. The Spii'it of
God stirred him. He sent summons to the
tribes to follow him and Samuel to the rescue
of their imperiled brethren. Jabesh was re-
lieved. The people asked where were they
who had refused to recognize Saul as king,
and they carried Saul to Gilgal, the nearest
place of customary sacrifice, where he was
inducted into office and Samuel laid down
his judgeship (xi. 1-xii. 25); see Samuel,
Books of.

The reign of Satd. The age of Saul
when he began to reign is unknown, as the
Hebrew text of 1 Sam. xiii. 1 is defective,
the numeral being omitted. The number
thirty is derived from the Septuagint. He
was at any rate old enough to have a sou
capable of holding a military command. Saul
established a small standing army of 3000
men ; 2000 of these were with him at Mich-
mash and Bethel, and 1000 were stationed
with Jonathan at Gibeah (xiii. 2). Jonathan
smote a Philistine garrison, or rather deputy,
at Geba (3) ; see Garrison. The Philistines
heard thereof, and held the Israelites in
abomination. The Israelites, learning of
their danger, responded to Saul's summons to
assemble at Gilgal (3, 4), whither Samuel had
promised to come in this emergency and en-
treat the favor of the Lord (8, 11,^12; x. 8).
A Philistine army advanced into tlie land of
Israel and pitched at Michmash. Great fear
seized the Israelites, Samuel intentionally
delayed to appear, the people began to scatter
and leave the king, and a descent of the
PhilLstiues upon Saul and his decreasing
forces seemed imminent (xiii. 8, 11, 12) ; and
therefore Saul presumed to conduct the sac-
rifice. But Samuel came, rebuked the king
for transgressing God's command (x. 8), and
declared that Saul on account of his disobedi-
ence should not found a dynasty (xiii. 9-14).
Samuel went up to Saul's town of Gibeah,
where he would be near the king. Saul and
Jonathan took post at Geba of Benjamin,
while the Philistines lay encamped at Mich-
mash. By a feat of valor, Jonathan started
a panic in the garrison of the Philistines,
which spread to their camp and to their
prowling bands. Saul took advantage of it,
and .secured a victory (xiii. 15-xiv. 46).
Afterwards Samuel directed Saul to wage
a war of extermination against the Amalek-
ites. Saul undertook the war, but he spared
the best of the cattle to sacrifice to the Lord
at Gilgal. and also saved their king. For
this second act of disobedience, by which he
showed that he could not be trusted to act as
God's instrument, but desired to assert his
own will in God's kingdom, he was rejected
from l)eing king (xv. 1-3.5) ; see Samuel,
Books of. Samuel, therefore, was sent to
Bethlehem to anoint David king (xvi. 1-13).
The Spirit of the Lord now departed from

Saul

651

Saviour

Sun!, aud he begau to be trou})led by au evil
spirit. A harper was required to charm away
his melancholy madness, aud David was se-
lected to discharge the duty (14-23). The
plaudits with which the youthful son of Jesse
was welcomed on returning from his great
victory over Goliath so excited Saul's jeal-
ousy that before long the hero was a fugitive,
pursued with relentless fury by the now vin-
dictive monarch (xvii.-xxx.) ; see David.
At last the end came. The Philistines, in-
vading the Israelite territory, pitched in
Shunem, near the valley of Jezreel. Saul,
following to give them battle, established his
headquarters on the slope of mount Gilboa.
Sad forebodings of his fate troubling him, he
made a night journey quite close to the Phi-
listine camp, to En-dor, where lived a woman
who was reputed to have the power of calling
up even the dead, and he was there informed
that he aud his sons should perish on the
morrow (xxviii. 1-25). The morrow came,
and the battle began. The Philistine archers
did great execution in the Israelite ranks.
They slew three of Saul's sons, including the
eldest, the unselfish aud heroic Jonathan.
They seriously wounded Saul himself, on
which he called to his armor-bearer to thrust
him through. The young man declined the
responsibility, whereupon the erring monarch
fell upon his sword, and died. The victori-
ous Philistines, finding his corpse, severed
the head from the body, aud affixed the lat-
ter, with the bodies of his sons, to the wall
of Beth-shean, whilst they sent his armor as
a trophy to be kept in the temple of Ashtaroth.
The men of Jabesli-gilead, whom Saul had
saved in the early part of his reign, feeling
gratitude for their deliverance, crossed the
Jordan by night to Beth-shean, took down
the bodies, and gave them honorable inter-
ment, while David mourned the fate of the
Lord's anointed and the beloved Jonathan
in plaintive poetry (xxxi. ; 2 Sam. i.). The
length of Saul's reign is not stated in the O. T.,
but both Paul and Josephus are able to assign
it forty years (Acts xiii. 21 ; Antiq. vi. 14, 9).
Saul and the ivomun of En-dor. The old
man covered with a robe, who figures in the
interview between the woman of En-dor and
Saul (1 Sam. xxviii. 3-19), has been explained
in three different ways. He was the woman's
accomplice, and when he appeared she uttered
a loud cry, and she pronounced the man who
had come to seek her aid to be Saul. The
loud cry was her customary trick. She knew
that the king was in the neighborhood, and
she had at once detected that her visitor was
he, in his tall stature, in his bearing, in bis
woi-ds, and in the manner of his attendants.
Or else the apjiearance was a spirit, quite un-
expected by her, at which she uttered a
loud cry, because she was really startled. If
an unexpected appearance, it was either the
devil, as Luther and Calvin believed, and as
those understand who think that certain phe-
nomena of ancient sorcery and modern spir-

itualism are due to Satanic agency (sec Devil
and Demoniac), or else Samuel, reappearing
as did Moses aud Elijah on the mount of
Transfiguration (1 Chron. x. 13, Septuagint ;
Ecclus. xlvi. 20), and so most of the evangel-
ical interpreters since the Eeformation. The
basis for the opinion that Samuel appeared is
that the narrator refers to the person as
though he is Samuel (1 Sam. xxviii. 14,
1.5, It), 20), and that the words .spoken by
him were fulfilled. The biblical recorder
simply describes what occurred. It is to
be noted that the woman was a law-
breaker, and was also condemned by the
religion of Jehovah. Moreover, she alone
saw the apparition, and she described the
apj)earance in most vague terms — an old
man rising from the earth aud covered with
a robe. This description would apply to any
aged person, but Saul concluded that Samuel
had really appeared. The words which were
uttered by the robed figure boldly forecast
the future as a fortune teller does or else
predicted it with full knowledge. The words
came true, but tliey were in part fulfilled by
Saul's own deliberate act. If Samuel him-
self appeared, then this is the sole instance
recorded in Scripture where the spirit of a
departed saint has returned to earth and
conversed with men, since the case of Moses
and Elijah in converse with the transfigured
Christ is not analogous. Moreover, it would
be strange, indeed, if, after God had refused to
answer Saul, either by dreams or by prophets,
his servant Samuel should appear, and espe-
cially if be should appear at an interview
strictly forbidden by God, and at the behest
of a woman who was condemned alike by
the law of the land and by the law of God
(Ex. xxii. 18; Lev. xx. 27; Deut. xviii. 10-
14; 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, 9; 1 Chron. x. 13).

3. The original name of the apostle Paul
(Acts vii. 58 ; xiii. 9).

Sav'iour.

One who saves from any evil or danger
(2 Kin. xiii. 5; Neh. ix. 27). In the O. T. it
is specially used of God, Jehovah, viewed as the
deliverer of his chosen people Israel (2 Sam.
xxii. 3 ; Ps. cvi. 21 ; Is. xliii. 3, 11 ; xlv. 15,
21 ; xlix. 26 ; Ixiii. 8; Jer. xiv. 8 ; Hos. xiii. 4).
The Greek word soter, preserver, deliverer
(Herod, vii. 139), is used by the classical
writers specially of their gods, though some-
times a king assumed the title, as did Ptolemy
Soter and Demetrius I. In the N. T. it is used
of God the Father (1 Tim. i. 1 ; iv. 10; Titus
i. 3; iii. 4; Jude 25), but especially of Jesus
Christ the Son, who saves his people from their
sins (Mat. i. 21), delivering them out of their
sinful condition and misery, from guilt, the
wrath of God, the power of sin and the do-
minion of Satan, aud bringing them into a
state of salvation in blessed communion with
God (Luke xix. 10 ; Acts v. 31 ; Rom. v. 8-
11 ; Phil. iii. 20, 21 ; 1 Tim. i. 15; 2 Tim. i.
10 ; Tit. ii. 13, 14 ; Heb. vii. 25).

Saw

652

School

Saw.

A toothed tool for cutting wood and for
shaping stone (1 Kin. vii. 9 ; Is. x. 15). Vic-
tims of persecuting rage were sometimes
sawn asunder (Heb. xi. 37). If David cut
the Ammonites of Kabbah, and other towns
which fell into his hands, witli saws, harrows,
and axes (2 Sam. xii. .'51 ; 1 C'hron. xx. 3), it
was an act of exceptional severity on his
part, and foreign to all else that is known of
his character. A change of resh to niem in
the verb used in Chronicles, and of resh to
daleth in the verb in Samuel, would make
the record state that David exacted labor
from the captives (2 Sam. xii. 31, R. V.
margin).

The saws used by the ancient Egyptians
had, so far as known, but one handle. The
blade was usually of bronze, let into the
handle or bound to it by thongs. The teeth
commonly inclined toward the handle. The
wood was placed perpendicularly in a frame,
and was sawn downward. The Assyrians
used a double-handled saw also, with a blade
of iron.

Scape'goat. See Azazel.

Scarlet.

A bright, rich crimson, not the hue of re-
cent origin known as scarlet. The coloring
matter was obtained by the Israelites from
an insect {Coccus ilicis), called kennez by the
Arabs, whence the English word crimson is
derived. The insect abounds in Palestine on
the holm oak {Quercus coccifera). The fe-
male alone yields the coloring matter. She
attains the form and size of an ordinary pea,
is violet-black in color, covered with a whit-
ish powder, and wingless. Filled with eggs
containing red matter, she adheres to the
leaves and twigs of the oak, and feeds on its
juices. From the resemblance of the insect
to a berry, the Greeks called it kokkon, berry.
It is related to the cochineal insect of Mexico
(Coccus cacti) ; but it yields a much less
valuable dye, and has been supplanted com-
mercially by its Mexican congener. The
color was called by the H(>br(!\vs shani, bright-
ness, crimson, sh'ni tola'dth, hriglitncss of the
worm, worm crimson, tolti'uth sltuni, worm of
briglitness, crimson worm, fola\ worm, and
in Greek kokkinos, pertaining to the coccus.

The color and the method of obtaining it
were early known (Gen. xxxviii. 28). It
was much used in the hangings of the taber-
nacle and in the high priest's vestments. It
was employed in the ceremony attending the
purification of the leper, arid in the prepara-
tion of the water of separation (Lev. xiv. 4 ;
Num. xix. 6; Heb. ix. 19).

Scep'ter.

A rod held in the hands of kings as a token
of authority (Ps. xlv. 6; Amos i. 5; Wisd.
X. 14; Heb. i. 8; War i. 33, 9). It has been
used from time immemorial. The statF was
not, however, a symbol of royal sovereignty
exclusively. It might be carried by any

leader ( Judg. v. 14, E. V. ; Baruch vi. 14) ;
among the Greeks l)y kings, judges, heralds,
and speakers given the floor by the herald
(Iliad i. 238; ii. 100; vii. 277; xxiii. 5«J8).
Nor is tlie Hebrew name shebet a si)ecific
term, but it denotes any rod, such as the
walking .stick, which was often carried as a
mark of dignity (Gen. xxxviii. 18), the shep-
herd's staff (Lev. xxvii. 32; Ps. xxiii. 4;
Mic. vii. 14), or the rod used in threshing
cummin (Is. xxviii. 27). The royal scepter
was doubtless often of wood. The scej^ter
of Ahasuerus was made of gold (Esth. iv. 11),
and so too was the famed scepter of Aga-
memnon (Iliad ii. 100). A reed was placed in
Christ's hand when he was mocked as king
(Mat. xxvii. 29).

Sce'va.

A member of one of the Jewish families
from which the high priests were ordinarily
chosen. His seven sous were exorcists (Acts
xix. M).

School.

There were no schools for children in
ancient Israel. But instruction was not
lacking. Parents gave their children re-
ligious instruction (Gen. xviii. 19 ; Deut. vi.
7; Susanna 3; 2 Tim. iii. l.")). Tlie older
people had opportunity for obtaining further
knowledge from the priests and Levites, who
could be found at the sanctuary and in the
towns assigned to them throughout the land,
and who occasionally itinerated for the pur-
po.se of publicly teaching tlie statutes of tlie
law (Lev. x. 11 ; 2 Chron. xvii. 7-10 ; Hag. ii.
11). The great festivals kept alive the
knowledge of those events at the birth of
the nation which obligated the Israelites as
a people to serve Jehovali, their redeemer and
bountiful benefactor. The prophets by their
public preaching spread religious knowledge
and quickened religious life. Business nego-
tiations and legal processes were conducted
in the open street, affording constant instruc-
tion to the public through eye and ear.
Reading and writing were perhaps not un-
common among the young (Judg. viii. 14 ; Is.
X. 19). Men, married and unmarried, who
desired instruction in religion and training
for religious work, gatliered in some com-
munity about a prophet and were taught by
him (2 Kin. iv. 1 ; vi. 1, 2). They were
called sons of the prophets. They should be
distinguished from the prophets who came
together to be under the direction of Samuel
in their religious work and took up their
residence in a quarter of his town of Ramah
(1 Sam. xix. 18-20). In the time of Elijah
and Elisha they were found in Bethel, Jeri-
cho, and Gilgal (2 Kin. ii. 3, 5; iv. 38). In
the Greco-Roman period the education of
the young was carefully attended to (con.
Apion. i. 12; ii. 19). Slaves and others were
employed as tutors by the wealthy (.\ntiq.
xvi. 8, 3). The scribes also imparted instruc-
tion. The subject which they discussed was

Schoolmaster

653

Scourge

the law. Chambers connected with the outer
court of the temjile, and outside of Jerusa-
lem a room in the synagogue, were used as
lecture rooms (Luke ii. 46). The instruction
was nominally free, but it is said that in the
time of ilerod the Great the porter collected
entrance money. Not only was instruction
imparted directly to the pupils in these
schools, but learned men held public dis-
putations with each other there in the pi'es-
euce of the scholars.

School'mas-ter.

The rendering in Gal. iii. 24, 25, A. V., of
the Greek Faidagugus, one who leads a boy, a
pedagogue. It is translated tutor in the
E. V. of this passage and 1 Cor. iv. 15. The
piddagogos, or pedagogue, in a Greek house-
hold was a trusted slave, to whose care the
children were committed (Life 76 ; Herod,
viii. 75). He always accompanied them
when they were out of doors. He was re-
sponsible for their personal safety, guarded
them from physical evil and bad company,
and led them to and from school. The
law as a pedagogue led us to Christ. It
prepared us to receive him as our Redeemer. It
displayed the justice of God and convinced
us that we were unrighteous ; its threaten-
iugs pressed us to seek refuge from the wrath
and curse of God ; it made apparent the in-
ability of man to obtain salvation by the
Avorks of the law ; it exhibited the plan of
salvation in types and cereinonies and ex-
cited to faith in the coming Redeemer (Gal.
iii. 24; Eom. iii. 19-21 ; iv. 15; vii. 7-25).

Sci'ence.

The rendering of the Hebrew Madda' and
the Greek Gnosis in Dan. i. 4 and A. V. of 1
Tim. vi. 20. The word is not used in its
modern sense. It does not denote knowledge
gained by observation of phenomena and
systematized. The Hebrew and Greek words
mean simply knowledge. The false knowl-
edge spoken of by Paul is the teaching of
Judaizing and mystic sects in the apostolic
age, which they boastfully claimed to be
certain (cp. Col. ii. 8), against which Paul
urgently warns men (1 Cor. viii. 1, 7), and
which counterfeits the true knowledge which
he praised and in which he desired Chris-
tians to grow (xii. 8 ; xiii. 2 ; Phil. i. 9).

Scor'pi-on.

A small animal with a tail armed with a
sting which inflicts great pain (Eev. ix. 5,
10). It was called 'akrah by the Hebrews,
and slorpios by the Greeks. It abounds in
Palestine, and is common in the wilderness
south of Judah (Deut. viii. 15) ; see Akrabbim.
Eehoboam threatened to chastise his sub-
jects, not with whips, but with scorpions (1
Kin. xii. 11 : 2 Chron. x. 14), which many
interpreters think mean whips armed with
sharp points to make the lash more severe.
The scorpion is a small invertebrate animal of
the order Arachnida. It is closely akin to the
higher spiders, having, like them, eight legs ;

but it differs in shape, and in having the
poison bag not in proximity to the jaws, but at

Scorpion.

the extremity of the tail. It has a pair of nip-
pers like the lobster. The tail is long and
jointed, and capable of being curled up over
the back. The last joint is swollen, contains
the venom gland, and is armed with a per-
forated sting by means of which the poison
is discharged. The scorpion feeds princi-
pally on beetles and locusts, which it seizes
with its nippers and stings to death. Some
eight or more species exist in Palestine. The
largest is about eight inches long, and black.

Scourge and Scourg'ing.

Scourging is severe punishment or torture
by lashing. It was not imposed as a penalty
by the Mosaic law, not even according to
Lev. xix. 20 (see E. V. against A. V.). The
law authorized beating, when the culprit lay
down and was smitten on the back (Deut.
XXV. 2, 3) ; but this was not scourging, and
is distinguished from scourging (2 Cor. xi. 24,

Roman Scourges.

25). Scourging is perhaps alluded to by Ee-
hoboam as a known punishment (1 Kin. xii.
11, 14), and it was employed by Antiochus
Epiphanes to drive the Jews by its tortures

Screech Owl

654

Scripture

to eat swine's flesh (2 Mac. vi. 30; vii. 1).
As a legal penalty it was recognized by the
later Jewish law, which prescribed beating
or scourging for ecclesiastical ofl'enses ; such
as transgression of ceremonial ordinances for
which the Mosaic law did not specify the
punishment, disobedience of the orders of
the sanhedrin, and heresy. Eods were used
for beating (2 Cor. xi. 25) ; and for scourging
a whip was employed, which consisted of
three thongs, one of ox hide and two of ass's
hide. The number of stripes ranged from a
few blows up to thirty-nine, this limit being
set in order to avoid all danger of exceeding
the forty blows allowed by the Mosaic law
in corporal punishment (Deut. xxv. 2, 3).
When the punishment was inflicted in the
synagogue (Mat. x. 17 ; xxiii. 34), it was ad-
ministered by the hazzan or attendant; but
culprits were also beaten before the san-
hedrin (Acts V. 40).

The Romans used a scourge of cords or
thongs, made more iiainful by various ex-
pedients which cruelty suggested. Pieces of
lead or brass, or small, sharp-pointed bones,
were attached to the lashes. The Romans
employed scourging as a punishment or as
torture to extract confession or testimony.
After the Porcian law of 248 b. c. and the
Sempronian law of 123 B. c, Roman citizens
were exempted from scourging (Livy x. 9) ;
but free persons not Roman citizens might be
beaten, and slaves ^^courged, and lawless gov-
ernors did not scruple to scourge free pro-
vincials and Roman citizens (War ii. 14, 9 ;
Tacitus, Hist. iv. 27). Criminals condemned
to crucifixion were ordinarily scourged be-
fore being executed (Livy xxxiii. 36) ; so
Jesus, and many of the Jews before the
revolt and after the siege of Jerusalem by
the Romans (Mat. xxvii. 26; Warii. 14, 9; v.
11, 1). The victim was stripped to the waist,
and bound in a stooping position, with the
hands behind the back, to a jjost or pillar.
The sutfering under the lash was intense.
The body was frightfully lacerated. The
Christian martyrs at Smyrna about A. D. 155
were so torn with the scourges that their
veins were laid bare, and the inner muscles
and sinews, and even the bowels, were ex-
posed (Eusebius, Hist. iv. 15).

Screech Owl.

The rendering of the Hebrew Lilith, a
nocturnal being (Is. xxxiv. 14 ; in R. V.
night monster). It frequents the ruins
of cities. Tristram believes it to be the
tawny owl {Syniium ahico), which is found
in Gilead, Baslian, Lebanon, and the valley
of the Jordan, breaking in on the stillness
of night with its hooting. See NiGHT Mon-
ster and S.\TYR.

Scribe.

The rendering of the Hebrew f^opher, Ara-
maic l^npher.

1. A secretary, a government or other clerk
(2 Kin. xii. 10; Ezra iv. 8). Levites were

employed as scribes for the business of repair-
ing the temple (2 Chron. xxxiv. 13).

2. A copier of the law and other parts of
the Scriptures (Jer. viii. 8). The most noted
of these earlier scribes was the priest Ezra, who
was a ready scribe in the law of Moses, and
had set his heart to seek the law of the Lord
and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and
judgments (Ezra vii. 6, 10). In this latter
respect he is the prototype of the scribes of
later times, who were professional interpre-
ters of the law. In the N. T. they are called
ffr am mate is, or more exactly Jtowifcof, rendered
lawyers, and rioiiiodiddskdloi, teachers of the
law. They devoted themselves : 1. To the
study and interpretation of the law, which
it will be remembered was both civil and re-
ligious; and to determining its application to
the details of daily life. The decisions of the
great scribes became the oral law or tradition.

2. To the study of the Scriptures generally
in regard to historical and doctrinal matters.

3. To teaching, each noted scribe having a
company of disciples about him ; see School.
The profession of scribe received a great im-
pulse after the return of the Jews from ex-
ile, when prophecy had ceased and it only
remained to study the completed Scriptures
and make them the basis of the national life.
The scribes were becoming numerous in the
Maccab?ean period (1 Mac. vii. 12), and at the
time of Christ had attained paramount influ-
ence among the people. The sanhedrin
counted many of them among its members
(Mat. xvi. 21; xxvi. 3). Though there were
candid men among them who believed in
Christ's teaching (viii. 19), yet the mass
of them were hopelessly prejudiced against
him. They murmured at or found fault with
much that he and his disciples said or did
(xxi. 15), and they had a large share in the
responsibility for his death. They were also
associated with the rulers and elders in the
persecution of Peter and John (Acts iv. 5,
etc.), and in that which led to the martyr-
dom of Stephen (vi. 12) ; but the section of
them which agreed with the Pharisees in
opinion took Paul's part with respect to the
resurrection (xxiii. 9).

Scrip.

A bag or wallet for carrying provisions or
articles required on a journey (Mat. x. 10. in
R. V. wallet). The scrip of modern Palestine
is the skin of a kid stripped ofi" whole from
the carcass and tanned, and slung from the
shoulder by straps. Every shepherd and
farmer has such an article. David had one
in which he put the five stones from the
brook with which he armed himself for the
encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 40).

Scrip'ture.

A writing, a narnvtive or other matter
committed to writing (Dan. x. 21. in R. V.
writing) ; especially the sacred writings of
the Hebrews, viewed either collectively or
individually, or even a single passage or quo-

I

Scythian

655

Seba

tation from them, as in Mark xii. 10; xv. 28 ;
Luke iv. 21 ; Jcihn xix. 37. Wheu this col-
lection of sjicreil documents is thought of as
forming one hook, the word is singular, the
Scripture (Johu vii. 42 ; x. 35 ; xvii. 12 ; xix.
28 ; (ial. iii. 22). More frequently the many
documents from diti'erent authors which con-
stitute the O. T. are in mind and the plural
is used, the Scriptures (Mat. xxi. 42 ; Luke
xxiv. 27 : John v. 39 ; Eom. i. 2). The epis-
tles of Paul at once took their place with the
other Scriptures as authoritative (2 Pet. iii.
16). See Caxon, Inspiration.

Scjrth'i-an.

A native of Scythia. This name was ap-
plied originally to the region immediately
north of the Black Sea, aud east of the Car-
pathian mountains. Wheu the conquests of
Alexander the Great revealed the existence
of men in Asia like the European Scythians
in race, an Asiatic Scythia began to be recog-
nized ; and finally, all northeastern Europe
and central and northern Asia were supposed
to be traversed by the nomad Scythian race.
They were far behind in civilization ; so that
at last the name Scythian was used as M'e
now use Tartar, or the Greeks and Romans
used the term Barbarian (2 Mac. iv. 47 ; Col.
iii. 11) ; see Beth-shean.

Sea.

1. The ocean or general gathering of the
waters, as distinguished from the dry land
of the globe (Gen. i. 10 ; Ps. viii. 8 ; Eev. vii.
1-3; xxi. 1).

2. A more or less detached portion of that
ocean (Gen. xlix. 13 ; Acts x. 6), or a large
inland lake of fresh or salt water (Num.
xxxiv. 11, 12; Mat. iv. 18). The chief seas
with which the Israelites had to do were the
Mediterranean, the Eed Sea, the Dead Sea,
and the sea of Galilee. The Mediterranean
was referred to as the sea, or was called the
great sea, the sea of the Philistines, the
hinder or western sea, in A. V. the utmost
and uttermost sea ; see Mediterranean
Sea. The Dead Sea was variously known as
the Salt Sea, the eastern sea, sea of the
Arabah or the plain, and according to A. Y.
of Zech. xiv. 8, the former sea ; see Dead
Sea. The sea of Galilee was also named the
sea of Chinnereth, lake of Gennesaret, and
sea of Tiberias ; see Galilee, Sea of.

3. A large river with its network of
branches, channels, and irrigating canals, as
the Euphrates (Jer. li. 36, 42) and the Nile
(Nah. iii. 8).

4. The large basin in Solomon's temple
where the priests washed their hands and
feet preparatory to ministering in the sanc-
tuary or at the altar (1 Kin. vii. 39) ; see
Molten Sea.

Sea Mew.

The rendering in E. V. of Lev. xi. 16 and
Deut. xiv. 15 of the Hebrew noun f^hahaph, a
bird ceremonially unclean. The A. V. makes
it the cuckoo. The Septuagint and Vulgate

regard it as a sea mew or gull. Sea mew is
an indefinite term, broad enough to include
gulls, terns, and petrels, all of which abound
on the shore and lakes of Palestine. If any
single species is meant, perhaps it is the
Sterna Jluviaiilis, the common tern, or sea
swallow. This bird looks lean, which the
name shaliaph may denote ; and it might
be included under the designation sea mew,
for the Ster)iinx, or terns, are a sub-family
of the Laridse, or gulls. It is plentiful along
the shores of Palestine.

Sea Mon'ster.

Any great fish of the sea (Gen. i. 21 ; Job
vii. 12 ; in A. V. whale). It is the rendering
of the Hebrew Tannin. See Dragon. In
Lam. iv. 3, the Hebrew tannin, although it
is singular number, stands in the Hebrew
before a plural verb. It is doubtless a copy-
ist's error for tannim, jackals. This reading
is adopted by the E. V.

Seal.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Tahash in
E. v., with porpoise on the margin (Ex.
xxvi. 14 ; XXXV. 7 ; Num. iv. 25 ; Ezek. xvi.
10) ; in A. V. badger. Its skin was used for
the outer covering of the tabernacle and for
sandals. Tahash corresponds to the Arabic
tuhas, which embraces seals and specially
denotes the dugong {Halicore hemprichii).
The latter belongs to the order Sirenia. of
which the nearest allies are mammals of the
whale order. It is generally ten to twelve
feet long, with a round head, breasts for
suckling its young, and a fish-like tail. The
color is slaty above and white below. It is
believed to be one of the animals, if not in-
deed the animal, which gave rise to the
fabled mermaid, half woman, half fish. It
is common among the coral banks of the Eed
Sea, whence it extends as far as the coasts of
Australia.

2. A signet ring or cylinder, engraven with
the owner's name or some design, or both
(Ex. xxviii. 11 ; Esth. viii. 8). It was worn
on the finger, if a ring, or was strung on
a cord and hung around the neck (Gen.
xxxviii. 18, E. V. ; Jer. xxii. 24). Men affixed
their seal as signature to letters or other docu-
ments (1 Kin. xxi. 8; Neb. ix. .38; Esth. viii.
8; Jer. xxxii. 10, 44; John iii. 33). These
were usually written on clay, and the seal
was pressed on the soft material and left its
mark (Job xxxviii. 14). Chests, boxes, tombs,
or anything which required to be guarded
from being opened, were sealed with the signet

, of the person who had authority to prohibit
intrusion (Job xiv. 17; xli. 15; Dan. vi. 17;
Mat. xxvii. 66; Eev. v. 1).

Se'ba.

A Cushite people (Gen. x. 7), who probably
dwelt originally in southern Arabia. Seba is
associated with Sheba as a remote .southern
country (Ps. Ixxii. 10) ; and with Egypt and
Ethiopia as though in Africa, whither many
Cushites migrated (Is. xliii. 3; xiv. 14).

Sebam

656

Sela-hammahlekotli

Josepbus identifies Seba with the isle of
Meroii (Antiq. ii. 10, 2). The region so named
is situated between the Nile and its afHuent,
the Atbara. It is about 400 miles long by
200 broad. But this district is not called
Seba in Egyptian documents, and was known
to the Hebrews as Cusb. Eather then is
Seba identical with the neighboring country
on the Red Sea, possessing the harbor Saba
and the town Sabai.

Se'bam, in A. V. Shebam. See Sibmah.

Se'bat. See Shkbat.

Sec'a-cah [hedge, inclosure].

A village in the wilderness of Judah (Josh.
XV. 61). Conder places it doubtfully at the
ruin called Sikkeh or Dikkeh, about 2 miles
east of Bethany.

Se'cu, in A. V. Sechu [hill, watchtower].

A village near Samuel's town of Eamah (1
Sam. xix. 22), probably in the direction of
Gibeah (9). Conder doubtfully suggests as
its site Shuweikeh, about 3 miles northwest
by north of ei'-Ram (Eamah 1).

Se-cun'dus [second, secondary; following,
favorable].

A man of Thessalonica who accompanied
Paul from Macedonia int Asia Minor (Acts
XX. 4).

Seer. See Prophet.

Se'gub [exalted].

1. The youngest or younger son of Hiel.
He died when his father set up the gates of
Jericho, which he was then fortifying (1
Kin. xvi. 34), completing the fulfillment of
the curse pronounced by Joshua (Josh. vi.
26).

2. Son of Hezron, by a daughter of Machir
(1 Chron. ii. 21, 22).

Se'ir [hairy, shaggy].

1. A land and its inhabitants. Seir was
the mountain range of Edom (Gen. xxxvi.
21; Num. xxiv. 18; Ezek. xxxv. 15). The
original inhabitants of these mountains were
Horites or cave dwellers (Gen. xiv. 6). In
Gen. xxxvi. 20 the original population is
personified as an individual and the tribes
descended from it are classed as children
(cp. Mizraim or Egypt, Gen. x. 6, 13). Seir
is elsewhere used collectively for the people
(Ezek. XXV. 8). Esau took up his abode in
mount Seir (Gen. xxxii. 3), and his descend-
ants dispossessed the Horites (Deut. ii. 12;
Josh. xxiv. 4). A remnant of the Amalek-
ites (1 Sam. xiv. 48; xv. 7; 2 Sam. viii. 12)
took refuge in these mountain fastnesses,
hut were finally destroyed by the Simeonites
(1 Chron. iv. 42, 43).

2. A ridge on the border line of the terri-
tory of Judah west of Kirjath-jearim (Josh.
XV. 10). It is commonly supposed to be that
on which the village of Saris stands.

Se'l-rah, in A. V. Se'i-rath [a hairy ani-
mal, she goat] . Applied to a locality, it may
mean shaggy with trees.

A locality in mount Ei)hraim, probably in

the southeastern part, to which Ehud escaped
after murdering Eglon ( Judg. iii. 26).

Se'la, in A. V. once Selah (2 Kin. xiv. 7)

[rock].

A place in Edom taken by Amaziah, king
of Judah, and named by him Joktheel (2
Kin. xiv. 7). It was situated toward the
wilderness (Is. xvi. 1, E. V.). It is scarcely
referred to in Jiidg. i. 36 ; but i)robably in 2
Chron. XXV. 12; Is. xlii. 11; and Obad. 3.
The last passage represents the inhabitants
of Sela as dwelling high up, the situation of
their houses resembling that of eagles' nests.
All this points to the ravine called by the
Greeks Petra, which is simply a translation
of the Hebrew Sela. Josepbus says that the
name which the city bore in his days was
Petra (Antiq. iv. 4, 7). About 300 B. c. Petra
passed from the Edoniites to the Nabathsean
Arabs. The dynasty which now began to
rule in Petra contained several kings of the
name of Aretas, one of whom is mentioned
in 2 Cor. xi. 32. The kingdom of the
Nabathseans came to an end in a. d. 105 and
Arabia Petrsea was made a province of the
Eoman empire. SeeNEBAiOTH. The place was
rediscovered by Burckhardt in 1812, and
has since been visited by various travelers.
It lies in a nook excavated by water on the
southeastern flank of mount Hor. The val-
ley, with branching side valleys, may be
4500 feet long by 740 to 1500 broad, and is
surrounded on all sides by precipitous cliffs.
The chief portion of it is called wady Musa,
the valley of Moses, though probably he was
never there. A rivulet traverses it through its
whole length. The variegated colors of the
rocks — red, brown, yellow, white— add to
the beauty of the spot. There are tombs,
remains of temples, an amphitheater, a tri-
umphal arch, etc., most of them apparently
of Eoman times. Besides these, there are
tombs and dwelling houses in the adjacent
cliffs, some of which may be of older date.

Se'lah [elevation].

A word occurring seventy-one times in
the Psalms, as well as in Hah. iii. 3, 9, 13.
Stainer gives six distinct opinions as to its
meaning: (1) a pause; (2) a repetition, like
da capo ; (3) the end of a strophe ; (4) a
playing with full power (fortixaimo); (5) a
bending of the body, an obeisance ; and (6)
a short, recurriug sym]»hoiiy iritunieHo). It
probably means an orchestral interlude (cp.
opinion 6) or a change from piano to forte.

Se-la-ham-mali'le-koth [rock of division
or escapes].

A cliff in the wilderness of Maon. It was
so called because David on one side of the
eminence eluded Saul on the other (1 Sam.
xxiii. 28). Conder points out that about 8
miles east-northeast of Maon there is a
cliff at the wady el-Malaki, a narrow but
deep chasm, impassable except by making a
circuit of many miles. Saul might have
been near enough to see David, and yet

I

Seled

657

Seneh

have been utterly unable to approach him
directly.

Se'led [exultation].

A man of Judah, family of Jerahmeel (1
Chion. ii. 30).

Se-leu'ci-a [relating to Seleucus].

A city on the seacoast of Syria (1 Mac. xi.
8), near the mouth of the Orontes, called
after Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander the
Great's generals, and subsequently himself a
conqueror and a king. It was the seaport
of Antioch, the latter city being 16 miles up
the river. Paul sailed thence on his first
missionary journey (Acts xiii. 4). The ruins
of the harbor and city still remain at es-
Suweidiyeh. The two piers of the former
are called Paul and Barnabas.

Se-leu'cus.

A king of Syria (1 Mac. vii. 1 ; 2 Mac. iii.
3), called Philopator. He was son and suc-
cessor of Antiochus the Great, and reigned
from 1S7-175 B. c, when he was murdered
by Heliodorus, one of his courtiers. He was
followed on the throne by Antiochus Epiph-
anes : see Antiochus. During his father's

Seleucus Philopator.

reign he fought in the disastrous battle of
Magnesia. During his own administration
he sought to strengthen his kingdom, and
was conciliatory toward the Jews; although
it is said that he attempted to plunder the
temple (2 Mac. iii. 4-40), possibly to help
raise the enormous tribute which he was
compelled to pay the Romans.

Sem. See Shem.

Sem-a-cM'ah [Jehovah hath sustained].

A Levite, descendant of the doorkeeper
Obed-edom (1 Chron. xxvi. 7).

Sem'e-i [Greek from Hebrew Shim'i,
Shimei].

An ancestor of Christ, who lived after the
time of Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 26).

Sem-it'ic.

The languages which, speaking broadly,
were or are vernacular to the descendants of
Shem are called Shemitic or Semitic, the
former being derived from the Hebrew Shem,
and the latter ultimately from the Greek form
Sem. The Semitic languages constitute one of
the leading families of languages. As not all
the descendants of Shem speak these tongues,
and some do so who are descended from other
42

sons of Noah, it has been proposed to call
them the Syro-Arabian languages, but the
term Semitic holds its place. Doubtless there
was at first but one Semitic language, but
the separation of the tribes speaking it led
ultimately to its divergence into several dia-
lects. In each the roots of the words are
nearly always triliteral, the three radical
letters being three consonants. Many tri-
literals appear to be based on preexisting bi-
literals ; and it is even supposed by some
that originally there were but two radical con-
sonants. The various modifications of mean-
ing were produced from these roots by the use
of vowels, of which three only, a, i, and u,
were originally employed : thus the three
consonants k, .% r suggest the idea of cutting
off, and kasar denotes he reaped, k'sor reap,
ISser reaper, kasir harvest, kasur reaped.
The meaning was also modified by laying
stress on certain of the consonants and by
means of affixes : thus gadal he became
large, giddal he magnified, gaddel magnify,
viigdal a tower.

The Semitic family of languages falls into
two great divisions, northern and southern.
The northern division subdivides into an
eastern group consisting of the Babylonian
and Assyrian ; a central group composed of
the dialects of the Aramaic language, em-
bracing Syriac, Xeo-Syriac, and ]\Iandaitic
of the east, and the Aramaic of the west,
namely Samaritan, the so-called Chaldee of
the Bible, Targums and Talmud, and the
dialect of the Palmyrene and Xabathtean in-
scriptions ; and a western group containing
Hebrew, Moabite, and Phoenician. The
southern division is subdivided into Arabic ;
Himyaritic or Sabsean of southern Arabia ;
and Ge'ez or Ethiopic and Amharic of Africa.

Semitic writing is in most of the dialects
from right to left : that is, in the other direc-
tion from English. Hence the title-page in
the Hebrew Bible is at what looks like the
end of the volume. From this it reads back-
ward, till it ends at what, if it were English,
would be called the beginning of the book.

The intellectual ability of the Semitic race
is shown by the place which the Jews take
in every Christian country where they set-
tle. Its prowess is also great ; but in by-
gone history, whenever the Semites and the
Aryans have encountered each other in war,
the contest, however .severe and protracted,
has in the long run ended in favor of the
Aryans. Thus the Aryan-Persian termi-
nated the Semitic-Babj-lonian empire. Aryan
Eome ultimately destroyed Semitic Car-
thage, and the Aryan warriors of Europe,
after a time, set bounds to the Saracen
Semites.

Se-na'ah, See Hassexaah.

Se'neh [thorn bush, bramble].

A sharp rock, one of two which flanked a
pass running east and west between ^lich-
mash and Gibeah. It was the more southerly

Senir

658

Sennacherib

of the cliffs, and nearer Gibeah than Mich-
mash. It was between these two rocks that
Jonathan and his armor-bearer passed when
they were going to surprise the Philistine
garrison (1 Sam. xiv. 4, 5). It overlooked
the wady Suweinit, about 3^ miles southeast
by south of Michmash.

Se'nir, in A. "V. twice Shenir (Deut. iii. 9;
Song iv. W) [coat of mail].

The Amorite name of Hermon (Deut. iii.
9). In Song iv. 8 Senir and Hermon are dis-
tinguished, each probably being a distinct
peak of the giant mountain. Fir timber was
obtained ou Senir (Ezek. xxvii. 5).

Sen-nach'e-rib [the moon-god Sin hath
increased the brothers].

A .son of Sargon, who succeeded to the
Assyrian throne on the murder of his father,
on the 12th of Ab, 705 b. c. Though a war-
rior, he was inferior to Sargon in ability.
He was boastful, cruel, and not wise enough
to perpetuate his conquests by conciliating
those whom he had vanquished. On his
accession Merodach-baladan of Babylon at-
tempted to throw off the Assyrian yoke.
Sennacherib defeated him and his ally, the
king of Elam, placed Belibni on the Baby-
lonian throne, and returned in triumph to
Nineveh, laden with captives and spoil. Dis-
content and rebellion manifested themselves
in the west also, among the peoples who had
submitted to Sargon. To quell this revolt,
Sennacherib in 701 appeared in Phcenicia,
capturing Great and Little Zidon, Zarephath,
Achzib, and Accho, but Tyre appears to have
held out. Neighboring states hastened to
announce their submission. Proceeding to
the Philistine countrj^, he took Ashkelon,
Beth-dagon, and Joppa. Next he invested
and captured Lachish, sent a detachment of
his troops to Jerusalem, secured the release
of the dethroned king of Ekron from Jeru-
salem, defeated the combined armies of Egypt
and Ethiopia at the battle of Eltekeh, and
added Ekron to his conquests. On this cam-
paign he not only took Lachish and Eltekeh,
cities of Judah, but by his own account
took 46 fortified towns of Judah, carried
away 200,150 people captive, and seized mul-
titudes of horses, mules, asses, camels, and
sheep. His career of conquest was cut short
by the plague, which devastated his army
and compelled him to return to Nineveh.
No express mention is, of course, to be ex-
pected in the Assyrian inscriptions of his
failure to possess himself of Jerusalem, but
it is clearly implied ; for he is unable to tell
of the capture of the city, and he apparently
covers up the inglorious conclusion of the
campaign by placing at the close of his nar-
rative the account of the tribute which he
received from Hezekiah. Here is his own
account of the matter: "Hezekiah himself
I shut up like a bird in a cage in Jerusalem,
his royal city. I erected fortifications against
him and blocked the exits from the gate of

his city. I severed his towns, which I i)lun-
dered, from his dominions and gave them to
Mitinti, king of Ashdod, Padi, king of Ekron,
aud Silbel, king of Gaza. Thus I diminished his
country. To the former contribution, their an-
nual gift, I added the tribute of subjection to
ray sovereignty aud imposed it ou them. The
fear of the glory of my sovereignty over-
whelmed him, even Hezekiah ; and he sent
after me to Nineveh, my royal city, the Arabs
and his loyal subjects, whom he had brought
for the defense of Jerusalem, his royal city,
and had furnished with pay, along with
thirty talents of gold, 800 talents of pure
silver, precious stones, couches of ivory,
thrones of ivory, elephants' hides, ivory,
rare woods of various kinds, a vast treasure,
as well as his daughters, the women of his
palace, and others ; and he sent his am-
bassador to offer homage." A story was told
the Greek historian Herodotus by the Egyp-
tian priests that Sennacherib advanced

Sennacherib on his Throne at Lachish.

against Egypt, and had reached Pelusium,
when immense numbers of field mice de-
stroyed the bowstrings of the Assyrians,
who next morning commenced their flight
from the country. For the series of historic
events in which Sennacherib and Hezekiah
figure as antagonists, see Hezekiah. Sen-
nacherib's fiiilure against Jerusalem was in
701 B. c. In the meantime new troubles for
Sennacherib arose in Babylonia ; and in tlie
third year of Belibni, in 700 B. c. the Assyrian
king marched to the south, removed Belibni,
and placed his own son Ashurnadinshum
on the throne. Freed from concern for tlie
south Sennacherib next turned his attention
to the northwest and brought Cilicia under
the Assyrian yoke. In 694 he made a novel
expedition by ship and attempted to root
out the followers of Merodach-baladan from
their last refuge, at the mouth of the Ulai.

Senuah

659

Sepulcher

The campaign was in a measure successful ;
but the Ehimites invaded Babylonia, seized
Ashurnadinshuni, and jilaeed a Babylonian
king on the throne, who held the country
for a year and a lialf. lUit though Sennach-
erib took Erech, captured the Babylonian
king, and devastated Elam, yet another
Babylonian king ascended the throne, and
the Assyrians did not succeed in finally
chastising Babylonia until 689. Then Sen-
nacherib advanced against Babylon, captured
and plundered the city, massacred the in-
habitants, fired the buildings, razed the walls
and temples, and flooded the ruins with water
from the Euphrates and its canals. The last
eight years of his reign were mostly peace-
ful. He had some time before surrounded
Nineveh with a wall, 8 miles in circumfer-
ence. About 695 B. c. he finished a great
palace which he had built for himself in the
northwestern part of Nineveh. It was 1500
feet long and TOO broad, with great courts,
halls, and chambers. He restored another
palace, and constructed a system of canals
by which he brought good drinking water
to the city. After a reign of twenty-four
years and five months, he was assassinated
on the 20th of Tebet, which possibly fell at
the close of 681, but more probably corresponds
with January, 680. The deed was done by
two of his sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer,
who were excited against him because his fa-
vorite in the family wasanother brother, Esar-
haddon (2 Kin. xix. 37 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 21).

Se-nu'ah. See H.-vssenuah.

Se-o'rim [barley].

A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of
David, and constituted the fourth course
when David distributed the priests into di-
visions (1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 8).

Se'pliar [numbering].

A place which form-
ed the limit in one di-
rection of the territory
settled by the descend-
ants of Joktan (Gen.
X. 30). It was prob-
ably in southern Ara-
bia. Despite the first
letter, it is commonly
identified with Zafar,
which begins with the
Arabic pointed za
(teth). Two places
bore this name. One
was a seaport in Ha-
dramaut, near the in-
cense mountain ; the
other was in southern
Yemen, and was the
capital of the Himyar-
ite kings.

Seph'a-rad.

A place to which the people of Jerusalem
were to be carried away captive (Obad. 20).

Its situation is unsettled. Sparda, a district
frequently mentioned iji the Persian inscri))-
tions along with Ionia, Armenia, and C'appa-
docia, and probably identical with Sardis in
Asia Minor, has been suggested ; -but this
identification requires the assumi)ti()n that
Obadiah prophesied after the exile, which
few critics believe. Happier is (he id(^ntifi-
cation with Shaparda, which Sargon, who
transported Israelites to the cities of the
Medes (2 Kin. xvii. 6), mentions as a district
of southwestern Media.

Seph-ar-va'im [twin Sipparas].

A place conquered by the Assyrians, and
from which they brought colonists to in-
habit Samaria when the ten tribes were
carried into captivity (2 Kin. xvii. 24).
The city stood on the eastern bank of the
Euphrates, above Babylon and hard by the
border of Mesopotamia. It was a seat of the
worship of the sun-god, and hence was known
as Sippar of Shamash. But Anuuit, wife of
the god of the sky, was also specially wor-
shiped there, apparently in a distinct section
of the city. Hence there was also Sippar of
Anunit. The duality of the town .sntticiently
explains the Hebrew name, which is dual in
form and is equivalent to the twin cities of
Sippara. It is now called Abu Habba. Sippar
of Anunit was apparently another designa-
tion of Agade, the old capital of Sargon I.

Se'phar-vites.

Natives or inhabitants of Sepharvaim (2
Kin. xvii. 31).

Se-phe'la. See Shephelah.

Sep'tu-a-glnt. See Versions.

Sep'ul-cher.

The Hebrews, as a rule, buried their dead
in caverns, natural or artificial (Gen. xxiii.
9 ; Is. xxii. 16; Mat. xxvii. 60 ; John xi. 38),
natural caves being often extended by exca-

I'lan of the so-called Tombs of the Kings.

vation (Gen. 1. 5). The cliffs near Jerusalem
are full of such sepulchers. The entrance to
the cavern or its chambers was closed by a

Sepulcher

660

Sepulchers of the Kings

stone (Mat. xxvii. 60) to exclude jackals and
other beasts that prey upon dead bodies. It
was desirable that the sepulchers should be
at a distance from human habitations. They
might be in gardens attached to d\Yellings

Sealed Stone at Entrance of a Tomb.

(2 Kin. xxi. 18, 26), or within the city walls
(1 Kin. ii. 10) : but they were generally out-
side the town. Even then trees or gardens
might surround them (John xix. 41). Often,
however, they were excavated high up in the
face of a precipitous cliff, with their entrance
far above the ground. Frequently the tomb
was whitewashed (I^at. xxiii. 27), not only

shaft into the side of the cavern and closed
by a flat stone or door, or a shelf for bodies was
hewn around the chamber. Sometimes there
were double tiers of niches or shafts. CofBns
were not necessary ; but occasionally among
the wealthy the body was inclosed in a stone
sarcophagus, and placed in the tomb. The
entrance was sometimes richly ornamented.
Sometimesa monument was erected. It might
consist of a simple pillar (2 Kin. xxiii. 17, R.
v.), or it might assume the form of a mauso-
leum (1 Mac. xiii. 27). The Hebrews and
their neighbors were fond of family burial
places, and the sepulcher with its chambers
and niches was adapted to this purpose (Gen.
xlix. 29-31 ; 2 Sam. ii. 32 ; 1 Kin. xiii. 22 ; 1
Mac. i.x. 19; xiii. 25). Public burial places
were used by the poor and were provided for
strangers (2 Kin. xxiii. 6 ; Jer. xxvi. 23 ; Mat.
xxvii. 7). When the Palestine explorers
found a grave dug down in the ground and
covered with earth, they assumed it to be a
Christian tomb ; but if they found one run-
ning horizontally into a clifl', they presumed
it to be Jewish. See Gkave.

Sep'ul-cher, Ho'ly. See C'.\lvary.

Sep'ul-chers of the Kings, or of Da'vid.

The royal burial place in the city of David,
not far from the king's garden and the pool
of Shelah (1 Kin. ii. 10; 2 Chrou. xxi. 20;
Neh. iii. 1.5, 16), and doubtless in the field of
burial which belonged to the kings (2Chron.
xxvi. 23 ; cp. 2 Kin. xv. 7). Theodoret quotes
Josephus as saying that the tomb is near Si-
loam, is in fashion like a cave, and reveals the

Portal of the so-called Tombs of the Judges, near Jerusalem.

for cleanliness and beauty, but also that it
might be clearly seen and not touched, for
the touch brought defilement. Inside the
sepulcher the individual grave was sunk in
the floor and covered by a slab of stone, or
"was cut as a niche in the wall, or driven as a

royal lavishness (Qusest. 6 in iii. Reg.). It con-
sisted of several chambers (Antiq. vii. 15, 3).
It was robbed of large treasure by John Hyr-
canus ; and the report of the sum which that
prince had obtained led Herod the Great to
search it, in the hope of securing additional

I

Serah

661

Seraphim

lihinder ; but he became frifjlitened, aluiiuloned
the seareh, and erected a jji-oiiitiatory nioiiu-
iiieiit of white stoue at its mouth (ibid.; xiii. 8,
4; xvi. 7, 1 ; War i. 2, 5). It was extant in the
time of Christ (Acts ii. 29). All the kings
from David to Hezekiah inclusive were bur-
ied in the city of David. The common royal
sepulcher was by implication ordinarily used ;
but Asa and probably Hezekiah had tombs
of their own (2 Chron. xvi. 14 ; xxxii. 33, R.
v.), and Jehoram, Joash, Uzziah, and Ahaz
were not admitted to the royal .sepulcher
(xxi. 20; xxiv. 25; xxvi. 23; xxviii. 27).
Mana.sseh, Amon, and Josiah were buried at
Jerusjilem in their own tombs (2 Kin. xxi. 18,
2(j ; xxiii.30with2Chron.xxxv.24). Jehoahaz
died in Egypt, and Jehoiachin and Zedekiah
doubtless in Babylonia. Jehoiakim was prob-
ably left unburied.

The caverns of the kings, which are re-
ferred to by Josephus (War v. 4, 2), may be
what is now known as the grotto of Jeremiah.

Se'rah, in A. V. once Saxali (Num. xxvi.
46) [abundance].

A daughter of Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17 ; 1
Chron. vii. 30).

Se-ra'iali [soldier of Jehovah]

1. A son of Kenaz (1 Chron. iv. 13).

2. A scribe who had held office under David
(2 Sam. viii. 17) ; see Shavsha.

3. A Simeonite, son of Asiel (1 Chron. iv.
35).

4. One of those sent to arrest Baruch the
scribe and Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. xxxvi.
26).

5. The chief priest when Nebuchadnezzar
captured Jerusalem. He was put to death
by Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah (2 Kin. xxv.
18-21 : Jer. lii. 24-27). He was the father of
Jehozadak, who was carried into captivity ;
and the grandfather of Jeshua, who was high
priest immediately after the exile; and he
was also an ancestor of Ezra, the .scribe (1
Chron. vi. 14, 15 ; Ezra iii. 2 ; vii. 1).

6. "A quiet prince," or "the chief cham-
berlain," or the "quartermaster," the son of
Neriah. He was carried captive to Babylon
(Jer. li. 59-64, A. V.. E. V., and margin).

7. The son of Tanhumeth, a Netophathite
(2 Kin. xxv. 23; Jer. xl. 8).

8. One of those who accompanied Zerub-
babel from Babylon (Ezra ii. 2). Called in
Neh. vii. 7 Azariah.

9. A chief of the priests who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 1,
7). A father's house bore his name in the
next geueration (ver. 12). Possibly the same
as number 8.

10. A priest, doubtless head of a father's
house and probably of the father's house just
mentioned, who with Nehemiah signed the
covenant to keep separate from the heathen
and observe the law of God (Neh. x. 2).
Probably also he is identical with the follow-
ing.

il. A priest, son of Hilkiah and ruler of

the house of God after the exile (Neh. xi. 11 ;
cp. the preceding). The name Azariah oc-
curs in the corresponding place in 1 Chron.
ix. 11. Different persons are probably in-
tended, of whom Azariah lived before and
Seraiah after the exile. Possibly, however,
different persons are intended, each of whom
lived after the exile, Azariah being a prede-
cessor of Seraiah. Or the text may be cor-
rupt ; in one of the passages the name may
have been misread by a copyist ; or as botii
names belong to the high-priestly genealogy
and succeed each other there (1 Chron. vi.
12-15), something may have slipped from the
text, as, for example : " Seraiah, son of" may
have been lost before Azariah in Chronicles,
or "son of Azariah" after Seraiah in Nehe-
miah.

Ser'a-phim.

Celestial beings who stood before the en-
throned Lord when he appeared in vision to
Isaiah. Each had six wings: with twain he
covered his face, and with twain he covered
his feet, and with twain he did fly. And
one cried unto another, and said: "Holy,
holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts: the whole
earth is full of his glory" (Is. vi. 2, 3). The
prophet having confessed his sinfulness, one
of the seraphim flew unto him, having a live
coal in his hand, which he had taken with
the tongs from off the altar; and he touched
the prophet's mouth with it, and said : " Lo,
this hath touched thy lips; and thine in-
iquity is taken away, and thy sin purged."

Scripture affords no further information
regarding the seraphim. They are men-
tioned in this one passage only. What were
they? 1. Gesenius derives their name from
the Arabic sharafa, high, noble. The Arabic
root would regularly be saraph in Hebrew ;
but there is no evidence that it was ever
used by the Hebrews. No other word in
Hebrew is traceable to this root. Gesenius
has sought his derivation outside of the He-
brew lexicon. These facts stamp his ex-
planation as improbable. 2. Cheyne conjec-
tures that the seraphim are the serpent-like
lightning, referring to the fact that saraph
and s'raphim denote the fiery serpents in the
wilderness (Num. xxi. 6, 8; Is. xiv. 29 ; xxx.
6). But even if the words seraphim and
fiery serpent have the .same form in the
singular number, which is uncertain, and
if they are from the same Semitic root,
which is probable, they yet need not signify
the same beings or similarly shaped beings.
Shape is not denoted by the name. The
common characteristic, which finds expres-
sion in the word, is burning, in the transitive
sense ; not ardent or glowing beings, but
beings that burn things. Nor do the sera-
phim resemble serpents outwardly, for they
have hands, feet, and wings. Cheyne admits
that Isaiah did not regard them as animals
in form. 3. The seraphim are identical
with the Egyptian griffins, serref (Dillmann^

Sered

662

Seven

I

•(uoting L. Stern), and were borrowed by the
Israelites. If so, they were personifications
of natural objects or phenomena; and in the
vision of Isaiah they symbolically rei)resent
the powers of nature attendant upon nature's
Lord (cp, Zech. vi. 1-8, R. V.). 4. They are
an order of angels. So the Jews understood.
The Targiim inserts the word in Ezek. i. 8 ;
Zech. iii. 7. They are consuming beings,
who cry "Holy, holy, holy," who are most
impressed with the attribute of holiness in
God, worship him most fondly in that charr
acter, and execute his purposes of holiness
in the world (Delitzsch, modified). The con-
clusive argument in favor of this theory
against the third is that their adoration of
holiness in God and their employment in the
mini.stry of atonement indicate moral beings,
and not iihysical powers personified.

Se'red [fear].

A son of Zebulun, and founder of a tribal
family ((4en. xlvi. 14; Num. xxvi. 26).

Ser'gi-us Pau'lus [faulus means small,
little].

The proconsul of Cyprus, which consti-
tuted a senatorial province at the time of
Paul's visit there (Acts xiii. 5-12).

Se'ron [perhaps, a Greek form of Hiram
(cp. Herod, vii. 98)].

Commander of the army of Syria (1 Mac.
iii. 1:5) in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes.
He attempted to suppress the revolt of the
Jews, but was defeated by Judas Maccabaeus
near Beth-horon in 166 B. c. (14-24). Josephus
states that Seron lost his life in the battle
(Autiq. xii. 7, 1).

Ser'pent.

1. An animal which creeps on its belly
(Gen. iii. 1, 14) ; having bead, tail, and body
(15 ; Ex. iv. 4), but no limbs. It is generically
called nahash in Hebrew, ophis in Greek
(Gen. iii. 13 with 2 Cor. xi. .3; Num. xxi. 9
with John iii. 14). As it wriggles along, its
mouth is apt to come in contact with the
dust, which it licks (Mic. vii. 17 ; cp. Gen.
iii. 14; Is. Ixv. 25). The bite of some species
infuses fatal poison into the wound (Num.
xxi. 6; Ps. Iviii. 4; Prov. xxiii. 32). Some
can be charmed (Ecc. s. 11). The serpent is
found in the wilderness and in inhabited
districts, by the road, in hedges, on rocks, in
walls (Gen. xlix. 17 ; Num. xxi. 6 ; Prov.
XXX. 19; Ecc. x. 8; Amos v. 19).

The fiery serpents which bit the children
of Israel in the wilderne.ss and caused death
(Num. xxi. 6), were a kind of snake found
in Arabia and el.sewhere, whose bite pro-
duces the fiery burning of inflammation and
thirst. See Brazen Serpent.

Tlie serjjent of the temptation was an or-
dinary snake, one of the beasts of the field,
comparable with them in subtlety and .skill
in .securing prey, and, after it was involved
in the temptation of man, cursed among
them (Gen. iii. 1, 14). Perhaps Eve saw
nothing more than a snake ; but the devil

was in this serpent, as afterwards the demons
were in men and in the swine, controlling
it, lending it supernatural subtlety, and using
it as a means bv whicli to ai)proach Eve (Wisd.
ii. 24; John viii. 44; Rom. xvi. 20: 2 Cor.
xi. 3; Rev. xii. 9) ; see Satan. It suffered in
the punishment, as did other innocent ani-
mals when made the instruments of sin
(Lev. XX. 15, 16). Its mode of locomotion
was not new, it had doubtless always crept;
but now this groveling on the earth and ac-
cidental swallowing of dust is made the
memorial of its degradation. It does not
suffer thereby, save as it is loathed and killed
by man. But the more distinctly man recog-
nizes that the evil sjjirit was the serpent's
master, the more does man transfer his en-
mity to tlie archfiend.

2. A species of serpent, in Hebrew pethen
(Ps. xci. 13, in E. V. adder). See Asp.

Se'rug, in A. V. of N. T. Saruch [shoot,
branch].

Son of Reu, father of Nahor, and ancestor
of Abraham (Gen. xi. 20, 23 ; 1 Chron. i. 26 ;
Luke iii. 35).

Serv'ant.

One who serves, in Hebrew usually 'cbed.
It is a geuei-al term, including voluntary and
involuntary service, and embracing all who
are under obligation of any kind to render
service to another, from the slave captured
in war or purchased at a ])rice, to the envied
official of a king and the willing worshiper
of God (Gen. xxxix. 1 with xii. 12; xl. 20;
Ex. xxxii. 13; Acts xvi. 17). It is system-
atically employed by orientals when ad-
dressing a superior, whether man or God
(Gen. xxxii. 4, 20; 1. 18; Deut. iii. 24;
2 Sam. ix. 2 ; Luke ii. 29 ; Acts iv. 29) ; and
is applied to conquered nations compelled
to pay tribute to their conqueror (2 Sam. viii.
2). God also designates his worshipers serv-
ants (Gen. xxvi. 24 ; Num. xii. 7 ; 2 Sam.
vii. 5). See Minister, Slave.

Seth, in A. V. once Sheth (1 Chron. i. 1)
[appointed, substituted].

A son of Adam. He was born after the
murder of Abel, for whom to a certain ex-
tent he became a substitute (Gen. iv. 25 ; v.
3). He became the father of Enos. and died
at the age of 912 (Gen. v. 6-8 ; Luke iii. 38).

Se'thur [hidden].

The representative spy from the tribe of
Asher (Num. xiii. 13).

Sev'en.

Seven is an ordinary numeral, and it was
commonly used without religious signifi-
cance ; but it was also a sacred number
among the Hebrews and other Semites, and
also among the Aryans of Persia and even
of Greece (Iliad xix. 243). Its sacredness is
traceable to remote antiquity. It is seen in
the seven pillars of wisdom's house (Prov.
ix. 1), the seven locks into which Samson,
who was consecrated to God, braided his hair

Sevens

663

Shaluuniiii

Jodg. xri. 13; 19;. the seven Tictiins to atone
for the faffoAcoi covenant 2 Sam. xxL 6. $•>.
the seven stanes of the ancieni Aiahs aneaied
whh the blood of the covenanting pajties
(Haod. m. S), the seven lamfag to attest the
cond^aoB of a treaty (Gen. xxL 2d-30>. the
Hebrew woods for oath and taking an oath,
vhirh incorporate the nmnber seven, and
the aKiednesB <^ the seventh ptntko oi
time. The idea that seviea derived its sacxed
chatacter &om the £Kt that three pins foor
make sevoi, is pure £uirjr. It wasaacxed be-
cause men saw that God recog'U'Bd the nom-
b^. He placed seven hmiinaiies in the skj.
son, moon, and five planets. He cansed the
moon to phase every sevoi days. These
phenomena, however, were bat confirmafagy
and served as ronindeis oi a greater recog-
nition. God had Useed the sevoith day
and hallowed it. Far moxe was needed than
the sigiB of the sky to onginate the saeied-
nesB of seven. Twelve did not become a
sacred number, although God made the
moon to maik off twelve nMmtie in tibe year,
placed twelve siany agiE in the xodiac. and
made the snn to confoim its eomse to the zo-
diac and to retom in ^sii^ as nearly at the
condusion of twelve lonar months as the
moon renews itself afker four phaangs.
Ifan noted these i^ienoniena in the earliest
times, adofiied tlMan into hB daily life and
language, and ceiebiated ^srtain of tiiem
with leSgiGas festivals, ^bi Babylonia man
even made twdve the baas of an arithmeti-
eal system, and in Assyria he pantheon con-
tained twdve great gods. Notwithstanding
an thK. twelve did not become a sacred
number : but seven did becon>ea^«red num-
ber, and the seventh poition of time a sacred
se^nrn ; and not laa^f was the lecnrm^
seventh poxtion of time sacred, bat it in-
volved a benediction. It was cheri^ied in
hoaiy antiqaity as a aeaiann of divine &vor
toward man. vriien themanifestatiom of G«3d's
good win was to be experled. See Sabbath.

Se-'ve'B^ in A. V. Sj-r Zz ' .
An. affofrding entrance'

A town constitating ~
Egypt in one diiectioiL

peods on the trandbt: ' 1 .' :

XXX. Gl ICasispxoha'' ren-

dering is that <4' the mi : .
Syene," then the towr
soath of Egypt, on tb-
and is the Booian Syen^
on the Egyptian side

where a few lonains c : . ::-

is*- Here, or oa the is bor-

der garrison was stati>: .

Sba-al'hia. on St^-il-i": cin -i
xix. 42» [fox—'

AnAmon"
« Jioeh. lii. ^ -
yiddCJndg
setdenMBk

Kin. iv. 9f. Not identified. Selbit, 3 miles
nonhwest of Aiialon, has little in its &\ia.

A native or inhabitant either of an un-
known town called Sfaaalbon. -w more pvob-
aUy of Shaalhim «.2 Sam. xxiiL 33; 1 Chroo.
xL 33*.

Sha'a-Ilm, in A. Y. ShaliB [fetxes].

A district apparently in l^iaim. throogh
which SanL on leaving the land of ShaKAah,
posed in quest of hK &ther s asses (1 Sam.
ix. 4>. Stuation unknown.

Sha'aph.

1. A son of JahdaL included in the regis-
tiy of Cakb (I Chrui. h. 47).

2. A son of C^leb by his concnbine Maacah.
He was ancest(»' at the inhabitants of llad-
mannah (1 Chrcm. iL 49}.

Sha-a-ialm, in A. T. once SJiaTati [two
gates].

1. A town in the lowland of Jndah kJoA.
XV. 36j[^ap)nrently westof Soceh and Aaekah
(1 Sam. xviL 32 with 1). Not identified.
Saireh auMHig the hOb. 5 miles northeast by
north of Socoh. has not the proper location :
and the ten and village of Zakarijn^ on either
side of wady e&Sont and aboot 31 miles to the
n<Hthwcst of Socoh, have only one consonant
in camunon with Shaaraim. and beades appear
to be named after the profhrt Zfrhariah.
whose giave is shown thoe.

2. A town of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 31) ; see

Sbat-ash'gax.

A chamberlain of king Ahasneras (Esth.
iL 14 .

Shablie-ttiai [pertaining to the Sabbath].
A chief Levite. prominent in Ezra's time
(Ezra X. 15 ; Neh. viiL T; xL 16).

Sha-chi'a.

A Benjamite, son of iSiahaiaim f 1 Chron.
viiL10>.

Sha'draiA [probably Bilnilonian, ^mdmr-
ml*, decree of the nMMm-god].

llie name given by the ^ince of tiie
ennuelis at Babylon to Hanamah, one of the
three fidthful Hebrews afterwards miracn-
looyy saved firom the fiery fiimace (Dan.
L 7 : iiL 12-30ji.

Sha'ge [wandering, a wandeier].

A Hararite. the &lher of one of David's
mi^ty men (1 Chron. xL Si). Some expoei-
tois woald read Agee instead of 9iage, on
the ground of 2 Sam. "v^i" 11. The moie
appiopiiate comparism with 2 Sun. xxiiL 3S;
33L and the reading of Lncian's recenaon of
tiie Septnagint lender more psoiaMe tbe con-
jertnre that the name is really Shammah ; see

C-"-! -V-.--

ible dawning].
: — eroos descend-

Shahazumali

G64

Shalmaneser

Sha-haz'u-mah, in A. V. Sha-haz'l-mali,
as in Hebrew margiu [not improbably, lofty
places].

A town on the border of Issachar (Josh.
xix. 22). Situation unknown.

Sha'lem [entire, safe].

A town near Slicchem (Gen. xxxiii. 18),
accordinji to the Greek, Latin, and Syriac
versions, followed by A. V. It is scarcely
Salem (Gen. xiv. 18), for that town is prob-
ably Jerusalem ; nor Salim, 4 miles east of
Shechem, which is not mentioned in the
O. T. The word is probably a common noun,
to be rendered, with K. V., in peace or safety.

Shalim. See Shaalim.

Shal'i-shah, in A. V. Shalisha [a third
part] .

A district apparently in the hill country
of Ephraim, traversed by Saul in quest of
his father's asses (1 Sam. ix. 4). Its situation
is unknown. It does not seem to be the
same as Baal-shalishah.

Shal'le-cheth [casting out].

A gate of Solomon's temple on the west
(1 Chron. xxvi. 16).

Shal'lum [retribution].

1. A sou of Naphtali (1 Chron. vii. 13) ; see
Shillem.

2. A descendant of Simeon through Shaul
(1 Chron. iv. 24, 25).

3. A descendant of Judah through Sisamai
(1 Chron. ii. 40, 41).

4. The chief porter at the sanctuary (1
Chron. ix. 17, 18). If before the exile, as is
probable, he is mentioned by Jeremiah
(Jer. XXXV. 4). He was a son of Kore, a Kor-
hite, and he and his family were keepers of
the gates of the sanctuary (1 Chron. ix. 19).
The name Shall um may be equivalent to Me-
shelemiah orShelemiah (xxvi. 1, 14), whether
the registry of chajHer ix. be referred to the
time before or after the exile. A comparison
of ix. 21 with xxvi. 2 raises a strong pre-
sumption against the identification. If not^
withstanding this, the registry be regarded
as post-exilic and Shallum be identified with
Shelemiah, then Shallum is not the name of
a person, but of the family, in the registry.

5. A son of Jabesh, who murdered king
Zechariah and reigned in his stead over the
ten tribes, but in a month was himself assas-
sinated by Menahem (2 Kin. xv. 8-15).

6. Father of a certain Jehizkiah (2 Chron.
xxviii. 12).

7. A member of the high-priestly family
of Zadok, and an ancestor of Ezra. He lived
several generations before the capture of Je-
rusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (1 Chron. vi. 12-
15 ; Ezra vii. 2). Called Meshullam in 1
Chron. ix. 11 ; see Meshullam 4.

8. A son of Tikvah, and the husband of
Huldah, the prophetess, and in the reign of
Josiah the officer who had charge either of
the priests' garments which were kept in the
temple or of the king's wardrobe (2 Kin.
xxii. 14 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 22).

9. Uncle of Jeremiah, and the father of
Hanameel (Jer. xxxii. 7, 8). He was not a
member of the high-priestly family, as some
have thought ; for his son lived at Anathoth,
a town where priests of Ithamar's line dwelt
(1 Kin. ii. 26), and the high priests of this
time belonged to the line of Eleazar.

10. Another name for Jehoahaz, son of
Josiah, king of Judah (2 Kin. xsiii. 30-34) ;
see Jehoahaz.

11 and 12. A porter of the temple, and a
son of Bani, each of whom was induced by
Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra x.
24, 42).

13. A son of Hallohesh, ruler of half the
district of Jerusalem. With his daughters,
he repaired part of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. iii. 12).

Shal'lun [perhaps, spoliation].

A ruler of part of Mizpah, who repaired
the gate of the fountains at Jerusalem (Neh.
iii. 15).

Shal'mai. See Salmai.

Shal'man.

Tiglath-]>ileser mentions Salamanu of Moab
among the various princes who were tribu-
tary to him (II. E. 67, 60), and Schrader be-
lieves that this person is Shalman, the de-
stroyer of Beth-arbel, to whom Hosea refers
(Hos. x. 14), and that Beth-arbel is the town
of that name east of the Jordan, near Pella.
These identifications may be correct, but they
are unsupported. It is not known that Sala-
manu of Moab invaded the land of Israel,
but it is known that Shalnianeser of Assyria
did. In the light of ]ires( iit knowledge, it
is more natural to regard Shalman as an ab-
breviation of Shalmaneser, exactly such an
abbreviation as is Benhadad, and to think
of Beth-arbel as being the town of Galilee,
from which Shalmaneser's army was cer-
tainly not far distant. See Shalmaneser 4.

Shal-ma-ne'ser [Assyrian Shulmann-asfiar-
idu, god Shulmau is chief].

The name of several Assyrian kings :

1. The builder, or rather rebuilder, and
fortifier of the town of Calah (q. v.). He
reigned about 1.300 b. c.

2. The son of Ashurnasirpal. He reigned
from about 860 to 825 B. c, and was the first .
Assyrian king who came into conflict with
the Israelites. He was energetic and per-
sistent in purpose. He crossed the Eu])hrates
with hostile intent as early as his first year
and wasted the Hittite country as far as the
Mediterranean ; and he repeatedly cros.sed
the river later, besides waging war in the
countries north, east, and south of Nineveh.
To resist him in the west, the Syrian league
was formed, which included Damascus, Ha-
math, and the twelve kings of the coast, and
was at times reenforced by the soldiers of the
neighboring nations. Thus, for instance, the
army of Ahab of Israel was found fight-
ing side by side with the men of Damascus
against the common As.syrian foe at Karkar

Shalmaneser

665

Shamma

ill 8J)4 B. c. ; see Ahab, Bkniiadad. Shal-
iiiiineser claims to have won the battle of
Karkar ; but he gained nothing if he did,
and at ouce led his army baek to Nineveh.
After three years he returned, but his on-
ward course was again stoi)i)ed by the allies.
The following year, the eleventh of his reign,
lie crossed the Euphrates and plundered
many towns of the kingdom of Hamath, but
he was again checked. In his fourteenth
year he returned and conquered. The power
of the league was broken. In his eighteenth

troops to oppose Shalnianeser and was de-
feated and ca])tured ; and (hat this battle
took place at the strategic point and noted
battleground, Arbela in Galilee. This con-
jecture, which identities Shalman of Hos. x.
14 with Shalmane.ser, is alluring ; but it is
only conjecture. After seizing the king,
whether at Arbela or elsewhere, Shalmaneser
laid siege to the capital. Samaria stood this
siege for three years and then fell into the
hands of the Assyrians (2 Kin. xvii. 1-6 ;
xviii. 9, 10). Whether Shalmaneser was still

Shalmaneser receiving the Tribute of Jehu.

year, 842 b. c, he defeated Hazael of Damas-
cus at mount Hermon. The kings of Tyre
and Sidon, and Jehu of Israel, in dismay
hastened to make submission by sending
tribute.

3. King from 783 to 773 b. c. His reign
does not touch Hebrew history.

4. Successor of Tiglath-pileser. Before his
accession to the throne, and even afterwards,
he was known by the name of Ululai, in
Greek Iloulaios (Ptolemy's canon). He
reigned from the 25th of Tebet, the tenth
month, 727 b. c, to the 12th of Tebet, 722 B.
c. In 725 he undertook an expedition to
foreign parts. According to the Syrian an-
nals cited by Josephus, Shalmaneser overran
Phoenicia. On the approach of the Assyrians,
Sidon, Acre, and Tyre on the mainland re-
volted from the dominion of island Tyre and
acknowledged the suzerainty of the invader.
The Assyrian king thereupon withdrew. He
returned, however, to war against the island.
His ships, manned by his Phoenician subjects,
were scattered by the Tyrians in a naval en-
gagement. After this defeat Shalmaneser
marched away, leaving troops enough to
maintain a siege of the city, which was sus-
tained for five years (Antiq. ix. 14, 2), wlien
Tyre submitted to Sargon. When Shalma-
neser arrived in the west, Hoshea paid him
tribute, as he had done to his predecessor, but
he soon stopped his payments, relying upon
So of Egypt to aid him in fighting the As-
syrians, and perhaps encouraged by the stern
resistance of Tyre. Shalmaneser promptly had
him seized and imprisoned. It is quite jiroba-
ble that Hoshea had gone forth with his

on the throne or had just been succeeded by
Sargon, is still a (juestion ; see Sargon.

Sha'ma [hearing, or he hath heard].
A son of Hotham, the Aroerite. He was
one of David's mighty men (1 C'hron. xi. 44).

Sham-a-ri'ah. See Shemariah.

Sha'med. See Shemed.

Slia'iner. See Shemer.

Sham 'gar.

A Hebrew judge, the son of Anath. He
lived not long before Deborah and Barak. In
his days, through the oppression of the Phi-
listines, the highways were unoccupied, and
the travelers walked through byways ( Judg.
v. 6). But Shamgar slew 600 of the enemy
with an oxgoad and delivered Israel (iii. 31).

Sham'liuth [desolation].

An Izrahite, David's captain for the fifth
month (1 Chron. xxvii. 8). Perhaps identi-
cal with Shammah 4.

Sha'mir [a thorn].

1. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 48) ; probably represented by the
ruin Somerah, about 13 miles west-southwest
of Hebron.

2. A town in mount Ephraim. which the
judge Tola, though a man of Issachar, made
his residence, and where he was buried
(Judg. X. 1, 2). Site unknown.

3. A Levite, a son of Micah (1 Chron.
xxiv. 24).

Sham 'ma [desolation].

An Asherite, a son of Zophah (1 Chron. vii.

37).

Shammah

666

Shashak

Sham'mali [desolation].

1. A descendant of Esau and also of Ish-
mael (Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13, 17). He became
a duke of Edom (17).

2. Third son of Jesse, and brother of
David (1 Sam. xvi. 9 ; xvii. 13). See
Shimea 3.

3. One of David's first three mighty men,
a son of Agee, a Hararite (2 Sam. xxiii. 11).
Shammah tlie Hararite is named in ver. 33 ;
and in view of 1 Chron. xi. 34 and textual
considerations, is reasonably believed to be
this person mentioned again as father of
Jonathan. The words in Samuel and Chron-
icles are to be read: "Jonathan, son of
Shammah the Hararite."

4. A Harodite, also one of David's mighty
men (2 Sam. xxiii. 25). In 1 Chron. xi. 27
the plural form Shammoth is used. Sham-
huth of 1 Chron. xxvii. 8 is perhaps another
external and unessential variation of this
man's name.

Sham'mai [waste].

1. A son of Onam, house of Jerahmeel,
tribe of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 28).

2. A son of Eekem, house of Caleb, tribe
of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 44).

3. A son of a certain Ezrah, registered
with the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 17).

Sham'moth [desolations]. See Shammah 4.

Sliam-mu'a, in A. V. once Shammuah (2
Sam. v. 14) [something heard, fame].

1. The representative from the tribe of
Eeuben sent to spy the land of Canaan
(Num. xiii. 4).

2. A son of David by Bath-sheba, born at
Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 14 ; 1 Chron. iii. 5) ; see
Bath-shua. He bore an uncle's name (ii. 13).
In 1 Chron. iii. 5 he is called Shimea; an un-
essential variant, having the same meaning
as Shammua, differing only in the mode of
formation.

3. A Levite descended from Jeduthun
(Neh. xi. 17).

4. A priest in the days of the high priest
Joiakim. He was head of the father's house
of Bilgah (Neh. xii. 18).

Sham'she-rai.

A Benjamite, a son of Jeroham (1 Chron.
viii. 26).

Sha'pham.

A Gadite dwelling in Bashan (1 Chron. v.
12).

Sha'phan [hyrax, rock badger].

A scribe in the reign of Josiah. When
Hilkiah found the book of the law, he gave
it to Shaphan, who read it at first privately,
and then to the king. Afterwards he was
one of those who went to Huldah, the
prophetess, to consult her regarding the
threatenings contained in the book (2 Kin.
xxii. 8-14). He was the father of Ahikam
(Jer. xxvi. 24; xxxix. 14), Gemariah (xxxvi.
10), and Jaazaniah (Ezek. viii. 11), and the
grandfather of Gedaliah (2 Kin. xxv. 22).

Sha'phat [he hath judged].

1. The representative from the tribe of
Simeon who was sent to spy the land of
Canaan (Num. xiii. 5).

2. A Gadite in Bashan (1 Chron. v. 12).

3. Son of Adlai, and David's overseer of
the herds that were in the valleys (1 Chron.
xxvii. 29).

4. Father of the prophet Elisha (1 Kin.
xix. 16).

5. A son of Shemaiah, registered with the
descendants of David (1 Chron. iii. 22).

Sha'pher. See Shepher.

Sha'pMr, in A. V. Saphir [beautiful].

A town in Judah (Mic. i. 11). Not identi-
fied. Robinson and others locate it at es-
Suwafir, 5 miles southeast of Ashdod.

Sha'rai [perhaps, free].

A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 40).

Shar'a-im. See Shaakaim.

Sha'rar [firm].

A Hararite, father of one of David's mighty
men (2 Sam. xxiii. 33). Called in 1 Chron.
xi. 35 Sacar.

Sha-re'zer, in A. V. Sherezer in Zech. vii.
2 [protect the king].

1. A son of Sennacherib. With one of his
brothers he murdered his father (2 Kin. xix.
37 ; Is. xxxvii. 38).

2. A man sent from Bethel to the priests
at Jerusalem to inquire whether the fasts
should be kept, now that the cause for them
no longer existed (Zech. vii. 2).

Shar'on, in A. V. of N. T. Saron (Acts ix.
35) [a plain].

1. The seacoast between Joppa and Carmel,
and extending back to the hills of Samaria.
It was a fertile region (Is. xxxv. 2), a pasture
land for flocks (1 Chron. xxvii. 29 ; Is. Ixv.
10) ; but like a desert when devastated (Is.
xxxiii.9). Among its flowers, lilies and anem-
ones are prominent ; .see Lily, Rose. Lydda
was at its southern limit (cp. Acts ix. 35). Its
length is about 50 miles, its breadth 9 or 10.
It is not flat, but agreeably undulated, with
here and there groves of oak, and with ex-
cellent pasturage, except that in places thorns
and thistles too much abound.

2. A pasture region east of the Jordan
(1 Chron. v. 16). Situation undetermined.

Sha-ru'hen.

A village in the territory of Simeon (Josh,
xix. 6), apparentlv the place called Shaaraim
(1 Chron. iv. 31) and Shilhira (Josh. xv. 32).
"The fortified town Sherohan or Sheruhan,on
the road from Egypt to Gaza, a place often
mentioned in Egyptian military records, is
probably intended.

Sha'shai [whitish, pale].

A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife* (Ezra x. 40).

Sha'shak.

A Benjamite, a son of Elpaal (1 Chron.
viii. 14, 25).

Shaul

667

Shebam

Sha'ul [asked].

1. A king of Edom, from Rehoboth on the
Euphrates (Gen. xxxvi. 37, in A. V. Saul;
1 Chron. i. 48).

2. A son of Simeon by a Canaanitish
woman (Gen. xlvi. 10; Ex. vi. 15; 1 Chron.
1. 4S). He founded a tribal family (Num.
xxvi. 13).

3. A Kohathite Levite. descended through
Korah, Abiasaph, and Tahath (1 Chron. vi.
24).

Sha'veh [a plain].

A valley, afterwards called the king's dale,
near Salem, in which the king of Sodom met
Abraham after the defeat of Chedorlaomer
(Gen. xiv. 17, 18). Absalom reared a memorial
pillar for himself there (2 Sam. xviii. 18),
which according to Josephus stood about a
quarter of a mile from Jerusalem (Antiq. vii.
10, 3).

Sha'veh-kir-i-a-tha'im, in A. V. Shaveh
Kiriatliaini [plain of Kiriathaim].

A plain near the city of Kiriathaim, in the
territory afterwards assigned to Reuben. It
■was at first inhabited by Emim (Gen. xiv. 5).
Exact situation unknown.

Shav'sha and SMsha [original Hebrew
orthography and meaning of name un-
known].

A scribe of David and afterwards of Solo-
mon (1 Chron. xviii. 16; 1 Kin. iv. 3). Prob-
ably identical with the scribe Seraiah (2 Sam.
viii. 17) and doubtless with the scribe Sheva
(2 Sam. XX. 25).

She'al [an asking].

A son of Bani induced by Ezra to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 29).

She-al'ti-el, in A. V. of 1 Chron. iii. 17
and of X. T. SalatMel, the Greek form [I
have asked God].

A son of king Jeconiah (1 Chron. iii. 17 ;
Mat. i. 12) and also of Xeri (Luke iii. 27). He
was the father of Zerubbabel (Ezra iii. 2, etc.).
and yet apparently his uncle, or possibly,
though not probably, his grandfather (1
Chron. iii. 17-19). The explanation probably
is that, while neither the son of Jeconiah
nor the father of Zerubbabel after the flesh,
he was the legitimate successor of .Jeconiah
to the royal title, and on his own death the
right to the throne passed to Zerubbabel. He
is the link in the royal succession connecting
Jeconiah with Zerubbabel. See AssiE, Ze-
ECBBABEL. and Genealogy II.

She-a-ri'ali [Jehovah hath esteemed].

A descendant of Jonathan (1 Chron. viii.
38).

Shear'ing House.

The place where Jehu slew the forty-two
brethren of Ahaziah, king of Judah, who
were going to Ahaziah at Samaria while he
was on a visit to the wounded king of Israel
(2 Kin. X. 12-14). It took its name either
from the fact that shepherds there bound
the sheep which they were about to shear, or

because they were in the habit of meeting
there (Targum ; R. V. margin). The Hebrew
name is Beth 'eked haro'im, in the Septuagint
Baithakath. The name perhaps lingers in
Beit Kad, about 3 miles east by north of
En-gannim, and about 16 northeast by north
of Samaria.

She-ar-ja'shub [a remnant shall return].
A son of Isaiah. His name was designed
to embody a prophecy (Is. vii. 3; cp. x. 21).

She'ba, I. [a man].

A Cushite people descended through Raa-
mah and closely related to Dedan (Gen. x. 7),
but also classed as a Semitic people descended
through Joktan (28) and, like Dedan, from
Abraham through Jokshan (xxv. 3). So far
as connected with Abraham, they migrated
eastward (xxv. 6 ; cp. Job i. 15 ; vi. 19). They
dwelt in the south (Mat. xii. 42), and traded
in gold, incense, and precious stones (1 Kin.
X. 1 seq. ; Ps. Ixxii. 10 ; Is. Ix. 6 ; Jer. vi. 20 ;
Ezek. xxvii. 22 ; xxxviii. 13). Sheba was a
countrj' and people of southwestern Arabia,
well known from its own records and classi-
cal geographers. Its capital was Saba, where
is now the ruin of Meriaba. The Sabeans
were a great commercial people. They traded
not only in the products of their own land,
but also in those of India and Ethiopia.
Their language was Semitic. They spread
widely, and have left traces of their name
on the eastern coast of Arabia, and in the
northern desert along with the Xabathaeans.
It is readily conceivable that in their disper-
sion they became mingled with other tribes
by intermarriage or attached to them by
political relations, and hence they might
trace their descent by different lines and be
classed variously in a genealogy.

She'ba, II. [seven, an oath].

1. A Simeonite town, mentioned after Beer-
sheba (Josh. xix. 2). Three views are enter-
tained regarding it. 1. Its site may be Tell
es-Seb'a, 3 miles east of Beer-sheba. 2. It is
a corruption of Shema (cp. Septuagint and
XV. 26). 3. Since it is lacking in 1 Chron. iv.
28. and this agrees with the summation in
Josh. xix. 6. it is an abbreviated form of
Beer-sheba (see R. V.) or accidentally intro-
duced into the text by dittography.

2. A Benjamite. a son of Bichri. After
the collapse of Absalom's rebellion and the
concurrence of the ten tribes with Judah in
restoring David to his throne, Sheba blew a
trumpet, and summoned the ten tribes to
renounce their allegiance. He was besieged
in Abel of Beth-maacah and lost his life
there, for the inhabitants cut off his head and
threw it over the wall to Joab (2 Sam. xx.
1-22 1.

3. A Gadite dwelling in Gilead in Bashan
(1 Chron. v. 13, 16).

She'bah. See Shibah.

She 'bam. See Sibmah.

Shebaniah

668

Shechem

Sheb-a-ni'ah [perhaps, Jehovah hath dealt
tenderly].

1. A I^e%ite who was a trumpeter in
David's time (1 Chron. xv. 24).

2. A father's house among the priests in
the generation after the exile (Neh. xii. 14) ;
see Shecaniah 3. Its representative set his
seal to the covenant (x. 4).

3. A Levite who assisted at the feast of
tabernacles in Ezra's time (Neh. ix. 4, 5), and
in behalf of his house sealed the covenant
(X. 10).

4. Another Levite who sealed the covenant
(Neh. X. 12).

Sheb'a-rim [fractures, breaches, ruins ;
perhaps, quarries].

A locality near Ai (Josh. vii. 5). Site un-
known.

She'bat, in A. V. Sebat, and 1 Mac. xvi.
14, A. V. Sabat, K. V. Sebat.

The eleventh mouth of the year (Zech. i.
7) ; see Year.

Sbe'ber [breaking, fracture].

A son of Caleb, by his concubine Maacah
(1 Chron. ii. 48).

Sheb'na, in E. V. twice Shebnah (2 Kin.
xviii. 18, 26) [tenderness].

The steward of the king's house under
Hezekiah (Is. xxii. 1.5), a man of great influ-
ence, apparently a foreigner, and fond of
display (16, 18). As was customary among
the wealthy, he built himself a sepulcher in
his lifetime (16). Isaiah rebuked him, call-
ing him the sliame <jf his lord's house ; and
predicted his fall and his retirement from
Judah, and the elevation of Eliakim to his
place (17-25). Probably later, in 701 b. c,
Eliakim held the position of house steward,
while Shebna was only Hezekiah's .scribe or
secretary (2 Kin. xviii*. 18, 26, 37; xix. 2).

Sheb'u-el [captive of God].

1. A son of Gershom, and a grandson of
Moses (1 Chron. xxiii. 16; xxvi. 24). Called
in xxiv. 20 Shubael, a name which has the
same meaning.

2. A son of Heman, in David's time (1
Chron. xxv. 4). Called in verse 20 Shubael.

Shec-a-ni'ab, in A. V. Shecbaniah ex-
cept 1 Chron. xxiv. 11 ; 2 Chron. xxxi. 15
[Jehovah hath dwelt].

1. A descendant of Aaron. His family had
grown to a father's house in the time of Da-
vid, and became the tenth of the twenty-four
courses into which David divided the priests
(1 Chron. xxiv. 1, 6, 11).

2. A Levite in king Hezekiah's reign (2
Chron. xxxi. 15).

3. A chief of the priests, who returned
with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Neh. xii. 3,
7). In the next generation a father's house
probably bore his name, although it is written
Shebaniah (ver. 14) ; see remarks under Beth
for the misreading of caph as beth. See Sheb-
aniah 2.

4. Founder of a family, presumably a de-

scendant of David, but not in the line of suc-
cession to the throne (1 Chron. iii. 21, 22), for
he is loosely registered, his kinship with
Zerubbabel not l)eing given. Perhaps his
was the family of which the representative
returned from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra viii.
3j. The name of this representative has
probably fallen out of the Hebrew text be-
tween Shecaniah and the words " of the sous
of Parosh." The parallel passage, 1 Esdr.
viii. 29, R. V., has: "Of the sons of David,
Attus the son of Sechenias." This agrees
indeed with the fact that Hattush was a
grand.son of Shecaniah (1 Chron. iii. 22), but
it is not supported by either the Septuagint
or Hebrew of Ezra viii. 3.

5. A son of Jahaziel and descendant of
Zattu, who returned from Babylon with Ezra
(Ezra viii. 5, Septuagint; 1 Esdr. viii. 32).

6. A son of Jehiel, one of the sons of Elam.
He confessed the guilt of liimself and his
brethren who had married foreign wives, and
proposed to Ezra that they should put them
away (Ezra x. 2, 3).

7. Father of Shemaiah, the keeper of the
east gate in Nehemiah's time, and probably
a Levite (Neh. iii. 29). and not the man of
Judah (1 Chron. iii. 22).

8. Father-in-law of Tobiah, the Ammonite.
He was the sou of Arab (Neh. vi. 18).

She'cbem, in A. V. once Sichem (Gen. xii.
6), twice Sycbem (Acts vii. 16), Greek forms
[shoulder].

1. A town among the hills of Ephraim
(Josh. XX. 7). Abraham camped near by
(Gen. xii. 6). The tribe of Hamor, a Hivite
people, occupied the place ; and Jacob bought
of them a parcel of ground, where Joseph's
body was eventually buried (xxxiii. 18, 19 ;
Josh. xxiv. 32 ; in Acts vii. 16 oddly con-
founded with Abraham's purchase of Mach-
pelah). Simeon and Levi massacred its male
inhabitants, and the sons of Jacob jilundered
the town, on account of the injury done to
their sister Dinah (Gen. xxxiv. 25, 27 ;
xlviii. 22). Joseph's brothers for a time fed
their flocks in Shechem (xxxvii. 12, 13). The
boundary between the tribes of Ephraim and
Manasseh passed near it (Josh. xvii. 7). It
was made one of the cities of refuge and a Le-
vitical city (xx. 7 ; xxi. 21 ). Joshua summoned
the tribes thither to hear his farewell address
(xxiv. 1). In the time of the judges, a tem-
ple of Baal-berith was maintained in the
town (Judg. viii. 3.3). Gideon's concubine
resided there ; and her son, Abimelech, was
a native of Shechem, and for a time was as-
sisted in his political designs by the men of
Shechem (ix. 1, 3, 6), ])ut they finally turned
against him and lie destroyed the city (23,
45). The Israelites met Kehoboam there, to
sue for reforms; and when their request was
refused, the ten tribes made Jeroboam king
(1 Kin. xii. 1-19; 2 Chron. x. 1-19). Jero-
boam strengthened the place (cp. 1 Cliron.
vii. 28), making it for the time his capital (1

Shechem

G69

Shechem

Kin. xii. 25). Sbochem is mentioned in Ps.
Ix. t> aiul cviii. 7. It continued in existence
after tlie dost ruction of Jerusalem (Jer. xli.
5) ; and became the chief city of the Samar-
itans (Ecchis. 1. 26 ; Antiq. xi. 8, 6). It was
captured by John Hyrcanus (xiii. 9, 1).
It has been frequently identified with the N.
T. Sj'char, but the two, although adjacent to
each other, are believed to bedifl'erent i)Iaces.
The Greeks termed it Neapolis or the New
City (War iv. 8. 1), a name that, unlike
mo.st of those which they bestowed on old
Hebrew cities, took root and still exists in
the form Nablus or Nabulus. Shechem, or
Nablus, is about 31^ miles north of Jeru-
salem and 5^ southeast of Samaria. It

narrow and vaulted over, besides which in
rainy weather some of them become the beds
of streams. Eighty springs of water are said
to exist in or around the city ; the fertility
of the district is, therefore, exceptionally
great. These are used to make channels
through the gardens, then, uniting, to turn a
mill. The gardens and orchards are one mass
of trees, flowers, and fruits, including mul-
berries, oranges, pomegranates, etc. The
mass of the inhabitants are Mohammedans,
then follow a few hundred Greek Christians,
a small Jewish population, and about 150
Samaritans, the last named religionists living
most of them together in the northwestern
part of the city. Jacob's well is about 2

Shechem and Mount Gerizim.

lies in the upland valley, bounded by mount
Ebal on the north, and mount Gerizim on
the south, and, to a considerable extent, rises
along the northern slope of the latter hill, so
that its perpendicular cliff's are in close prox-
imity to part of the city. The streets are

miles east-southeast, and the reputed tomb
of Joseph about 2 east, of Shechem.

2. The son of Hamor, the Hivite, who was
prince of Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 1-31).

3. A son of Gilead, and the founder of a
tribal family (Num. xxvi. 31 ; Josh. xvii. 2).

Shedeur

670

Sheepfold

4. A Manassite, a son of Shemidah (1
Chron. vii. 19).

Shed'e-\ir [emission, light].

Father of Elizur, the Keubenite chief in
the wilderness (Num. i. 5; ii. 10).

Sheep.

Sheep were early domesticated (Gen. iv. 2),
and constituted valuable property. They

Broad-tailed Sheep of Syria.

were herded by the Hebrew patriarchs (Gen.
xii. 16), and by their descendants when so-
journing in Egypt, and later when settled in
Palestine (Ex. x. 9 ; xii. 32, 38 ; 1 Chron. xxvii.
31) ; and they continued to be kept down to
the latest times (Luke ii. 8). The wilderness
of Judaea and the southcouiitry, and especially
the plateau of Moab, were pasture lands (Num.
xxxii. 1 ; .Judg. v. 16 ; 1 Sam. xvi.
11 ; XXV. 2) ; and so were neighbor-
ing countries, as Mesopotamia (Gen.
xxix. 2) , the land of Uz and of the
Hagarenes (.Job i. 3; 1 Chron. v. 20,
21), Midian (Ex. ii. 16), Kedar and
the Nabathsean country (Is. Ix. 7 ;
Ezek. xxvii. 21 ; cp. 1 Sam. xv. 7,
9). In these regions the sheep,
owing to the heat and dryness of
the climate, require water daily
(Gen. xxix. 8, 9 ; Ex. ii. 16-19). The
sheep was a clean animal and used
for food ; its flesh was eaten (1 Sam.
xiv. 32 ; XXV. 18; 2 Sam. xvii. 29 ; 1
Kin. iv. 23), and the rich milk of
the ewes was drunk (Deut. xxxii.
14 ; Is. vii. 21, 22 ; 1 Cor. ix. 7). The
.skin served as rude clothing (Heb.
xi. 37 ; cp. Zech. xiii. 4 ; Mat. vii.
15), and it was some times converted
into leather (Ex. xxvi. 14). From
the wool, cloth was woven (Lev. xiii.
47, 48 ; Job xxxi. 20 ; Prov. xxvii.
26 ; Ezek. xxxi v. 3) ; hence wool was
a valuable commodity, and was ren-
dered as tribute (2 Kin. iii. 4 ; Is.
xvi. 1). Sheep shearing was made
a time of feasting and frolic (Gen.

xxxviii. 12 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 4, 11, 36 ; 2 Sam. xiii.
23). The horns of rams served as flasks and
trumpets (Josh. vi. 4; 1 Sam. xvi. 1). As
the sheep was a clean animal, it was used in
sacrifice by the Hebrews and other peoples
(Ex. XX. 24 ; John ii. 14 ; Num. xxii. 40). An
animal of the flock might be taken for a
burnt offering (Lev. i. 10), a sin offering of
the common people (iv. 32), a guilt and a
trespass offering (v. 15 ; vi. 6), and a peace
offering (xxii. 21) ; see Lamb, Eam. The
sheep was known for its aflection (2 Sam.
xii. 3), docility (John x. 3, 4), meekness and
submissiveness (Is. liii. 7 ; Jer. xi. 19), help-
lessness when left to itself (Mic. v. 8 ; Mat.
X. 16), and its need of guidance (Num. xxvii.
17; Ezek. xxxiv. 5; Mat. ix. 36; xxvi. 31).

The sheep of Palestine and the adjacent
regions are usually white (Ps. cxlvii. 16; Is.
i. 18; Ezek. xxvii. IS), but occasionally they
are black or brown, or piebald, either white
and tawny or white and black (Gen. xxx. 32).
Two breeds of sheep are found in Palestine.
In the northern districts a short-wooled va-
riety is raised, of which both the rams and
evres arc honied. But the broad-tailed sheep
{Ovis lidic<ii(il((fa) is more general. It has
been bred since early ages in Arabia and
Palestine (Herod, iii. 113; cp. Ex. xxix. 22;
Lev. iii. 9 ; vii. 3; viii. 25). The tails which
are offered for sale in the markets ordinarily
weigh ten or fifteen pounds; but when the
sheep is well fattened, the tail grows to an
enormous size. The Arabs regard it as a
delicacy, frying it in slices.

Sheep'fold and Sheep'cote.

An inclosure for sheep (Jer. xxiii. 3 ; Ezek.
xxxiv. 14), whither the flock was ordinarily

Syrian Sheepfold.

Sheep Gate

671

Shelumiel

driven for the night. Many were permanent
pens, surrounded by a stone wall (ep. Num.
xxxii. IG) and entered by a gate (John x.
1). The wall was often surmounted with
branches of thorny shrubs. The sheep lay
in the yard under the open sky ; but doubt-
less there were in former days, as there are
now, low, flat buildings on the sheltered side
of the area, in which the flocks were shut up
on cold nights. It was common for several
flocks to pass the night in one fold under the
care of an under-shepherd, who guarded the
door. The shejiherds came in the morning,
and were admitted by the under-shepherd.
Each shepherd knew the sheep of his own
flock, and was known by them (John x. 3,
4). Less substantial inclosures were hastily
formed of tangled thorn branches for tem-
porary use on pastures remote from home,
and caves and other natural shelters were
also taken advantage of for protecting the
sheep at night, the shepherds camping with
their flocks. On ranges exposed to the raids
of robbers or hostile tribes, towers were
erected, about which the flocks and herds
were pastured and at night folded (2 Kin.
xvii. 9; 2 Chron. xxvi. 10; Mic. iv. 8).

Sheep Gate. See Jerusalem II. 3.

Sheep Mar'ket, in R. V. Sheep Gate. See
Jerusalem II. 3.

She'e-rah, in A. V. She'rah [consan-
guinity, a female relative].

A daughter of Ephraim, or perhaps of
Beriah. She or rather her descendants built
upper and nether Beth-horon and Uzzen-
sheerah (1 Chron. vii. 24). She may have
married Becher and given rise to the tribal
family of the Becheritcs.

She-ha-ri'ah [Jehovah hath broken forth
as the dawn].

A Benjamite, son of Jeroham (1 Chron. viii.
20).

Shek'el [weight].

A weight used for metals (Gen. xxiv. 22;
1 Sam. xvii. 5, 7) : see Weights. At an early
period this quantity of silver, uncoined, was
a recognized standard in financial transac-
tions (Gen. xxiii. 15, 16). Half a shekel was
to be given by each man as a ransom for his
life when a census was taken (Exod. xxx. 14,
1.5). The value of the shekel was about 65
cents; see Weic;hts. In 141-140 b. c. the
fourth year of Simon Maccabseus' priestly
rule, Antiochus VII., not yet king of Syria,
but having authority, allowed him to coin
money in his own name, and silver shekels
and half shekels commencing from about that
period exist. See Money.

She-ki'nah. See Theophany.

She'lah, I., in A. V. of Genesis Salah, of
N. T. Sala, in imitation of the Greek form
[a missile, a shoot, a sprout].

1. The son of Arphaxad (Gen. x. 24 ; xi.
12-15; 1 Chron. i. 18).

2. A pool at Jerusalem, near the king's

garden, erroneously translated in the A. V.
Siloah (Neh. iii. 15). Probably the same as
Siloam ((j. v.).

She'lah, II. [prayer].

The third son of Judah by a Canaanite
woman. He was the founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xxxviii. 2, 5, 11, 14, 26; Num.
xxvi. 20).

Shel- e-mi'ah [Jehovah recompenses].

1. A doorkeeper of the sanctuary in David's
time (1 Chron. xxvi. 14). See Meshele-

MIAH.

2. Son of Cushi (Jer. xxxvi. 14).

3. Son of Abdeel (Jer. xxxvi. 26).

4. Son of Hananiah (Jer. xxxvii. 13).

5. Father of Jucal (Jer. xxxviii. 1).

6. 7. Two men, descendants of Baui, each
of whom was induced by Ezra to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 39, 41).

8. Father of that Hananiah who assisted
to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 30).

9. A priest whom Nehemiah appointed one
of three treasurers of the tithes, which they
were commissioned to distribute among the
Levites (Neh. xiii. 13).

She'leph [extraction].

A Semitic people descended through Joktan
(Gen. X. 26; 1 Chron. i. 20), and doubtless
dwelling in southern Arabia. The name is a
common one in Yemen.

She'lesh [triad].

An Asherite, son of Helem (1 Chron. vii. 35).

Shel'o-mi [peaceful].

Father of Ahihud, who was prince of
Asher in the latter part of the wilderness
wanderings (Num. xxxiv. 27).

Shel'o-mith [peaceful] .

1. A Danite, a daughter of Dibri. and
mother of the Israelite who was put to death
in the wilderness for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv.
11).

2. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar (1 Chron. xxiii. 18). Called Shelomoth
in xxiv. 22.

3. A descendant of Moses through Eliezer.
He and his brethren were appointed by David
over the dedicated treasures (1 Chron. xxvi.
25, 26, in E. V., following the Hebrew text,
Shelomoth; cp. xxiii. 15-17).

4. A Gei-shonite Levite, son of Shimei
(1 Cliron. xxiii. 9, in E. V. Shelomoth).

5. A son or daughter of Eehoboam (2 Chron.
xi. 20).

6. Son of Josiphiah (Ezra viii. 10). The
Hebrew text is faulty. The Septuagint shows
that he was a member of the family of Bani :
" Of the sons of Bani, Shelomoth, the son of
Josiphiah."

7. A daughter of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii.
19).

Shel'o-moth. See Shelomith.

She-lu'mi-el []>acified, or a friend is God].

The prince of the tribe of Simeon early in
the wilderness wanderings (Num. i. 6 ; ii. 12 ;
vii. 36, 41 ; x. 19).

Shem

672

Shemaiah

Shem, in A. V. of N. T. Sem [name].

One of the two elder sous of Noah (Gen.
X. 1, 21 ; cp. ix. 24), and probably the first-
born (v. 32). For explanation of xi. 10, see
Chronology, section relating to the period
from the creation to Abraham. With his
descendants, he is mentioned last in tlie cat-
alogue of Gen. X. in accordance with the
author's custom of disposing of subordinate
genealogies before presenting the main line
of the people of God. He was born about the
five hundredth year of Noah's life. At the
time of the deluge he was married, but as
yet had no children (Gen. vii. 7 ; 1 Pet. iii.
20). After that catastrophe, he acted with
filial respect to his father when the latter
committed his great sin. Shem, in conse-
quence, received a blessing, the wording of
which implied that God would bless Shem
and that the worship of the true God should
continue in his family (Gen. ix. 23, 27). He
was progenitor of the people who inhabited
or perhaps in some cases held in subjection
Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud, and Aram (x.
21, 22).

She'ma [rumor, fame].

1. A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 26) : cp. Sheba 2.

2. A son of Hebron, belonging to the tribe
of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43, 44) ; see Ma-
BESHAH 2.

3. A Eeubenite, a son of Joel (1 Chron.
V. 8 ; cp. 4).

4. A Benjamite, head of a father's house in
Aijalon (1 Chron. viii. 13). Called in verse 21
Shimei, in A. V. Shimhi.

5. One of the men, probably priests, who
assisted Ezra at the public reading of the law
(Neh. viii. 4).

She-ma'ah [rumor, fame].
A Benjamite of Gibeah, who joined David
at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 3).

She-ma'iah [Jehovah hath heard].

1. A Simeonite (1 Chron. iv. 37).

2. A Eeubenite, a son of Joel (1 Chron.
V. 4).

3. A Levite, chief of the sons of Elizaphan,
who to the number of two hundred took part
in the ceremonies attendant on the removal
of the ark from the house of Obed-edom to
mount Zion (1 Chron. xv. 8-11).

4. A Levite, a son of Nethanel. He was a
scribe in the time of David, and noted down
the twenty-four divisions then made of the
priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 6).

5. Eldest son of Obed-edom (1 Chron. xxvi.
4). He was the father of various valiant
sons who, with him, were doorkeepers of the
tabernacle (6-8).

6. A prophet in the reign of Rehoboam, who
forbade the king to attempt the conquest of
the revolted ten tribes (1 Kin. xii. 22-24 ; 2
Chron. xi. 2-4). Five years later, when
Shishak invaded the land, he declared that
the invasion was permitted as a punishment
for sin. Thereupon the princes humbled

themselves, and the affliction was made
lighter (xii. 5-8). Shemaiah wrote a history
of Rehoboam's reign (1,5).

7. One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat
to teach the people (2 Chron. xvii. 8).

8. A Levite, descendant of Jeduthun. He
helped to cleanse the temple in Hezekiah's
reign (2 Chron. xxix. 14, 15). He is, per-
haps, the Levite mentioned in 1 Chron. ix.
16, and he may be the person called Sham-
mua in Neh. xi. 17.

9. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign who, with
others, had to distribute the firstlings, tithes
and gifts to the Levites in the cities (2 Chron.
xxxi. 15).

10. A chief Levite in Josiah's i-eign who,
with others, was liberal in his donations of
animals for the the passover services (2 Chron.
XXXV. 9).

11. Father of Urijah, of Kirjath-jearim,
who was put to death by king Jehoiakim for
the true prophecies he had uttered (Jer. xxvi.
20-23).

12. Father of Delaiah, the latter being a
prince in the reign of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi.
12).

13. A Nehelamite, a false prophet among
the exiles in Babylonia, who prophesied a
speedy return from captivity. He wrote to
the people of Jerusalem and the priest who
had oversight of the temple, and complained
that Jeremiah remained unpunished, who
declared that the exile would be long. When
Jeremiah heard the complaint, he foretold
that Shemaiah should leave no posterity and
not live to see the return (Jer. xxix. 24-32).

14. A chief of the priests who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 6,
7). In the next generation a father's house
bore this name (ver. 18).

15. A son of Adonikam, and one of the
chief men who accompanied Ezra from the
land of the captivity to Canaan (Ezra viii.
13).

16. A chief man whom Ezra sent with
others to Iddo to obtain Levites who were
lacking in the party leaving the land of the
captivity for Canaan (Ezra viii. 16).

17 and 18. Two men, one descended from
the priest Harim, and the other from the
layman Harim, each of whom was induced
by Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra
X. 21, 31).

19. A .son of Sheeaniah (1 Chron. iii. 22) ;
see Shecaniah 4.

20. Keeper of the east gate, and probably
a Levite. He repaired part of the wall of
Jeru.salem in Nehemiah's time (Neh. iii. 29) ;
see Shecani.\h 7.

21. A Levite, descended from Bunni. He
was the head man among those who had
oversight of the busine^ss of the house of God
in Nehemiah's time (Neh. xi. 15).

22. A false prophet, son of Delaiah, son of
Mehetabel. He was hired )iy Tobiah and
Sanballat to frighten Nchemiah into going
with him into the temple and shutting the

a

Shemariah

673

Shephelah

•doors to avoid assassination (Noh. vi. 10-13).
In carryiiifi out his ]ilan, lie shut himself iu
bis house and pretended to fear for his life.

"23. A priest who, doubtless in behalf of a
father's house, sealed the covenant iu the
days of Nehemiah (Xeh. x. 8).

•J4. A prince of Judali who took part in
tlie ceremonies at the dedication of the wall
of Jerusalem (Neb. xii. 34).

25. A Levite of the lineage of Asaph (Neb.
xii. 3.5).

2(i. One of the company of Levite musi-
cians at the dedication of the wall of Jerusa-
lem (Nell. xii. 36).

27. A priest who Idew a trumpet on the
same occasion (Xeb. xii. 42).

Sbem-a-ri'ah, in A. V. once Shamariah (2
Cbron. xi. 19) [Jehovah bath kept].

1. A Benjamite who joined David at Zik-
lag (1 Cbron. xii. 5).

2. A son of Eehoboam (2 Chron. si. 19).

3 and 4. A sou of Harim and a son of Bani,
each of whom was induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 32, 41).

Shem-e'ber [meaning unknown]. InSep-
tuagint the form is Sumobor.

The king of Zeboiim, defeated, with the
other kings ruling over the cities of the plain,
bv Cbedorlaomer aud bis confederates (Gen.
x"iv. 2. s, 10).

Sbe'med, in A. V. Shamed, tbe pausal
form [destruction]. These forms of tbe name
are derived from the Vulgate ; but the pres-
ent Hebrew text and tbe Septuagint, codex
Vaticanus, have Sbamer.

A Benjamite, descended from Sbaharaim
through Elpaal. He was a rebuilder of Ono
and Lod, with their dependent villages (1
Chron. viii. 12).

She'mer, in A. V. of Chronicles Shamer,
tbe jiausal form [the lees, or crust of wine].

1. The man from whom Omri purchased
tbe hill on which to build Samaria (1 Kin.
xvi. 24).

2. A Merarite Levite, tbe son of Mabli (1
Cbron. vi. 46).

3. An Asherite (1 Cbron. vii. 34). Tbe
same as the Shomer of verse 32.

She-mi'da, iu A. V. once Shemidah (1
Chron. vii. 19) [fame of wisdom].

A son of Gilead, and founder of a tribal
family (Num. xxvi. 32; Josh. xvii. 2).

Shem'i-nith [eighth].

A musical term (1 Chron. xv. 21 ; and Ps.
vi. and xii., titles). Stainer reviews three
opinions which have been given regarding
it: (1) The pitch of an octave; (2) tbe name
of a scale or tune ; and (3) the number of
strings on the instrument used. Perhaps, in
contrast with alamoth, it means an octave
below (Gesenius, Delitzsch).

She-mir'a-moth [lofty name].

1. A Levite and singer in tbe reign of
David (1 Cbron. xv. 18, 20).

2. A Levite, one of those employed by Je-

43

boshaphat to teach tbe people (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

She-mit'ic. Sec Semitic.

Shem'u-el [name of God]. The same
Hebrew name as that commonly rendered
Samuel.

1. A son of Ammibud. He was appointed
as the representative for tbe tribe of Simeon
on tbe commission to divide Canaan (Num.
xxxiv. 20).

2. A man of Issachar, family of Tola, and
bead of a father's bouse (1 Chron. vii. 2).

3. Tbe prophet Samuel (1 Cbron. vi. 33,
A. v.).

Shen [a tooth, a jagged rock].

A spot a little on one side of tbe place
where Samuel set up the stone which be
called Ebenezer (1 Sam. vii. 12). Exact situ-
ation unknown.

She-naz'zar, in A. V. Sbenazar.

A son or descendant of Jeconiab (1 Chron.
iii. 18).

She'nir. See Senie.
She'ol. See Hell.

She'pham.

A place on the northeastern border of Ca-
naan, near Eiblah (Num. xxxiv. 10, 11). Site
unknown.

Sheph-a-ti'ah, in A. V. once erroneously
Shepbathiah (1 Cbron. ix. 8) [Jebovab bath
judged].

1. A Haruphite, one of the Bcnjamites
wbo joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 5).

2. A sou born to David at Hebron by one
of bis wives, Abital (2 Sam. iii. 4 ; 1 Cbron.
iii. 3).

3. Son of Maacab and bead of the Simeon-
ite tribe in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvii.
16).

4. Tbe father of a Benjamite wbo dwelt at
Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 8).

5. A son of king Jebosbaphat (2 Cbron.
xxi. 2).

6. A prince, son of Mattan. He was one
of those who advised Zedekiab to put the
prophet Jeremiah to death, as bis unfavor-
able prophecies were discouraging the defend-
ers of Jerusalem during its siege by Nebu-
chadnezzar's army ( Jer. xxxviii. 1).

7. Founder of a family, 372 members of
which returned from captivity with Zerub-
babel (Ezra ii. 4 ; Neh. vii. 9), and eighty-
one more with Ezra (Ezra viii. 8).

8. A man of Judab, family of Perez. He
evidently lived before tbe exile (Neh. xi. 4).

9. A man whose descendants, classified
with Solomon's servants, came from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 57 ; Neh. vii. 59).

Sheph'e-lali [low land].

A well known name in the geography of
Palestine, used, however, in the English ver-
sions only in 1 Mac. xii. 38, A. V., and then
in the form Sephela. See Lowland.

Shepher

674

Sherebiah

She'pher, in A. V. Shapher [beauty, ele-
gance].

A mountain constituting an encampment
of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num.
xxxiii. 23, 24). Situation unknown.

Shep'herd.

One whose occupation it is to take charge
of a Hock of sheep. Abel was a keeper of
sheep (Gen. iv. 2). The occupation of the
patriarchs from Abraham to Jacob and his
sons was pastoral (xiii. 1-6). Thei-e were no-
mad shepherds who owned flocks and herds,
dwelt in tents, and moved from place to place
to find pasture for their cattle and afford
them protection, like Jabal, Abraluini, and the
Rechabites (iv. 20; xiii. 2, 3, is witli xx. 1 ;
Jer. XXXV. G-IO). There were also wealthy
sheep owners who dwelt in towns while their
flocks were driven from pasture to pasture
by their servants (1 Sam. xxv. 2, 3, 7, 15, 16;
op. Gen. xxxvii. 12-17). Then there was the
settled shepherd, who led the flock from the
permanent fold to the pasture in the morn-
ing, and in the evening brought it home
again (John x. 1-4) ; see Sheepfold. The
care of the flock was often committed to a
son (Gen. xxxvii. 2 ; 1 Sam. xvi. 11, 19), or
a daughter (Gen. xxix. 9; Ex. ii. 16, 17), or
a hired servant (Gen. xxx. 32 ; Zech. xi. 12 ;
John X. 12). The shepherd was ordinarily
responsible to the owner for any loss of sheep
(Gen. xxxi. 39). The Mosaic law relieved
him of responsibility if he could prove that
the loss was not due to his neglect (Ex. xxii.
10-13).

The shepherd went to the fold in the
morning, where several flocks were lying,
and called. His own sheep knew his voice
and followed him. The sheep which be-
longed to other owners or were under the
care of other keepers paid no attention to
the strange voice (.Tohn x. 2-5). The shep-
herd led his own flock to pasture, spent the
day with them there, and sometimes the
night also (Gen. xxxi. 40; Song i. 7; Luke
ii. 8) ; defended them from wild beasts and
robbers (1 Sam. xvii. 34, 35 ; Is. xxxi. 4) ;
kept the restless sheep from trespassing
on cultivated ground, searched for the
strayed sheep, and brought them back
(Ezek. xxxiv. 12 ; Luke xv. 4) ; and tenderly
cared for the delicate and the weak (Is. xl.
11 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 4, 16 ; Zech. xi. 9). The
sheep which kept near the shepherd had
each a name and answered to it, and were
the recipients of many little kindnesses.
Such is still the case in the Orient. Where
the pastures are dried up or covered with
snow, as in the late autumn and winter, the
shepherd must provide food for the flock.
He cuts down branches from the trees of the
forest, and the sheep and goats feed upon the
green leaves and tender twigs.

The shepherd carried a garment in which
to wrap himself in inclement weather, a
pouch for food, and some defensive weapon

(1 Sam. xvii. 40 ; Jer. xliii. 12). A long rod,
doubtless generally in ancient times as now
with a crook at the ujiper end, was used to
manage the flock, keep it together, guide it,
defend it, and chastise the disobedient (Ps.
xxiii. 4 ; Mic. vii. 14 ; Zech. xi. 7). The shep-
herd was aided by dogs (Job xxx. 1) ; not in-
telligent, faithful dogs, but lazy, mean brutes,
which loitered behind the flock, but were of
service ; they gave warning of danger by their
bark.

Jehovah was the Shepherd of Israel, and
especially of the faithful section of the peo-
ple (Gen. xlix. 24).

Christ is the good Shepherd, entering into
the sheepfold by the door, calling out his
own sheep by name, and so possessing their
confidence and afl'ection that they follow
him, while they refuse to follow any other.
He satisfactorily met the test of supreme de-
votion to his flock and to his duty by laying
down his life for the sheep (John x. 1-18).

All who had responsible positions in the
theocracy, prophets, priests, and kings, were
looked on as pastors of the Israelitish people.
They were under-shepherds, aiding Jehovah,
and their unfaithfulness was fre(jueutly
pointed out (Is. Ivi. 11). And in the Chris-
tian church, the elders or bishops are pastors
or shepherds, under Christ, the chief Shep-
herd, appointed to tend the flock of God (1
Pet. V. 1-4).

She'pM and She'pho [smoothness].

A son or tribe of Shobal, descended from
Seir, the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 23) ; for the
two forms, cp. Vau.

She-phu'pham and Shephuphan [perhaps,
horned sand snake] ; see Adder 1.

A son or remoter descendant of Benjamin,
and founder of a tribal family (Num. xxvi.
39; in A. V. Shupham). In the same verse
his name appears as Shupham (in Shupham-
ites). He is also called 5luppim (Gen. xlvi.
21) and Shuppim (1 Chrou. vii. 12, 15). The
letters m and s or sh were very much alike
in ancient Hebrew. He was perhaps known
also as Shephuphan (1 Chron. viii. 5). In
this passage Shephuphan is probably listed
as a descendant of Bela, although it is not
impossible that the enumeration of Bela's
sons closes with Gera and that Shephuphan
is registei'ed as a son of Benjamin. In vii.
12 Shuppim is catalogued anuiug the .sons of
Benjamin, but it is not clear whether he is
enrolled as a son in the strict sense or as de-
scended from Benjamin's son Bela through
Ir or Iri (7). In the latter case he was born
after the descent of Jacob's family into
Egypt, but is enumerated with those who
went down into Egypt, because he founded
a tri))al family. See Egypt III. 1.

She'rah. See Sheekah.

Sher-e-bi'ah [Jehovah hath made to
tremble].

1. A Levite, head of a ftunily, who came
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 8).

Sheresh

675

Shihor

The representative of the family sealed the
covenant (x. 12). It was a family of singers
(xii. 24).

2. Head of a family of Levites who re-
turned with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii.
18). He was perhaiis the rei)n'si'ntativ(^ of a
part of the aforcnientioiU'd family which had
remained heliind when the exiles returned
with Zerubbabel, and as rejjresentative he
officially bore the family name. He is jirob-
ably intended in ver. 24, although the present
text describes him as a priest, and was one
of the men to whose custody during the
journey Ezra committed the gifts for the
temple.

3. One of the Levites who assisted Ezra,
reading the law to the people, and giving
the sense, so that the listeners might under-
stand what they heard (Neh. viii. 7). He
took part in the public confession of sin
after the feast of tabernacles (ix. 4).

She'resh [perhaps, i-oot or sprout].
A man of Manasseh, family of Machir (1
Chron. vii. 16).

She-re'zer. See Sharezer.

She'shacli.

According to ancient tradition, a cypher
for Babel ( Jer. xxv. 26, E. V., margin ; li. 41),
constructed on the system known as Ath-
bash. The letters of the al{)habet were
numbered both in their regular order of
sequence and in the reverse order : and when
the cypher of a name was desired, its con-
sonants were replaced by those which have
the same numbers in the reverse enumera-
tion. B is the second letter of the Hebrew
alphabet and s or sh is the second from the
end, 1 is the twelfth letter from the begin-
ning and k is the twelfth from the end ;
hence the cypher for Babel was Sheshak.
Possibly, however, there is no cypher, and
Sheshach is the name of a quarter of the city,
perhaps Shish-ku (Lauth, Delitzsch).

She'shai [whitish].

A son or family of Anak, resident at
Hebron, and driven thence by Caleb (Num.
xiii. 32. cp. 33 ; Josh. xv. 14).

She'sliaii.

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Jerahmeel (1 Qiron. ii. 31). He had no
sons, but only daughters, one of whom he
gave in marriage to an Egyptian slave (34,
35). See Ahlai.

Shesh-baz'zar.

A prince of Judah, whom Cyrus made
governor, to whom he restored the sacred
vessels which had been carried to Babylon
by Nebuchadnezzar, and who returned to
Jerusalem and laid the foundation of the
temple (Ezra i. 8, 11 ; v. 14, 16). Sheshbazzar
is evidently the Babylonian name of Zerub-
babel, as Belteshazzar was that of Daniel.

Sheth, I. [compensation].

A son of Adam (1 Chron. i. 1). See Seth.

Sheth, II. [tumult].

A designation of the Moabites as makers
of war and tumult (Num. xxiv. 17, A. V.).

She'thar-boz'e-nal, in A. V. Shethar-
boznal.

A Persian official who with others at-
tempted to prevent the returned Jewish
exiles from rebuilding the temple (Ezra v.
3, 6; vi. 6).

She'va [vanity].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Caleb. He was the ancestor of the in-
habitants of Machbena and Gibea (1 Chron.
ii. 49).

2. A scribe in David's reign (2 Sam. xx.
25). See Shav.sha.

Shew'bread. See Showbread.

Shi 'bah, in A. V. Shebah [seven, an oath].
Feminine form of Sheba.

A well at Beer-sheba which Isaac's ser-
vants redigged, and which Isaac named Shi-
bah on account of the covenant he had just
made with Abimelech (Gen. xxvi. 33).

Shib'bo-leth [an ear of grain, or a river or
stream] .

The local dialect of the Ephraimites was
characterized by the absence of the palatal
sibilant sh at the beginning of a word and
the use of the lingual sibilant s in its stead.
When Jephthah, at the head of the Gilead-
ites, had vanquished the Ephraimites and
seized the fords of the Jordan, manj' of the
defeated tribe came to the river, desiring to
pass. On being asked if they were Ephraim-
ites, and denying the fact, they were re-
quired to pronounce the word Shibboleth,
and if they called it Sibboleth, were slain
without further ceremony (Judg. xii. 5, 6).
The word has entered the English language,
and is used to mean a test word or the
watchword or pet phrase of a party or sect.

Shib'tnah See Sebmah.

Shic'ron. See Shikkeron.

Shield. See Armor.

Shig-ga'ion, and plural Shigionoth [wan-
dering, irregular].

A musical term (Ps. vii. title; Hab. iii. 1).
Probably a dithyrambic ode, erratic, wild,
enthusiastic.

Shi'hon. See Shion.

Shi'hor, in A. V. Sihor, except 1 Chron.
xiii. 5 [to the Hebrew ear, black, turbid].

The river Nile (Is. xxiii. 3; Jer. ii. 18, see
R. V. margin). Its eastern or Pelusiac branch
was on the boundary of Egypt toward
Canaan (Josh. xiii. 3; 1 Chron. xiii. 5); see
EivEB OF EciYPT 1. The K. Y., however,
and many commentators regard the Shihor
in the last two passages as a title of the brook
of Egypt, the wady el-"Arish (Josh. xiii. 3, R.
Y. margin). According to Brugsch, the name
belonged in the first instance to a canal, S'hi-
hur, on the eastern boundary of Egypt, par-
allel to the course of the Pelusiac branch.

Shihor-libnatli

676

ShUoh

SM-hor-lib'nath [turbid stream of Lib-
iiath].

A small river at the southwestern corner
of Asher (Josh. xix. 26) and apparently near
Carmel. It is now commonly believed to be
the Zcrka, (> miles south of Dor, a town of
Asher.

Shik'ke-ron, in A. V. SMcron [drunken-
ness] .

A town on the northern border of the
tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 11). Site un-
known.

SMl'hi [one armed witli a dart].

Father of Azubah, Jehoshaphat's mother
(1 Kin. xxii. 42).

SMl'Mm [missile weapons, sprouts].

A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josli. XV. 32); see Sharuhen.

Shil'lem [retribution] .

A son of Naphtali, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 24 ; Num. xxvi. 49). Called
Shallum, a synonymous and more common
name, in 1 Ohron. vii. 13.

SM-lo'ah [a sending of waters, an aque-
duct] ; see Siloam.

SM'loh [tranquillity, rest].

A town north of Bethel, south of Lebonah,
and on the east side of the highway connect-
ing Bethel with Shechem (Judg. xxi. 19),
and hence within the territory of Ephraim.
There the Israelites under Joshua set up the
tabernacle (Josh, xviii. 1), and divided by
lot the, as yet, unappropriated parts of Canaan
(8-10 ; xix. .51 ; xxii. 9). When the western
tribes were convened to call the tribes east of
the Jordan to account for their building of
an altar, it was at Shiloh that the gathering
took place (12). In the times of the judges
there was there an annual feast of Jehovah
(Judg. xxi. 19 ; 1 Sam. i. 3), at which the Ben-
jamites on one occasion obtained wives by
capture (Judg. xxi. 16-23). The tabernacle,
with the ark, was .still there in the time of Eli
and during the early years of Samuel (Judg.
xviii. 31 ; 1 Sam. i! 9, 24 : ii. 14, 22 ; iii. 3,
21 ; iv. 3, 4 ; xiv. 3). The capture of the
a,rk was understood to mean that God had
forsaken Shiloh (P.s. Ixxviii. 60 ; Jer. vii. 12,
14 ; xxvi. 6, 9). The covenant made at Sinai,
of which the ark and the ritual were the
outward sign and privilege, was suspended.
When the ark was returned by the Philis-
tines it was not taken again to Shiloh (1 Sam.
vi. 21 ; vii. 1, 2; 2 Sam. vi. 2. 11, 17), but the
work of reviving true religion, preparatory
to the restoration of covenant privileges, was
begun by Samuel. Ahijah the prophet, who
told Jeroboam of his approaching greatness,
lived at Shiloh, and it was thither that the
king's consort repaired to inquire about the
issue of their sick child's malady (1 Kin.
xiv. 2, 4). It continued to be inhabited at
least as late as the time of Jeremiah (Jer.
xli. 5). Shiloh has been successfully identi-
fied by Robinson as Seilun, about 10 miles

north-northeast of Bethel. The ruins are in
a valley surrounded by hills. In the sides
of the narrow valley are many tombs. A
fine spring of water is in the vicinity.

There are three main interpretations of
Shihjh in the ditticult jjassage Gen. xlix. 10,
eacli of which receives recognition in K. V. :
1. Shiloh is a proper name, which designates
the Messiah and refers to the peacefulnessof
his disposition and his reign. 2. Shiloh,
place of tranquillity, is the town in central
Palestine where the tabernacle was jilaced
immediately after the conquest of Canaan by
Joshua (Josh, xviii. 1). 3. Shiloh is not a
proper name, nor is it a simple word. It is a
compound, composed of the relative pronoun
she, the preposition I, and the pronominal
suffix of the third person masculine oh. The
same form of the suffix occurs twice in the
following verse. This phrase has been inter-
preted as meaning "that which is his,"
"whose it is," or "his own one." The sec-
ond of these three meanings would happily
correspond to Ezek. xxi. 27, but is not gram-
matically allowable ; and the first regarded
as objective, " he shall come to that which is
his," is grammatically difficult, for an object-
ive relative clause with indefinite antecedent
is preceded by a preposition or the sign of
the accusative. This conception of the word
as a phrase is old, having been entertained
by the translators of the ancient versions,
namely, Septuagint, Targums of Onkelos and
Jonathan, Syriac, and Jerome.

On the first interpretation and commonly
on the third the Messiah is expressly referred
to. In the second the reference is to the cov-
enant blessing, which the prophets of a later
age discerned to belong in its fullness to Mes-
sianic times. Eeuben had forfeited his birth-
right by misconduct (Gen. xlix. 4 ; xxxv.
22), Simeon and Levi had incurred their
father's just censure (xlix. 5-7; xxxiv. 30),
and Judah was consequently assigned the
place of the firstborn, and became the reju'e-
sentative of the tribe and the ])eculiar pos-
sessor of the blessing covenanted to Abra-
ham and his seed (xlix. 8). The promise of
victory to the woman's seed (iii. 15), the
blessing of God's fiwor centered in Shem
(ix. 26, 27), the further centralization of the
covenant blessing in the family of Abraham
(xvii.), belonged henceforth preeminently to
Judah, the possessor of the birthright. By
him, according to the first and third inter-
pretations, the prerogative shall be held until
one who is his, one of his tribe, the man of
peace comes, to whom shall be the obedience
of the peo])les, and in whom the covenant
blessing shall be still further centered. This
intcrjirt'tation, with many modifications of
detail, according as the scei)ter is thought of
restrictedly as the emblem of royalty or is
regarded as the symbol of leadership in gen-
eral, is representt'd in the text of the English
versions. .\iid it is argued that this essen-
tially must be the true interpretation, be-

Shiloh

677

Shiloni

cause the town of Sliiloli tlots not fulfill the
historical conditions, (or neither is there any
reason \vliy Jacob, apart from sjiccial revela-
tion, should think of Shiloh as tl>e future
place of worship, nor did Judah occupy pre-
eminence anionji the tribes before the taber-
nacle was i)itched in Shiloh, save somewhat
in numbers and in bein<; i)erniitted to lead
the van, while the people were marching to
Canaan, and to jiitch their tents in front of
the tabernacle. The leadership was at first
in the hands of Moses, of the tribe of Levi,
which excited the jealousy of the princes of
Reuben, and after Moses' death, and until
the tabernacle was pitched at Shiloh, the
authority was exercised by Joshua, of the
tribe of Ephraim.

But it is more natural to regard Shiloh in
this passage as the name of the town, for it
is such everywhere else, and on this iuter-
jiretation the words of Jacob are at once in-
telligible. This view is commonly enter-
tained by those who deny that Jacob uttered
the words, and who attirm that the address
is a prophecy after the event. But the
address is not the utterance of a late prophet,
commenting on the past history of the twelve
tribes and putting his reflections in the
mouth of their common ancestor Jacob, for
the descriptions do not fit the actual state
of things at any period of the national his-
tory ; see, for example, ver. 13 and Zebulun.
Believers in the genuineness of the address
hold that the town of Shiloh is meant, and
they are able fairly to explain how Jacob
came to use the name, and how Moses the
Levite and Joshua the Ephraimite could lead
the people while yet the scepter was acknowl-
edged as belonging to Judah. The argument
of Delitzsch maybe amplified. Shiloh doubt-
less existed in the days of the patriarchs;
and Jacob, who looked for the ultimate re-
turn of his people to Canaan (Gen. xv. 13-16 ;
xlvi. 3, 4 ; xlviii. 21), employs this name,
place of tranquillity, as an omen of the future,
jilaying upon it as Esau played upon the
name Jacob and Micah upon the names of
the towns of Judah. It made no difference
that God raised up men from other tribes to
meet special emergencies, the birthright and
its accompanying privileges belonged to
Judah. It was accorded to him by the posi-
tion assigned him at the head of the march-
ing host and in camp in front of the taber-
nacle. It was accredited to him by God's
multiplication of his descendants, so that his
tribe was much larger than any single tribe
during the forty years in the wilderness. It
was confirmed by the lot falling first to his
tribe when the conquered laud was distribu-
ted at Gilgal. The actual coming to the
town of Shiloh was not contemplated as
necessary by Jacob. The fulfillment of his
words was more literal than his expectation.
He had merely the peaceable possession of
the promised land in view. The erection of
the tabernacle at Shiloh, a town which Joshua

may have been led to choose by liaving
knowledge of Jacob's words, marked the
first stage in the realization of the jironiise.
A new period had been readied in Israel's
history. The conquest was comi)leted, the
inheritance was theirs, pos.session had begun,
rest bad been won. Judah, the ]io.ssessor of
the birthright, had come to a place of tran-
quillity in Canaan, having obtained the obedi-
ence of the peoples, and being now ready to
occupy and enjoy his con<iuered jiossession
(xlix. 10-12). The words do not mean that
when he should come to Shiloh the scepter
should depart. They are to be understood as
the similar language in Is. xlii. 4: " He shall
not fail nor be discouraged, till lie have set
judgment in the earth." This does not
mean that the servant will then fail and
lose courage. So Jacol) meant that the priv-
ilege conferred by the birthright, which cen-
tered in the Abrahamic covenant, should
not be transferred until Judah had obtained
the promised blessing, the possession of
Canaan, when he would enter upon its en-
joyment. A new period opens to him. He
was still accorded by God the first position
among the tribes, being called to go up first
against the Canaanites still in the allotted
land. He was called to go up first again.st
the Benjamites in the war against that tribe
to punish national sin. And the first and
only deliverer of all Israel during the period
of the judges proper sjirang from Judah
(Judg. iii. 7-11). Saul, a Benjamite, was
raised up like the judges to deliver Israel
(1 Sam. ix. 16 ; x. 6), and might have retained
the throne in his family (xiii. 13, 14 ; xv. 23,
26, 28), but he lost the o])portunity through
sin, as Reuben had lost the birthright, and
the permanent royal line was taken from
Judah. The obedience of the Canaanites
was but the foretaste, and the possession of
the land and enjoyment of its fertility were
but a type, of the Messianic triumphs and
peace involved in the covenanted mercies.
As time went on, the fullness of meaning was
revealed. The prophets dwelt with delight
on the truth that in the latter days all
nations shall flow' unto the mountain of the
Lord's house, the law shall go forth from
Zion and the word of the Lord from Jerusa-
lem, and he shall judge between the nations
and reprove many peoples ; and they shall
beat their swords into plowshares and their
spears into pruning hooks, nation shall not
lift up sword against nation, neither shall
they learn war any more. But they .shall
sit every man under his vine and under his
fig tree, and none shall make them afraid ;
for the mouth of the Lord of hosts hath
spoken it (Is. ii. 2-4; Mic. iv. 1-5; Joel iii.
9-21),

SM-lo'ni [a Shilonite].

According to the A. V., a man of the tribe
of Judah (Neh. xi. 5). But the word is pre-
ceded by the definite article in the Hebrew

Shilonite

678

SMmri

text, and hence is not a proper name. The
R. V. correctly translates it the Shilonite,
and Shiloni, as a man, disappears. See
Shilonite 2.
SM'lo-nite.

1. A native or inhabitant of Shiloh (1 Kin.
xi. 29).

2. A member of the tribal family of Shelah
(Neh. xi. 5, in A. V. Shiloni).

SMl'shah [triad].

An Asherite, son of Zophah (1 Chron. vii.
37).

Shim'e-a, once SMmeah (2 Sam. xiii. 3) :
the two modes of spelling correctly repre-
sentiug the Hebrew text, where, except in
the case noted, the Aramaic form is employed
[something heard, fame].

1. A Levite, family of Merari, house of
Mahli (1 Chron. vi. 30).

2. A Levite, family of Gershom (1 Chron.
vi. 39, 44).

3. A brother of king David (2 Sam. xiii. 3;
1 Chron. xx. 7). In A. Y. of 1 Chron. ii. 13
he is incorrectly called Shimma, the Hebrew
having Shimea. In 1 Sam. xvi. 9 ; xvii. 13
his name appears as Shammah. Has one
letter dropped out of the Hebrew text, or is
Shimea, the later and nobler name, changed
from "desolation" to "fame" after the
nation's deliverance from the Philistines?
Especially is this latter conjecture probable,
if Shammah was a memorial name, like
Ichabod.

4. A son of David ; see Shammua 2.

5. Another Shimeah, whose name in He-
brew is spelled differently from the foregoing
(1 Chron. viii. 32) ; see Shimeam.

Shim'e-am.

A Benjamite, a son of Mikloth, resident in
Jeru.salem (1 Chron. ix. 38). In viii. 32 he is
called Shimeah, a synonymous name. This
name differs in its third radicle from the
familiar name Shimea or Shimeah.

Shim'e-ath [rumor].

An Ammonitess, mother of one of king
.Toash's assassins (2 Kin. xii. 21).

Shim'e-ath-ites.

A Kenite family of scribes, descended
through a certain Sliimeah from the founder
of the house of Rechab and resident at Jabez
(1 Chron. ii. .^5).

Shim'e-i, in A. V. once Shimi (Ex. vi. 17),
once SMmM (1 Chron. viii. 21) [famous].

1. A son of Gershon, and a grandson of
Levi. He founded a subdivision of the
tribal family of Gershon (Ex. vi. 17; Num.
iii. 18, 21; 1 Chron. xxiii. 7, 10; Zech. xii.
13).

2. A Levite, family of Merari, house of
Mahli (1 Chron. vi."2»).

3. A Simeonite, probably of the fiimily of
Shaul. He had sixteen sons and six daugh-
ters (1 Chron. iv. 24-27).

4. A Levite, son of Jahath, of the family
of Gershom (1 Chron. vi. 42).

5. A Benjamite, liead of a father's house
in Aijalon (1 Cliron. viii. 21, in A. V. Shimhi).
Called Shema in ver. 13.

6. A Levite, family of Gershon, and head
of one of the subdivisions of Ladan, which
latter was apparently a division of the house
of Libni (1 Chron. xxiii. 9).

7. A Levite, head of the tenth course of
singers in David's reign, and evidently a son
of Jeduthun, for his name is needed to make
out the six spoken of in ver. 3 (1 Chron. xxv.
17).

8. A Ramathite, who was over David's
vineyards (1 Chron. xxvii. 27).

9. A Biuijamite, the son of Gera. He was
of Saul's family, which had lost the throne.
When he saw David, with his attendants,
descending the eastern slope of the mount of
Olives, while Absalom was in possession of
Jerusalem, he thought it safe to insult the
fallen potentate, which he did in gross lan-
guage. He was forgiven by David, but was
afterwards put to death by Solomon for dis-
obeying a command of the king (1 Kin. ii.
44-46).

10. An adherent of David and Solomon
during Adonijah's usurpation (1 Kin. i. 8).
He was probably the son of Elah, who be-
came Solomon's purveyor in the territory of
Benjamin (iv. 18).

11. A Rcubenite (1 Chron. v. 4).

12. A Levite, a son of Heman, who helped
to purify the temple in Hezekiah's reign (2
Chron. xxix. 14-16). He may be identical
with the following.

13. A Levite, brother of Conaniah, in
Hezekiah's reign. He was one of those who
looked after the tithes (2 Chron. xxxi. 12).

14. A Benjamite, son of Kish and an an-
cestor of Mordecai (Esth. ii. 5).

15. A man belonging to the royal family
of Judah, and a brother of Zerubbabel (1
Chron. iii. 19).

16. 17, 18. Three men, one a Levite, one a
son of Hashum, and one a son of Bani, each
of whom was induced bj^ Ezra to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 23, 33, 38).

Shim'e-ites. See Shimei 1.

SMm'e-on [a hearkening, an answering
(of prayer)].

A son of Harim, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 31).

SMm'M. See Shimei 5.

SMm'i. See Shimei 1.

Shim'ma. See Shimea 3.

SM'mon.

A man who had his registrj^ with the tribe
of Judah (1 (;hron. iv. 20).

SMm'rath [watching, guarding].

A Benjamite, son of Shimei of Aijalon (1 •
Chron. viii. 21).

Shim'ri, in A. V. once Simri (1 Chron.
xxvi. 10) [watchful].

1. A Simeonite, son of Shemaiah (1 Chron.
iv. 37).

Shimrith

679

Ship

2. Father of one of David's mighty men (1
Chron. xi. 45).

'.i. A Merarite Levite, a sou of Hosah (1
Chron. xxvi. 10).

4. A Levite, who lived in the reign of
Ilezekiah. He was a son of Elizaphan of
the family of Kohath, house of Uzziel (2
Chron. xxix. IIJ).

Shim'rith [vigilant].

A Moaliitess, mother of oue of king Joash's
assassins (2 Chron. xxiv. 2G). Called in 2
Kin. xii. 21 Shomer.

SMm'ron, in A. V. once Shimrom (1 Chron.
vii. 1 1, an error not in the original edition of
Kill [watching, a guard].

1. A sou of Issachar, and founder of a tri-
bal family (Geu. xlvi. 13; Num. xxvi. 24).

2. A border town of Zebulun (Josh. xi. 1 ;
xix. 1r>). Not identitied. Semi'uiieh, .5 miles
■west of Nazareth, has been conjectured among
other iilaces.

Shim-ron-me'ron.

A Canaanite town, whose king was van-
quished and slain by Joshua (Josh. xii. 20).
Probably the full name of Shimron.

Sliim'sliai [sunny].

A scribe, one of those who complained to
Artaxcrxes Longimanus that the Jews were
rebuilding the temple (Ezra iv. 8).

Shin.

The twenty-first letter of the Hebrew
alphabet. English S comes from the same
source, and with sh represents it in angli-
cized Hebrew names; as in Simeon, Shimea,
Ishmael. It heads the twenty-tirst section
of Ps. cxix., in which section each verse of
the original begins with this letter.

SM'nab.

The king of Admah, who was defeated by
Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2, 8, 10).

Shi'nar.

A country in wliich the cities of Babel,
Erech, Accad, and Calneh were situated
(Gen. X. 10; xi. 2; Dan. i. 2). Hence, in
Hebrew usage. Shinar comprehended the al-
luvial plain of Babylonia. The same region
was known to Semites of Mesopotamia as
Shanhar, as appears from an inscription of
Tell el-Amarna. In the days of Abraham,
Amraphel was king of the whole or a large
part of it (Gen. xiv. 1, 9). Some of the Jews
■were to be carried thither as captives (Is. xi.
11: Zech. v. 11).

Shi'on, in A. V. Sliihon [destruction,
ruin].

A town of Lssachar (Josh. xix. 19). The
site is perhaps at 'Ayun esh-Sha'in, ?> miles
west-northwest of mount Tabor.

Ship.

Little boats were used by dwellers on the
upjicr Euphrates for descending the river to
Babylon (Herod, i. 194). They w'ere circular
in form. The ribs were made of willow,
over which hides were stretched as a cover-
ing. They were steered by two men who

stood upright, each with a spar which they
thrust alternately. The largest vessels were
capable, according to Herodotus, of carrying
5000 talents.

Boats were doubtless used on the sea of
Galilee in O. T. times, but they are not men-
tioned. In the Eoman period the sea was
alive with small fishing vessels (Luke v. 2 ;
John vi. 22, 23; War ii. 21, 8; iii. 10, 9;
Life 33). They were propelled by oars; but
some, at least, had both oars and sails (Mark
iv. .38 with Luke viii. 23) ; they carried an
anchor and a pilot (Life 33).

The Israelites were not a seafaring people ;
although shipbuilding was far advanced
among the Egyptians and douljtless among
the Phoenicians before the exodus, and the
Hebrews had the spectacle of ships on the
Mediterranean before their eyes during the
whole period of their national history. Solo-
mon conducted commercial enterprises, and
Jehoshaphat attempted to imitate him ; but
these were transient efforts and were more
or less dependent uxwn Phcenician sailors.
The rafts of cedar and fir destined for Solo-
mon's temple were floated to Joppa by Tyr-
ians (1 Kin. v. 9 ; 2 Chron. ii. 16), and the
timber for the second temple was likewise
brought by sea to Joppa by Phcenicians
(Ezra iii. 7). The crew of the vessel in
which Jonah sailed from Joppa was also com-
posed of foreigners (Jonah i. 5). In the Eoman
period, piratical expeditions by Jews are re-
ported (Antiq. xiv. 3, 2 ; War iii. 9, 2 and 3).

Both merchant vessels and war ships were
used on the Mediterranean (Num. xxiv. 24;
Dan. xi. 30; Jonah i. 3; 1 Mac. xi. 1). In
war, vessels were employed for transporting
troops (xv. 3, 4; 2 Mac. xiv. 1) and for fight-
ing at sea (1 Mac. viii. 2.3, 32 ; Antiq. ix. 14,
2; cp. War iii. 10, 1). Some of these sea-
going vessels were propelled by sails alone ;
others by both sails and oars. A gallant
merchantman of Tyre was built of ]ilanks
and calked (Ezek. xxvii. 5, 9) ; had masts,
linen sails, and tackling (7; Is. xxxiii. 23),
benches of boxwood, and oaken oars (Ezek.
xxvii. 6, R. v.). It was manned by sailors and
guided by a pilot (8, 27). When luxuriously
furnished, the sails were embroidered and a
rich awning was spread (7). Such vessels
made the voyage to Tarshish (Jonah i. 3, 5,
6, 13), and even navigated the Atlantic Ocean
from Spain to England ; see Tix. The ship
of Alexandria, in which Paul was conveyed
from Myra to jNIalta, was large enough to
accommodate a crew and passengers number-
ing 276 persons, besides a cargo of wheat
(Acts xxvii. 37, 38). The vessel in which
Josephus was wrecked had 600 persons on
board (Life 3). The Alexandrian wheat ship,
described by Lucian as driven into the port
of Athens by rough weather, was 120 cubits,
or 180 feet, in length, doubtless including the
projection at each end, and 45 feet in breadth.
Its size attracted attention. Its measure-
ment is sui)posed to have been about 1200 or

Shiphi

680

Shittah Tree

1300 tons. The exceptionally large war gal-
ley of Ptolemy Philopator measured, accord-
ing to Athenieiis, 4'JO feet in length and 57
feet in breadth. Paul's ship was in charge
of a master and the owner (Acts xxvii. 11),
and was managed by a crew (30). It was
built of planks (44), carried a foresail, which
could be raised and lowered (40, R. V.), and
by implication a foremast and a mainmast,
and was steered by rudders, doubtless two
(40). Four anchors were stowed at the stern
and several forward (29, 30), and a small
boat was towed behind, which could be raised
by ropes to the deck or davits (16, 17, 30, 32).
Soundings were taken (28). It was custom-
ary for ships to have an eye painted or
carved ou each side of the stem. Paul's
vessel was unable to face the gale, literally to
keep the eye to the wind (15).

A .ship of Paul's Time.
Delineated at Pompeii.

A ship of Paul's time, depicted at Pompeii,
shows a foremast inclined like a bowsprit,
but intended to carry a square sail, and one
large mast with one square sail fitted to a
yard of great length. The yard was com-
posed of two spars spliced together, and was
placed with its center against the mast. The
sail was strengthened by ropes sewed across
it vertically and horizontally ; and if torn,
the rent was confined to the square in which
it occurred. The sail was furled by being
drawn up to the yard. The deck was pro-
tected by a rail. The stern post, and in many
vessels the stem post also, rose in a curve. It
was customary, as in this ship, for the stern
post at least to terminate in the head of a
water fowl. The sign of the ship (Acts xxviii.
11) was painted or carved on each side of the
prow. The vessel was steered by two broad
oars or paddles, one on each quarter and act-
ing through a port hole. The anchors were
similar to those in modern use, except that
they had no flukes. To prevent the starting
of the planks in a storm, cables or chains,
called helps or undergirders (xxvii. 17), were
passed around the vessel at right angles to
its length and made tight.

SM'phi [abounding, abundant].

A Simeonite, son of AUon (1 Chron. iv. 37).

Shlpli'mite.

A native or inhabitant of probably Siph-
moth (1 Chron. xxvii. 27).

Shiph'rali [splendor, beauty].

One of the Hebrew midwives in Egypt
who declined to kill the male babes (Ex. i.
15).

Shiph'tan [judicial].

An Ei)hraimite, father of Kemuel (Num.
xxxiv. 24).

Shi'sha. See Shavsha.

Shi'shak. See Pharaoh 3.

Shit'rai.

A Sharonite, who looked after David's
herds on the plain of Sharon (1 Chron. xxvii.
29).

Shit'tah Tree and Shittim Wood.

A tree (Is. xli. 19). The K. V. renders the
word by acacia tree or wood. It was largely
used in the tabernacle, for the woodwork of
the ark, the altars and their staves, the table,
the boards, bars, and pillars i Ex. xxv. 5,
10, 13, 23; xxvi. 15, 26, 32; xxvii. 1, 6; xxx.
1, 5). The Arabic name sa»t is the same
word as the Hebrew shittah, and denotes the
acacia. There are several species. Acacia
seyal and tortilis are found in the valleys.

Shittah {Acacia scyal).

about the Dead Sea and southward, and
Acacia nilotica grows in the southern part of
the peninsula of Sinai and in Egypt. The
genuine acacias are generally small trees,
growing from 15 to 25 feet high, thorny, with

Shittim

681

Shobi

bipiunate leaves, aud pods with several seeds.
The wood is hard and close-fjrained. Certain
species yield the gum Arabic of coniinerce.
The wood was used in Egypt for boat build-
ing (Herod, ii. 9(i). and Josephus speaks of
its strength and durability (Antiq. iii. (i, 5).

SMt'tim [acacias].

1. An important encampment of the Israel-
ites in the plains of Moab, east of Jordan,
opposite Jericho (Num. xxii. 1 with xxv. 1).
The camp had been removed from Pisgah on
the mountains of Abarim and pitched at
Shittim after the conquest of Sihon and Og
(xxi. 20; xxii. 1; xxxiii. 47, 48). It was
located on a table-land, the topmost of the
three terraces which at this point form the
valley of the Jordan, aud among the long
groves of acacia trees. It extended from
Beth-jeshimoth even unto Abel-shittim
(xxxiii. 49 ; cp. xxiii. 28), a distance of 3
miles and more. It was arranged in an or-
derly manner, the Israelites dwelling accord-
ing to their tribes (xxiv. 2, 5, 6) ; see Camp.
The sojourn at Shittim was eventful. While
the Israelites were encamped there, Balaam
attempted to curse them ( xxii. -xxiv. ), the*
people committed sin with the daughters of
Moab and Midian at Baal-peor, and were
plagued in consequence (xxv.), the second
census was taken (xxvi.), occasion arose for
enacting laws regarding the inheritance of
daughters (xxvii. 1-11), Joshua was publicly
proclaimed the successor to Moses (12-23),
daily oflerings and vows were further regu-
lated (xxviii.-xxx.), war was waged with
the tive Midianite tribes of the neighborhood
on account of the deliberate attempt which
they had recently made to seduce the Israel-
ites into licentious idolatry at Baal-peor
(xxxi.), Eeuben and Gad, at their own re-
quest, received inheritance east of the Jor-
dan (xxxii. ), an itinerary of the journey
from Egypt to the Jordan was drawn up bj'
Moses (xxxiii.). Measures were also taken
for the occupation of Canaan : in view of re-
cent events, the expulsion of the Canaanites
and the destruction of their altars and idols
were urgently commanded anew ; the bound-
aries of the land were defined, and a com-
mission was appointed to superintend the
allotment of territory to the tribes ; and it
was ordered that cities be assigned to the
Levites, and that six cities of refuge be des-
ignated for the unintentional murderer
(xxxiii. 50-xxxv.). The matter of the in-
heritance of daughters was further regulated
(xxxvi.j. Then Moses delivered his farewell
address (see Deuteronomy ), Joshua received
a solemn charge, and Moses ascended Xebo
and died. After the death of Moses, Joshua
sent forth two sjiies from Shittim to examine
and report on the defenses of Jericho (Josh.
ii.). Then camp was broken at Shittim, and
the people crossed the Jordan (iii.).

2. A valley, dry and comparatively un-
fruitful, where only the acacia or shittah

tree grows (Joel iii. 18). If a particular
valley is in the prophet's mind, it is the
Arabah about the Dead Sea (cp. Ezek. xlvii.
1-12). The prophet names it from the en-
campment of the Israelites at Shittim, and
he selects it as a tyjie liecause the waters of
its .sea were i>ractically lifeless, aud its south-
ern portion consisted of Itarren rocks and
clilts of salt. After Jehovah has judged all
nations, the kingdom of God shall llourish
and the kingdoms of the world become waste
(Joel iii. 9-21). The mountains of Judah
shall drop down new wine, its hills flow with
milk, its wadies be brooks of water, and from
the house of the Lord shall go forth waters
that shall make glad the valley of acacias.
In other words, the desert shall blossom as
the rose; spiritual life shall proceed from the
Lord God and shall supply the needs of his
kingdom (cp. Eev. xxii. 1, 2).

Shi'za [vehement love].

A Eeulienite, father of one of David's
heroes (1 Chron. xi. 42).

Sho'a.

A country and its inhabitants, mentioned
in connection with the Babj-lonians, Chal-
deans, and Assyrians (Ezek. xxiii. 23) ; and
doubtless the Shutu who are mentioned by
the Babylonians and Assyrians as occupying
a hilly country with steppes, adjacent to
Babylonia on the northeast, and between the
Tigris river and the mountains of Elam and
Media (Delitzsch, Paradies, 334).

Sho'bab [restored, rescued].

1. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Caleb. His mother was Azubah (1
Chron. ii. 18).

2. A son of David, born to him at Jerusa-
lem (2 Sam. V. 14).

Sho'liach [one who pours out].

Commander-in-chief under Hadarezer,
king of Zobah (2 Sam. x. 16). Called in 1
Chron. xix. 16, 18, Shophach. The difference
is doubtless due to a scribe's confusion of
beth and pe, but even so the names are
strictly synonymous.

Sho'bai [one who leads captive].

A Levite, founder of a family of doorkeep-
ers, members of which returned with Zerub-
babel from captivity (Ezra ii. 42).

Sho'bal [flowing, a stream, a twig, a trav-
eler] .

1. A tribe of Horites (Gen. xxxvi. 20),
consisting of several families (23), and ruled
by a chieftain (29).

2. A son of Hur, a man of Judah, family
of Hezron, house of Caleb. He was ancestor
of the inhabitants of Kirjath-jearim (1
Chron. ii. 50; iv. 1, 2, 4).

Sho'bek [one who forsakes].

One of the Jewish chiefs who with Nehe-
miah sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 24).

Sho'bi [one who leads captive].

Son of a resident in Eabbah of the Am-
monites named Nahash (2 Sam. xvii. 27).

Shocho

682

Shubael

Whether Nahash was an Israelite who had
taken up his residence in the conquered city
(xii. 26-31), or David's royal friend, the Am-
monite king (x. 2), is uncertain. His son
Shobi hrougiit food and other necessaries to
David at Mahanaim.

Sho'cho, Shocholi, Shoco. See Soco.

Sho'ham [a beryl or onyx].

A Ijcvite, son of Jaaziah (1 Chrou. xxiv. 27).

Shoe.

Hebrew shoes were, as a rule, simply san-
dals affixed to the foot by straps known as
latchets ; see Clothing. Shoes were not
worn in the sitting room or at the table (cp.
Luke vii. 38) ; and in well-appointed houses
a servant stood ready to unloose the latchet
and remove the shoe of the guest (cp. Mark
i. 7). Shoes were also removed when one
was about to tread holy ground (Ex. iii. 5 ;
Josh. v. 15) ; and the absence of shoes in the
description of the priest's garments is sup-
]iosed to indicate that the priests performed
their duties in the temple barefoot. In the

Sandals.

olden time in Israel, in matters of redemp-
tion and exchange, a man drew off his shoe
and gave it to him with whom he had con-
cluded the agreement, as confirmation of the
transaction (Ruth iv. 7, 8) ; and the shoe of
the man who refused to take his deceased
brother's wife was loosed, with other insult
(Deut. XXV. 9, 10).
Sho'mer [keeper, watchman].

1. An Asherite, son of Heber (1 Chron. vii.
32). See Shemer.

2. A Moabitess, mother of one of king
Joash's assassins (2 Kin. xii. 21). See Shim-

RITH.

Sho'phacli. See Shobach.

Sho'phan. See Atroth-shophan.

Sho-shan'nim [lilies].

A word occurring in the titles of Psalms
xlv. and Ixix. Three opinions exist as to its
meaning: symbolical of the contents of the
psalm, a musical instrument resembling a
lily, a ftimiliar melody. It doubtless indi-
cates a i^opular air. This appears from the
combinations Shoshannim Eduth, " Lilies a

testimony" (Ps. Ixxx. title), and Shushan
Eduth, "Lily a testimony" (Ps. Ix. title).

Sliow'bread.

Literally " bread of the presence." It
consisted of twelve loaves of bread, laid in
two rows and displayed on a table in the
holy place before the Lord continually. The
bread was changed every Sabbath, and the
old loaves were eaten by the priests in the
holy place (Ex. xxv. 30; Lev. xxiv. 5-9; 1
Sam. xxi. 6 ; Mat. xii. 4). Josephus saj's the
bread was unleavened (Antiq. iii. 6, 6).
These twelve loaves set in the presence of
Jehovah probably signified the constant
communion of his people with him in tho.se
things which his bounty provided and they
enjoyed in his presence and used in his
service. The Kohathites had charge of the
showbread (1 Chron. ix. 32).

The table of showbread was made of acacia
wood overlaid with gold. It was bordered
by a golden crown, and had a ring at each
corner for the rods by which it was carried.
It measured 2 cubits long, 1 broad, and 1^
high (Ex. xxv. 23-29; for its transportation,
^see Num. iv. 7, 8). In Solomon's temple
there were ten tables for shoM'bread, corre-
sponding to the ten candlesticks, although
like the candlesticks apparently only one
was in use at a time (1 Chron. xxviii. 16 ; 2
Chron. iv. 8, 19 ; xiii. 11 ; Antiq. viii. 3, 7) ;
hence only one is mentioned in 1 Kin. vii.
48; 2 Chron. xxix. 18. The table which
belonged to the second temple was carried
oif by Antiochus Epiphanes, but a new one
was provided by Judas Maccabseus ( 1 Mac. i.
22; iv. 49). Titus carried it to Rome (War
vii. 5, 5).

Shu'a, in A. V. twice Shuah (Gen. xxxviii.

2, 12) [wealth].

1. A Canaanite, who.se daughter became
Judah's wife or concubine, and the mother
of his sons, Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gen.
xxxviii. 2, 12 ; 1 Chron. ii. 3).

2. An Asherite, a daughter of Heber (1
Chron. vii. 32).

Shu'ah [depression].

A son of Abraham, by Keturah (Gen. xxv.
2), that is. an Arab tribe descended from
them, doubtless the Shuhites who dwelt near
the land of Uz (Job ii. 11). Their land is
plausibly identified with a district of the
same name, in Assyrian Sului, on the west
of the Euphrates, near the mouth of the
Belich and Khabour.

For others whose name is rendered Shuah
in A. v., see Shua and Shuhah.

Shu'al [a fox or jackal].

1. An Asherite, son of Zophah (1 Chron.
vii. 36).

2. A district near Ophrah, to the north of
]\Iiohmash (1 Sam. xiii. 17). Exact situation
unknown.

Shu'ba-el. See Shebuel.

Shuhah

683

Shushan

Showbread Table of Herod's Temple.

From the Arch of Titus.

Shu'hah, in A. V. Shuah [depression, a
small jiit].

A man of Jiidah (1 Chron. iv. 11).

Shu'ham [dejiression or, perhaps, a pit-
man].

The son of Dan. and founder of the tribal
family (Num. xx\i. 42). Called in Gen. xlvi.
23 Hushim.

Shu'Mte. See Shuah.

Shu'lam-mite, in A. V. Shulamite.

A young woman mentioned in the Song
of Solomon (vi. 13). In all probability the
name is derived from that of the town of
Shunem. The Septuagiut translates it by
Sonnnmiiis, i. e. Shunammite ; and the town
of Shunem was known in the time of Euse-
bius as Shulem, and to-day bears the name
Solam. The form Shulammite may have
been preferred to Shunammite becau.se of its
assonance with Solomon, in Hebrew F^hHomoh.

Shu'math-ites [from shumnh, garlic].

One of the leading families in Kirjath-
jearim (1 Chron. ii. 53).

Shu'nam-mite.

A native or inhabitant of Shunem. Abishag
was one (1 Kin. i. 3, 15). So was the woman
whose son Elisha raised from the dead (cp. 2
Kin. iv. 8).

Shu'nem [possibly, two resting places].

A town of Issachar (Josh. xix. 18), oppo.site
mount Gilboa (1 Sam. xxviii. 4). The Philis-
tines encamped there before the battle with

Saul. The site is at Solam, on the western
slope of a hill 3j miles north by east of
Jezreel, 5 north of the western end of
mount Gilboa, and 10 or 12 miles from Car-
mel whither the Shunammite woman went
to find Elisha (2 Kin. iv. 25).

Shu'ni [possibly, calm, quiet].

A son of Gad, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 16; Num. xxvi. 15).

Shu'pham. See Shephupham.

Shup'pim.

1. A Benjamite (1 Chron. vii. 12, 15) ; see
Shephupham.

2. A Levite, who served as a doorkeeper
at the sanctuary (1 Chron. xxvi. 16). The
Hebrew text is doubtless corrupt. Perhaps
the name crept in from the preceding verse,
which ends with a word very like Shuppim.

Shur [wall, fortification].

1. A locality in the wilderness, south of
Palestine, or more exactlj' south of Rcer-
lahai-roi, and east of Egypt (Gen. xvi. 7;
XXV. 18). It has not been identified, but was
doubtless connected with the frontier for-
tresses of Egypt. It gave name to the wil-
derness through which the Israelites marched
for three days immediately after crossing the
Red Sea (Ex. xv. 22). This waste was also
sometimes called the wilderness of Etham
(Num. xxxiii. 8).

Shu'shan [to the Hebrews the name would
suggest lily].

Shushanchites

684

Sidon

A city and royal residence in the Persian
empire (Neh. i. 1 ; Estli. i. 2), in tlie province
of Elam, on the river Ulai (Uan. viii. 2). It
was also a royal treasure city (Herod, v. 49).
The place referred to in these passages is
Susa. Ashurhauipal captured the city about
660 B. c, and later it became subject to the
Babylonian kings. The royal family to
which Cyrus, who conquered Babylon, be-
longed ruled over Ansau, which appears to
have been a district of eastern Elam. When
Cyrus, by his military achievements, estab-
lished the Persian empire, Susa was elevated
to the rank of a capital of the empire, shar-
ing this distinction with Ecbatana and Baby-
lon. When Alexander the Great entered
Susa, in 331 B. c, it had in it immense treas-
ures, of which he took possession. In 315 B.
c. it was captured and plundered anew by
Antigonus. After this it began to decline,
but was still defensible when the Saracens
conquered Persia. The site of the city is at
Sus, in latitude 32° 10" north, longitude 48°
26" east, between the river Eulseus (the Ro-
man name for Daniel's Ulai) and the Shah-
pur, and about 100 miles from the Persian
Gulf. The chief ruins are found within an
area of about 6000 feet long by 4500 broad,
the circumference being about 3 miles; but
if scattered remains be taken in, the 3 miles
may become 6 or 7. They consist of a series
of mounds, in one of which the explorers
laid bare the ruins of a palace, doubtless that
begun by Darius, and- in which Xerxes held
his court. It seems to have been there that
Esther's Ahasuerus held his feasts and his
banquets (Esth. i. 2, 3, 9; ii. 18, etc.).

Shu'shan-cMtes, in A. V. SusancMtes

[from Elamite Snshiak, Susian].

Natives or inhabitants of the Persian Susa,
the Shushan of the O. T. Shushanchites
were brought, with others, to central Pales-
tine to supply the place of the ten tribes car-
ried into captivity (Ezra iv. 9).

Shu'shan E'duth. See Shoshannim.
Sbu'the-lah.

1. A son of Ephraim, and founder of a tri-
bal family (Num. xxvi. 35, 36 ; 1 Chron.
vii. 20).

2. Another descendant of Ephraim in the
same line (1 Chron. vii. 21).

Si'a-ha and Sia [assembly].

A family of Nethinim, members of which
returned with Zerubbabel from the captivity
(Ezra ii. 44 ; -Neh. vii. 47).

Sib'be-cai, in A. V. twice Sibbechai (2
Sam. xxi. 18; 1 Chron. xx. 4) [perhaps, en-
tangling].

A Hushathite, one of David's mighty men
(1 Chron. xi. 29). He won renown by slay-
ing the Philistine Saph, one of the sons of
the giant (2 Sam. xxi. 18). He commanded
the division of the army for the eighth month
(1 Chron. xxvii. 11). He is called in 2 Sam.
xxiii. 27 Mebunuai (q. v.).

Sib'bo-leth. See Shibboleth.

Sib'mali, in A. V. once SMbmah (Num.
xxxii. 38) [coolness].

A town assigned to Reuben (Num. xxxii.
38 ; Josh. xiii. 19), but which afterwards re-
verted to Moab. It was celebrated for its
vines (Is. xvi. 8, 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 32). The
masculine form of the name is Sebam (Num.
xxxii. 3; in A. V. Shebam). According to
Jerome, it was situated scarcely half a mile
from Heshbon. Not identified. Conder sug-
gests Sumia, 3 miles west by north of Hesh-
bon.

Sib'ra-im [perhaps, hope].

An unidentified place on Ezekiel's northern
boundary of Canaan (Ezek. xlvii. 16).

Si'cliem. See Shechem.

Si'cy-on.

A Dorian town in the Peloponnesus
(Herod, viii. 43), on the gulf of Corinth, 10
miles northwest of the city of Corinth. The
old town at the harbor was abandoned in 303
B. c, and the populace removed to the new
town, about 2 miles inland, which occupied
a strong natural position. The city became
a member of the Achaean league in 251 b.
c. Half a century later it began to show
friendliness to the Romans, and continued to
do so during the fifty years that followed ;
and in 146 b. c, on the destruction of Corinth
by the Roman general, Mummius, it was re-
warded with a large portion of the conquered
territory and with the management of the
Isthmian games. It held this distinction for
a century, until Corinth was founded again
and made a Roman colony. The Roman
senate addressed the letter to Sicyon men-
tioned in 1 Mac. xv. 23, about 139 B. c.

Sid'dim [plains].

The valley, full of bitumen pits, in which
the battle of the four kings with the five
took place. It was afterwards submerged
under the waters of the Salt or Dead Sea
(Gen. xiv. 3, 8, 10).

Si'de.

A maritime town of eastern Pamphylia in
Asia Minor. It maintained close commercial
relations with Aradus in Phoenicia, gave the
title Sidetes to Antiochus VII., who was
brought up in the town, and was one of the
places to which the Roman senate sent letters
in favor of the Jews (1 Mac. xv. 23).

Si'don and Zidon ; in A. V. usually, in E.
V. always, Zidon in O. T. ; in A. V. and R.
V. always Sidon in N. T. [a fishery].

An ancient city of the Canaanites (Gen. x.
15), on the seacoast, about 22 miles north of
Tyre. A confirmation of its antiquity and
its importance comes from Homer, who re-
peatedly mentions Sidon, but never Tyre,
and who uses Sidon and Sidonian as syn-
onymous with Phcenicia and Phoenician. It
was the northern limit of the Canaanites, in
the narrow sense (Gen. x. 19). It was the

Sidon

685

Siege

hiirder also of Zebuhin (slix. 13) and of
AsIrt (.hi.sli. xix. 2S, wlnTc and in xi. 8 it is
called (ircut Zidou). The tribe of Aslier,
liowever, failed to expel the Canaanite in-
hal)itants (Judg. i. 31). In the j)eriod of the
judges tile Zidonians ()])i)ressed llu; Israelites
(x. 12), and the latter people an^ accused of
worshiping the gods of Zidon (G). Of these
gods, Baal, symbolizing the sun, was doubt-
less the chief (1 Kin. xvi. 31) ; the principal
object of worship, however, was a goddess,
Ashtoreth, symbolizing the moon, (xi. 5, 33 ;
2 Kin. xxiii. 13). Ethbaal, a king of Zidon,
was the father of Jezebel (1 Kin. xvi. 31).
Isaiah predicted that it would be visited with
judgment which would make its inhabitants
pass to Kittini, that is, Cyprus (Is. xxiii. 12).
It was for a time subject to the neighboring

B. c. it opened its gates to Alexander the
Great. From his successors it passed, in 64
B. c, to the Romans. I'eojjle from Sidon
came to Galilee to attend on the preaching
of Jesus and witness his miracles (Mark iii.
8; Luke vi. 17, etc.). He once visited the
region, and probably the city (Mat. xv. 21 ;
Mark vii. 24, 31). Herod Agrippa II. was
highly displeased with the people of Tyre
and Sidon, but they made peace with liim
" because their country was fed from the
king's country " (Acts xii. 20). Paul touched
at the port (xxvii. 3). Since N. T. times
Sidon has seen many vicissitudes. The mod-
ern city, called Saida, lies ou the northwest-
ern slope of a small promontory jutting out
into the sea. The ancient harbor was formed
by a ridge of rocks parallel to the shore. It

Northern Harbor of Sidon.

The ruins of a castle of the thirteenth century, on a substructure of large drafted blocks of stone which proclaim

their antiquity, stand ou an island which is connected with the mainland by an arched bridge.

city of Tyre (Antiq. ix. 14, 2). In 701 b. c,
it submitted to Sennacherib, king of Assyria.
In 678 B. c. it was destroyed by Esarhaddon.
Jeremiah predicted its subjugation by Nebu-
chadnezzar, king of Babylon (Jer. xxvii. 3,
fi). Ezekiel denounced judgment against it
because it had been "a i)ricking brier to the
house of Israel" (Ezek. xxviii. 21, 22). Joel
charges the Zidonians and others with hav-
ing helped to plunder Jerusalem, carrying
off silver and gold, and .selling its inhabit-
ants for slaves (Joel iii. 4-6). About .526 B. c.
Zidon submitted to C'ambyses, son of Cyrus,
king of Persia. The Zidonians sold cedar
timber to the Jews for the temple which
Zerubbabel was building (Ezra iii. 7). It re-
volted against Artaxerxes Ochus, king of
Persia, in 3.51 B. c, but was retaken and de-
stroj-ed. To get rid of the Persians, in 333

M'as partly filled up with stones and earth
by Fakhr ed-Din, the ruler of the Druses, in
the seventeenth century. There is a wall
protecting the land side of the city. The
highest ground, which is crowned by the
citadel, is on the southern .side. The city is
enveloped in gardens and orchards, but has
not much commerce ; that having been
largely diverted from it to Beirut. Its
population has been estimated at 5000 to
10,000. It has in and around it a few broken
granite columns; and various sarcophagi,
including the celebrated one of Esmunazar,
were brought from tombs in its vicinity.

Si-do'ni-ans, in A. V. frequently Zidoni-
ans, in R. V. always so except once (Deut.
iii. 9).

Siege. See War.

Sihon

Siloam

Si'hon [sweeping out, a brush].

A kiuK of the Amorites, whose capital was
Heshbou. He drove the Moabites from the
country between Heshbon and the Arnon and
took possession of it (Num. xxi. 26-30). P^ive
Midianite tribes were his vassals (Josh. xiii.
21). When the Israelites arrived in the wil-
derness on the southeast of the Arnon, Moses
sent messengers to him to ask permission to
cro.ss his territory (Num. xxi. 21, 22 ; Deut.
ii.26). He refused. Thereupon the Israelites
entered his domains under the necessity of
lighting their way to the Jordan. Sihon
gathered his army together at Jaliaz and op-
posed the invaders, but he was defeated and
his kingdom was taken possession of by the
Israelites (Num. xxi. 21-32; Ps. cxxxv. 11).
The country thus seized was included be-
tween the Jordan, the Jabbok, and the
Arnon (Num. xxi. 24, 32 ; Deut. ii. 36 ; Judg.
xi. 22). The camp of Israel was pitched at
Pisgah, a secure position on the mountains
of Abarim, nearly in the center of the con-
quered district, preparatory to the campaign
against Bashau (Num. xxi. 20; cp. xxii. 1;
xxxiii. 47). Sihon's kingdom was afterwards
assigned to the tribes of Eeuben and Gad,
who desired it because it afforded good pas-
turage (Num. xxxii. 1-4, 33-38).

Sig'net. See Seal 2.

Si'lior. See Shihok.

Si'las, or uncontracted Silvanus [sylvan].

A distinguished member of the apostolic
church at Jerusalem. He was sent with
Paul to communicate the deci.sion of the
council held at that city to the Christians at
Antioch (Acts xv. 22, 27, 32). When Paul
declined to take John Mark with him on the
second missionax-y journey, and parted with
Barnabas, he chose Silas as his companion
(40), and the two were imprisoned together
at Philip])i (xvi. 19, 25, 29). Silas was with
Paul during the riot at Thessalonica (xvii. '
4), and was sent away with him to Bercea,
remaining there with Timothy after the
apostle had been obliged to depart (14). The
two were, however, soon directed to follow
Paul to Athens (15). They started to join
him, but do not seem to have come up with
him till after his arrival at Corinth (xviii. 5).
In this city Silas was an esteemed coworker
of Paul's (2 Cor. i. 19). The same individual
who in The Acts is familiarly named Silas is
unvaryingly called by his full name Silvanus
in the epistles. He was associated with Paul
and TiiiU)thv in sending the two letters to the
Thessaloniaiis (1 Thes. i. 1 ; 2 Thes. i. 1). He
is probably the Silvanus who carried to its
destination the First Epistle of Peter (1 Pet.
V. 12).

SUk.

A fine, soft thread produced by various
species of caterpillars, and a fabric woven
from the thread. Silk reached the markets
of the west shortly after the conquest of
Alexander the Great. It was known to the

Greeks as serikon, pertaining to the Sers, a
people of India from whom it was obtained.
It was a choice article of merchandise (Eev.
xviii. 12), fit for the clothing of Eoman em-
perors (War vii. 5, 4). As late as the reign of
the emperor Aurelian, A. D. 270-275, unmixed
silk goods were sold for their weight in gold.
The fine raiment referred to in Ezek. xvi.
10, 13 by the term meshi was probably silk,
as the rabbinical interpreters understood
and as it is rendered in the E. V. Ezekiel
doubtless saw the stufl'in Babylonia. A rich
cloth is meant by d'meshek (Amos iii. 12),
which is commonly regarded as damask
(in E. V. rendered silken cushions).

Sil'la [twig, basket]. The meaning " way,
street," as.signed by Theuius, is obtained by
altering the Hebrew text.

An unknown place near Millo (2 Kin. xii.

20).

Si-lo'ah, an erroneous transliteration of
Shelah in A. V. of Neh. iii. 15. See Siloam.

Si-lo'am [sent ; specially, a sending of
water through an aqueduct].

A pool at Jerusalem (John ix. 7) ; proliably
identical with Shiloah, the waters of which
go softly (Is. viii. 6), and the pool of Shelah,
which was by the king's garden (Neh. iii. 15).
Josephus says that it was situated at the ex-
tremity of the valley of cheesemongers, near
a bend of the old wall beneath Ophlas, i. e.
Ophel (War v. 4, 1 and 2). The name is pre-
served in the Birket Silwan, which occupies
the general site of the ancient pool. It is a
rectangular reservoir, 58 feet long, 18 broad,
and 19 deep, built of masonry, the western
side of which has considerably broken down.
The fountain is a small upper basin ex-
cavated in the rock. It is really the ter-
mination of the tunnel which was cut to
conduct the water from the fountain of the
Virgin. From the lower reservoir, the water
flows in a small rill across the road and
irrigates gardens in the Kidron valley.

In 1880 an inscription of .six lines was dis-
covered on the walls of this tunnel by a
youth who had entered from the Siloam end.
It proved to be written in pure Hebrew, and
is supposed to date from the time of Ahaz or
Hezekiah. A portion of the first three lines
has been destroyed by the wearing away
of the rock, and occasionally a letter cannot
be made out with certainty. Still the sense
is plain. It describes how the workmen,
who had excavated toward eacli other from
the two ends of the tunnel, met. It is as
follows, as nearly as possible. " [Behold] the
piercing through ! And this was the manner
of the piercing through. While yet [the
miners were lifting up] the i)ick one toward
another, and while there were yet three
cubits to be [cut through, there was heard]
the voice of each calling to the other; for
there was a fissure (?) in the rock on the
right hand .... And on the daj' of the
piercing through, the miners smote the one

Silvanus

687

Simeon

so as to meet the other, pick against pick.
And the water flowed from the source to the
pool, 1"J00 cubits ; and 100 cubits was the
height of the rock over the head of the
miners."

Tlie tower in Siloara which fell (Luke xiii.
4) was probably one on the Ophel ridge, near
Siloam. It was not in the neighboring vil-
lage of .silwau, for this place dates from the
Middle Ages.

Sil-va'nus. See Silas.

Sil'ver.

A precious metal. Its ore was mined from
the earth (Job xxviii. 1) and melted in a fur-
nace, by which process the dross was sepa-
rated from the richer metal (Ps. xii. 6 ; Prov.
xvii. 3 ; xxv. 4 ; Ezek. xxii. "i'ii. It was ob-
tained in Arabia [2 Chron. ix. 14 ; cp. 1 Kin.
X. 22, 27) and Tarshish ( Jer. x. 9 ; Ezek.
xxvii. 12), Spain being a large producer (1
Mac. viii. 3). It was used as a medium of
exchange from remotest antiquity (Gen. xxiii.
16 ; xxxvii. 28). The amount required was
weighed out (Job xxviii. 15 ; Is. xlvi. 6), for
silver was not coined until late, among the
Jews not until long after the exile (1 Mac.
XV. 6) : see Moxey. Personal ornaments
(Gen. xxiv. 53; Ex. iii. 22; Song i. 11),
crowns (Zech. vi. 11), musical instruments,
as trumpets (Num. x. 2), and household
utensils of the wealthy, like Joseph's drink-
ing cup (Gen. xliv. 2) were made of silver.
Large quantities of the metal were used in
the tabernacle and temple for sockets (Ex.
xxvi. 19), hooks, chapiters and fillets of the
pillars (xxvii. 10; xxxviii. 19), platters and
bowls (Xum. vii. 13: 1 Chron. xxviii. 17;
Ezra i. 9, 10), cups (2 Kin. xii. 13), candle-
sticks, and tables (1 Chron. xxviii. 15, 16).
Idols and models of idol shrines were con-
structed of silver (Ps. cxv. 4; Acts xix. 24).

Sil'ver-ling.

The rendering of the Hebrew Keseph,
silver, in Is. vii. 23. which is elsewhere
translated by shekel or piece of silver.

Si-mal-cu'e, in E. V. Imalcue.

An Arabian who brought up the young
Antiochus. son of Alexander Balas (1 Mac.
xi. 39) ; in Antiq. xiii. 5, 1 called Malchus.
The name doubtless contains the Arabic word
malik, king.

Sim'e-on, in R. V. of X. T. Symeon, in
imitation of a Greek form, when the persons
are n<it mentioned in O. T. (Luke iii. 30;
Acts xiii. 1 ; xv. 14) [hearing].

1. The second-born son of Jacob by Leah
(Gen. xxix. 33). In conjunction with his
brother Levi, he massacred the Hivite in-
habitants of Shechem on account of the in-
jury done by one of their number to Dinah
(Gen. xxxiv. 24-31) ; see Dinah. When one
of Jacob's sons was to be kept a prisoner in
Egypt as security for return of the rest,
Joseph took Simeon and bound him (xiii. 24).
The prediction of Simeon's future by the

dying Jacob returns to the subject of the
mas.sacre, and threatens Simeon as well as
Levi that they will be scattered in Israel
(xlix. 5-7).

2. The tribe of which Simeon, the son of
Jacob, was the progenitor. He had six sons :
Jemuel or Nemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin or
Jarib, Zohar or Zerah. and Shaul. With the
exception of Ohad, all these founded tribal
families (Gen. xlvi. 10; Num. xxvi. 12-11;
1 Chron. iv. 24). The prince of the tribi' in
the early times of the wilderness wanderings
was Shelumiel, son of Zurishaddai (Num.
i. 6 ; ii. 12 ; vii. 36, 41 ; x. 19), and at a later
period Shemuel, son of Ammihud (xxxiv.
20). At the first census in the wilderness the
tribe numbered 59,300 fighting men (i. 23 : ii.
13), at the second 22,200 (xxvi. 12-14). Slia-
phat, son of Hori, was the spy from the tribe
(xiii. 5). Moses, before his departure, blessed
the tribes, but omitted to mention Simeon
explicitly (Deut. xxxiii.). This omission is
probably due to the artificial construction of
the poem. Moses wanted twelve for the
number of the tribes. He formed two groups,
departing from the order of birth, and plac-
ing the children of Jacob's two wives in the
first group and those of the two maids in the
second.

Leah 3

Leah's maid 1

Rachel 3

Rachel's maid 2

Leah 2

Leah's maid 1

The first group contains eight, Simeon being
omitted, and the second group contains just
half as many. The first group is subdivided
into three minor groups, beginning with
three of the elder children of Leah and
closing with Leah's youngest two, and having
Rachel's three in the center. The second
group is made to correspond to this arrange-
ment. It begins with Leah's firstborn by
her maid and closes with her second son by
the same maid, and the two sous of Rachel
by her maid are placed between. The bless-
ings pronounced upon tlie.se tribes arc framed
within a benediction upon all Israel (2-5, 25-
291. The tribe of Simeon could best be omitted
from the particular enumeration, because it
was to be scattered in Israel (Gen. xlix. .5-7).
The same punishment also awaited Levi, but
recent deeds had partly atoned for the past
and given the tribe of Levi a position of
honor among the people of God. After
Moses' death the tribe of Simeon was not
assigned a self-contained territory, but was
granted possession in the midst of Judah.
The Simeonites, however, although not ex-
plicitly mentioned, were not excluded from
the blessing invoked on the tribes. They
were included in the general benediction
upon Israel as a whole, with which the poem
opens and closes. The tribe of Simeon was
one of those who stood at the foot of mount
Gerizim to pronounce blessings (Deut. xxvii.
12).

When the land of Canaan was distributed

Simon

Simon

by lot, the second lot taken at Shiloli came
forth for the tribe of Simeon, and land was
assigned them in the extreme south of
Canaan, in the midst of the inheritance of
the children of Judah (Josh. xix. 1, 2, 9),
and the two tribes made common cause
against the Canaanites (Judg. i. 1, 3, 17).
Among the Simeonite cities were Beer-sheba,
Ziklag. and Hormah (Josh. xix. 2-9), in the
southern part of Judah. In the reign of
Hezekiah the Simeonites smote the people of
Ham and the Meunim who dwelt in the
valley of Gedor, 500 of them also slaughtered
the Amalekites of mount Seir ; in both cases
occupying the territory of the vanquished
tribes (1 Chron. iv. 24-43). It is believed
that ultimately a great part of the tribe dis-
appeared, but it was recognized by Ezekiel
in his prophecies of the future Canaan (Ezek.
xlviii. 24, 2.5, 33), and in the apocalyptic
vision there were sealed 12,000 Simeonites
(Rev. vii. 7).

3. An ancestor of Christ, who lived after
David but before Zerubbabel (Luke iii. 30).

4. A priest of the family of Joarib, and an
ancestor of the Maccabees (1 Mac. ii. 1).

5. A righteous and devout man, to whom
it had been revealed by the Holy Spirit that
he should not see death till he had seen the
Lord's Christ. Coming into the temj)le when
Joseph and Mary had just brought in the
infant Jesus, Simeon recognized him as the
promised Messiah, expressed his willingness
now to depart in peace, and made a prophetic
address to Mary with respect both to her and
her child (Luke ii. 25-35).

6. Simon Peter (Acts xv. 14) ; see Peter.

7. A Christian prophet or teacher at Anti-
och. He was surnamed Niger, black, and
may perhaps have been of African race (Acts
xiii. 1).

Sl'mon [hearing]. Simon and Symeon imi-
tate Greek modes of representing the He-
brew name Hhim'on, Simeon.

1. Second son of the priest Mattathias. He
was called Thassi, which may perhaps mean
director or guide (1 Mac. ii. 3, in Syriac
Tharsi). With his brothers he sympathized
with his father in the revolt against the re-
ligious intolerance of the Syrians (14). Re-
garding him as the wisest of the sons, his
father, when about to die, appointed him the
adviser of the family, but gave the military
authority to Judas, a younger brother (65,
fif)). He held a military command under
Judas, and led a detachment of troops to the
aid of the Jews in Galilee (v. 17, 20-23).
After the death of Judas Jonathan was chosen
leader. He made Simon commandant of the
entire coast (xi. 59 ; xii. 33, 34). When Jona-
than was seized and held prisoner by Try-
phon, the conduct of the war devolved on
Simon, as the last remaining brother of the
Maccabee family (xiii. 1-9). He at once
completed the fortifications of Jerusalem,
and secured possession of Joppa (10, 11).

When Tryphon invaded Judaea, Simon dogged
his army (20), and when Tryphon withdrew
from the country, Simon rebuilt and pro-
visioned the strongholds of Judaea (33). He
also allied himself with Tryphon 's rival,
Demetrius II., and obtained from him the
recognition of the independence of Judaea,
142 B. c. (34-42). Thereupon he besieged
and captured Gezer (43-48, in A. V. Gaza).
In the spring of 141 he reduced the Syrian
citadel at Jerusalem (49-52). A season of
peace followed, during which Simon devoted
his energies to internal administration and
the encouragement of commerce and agri-
culture (xiv. 4-15). He embellished the
family tomb at Modin, in which he had
placed the remains of his brother Jonathan
(xiii. 25-30). The Spartans and Romans re-
newed the league with him (xiv. 16-24 ; xv.
15-24). He was acknowledged by the Jews
as high priest and captain and leader (xiii.
42 ; xiv. 41, 42, 47; xv. 1, 2), and in 140 B. C.
authorized to wear the purple (xiv. 43, 44).
Antiochus Sidetes, when on the eve of coming
to Syria to help defend the cause of the absent
Demetrius against Tryphon, made concessions
to Simon, and gave him authority to coin
money (xv. 6), but afterwards became es-
tranged from him, and demanded the surren-
der of Joppa, Gezer, and the citadel at Jeru-
salem (26-31). Simon refused, and war en-
sued, 138-7 B. c, but the Syrians were worsted.
In the early spring of 135 B. c, while on a
tour of visitation to the cities of his domin-
ion, he was treacherously murdered in the
castle of Dok, near Jericho, by his son-in-
law (xvi. 14-16).

2. Father of Judas Iscariot (John vi. 71).
He too bore the designation Iscariot (ibid,
and xiii. 26, R. V.).

3. Simon Peter (Mat. x. 2) ; see Peter.

4. Simon the Zealot, one of the twelve
apostles (Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13) ; see
Canan^an.

5. One of the Lord's brethren (Mat. xiii.
55 ; Mark vi. 3) ; see Brethren of the Lord.

6. A Pharisee, at whose house our Lord
once ate, on which occasion a woman, who
was a sinner, anointed his feet (Luke vii.
36-50).

7. A householder in Bethany. He had
been a leper, and not improbablj' had been
cured by Christ. When our Lord was at
meat in his house Mary, the sister of Lazarus,
anointed his feet with precious ointment
(Mat. XX vi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xii.
1-8). Martha served, and Lazarus was one
of those who ate. The presence of the
brother and two sisters, and the active part
taken by the sisters, as well as the fact that
Simon's hou.se was in the town of Lazarus
and his sisters, makes it evident that Simon
was a relative or intimate friend of theirs.
But there is no reason to believe that he was
their father or the husband of Mary. He
may have been the husband of Martha ; see
Martha.

I

Simri

689

Sinai

8. The Cyrenian who was compelled to
bear the cross of Christ. He was the father
of Alexander aud Kufus (Mat. xxvii. 32).

9. A sorcerer (uow poi)ularly called Simon
Magus. I. e., Simon the magician) who so
amazed the people of Samaria with his arts
that they said : "This man is that power of
God which is called Great." He was appar-
ently converted through the instrumentality
of Philip the evangelist, by whom he was
l)a])tized. Having subsequently oflered to
buy with money the privilege of conferring
the Holy Ghost on anyone he wished by the
im])osition of hands, he was sternly rebuked
by Peter, who declared that his heart w'as
not right with God, and that he was still in
the gall of bitterness and in tlie bond of
iniquity. He took the reproof meekly, and
begged the apostle to pray for him that none
of the evils threatened might be allowed to
befall him (Acts viii. 9-24). He was afraid,
but there is no evidence that he was peni-
tent. Ecclesiastical tradition makes Simon
recommence his sorceries, and become the
persistent antagonist of the apostle Peter,
following him about from place to place and
seeking encounters with him, but only to be
signally defeated. He is said to have helped
to originate gnosticism. Contradictory ac-
counts are given as to the manner of his
death.

10. A tanner at Joppa, in whose house
Peter lodged (Acts ix. 43 ; x. 6, 17, 32).

Sim'ri. See Shimri.

Sin, I.

"Any want of conformity unto, or trans-
gression of any law of God, given as a rule
to the reasonaljle creature " (Kom. iii. 23 ; 1
John iii. 4 ; Gal. iii. 10-12). A sin of omis-
sion is the neglect to do what the law of
God commands ; a sin of commission is the
•doing of anything which it forbids. See
Evil.

Sin, II.

1. A wilderness through which the Israel-
ites passed on their way from Elim and the
Eed Sea to Rephidim and mount Sinai (Ex.
xvi. 1 ; xvii. 1 ; Num. xxxiii. 11, 12). The
identification is disputed. The choice lies
between Debbet er-Ramleh or plain of sand,
in the interior of the peninsula at the foot
of Jel)el et-Tih, and the desert plain el-
Markhah on the coast. If the latter, the Is-
raelites on leaving it probably continued to
journey along the coast and turned inland
through the wady Feiran.

2. A city and stronghold of Egypt (Ezek. xxx.
1.'), 1(3). The Septuagint read Sais, which, how-
i'ver, was never an important fortress. The
Vulgate renders it Pelusium, which was "the
key of Egypt," strongly fortified, and neces-
sary to be captured before an army could en-
ter Egypt from the northeast. The name
Sin suggests Sun, the Greek Syene and mod-
em Assuan, at the first cataract; and the or-
44

der of enumeration of Egyptian cities, from
south to north 1(5-18) lends confirmation to
this identification.

Si'nai, in A. V. of N. T. twice Sina (Acts
vii. 30, 3b) [perhaps, pertaining to Sin, the
moon-god].

A mountain, called also Horeb, at which
the Israelites, traveling by way of Marah,
Elim, and the Eed Sea, arrived in the third
mouth after their departure from Egypt (Ex.
xix. 1). It was distant from Kadesh-barnea
eleven days' journey by way of mount Seir
(Deut. i. 2). A wilderness, sufficiently large
for the camp of Israel, lay at its foot (Ex.
xix. 2) ; so close that the mountain could be
touched (12), and yet its upper part was visi-
ble from the camp (Ki, 18, 20). From this
mountain the law of the ten commandments
was given, and at its base the covenant was
ratified which made the Israelites a nation
W'ith Jehovah as king (xx. 1-xxiv. 8). All
the legislation contained in Ex. xx. to Num.
X. was enacted on or at the foot of mount
Sinai, according to repeated statement (Ex.
xxiv. 12 ; xxxi. 18; xxxiv. 2 ; Lev. i. 1 ; xvi.
1 ; XXV. 1 ; xxvi. 46 ; xxvii. 34; Num. i. 1 ;
ix. 1). The only later visit to the mount re-
corded in Scripture is that of Elijah when
he was threatened by Jezebel (1 Kin. xix. 8).

Prof. Sayce would locate mount Sinai on the
frontiers of mount Seir, but it is almost uni-
versally agreed that Sinai is to be looked for
in the mountains in the interior of the
Sinaitic peninsula. Tradition in favor of
mount Serbal, on the wady Feiran, is trace^
able as far back as the time of Eusebius, fo?
Jebel Miasa only to that of Justinian. But
neither tradition is regarded as weighty.
Serbal is the more imposing of the two. It
is a solitary, majestic mountain, 6712 feet
high, visible from a great distance. But at
its foot is no wilderness which could be called
the wilderness of Sinai. Jebel Mfisa is part
of a short ridge of granite formation, ex-
tending about 2 miles from nortlnvest to
southeast. The ridge has two peaks : Eas es-
Sufsafeh, or peak of willows, at the northern
end with an altitude of 6.540 feet ; and Jebel
Musa, the traditional Sinai, at the southern
end rising to a height of about 7363 feet. A
plateau at the head of the wady es-Sadad
and almost due east of Jebel Musa has
l)een regarded by some scholars, including
Tischendorf, as the site of the encampment
of the Israelites, but its area is too limited
to accommodate any considerable host. The
base of Eas es-Sufsafeh toward the northwest
consists of a precipitous cliff. At the bottom
of the clifl" lies the plain of er-Eahah, about
one square mile in extent, and, with the adja-
cent wadies esh-Sheikh and ed-Deir, entirely
suitable for a camping ground. The biblical
description makes it scarcely necessary, if
not idle, to inquire whether the law was
given from Jebel Jlfisa or Eas es-Sufsafeh,
and whether one peak or the other was

Sinai

690

Sinai

known as the mount of God in distinction
from the rest of the clump.

Tlie mouastery of St. Catharine, a convent
of Greek monks, is situated on the eastern
slope of the mountain, at the foot of Jebel
Musa, in the wady ed-Deir, 5014 feet above
sea level. Surrounded by massive granite
walls, it is as it were a fortress. Its fouuda-

of Jebel Katherin, 2\ miles southwest of
Jebel Musa. Her head and one hand are
said to be contained in a marble sarcophagus
in the chapel of the monastery. The mon-
astery has often been destroyed and rebuilt.
The church of the Transfiguration is an early
Christian basilica with mosaics of the sev-
enth or eighth century. The oldest part of

J Kf •

/ iF

'^iiidsehZcLl-

VeheJ el-Sskuf

,_l^ w=i./.

,,-i*«»f ■ ,,,■,.■■" ''■ • -J

esrSufsafeh

f'iope:L(H'l'tjL*ii

i/ebeUllJcL/nr _

s'''k'%a^fcSr:.;-«a5..«^g»-.5-j-.^.'-.^_j|L:

^ of Mites.

Map of Mount Sinai.

tion is ascribed to the emperor Justinian in
A. D. 527, who is said to have built it around
a tower erected long before by Helena,
mother of Constantine : but this ascription
is probably due to confusion with the fact,
attested by his private secretary, that Jus-
tinian built a castle in 530 for the protection
of the monks who dwelt in the region. The
monastery is named after St. Catharine, who
was tortured on the wheel and beheaded in
Alexandria in A. d. 307, and whose body is
said by the monks to have been carried by
angels from Alexandria to the lofty summit

it is probably the chapel of the Burning
Bush, at the back of the apse and on the
reputed site of the event it commemorates.
Formerly between 300 and 400 monks lived
within the convent walls ; but the number
at present does not exceed 40. In the gar-
den are fig, orange, olive, almond, apple, and
apricot trees, grape vines, and a few lofty
cypresses. The library is esccednigly valu-
able. It contains many manuscripts, pre-
dominantly Greek and Arabic, but also many
others, including some written in Syriac and
Ethiopia. Here, in 1844 and 1859, Tischen-

Sinim, Land of

691

Sinim, Land of

Plain of er-Kahah.

dorf found the codex Sinaiticus, which dates
from about A. D. 400 ; see New Testamext.
Here also, in 1892, Mrs. Lewis discovered a
manuscript which contains the text of the
Old Syriac Gospels, and was probably written
in the fifth century ; see Versions.

that gentile converts or the scattered Israel-
ites shall be gathered from the remotest re-
gions of theearth. '■ Lo. these shall come from
far : and. lo. these from the north and from
the west ; and these from the land of Sinim "
(Is. xlix. 12). Since the west and north

Monastery of .-^t. Catherine.

Si'mm, Land of.

A country cited to illustrate the promise

have been mentioned ; the land of Sinim is
not to be sought there, but in the south or

Sinim, Land of

692

Sithri

east. Wherever the prophet was when he
uttered these words, liis words exclude the
Siuim of Phoenicia (Gen. x. 17), for they were
not a remote people. Besides this, they were
an iinini])ortant tribe. For the same reason,
the people of Syene or Pelusium, or other
Egyptian town (however the name Sin in
Ezek. XXX. 1.5, 16 is understood) are excluded.
'They were almost in the heart of the inhab-
ited world, separated from the remote bounds
of the earth by Ethiopia and Libya at least.
Moreover, the inhabitants of none of these
towns constituted a distinct nation ; nor
could the land of Sinim on the Nile be
spoken of, as it is by Isaiah, unless it meant
Egypt, and none of these towns was impor-
tant enough to be employed in a designation
for all Egypt. The chief theories are : 1.
The expression was clujsen as a designation
of the lands south of Palestine, because in
that direction lay the town of Sin (Pelusium),
the wilderness of Sin (Ex. xvi. 1), and mount
Sinai. But this region was too near at hand
to denote the remotest countries. Sheba and
Cush, which are used to denote the utmost
parts of the earth toward the south, lay far
beyond. 2. The Sinim were the Shiuas, who
have dwelt from ancient times at the foot of
the Hindu Kush mountains. 3. The most
prevalent view is that the Chinese are meant.
The prophet does not assert that Israelites
were already living in China (if liis words be
restricted to a return of the exiles). They
may have been ; tot the presence of Israelites
in China is attested as early as the third cen-
tury B. C, and it is not known how much
earlier they emigrated. But the people were
scattered far and wide, and yet wider disjjcr-
sion was in prospect (Is. xi. 11). They should
be recovered from the farthest bounds of
earth where they are found. Does it seem
strange that the name of the Chinese should
be known in western Asia? It is historically
certain from the Chinese records that Chinese
merchants visited foreign lands as early as
the twelfth century b. c, and that foreign
merchants entered China as early as the tenth
century. It is probable that direct commer-
cial relations existed between China and In-
dia, and hence indirectly at least with the
countries farther west. Porcelain ware with
Chinese characters written upon it has been
discovered at Thebes in Egypt. M. Pauthier
reports the Chinese tradition to the effect that
in 235.3 B. c. an envoy arrived from a far
country bringing as a present a divine tor-
toise one thousand years old, hearing on its
back an inscription, written in strange char-
acters like tadpoles, briefly recounting the
world's history since creation. A second em-
bassy of the people of the long-trailing rol>es
arrived in 1110 b. c, and it took them a
whole year to return to their own country
from Siam by the seacoast. The characters
resembling tadpoles suggest the Assyrian and
Babylonian cuneiform script ; and long-trail-
ing robes, which were not worn in the hot

countries south of China, would agree with
the theory that the embassadors were Baby-
lonians or Assyrians.

Si'nite.

A Canaanite tribe, mentioned between the
Arkite and the Arvadite (Gen. x. 17). A
place named Sin not far from Arka was
known to Jerome, and Strabo mentions a
fortress called Sinna on mount Lebanon.

Sin Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Si'on [elevated].

A name for mount Hermon (Dent. iv. 48).

For nuiunt Sion at Jerusalem, a different
word in Hebrew, see Zion.

Siph'moth.

A place visited by David during his wan-
derings, to which he sent part of the spoils
of Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx. 28 ; cp. 1 Chron.
xxvii. 27). Site unknown. A variant He-
brew pronunciation, preferred by Baer, is
Shiphmoth.

Sip'pai. See Saph.

Si'rah [recession or effervescence].

A well or cistern from which Abner was
recalled to Hebron by Joab that he might be
murdered (2 Sam. iii. 26). According to Jo-
sephus, it was distant 20 stades from Hebron
(Antiq. vii. 1. 5). It is probably 'Ain Sarah,
IJ miles northwest of Hebron.

Sir'i-on [cuirass, coat of mail].

The name given by the Sidonians to mount
Hermon (Deut. iii. 9 ; Ps. xxix. 6).

Sis'a-mai. See Sismai.

Sis'e-ra [battle array].

The commander of the army belonging to
Jabin, king of the Canaanites, who reigned
at Hazor, while the residence of Sisera was
at Harosheth of the gentiles. At the in-
stance of Deborah, Barak headed a revolt
against Jabin's tyrannical sway, and en-
countering the Canaanite army, led by Sis-
era, defeated it on the bank of the Kishon.
Sisera fled, and sought the hospitality of Heber
the Kenite, between whom and Jal)in there
was peace. Heber's wife met him and invited
him in, l)ut afterwards murdered him with a
tent pin while he .slept (Judg. iv., v. ; Ps.
Ixxxiil. 9) ; see Jael. It is probable that
those Nethinim who were known as the chil-
dren of Sisera were descended from captives
taken at this time (Ezra ii. 53; Neh. vii. 55) ;
see Nkthinim.

Sis'mai, in A. V. Sisamai.

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Jerahmcel (1 Chron. ii. 40).

Sis'trum.

A musical instrument (2 Sam. vi. 5, R. V.
margin), consisting of several metallic rods
in an oval metallic frame. The rods were '
either loosely inserted or loose rings were
hung on them, so that the insti-ument would
jingle when shaken.

Sith'ri, in A. V. Zithri [a hiding place is
(Jehovah)].

Sitnah

693

Sling

A Levile, family of Kohath, house of
Uzziel (Ex. vi. 22). Zithri in A. V. of ver. 21
is a modern misprint of Zichri (q. v.). The
error has been corrected in some recent edi-
tions.

Sit'nah [accusation, enmity (cp. Satan)].

A well dug by Isaac in the Philistine
country, not far from Gcrar ; but the in-
habitants of the district disputed his right to
it (txen. xxvi. 21). Palmer and Drake in
1870 found a small valley called wady Shut-
net er-Ruheibeh. The first portion of the
name corresponds to Sitnah, and Ruheibeh
to Eehoboth, which was in the immediate
vicinity of Sitnah (22).

Si'van.

The third month of the Babylonian and
Jewish year (Esth. viii. 9), extending from
the new moon of May to that of June. See
Year.

Slave.

Slavery existed in remote antiquity. Slaves
were acquired : 1. By capture, especially in
war (Num. xxxi. 9 ; 2 Kin. v. 2 ; War iii. 4,
1 ; vi. 9, 2). 2. By purchase from slave
owners (Gen. xvii. 27 ; xxxvii. 28, 36 ; Ezek.
xxvii. 13; Joel iii. 6, 8). 3. By birth from
slaves ow'ned (Gen. xvii. 12). 4. In payment
of debt ; thieves unable to make restitution
and, though contrary to the spirit of the
Mosaic law, a debtor or his children being
sold as slaves (Ex. xxii. 3 ; 2 Kin. iv. 1 ;
Neh. V. 5, 8; Amos ii. 6: Mat. xviii. 25).
5. Among the Hebrews there was also the
voluntary sale of one's self or one's daughter
on account of poverty (Ex. xxi. 2, 7; Lev.
XXV. 39, 47), and reduction to slavery on ac-
count of theft, as already mentioned.

The price of a slave varied of course ac-
cording to circumstances. It was reckoned
in Hebrew judicial cases as averaging 30
shekels (Ex. xxi. 32). The Jewish slaves in
Alexandria in the third century B.C. brought
about the same, 120 drachmas (Antiq. xii. 2,
3). Joseph at seventeen years of age was
purchased for 20 shekels (Gen. xxxvii. 28).

Among the Hebrews the legal status of a
Hebrew slave was very different from that
of the slave who was not an Israelite. The
Hebrew slave had manumission after six
years of service, if he chose ; might not be
harshly treated, nor sent away empty on his
release ; and, if owned by a foreign sojourner
in Israel, had the privilege of redemption at
a price legally regulated, the moment ho
could secure the necessary money (Ex. xxi.
2-6 ; Lev. xxv. 43, 47-5.5 ; Jer. xxxiv. 8-16).
The rights of the Hebrew maid were the
subject of further special legislation (Ex.
xxi. 7-11). All Hebrew slaves, both those
who had elected to remain with their mas-
ters when the seventh year had come and
those who had not served six years, were re-
leased at the year of jubile (Lev. xxv. 40).
This provision was necessitated when the
law regarding the restoration of every man's

inheritance at the jubile was enacted. The
return of the slave to his inheritance was
involved, whether he chose to go back to his
master's family afterwards or not. The slave
also who was not an Israelite fared well
among the Hebrews. The Mosaic law recog-
nized that he possessed rights. He might be
whipped or beaten, but not maimed or killed
(Ex. xxi. 20, 21, 26, 27 ; Lev. xxiv. 17, 22).
In case a captive slave girl was taken to
wife, she acquired new rights (Deut. xxi.
10-14). All these non-Hebrew slaves were
regarded as members of the commonwealth
of Israel (Gen. xvii. 10-14) ; and they Mere
equal before God, participating in the re-
ligious festivals and sacrifices (Ex. xii. 44;
Lev. xxii. 11; Deut. xii. 12, 18; xvi. 11, 14),
and enjoying the rest of the Sabbath day
(Ex. XX. 10; xxiii. 12). Another humane
feature of the Mosaic law made Canaan an
asylum for slaves who escaped to it from a
foreign country. They were not to be sur-
rendered, but were allowed to dwell in the
laud wherever they chose (Deut. xxiii. 15, 16).
It also forbade, on pain of death, the steal-
ing of men and the selling or holding of
them (Ex. xxi. 16; Deut. xxiv. 7) ; and there
is no evidence that slave markets ever ex-
isted in Israel. The Mosaic law contrasts
most favorably with the laws of contem-
porary heathen nations in its humanity to-
w-ard slaves. The intercourse between master
and slave was often ctirdial (Gen. xxiv. ;
Euth ii. 4). The slave was regarded as enti-
tled to justice (Job xxxi. 13-15) ; he some-
times inherited the property of his master
(Gen. XV. 2, 3), and was sometimes admitted
into the family as son-in-law (1 Chron. ii. 34,
35).

Christianity avoided a sudden reversal of
established usages (1 Cor. vii. 21), urged tlie
slave to obev his master (Eph. vi. 5-8: Col.
iii. 22-25; I'Tim. vi. 1, 2; 1 Pet. ii. 18-21),
and sent the runawaj^ slave voluntarily back
to his Christian master (Philem. 10-16). But
it also promulgated principles wiiich im-
proved the condition of slaves in the Roman
empire. It recognized the equality of slave
and master in God's sight (1 Cor. vii. 21, 22 ;
Gal. iii. 28; Col. iii. 11). It exhorted the
master to treat his slaves considerately, re-
minding him that they had rights which
God Avill maintain (Eph. vi. 9; Col. iv. 1).

Slime. See Bitumen.

Sling.

A simple weapon usually consisting of a
piece of leather, with two strings attached to
its opposite .sides and a stone inserted. It
w'as whirled once or twice round the head
and one string let go, whereby the stone was
projected with great force. On the field of
battle the stones were either carried in a bag
by the slinger, or piled at his feet (1 Sam.
xvii. 40).

It seems to have been used in warfare by
practically all the peoples of antiquity; by

Smith

694

Smyrna

the Egyptians, Syrians (1 Mac. vi. 51 ; ix.
11), Assyrians, Persians (Anab. iii. '.i, IH), and
in the far west by Sicilians (Herod, vii. loH)
and mercenaries in the Roman army, .\mong
the Hebrews the Benjamites in the times of

A.ssyrian Slinger.

the judges and in the reign of Saul were
noted for their skill in its use, being able to
sling stones with the left hand (Judg. xx.
16 ; 1 Chron. xii. 2). David slew Goliath

tools and weapons, a blacksmith (1 Sam. xiii.
19; Is. xliv. 12; liv. l(i), like Tiibal-cain
(den. iv. 22) ; or one who refines and shapes
the precious metals, a goldsmith (Is. xl. 19).

Egyptian Smith at his Furnace.

The blacksmith used a charcoal furnace, bel-
lows, tongs, anvil, and hammer (Ecclus.
xxxviii. 28). See Bellows.

Smyr'na [myrrh].

A city of great antiquity on the western
coast of Asia Minor. It was possessed by
the ^olian Greeks, and finally the Ionian
Greeks admitted it into their confederacy.
The Lydian king, Alyattes, destroyed it. and
it lay waste for some 200 years, till the plan
of rebuilding it was formed by Alexander

^At

^-vll

Smj rna

with a stone from a. sling (1 Sam. xvii. 48-50).
Slingers served in the armies of Jehoram,
Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah (2 Kin. iii. 25; 2
Chron. xxvi. 14), and were etfective as late
as the war with the Romans (War ii. 17, 5 ;
iv. 1, .3).

Smith.

An artificer who forges iron and brass into

the Great, and executed by his immediate
successors, on a new site near by. It then
became a large and flourishing commercial
center, retaining its importance under the
Romans. In 1.33 B. c. it became part of
the newly formed province of Asia. Its
church was the second of the seven ad-
dressed by John in the book of Revela-
tion. It escapes all censure, but it is ex-

Snail

695

Sodom

horted to remain constant in the midst of
l)evseiiitiiiii (Rev. i. 11; ii. 8-11). Its bishop
I'olycar]) siiHered martyrdom under Marcus
Aureliub in A. D. 169. In a. d. 178 Smyrna
was destroyed by an earthquake, but was
speedily rebuilt. Lying as it does at the ex-
tremity of a line bay, that of Smyrna, in
the track of trade, it is admirably adapted
for commerce, and even under Turkish rule
remains a liighly flourishing city, the largest
and most important in Asia !Miuor.
Snail.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Hornet,
one prostrate on the ground (Lev. xi. 30 ; in
K. V. sand lizard).

2. The rendering of the Hebrew Shahh'lnl,
moist, slimy one (Ps. Iviii. 8), a genuine
snail, especially of the shell-less family {Lim-
aci(ht').

Snow.

Snow occurs in the hilly country of Pales-
tiue. as at Sepphoris in Galilee, Xaaireth,
Jerusalem, Hel)i'ou (1 Mac. xiii. 22 ; War i.
Iti, 2; iv. 8, 3). It may be expected in
Jauuary or February, although the winter
often passes without it. It sometimes falls
to the dei)th of a foot, but seldom lies longer
than a day. On mount Lebanon it is found
lingering on the heights and in the ravines
late in the summer, and it crowns the sum-
mit of Hermon the year round. It is fre-
quently referred to in Scripture as the
standard of whiteness and the emblem of
purity (Ps. li. 7; Is. i. 18; Lam. iv. 7; Mat.
xxviii. 3). It is poetically described as stored
by God in his treasury (Job xxxviii. 22),
commanded by him to fall (xxxvii. 6 ; Ps.
cxlvii. 16), and descending like wool or birds
or a swarm of locusts (ibid. ; Ecclus. xliii. 17).
Its value as a source of moisture to the
ground was recognized (Is. Iv. 10). Men took
advantage of it in summer to cool their bev-
erages (cp. Prov. XXV. 13). Oean snow would
yield pure water for washing purposes (Job
IX. 30).

So.

King of Egypt, whose aid against Assyria
Hoshea king of Israel endeavored to secure
about 724 B. c. (2 Kin. xvii. 4). As the He-
brew consonants may be pronounced Seve',
he is commonly identified, and doubtless
correctly, with Sib'e, tartan of Egypt, who
in 720 B. c. in alliance with Hauun king of
Gaza, met Sargon king of Assyria in battle
at Eaphia on the Mediterranean, about 20
miles south of Gaza. The allies were routed,
Sib'e fled. Hanun was captured, and pres-
ently Pharaoh paid tribute to Assyria. It is
doubtful whether Sib'e was Shabako, king
of Egypt. Etymology is against the identi-
fication. At this time at least he was tartan
rather than Pharaoh.

Soap.

Not the composition familiar in modern
domestic use. The Hebrew words bor and
boritli, that which cleanses, denote an alkali.

It was used for washing the person (Job ix.
30, E. V. margin, lye), for washing clotlies
(Jer. ii. 22 ; Mai. iii. 2), and as a flux in .smelt-
ing ores (Is. i. 25, E. V. margin, lye). The
Greek translators regarded it as a jilant or ob-
tained frfim a plant, for they represented it by
the Greek word poa, gras.s, grass-like plant.
The root of the soupwort {Saponaria officinalis)
is largely used in Palestine for washing lin-
ens, because it does not cause them to shrink.
The employment of the alkali for smelting
purposes indicates that it was in the form of
ashes. It was doubtless obtained from such
plants as the glasswort {Sulicornia fruticosu)
and the saltwort {Salsola kali), which are to
this day reduced to ashes for the soda which
they yield.

So'co and Socoh, according to the alternate
Hebrew orthograjihy ; in A. "\'. variously
spelled Socoh, Socho, Sochoh, Shocho, Sho-
choh, Shoco [thorn, hedge of thorns].

1. A town in the Shephelah or lowland of
Judah (Josh. xv. 3.5). It stood on the hilly
border of the valley of Elah, in a strong
position isolated from the rest of the ridge.
The Philistines pitched between it and
Azekah just before Goliath stood forth as
their champion (1 Sam. xvii. 1). It was re-
built or refortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron.
xi. 7). It was captured, with the dependent
villages, in the reign of Ahaz (xxviii. 18).
Eobiuson successfully identified it with the
ruins of Shuweikeh, 13 miles west by south
of Bethlehem. The modern name perpetuates
the ancient one.

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 48). Its site is found at another
Shuweikeh, 10 miles south-southwest of
Hebron.

It is doubtful which of the two towns is
referred to in 1 Kin. iv. 10 and 1 Chron. iv. 18.

So'di [a familiar acquaintance].

Father of the spy from the tribe of Zebu-
lun (Num. xiii. 10).

Sod'om, in A. Y. of X. T. once Sodoma
(Eom. ix. 29).

One of the five cities in the plain of the
Jordan (Gen. xiii. 10). When Lot separated
from Abraham, he chose it for his residence,
though even then the place was notorious for
its wickedness (11, 12). It was plundered
byChedorlaomer (xiv. 11), but the goods and
captives were recovered by Abraham and
restored (21-24). Subsequently it and at
least three other cities of the plain were de-
stroyed by God on account of their wicked-
ness. God probably effected his purpose by
causing an eruption of burning asphalt and
sulphur. Lot and his two daughters were
spared (xix. 1-29; Deut. xxix. 23; Is. i. 9,
10 ; iii. 9 ; xiii. 19 ; Jer. xlix. 18 ; 1. 40 ; Lam.
iv. 6 ; Ezek. xvi. 46-56 ; Amos iv. 11 ; Zeph.
ii. 9 ; Mat. x. 15 ; xi. 24 ; Luke s. 12 ; xvii.
29; Eom. ix. 29; 2 Pet. ii. 6 ; Jude 7). In
the Apocalypse the great city of sin is spir-
itually called Sodom and Egypt (Eev. xi. 8).

Sodomite

696

Solomon

The exact site of Sodom is unknown. Two
substantial arguments are advanced for tlie
northern end. 1. From a point near Bethel,
Abraham and Lot could see all the plain of
Jordan (Gen. xiii. 3 with 10). Care must be
exercised, however, in interjireting the word
all. 2. Chedorlaoraer, coming from the south,
had smitten the Amorites of Hazezon-tamar,
i. e., Eu-gedi, before he was opposed by the
king of Sodom and his allies (xiv. 7, 8), a fact
which seems to indicate that the meeting
took jilace between En-gedi and the northern
end of the sea. On the other hand, there are
three weighty arguments for the southern
end. 1. Asphalt is found in large quantities
at the southern end of the sea only (cp. Gen.
xiv. 10). 2. Assuming that the sea covers
the site (cp. xiv. 3), the cities might have
been situated at the southern end, where the
water of the bay has a depth of from 2 to
20 feet, but could not have been in the north-
ern part, where the sea is from 600 to 1000
feet deep. And geologically considered, only
the southern end of the sea can be of origin
at all recent. 3. Zoar, one of the cities (xiii.
10), lav at the southern end of the sea (War
iv. 8, 4).

Sod'om-ite.

A person guilty of the unnatural vice of
Sodom. The vice itself has come to be known
as sodomy. The word is employed in the E.
V. to render the Hebrew Kadesh, one conse-
crated, a man dedicated to impure heathen
worship (Deut. xxiii.'lT; in Job xxxvi. 14,
unclean). A woman thus dedicated prac-
ticed uncleanness as a priestess in the service
of Ashtoreth or Ashevah in Canaan, of Ish-
tar in Babylonia (Gen. xxxviii. 21, 22 ; Deut.
xxiii. 17 ; Hos. iv. 14 ; in every case rendered
harlot). The sin of sodomy was forbidden
by the Mosaic law (Deut. xxiii. 17) ; but
sodomites of Hebrew descent were found in
Judah during the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kin.
xiv. 24) ; Asa and Jehoshaphat cut them off
(xv. 12 ; xxii. 46) ; but others arose iu their
room, and Josiah, to rid himself of them,
broke down their houses (2 Kin. xxiii. 7).

Sol'o-mon [peaceable] .

David's youngest son, at least by Bath-
sheba (2 Sam. xii. 24 ; 1 Chron. iii. 5 ; and cp.
Antiq. vii. 14, 2). He was born at Jerusalem.
David named him Solomon, peaceable, in an-
ticipation of the peace and quietness of his
reign in contrast with liis own stormy life
(1 Chron. xxii. 9) ; but through the prophet
Nathan he was divinely honored with the
name Jedidiah, beloved of Jehovah (2 Sam.
xii. 25). When David was on his deathbed,
Adonijah, one of his sons born at Hebron,
and next to the eldest now that Amnon and
Absalom were dead, set up as king without
his father's sanction. On this, Bath-sheba,
at the instigation of the prophet Nathan,
went to David and reminded him of an oath
which he had sworn to lier that Solomon
should be his successor. David acknowledged

his obligation, and by his order Zadok the
priest, Nathan the proi)het, and Benaiah the
military commander, supported by David's
bodyguard, lost no time in i)roclaiming Sol-
omon king (1 Kin. i. 5-40), and the party of
Adonijah at once collap.sed. David soon
afterwards died, and Solomon began his sole
reign about the year 970 B. c, being at the
time probably about twenty years old.
Obedient to the dying charge of his father,
he dealt out justice to Abiathar and Shimei ;
and when Adonijah began anew to i)lot
against the king, he put him to death and
ordered the execution of Joab likewise, who
was implicated in the conspiracy (ii. 1-46).
The young king soon brought as a bride to
Jerusalem Pharaoh's daughter (iii. 1). At
that time the worship at the sanctuary,
which had been broken up when the Lord for-
sook Shiloh, was still interrupted. The taber-
nacle was at Gibeon, and the ark at Jerusa-
lem. The people worshiped at high places.
Solomon went to Gibeon to sacrifice. There
God appeared to him, and invited him to ask
for whatever he deemed most desirable. He
asked for an understsmding heart, that he
might be able justly to judge the people of
God, for it was part of a king's duty in those
days to administer justice. His request was
granted, as he soon afterwards showed by the
skillful manner in which he disentangled
truth from falsehood when he decided be-
tween the two women, each of whom claimed
the living babe as her own (1 Kin. iii. 2-2.S ; 2
Chron. i. 3-12). Twenty or more years later
the Lord appeared to him again, and made
him further promises and gave him solemn
warning (1 Kin. ix. 1-10 ; 2 Chron. vii. 12-22).

His father, with military ability and cour-
age, had subdued the neighboring nations ;
and only one expedition is recorded as neces-
sary for Solomon to undertake, and that one
was against Hamath, w'hich he was obliged
to control in order to secure the northeastern
portion of his dominions. He also fortified
Hazor at the crossing of the upper Jordan,
and built a tower in Lebanon, in order to
hold Damascus in check. Hadad the Edom-
ite was an adversary unto Solomon, but the
Hebrew monarch probably gave himself but
little concern about this opponent, and al-
lowed him to reoccupy the throne of his
fathers and rule a part of the ancestral realm ;
but Solomon saw to it that the road by Edom
to Ezion-geber was open and safe. Other-
wise Solomon's relations with neighboring
kings were friendly, and he was able to de-
vote himself to the organization of his king-
dom and to the arts of peace.

David had amassed a great store of precious
metals for tlie construction of a magnificent
temple to Jehovah. Solomon took uji the
work, and with Tyriau help finished it in
seven years (1 Kin. v., vi. ; 2 Chron. ii.).
Then, after furniture had been made for it,
it was dedicated (1 Kin. vii. 13-viii. 64 ; 2
Chron. ii.-vii.). Next, the monarch erected

Solomon

697

Son

a palace for liimself, which took thirteen
years in buildiug (1 Kin. vii. 1-12) ; sec
Palack. He also laid out f;ardensand vine-
yards in various parts of the country, as at
Etam, perhaps, and at Baal-hanion (ix. 19,
E. V. ; 2 t'hron. viii. G, li. \. ; Kcc. ii. 5, G ;
Song viii. 11).

Solomon showed sagacity in government.
He surrounded himself with eminent officials,
among whom the son of the high priest
held the first place, and another counselor
also was a priest (1 Kin. iv. 2-tJ). F'or ad-
ministrative purposes, he divided the king-
dom into twelve districts, entirely independ-
ent of the old tribal lines (7-19). Nor did
he fail to take a prominent part in the reli-
gion of the state. He led the nation in prayer
at the dedication of the temple, and in-
voked the divine blessing upon the assem-
bled multitude.

Commerce flourished in his kingdom, and
brought wealth (1 Kin. x. 14-21 ; 2 Chron.
ix. 13, 14, 21, 27) ; and voyages were success-
fully made to Ophir, and traflic was con-
ducted with India (1 Kin. x. 22, 23 ; 2 Chron.
ix. 10-22). For the protection and fostering
of trade, he built store cities, among others
Palmyra, in the desert midway between
Damascus and the Euphrates (1 Kin. ix, 18,
19).

Solomon was interested in literary pursuits :
he was a naturalist, and wrote treatises on
plants, from the cedar that groweth on Leb-
anon to the hyssop that springeth out of the
wall. He spoke also of beasts, and of fowls,
and of creeping things, and of fishes (1 Kin.
iv. 33). He collected and composed many
proverbs, some of which constitute part of
the O. T. ; see Proverbs. Two psalms (Ixxii.
and cxxvii.) are attributed to him by their
titles. See also Ecclesiastes and Song of
Songs.

The splendor of his court, the magnificence
of his table, and his pomp when on excur-
sions corresponded to his wealth and political
power (1 Kin. x. 4, 5, 21 ; Song iii. 7-11).
People came from all parts to hear his wisdom
(1 Kin. iv. 34 ; x. 23-25). The report of his
wisdom was carried even to southern Arabia,
and the queen of Sheba journeyed to Jeru-
salem to test it and to see his magnificence
(1-13).

Notwithstanding all his gifts and graces,
he erred in two respects. He established a
harem on the .same scale of greatness as his
other works. It included from first to last
about one thousand members, some of whom
probably were princesses given him as pledges
of political amity. Many were foreigners by
birth and idolatrous in their religion, and he
allowed himself to be persuaded by them to
erect idol shrines, including one for Molech,
" horrid king " (1 Kin. xi. 1-8). For thisapos-
tasy Solomon was punished. The kingdom
in its great extent and power was taken
from the dynasty, and only a fragment of it
left to the family (9-13). The example of

Solomon's disloyalty to Jehovah had direct
influence in producing this penal result. The
announcement by the prophet Aliijah to Jero-
boam was al.so influential to this end. pre-
dicting to the young Ephrainiite that (iod
would rend ten tribes from Solomon and
give them to him (28-39). Jeroboam became
a recognized opponent of the king; but not
until Solomon's son Eehoboam ascended the
throne did Jeroboam .secure a kingdom. A
less obvious, but yet an important error was
that his luxury imposed a burden on his
overtaxed subjects, which shook their loyalty
to the throne and sowed the seeds of future
rebellion. See Eehoboam.

Solomon reigned forty years (1 Kin. xi. 42;
2 Chron. ix. 30, 31), dying about 931 B. c.
The events of his life and reign were re-
corded in the Book of the Acts of Solomon
(1 Kin. xi. 41), the History of Nathan the
Prophet, the Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilo-
nite, the Visions of Iddo the Seer (2 Chron.
ix. 29).

Sol'o-mon's Porch.

A sjilendid colonnade, reputed to have been
built by Solomon, on the east side of the
temple area, on an artificial embankment
built up from the valley of the Kidron
(Antiq. xx. 9, 7; War v. .5, 1). It is once
mentioned that Christ walked in it (John x.
23) ; and the apostles were not infrequently
there (Acts iii. 11 ; v. 12).

Sol'o-mon's Serv'ants.

Certain persons whose descendants were
associated with the Nethinim, 390 or 392 of
the two classes combined returning with
Zerubbabel from the captivity (Ezra ii. .^5-
58; Neh. vii. 57-60). Some of their names
have a foreign aspect. They seem to have
been the descendants of those Canaanites of
various tribes from whom Solomon exacted
bond service for the sake of the temple and
other magnificent buildings (1 Kin. v. 13-18;
ix. 21). See Nethinim.

Sol'o-mon's Song. See Song of Solomon.

Sol'o-mon, Wis'dom of. See Apocrypha.

Son.

1. A male child ; an immediate male de-
scendant {Gen. xxvii. 1). Other prominent
significations are :

2. A remoter male descendant. For in-
stance, Jehu, son of Nimshi, was really
Nimshi's grandson, for he was the son of
Jehoshaphat, the son of Nmishi (cp. 2 Kin.
ix. 20 with 2). The Israelites were known
as sons or children of Israel or Jacob cen-
turies after the death of the patriarch (Mai.
iii. 6; Luke i. 16).

3. A follower, adherent, or pupil, as the
sons of the prophets (1 Kin. xx. 35). Mem-
ber of a guild or profession, as son of the
apothecaries (Neh. iii. 8. in E. V. one), sous
of the singers (xii. 28). Worshiper of a god,
as the sons of Chemosh (Num. xxi. 29).

4. Inhabitant of a city or country, as sons

Son of God

698

Song

of Zion (Lam. iv. 2), sons of Bethlehem
(Ezra ii. 21, in E. V. children), sous of the
province (1, in E. V. children), sous of Javan
(Gen. X. 4).

5. Possessor of a quality, as son of Belial
or worthlessuess (1 Sam. xxv. 17), son of
strength, i. e., a valiant man (xiv. 52), son of
peace (Luke x. (J).

Son of God.

A term expressive of the mysterious rela-
tion between the eternal Father and the
eternal Sou. In the N. T. (R. V.) Son of God
occurs about forty-five times, in about forty-
four unequivocally pointing to our Lord
(Mat. iv. 3, 6 ; xxvi. 63 ; xxvii. 43 ; Mark i.
1, text, etc.), and in the remaining one char-
acterizing Adam (Luke iii. 38). In John iii. 18
Christ is called the only begotten Son of God.
Two reasons are suggested for the appella-
tion : his eternal generation (Heb. vii. 3), aud
his miraculous birth by the operation of the
Holy Ghost (Luke i. 3.5). As son of God,
Christ is God with all the infinite perfections
of the divine essence (John i. 1-14 ; x. 30-
38; Phil. ii. 6), aud is equal with God (John
v. 17-25). He is subordinate in mode of
subsistence aud operation ; that is, he is of
the Father, is sent by the Father, and the
Father operates through him (John iii. 16,
17; viii. 42; Gal. iv. 4; Heb. i. 2). Accord-
ingly, the word son is not a term of office,
but of nature. He has the same nature, a
fact which includes equality with God.

The claim was put forth by our Lord
(Luke xxii. 70; John x. 36; xi. 4; xix. 7),
and urged by the apostles (Acts ix. 20 ; Gal.
ii. 20, etc. ; 1 John iii. 8 ; v. 5, 10, 13, 20),
and it was for maintaining it that he was
condemned l)y the sanhedrin on a charge of
blasphemy (Mat. xxvi. 63-66 ; Mark xiv.
61-64) ; but the justice of his claim had been
acknowledged on the occasion of his baptism
by the descent upon him of the Holy Gho.st,
accompanied by an audible utterance from
his heavenly Father (Mat. iii. 16, 17 ; Mark
i. 10, 11; Luke iii. 22; John i. 32-34). It
was similarly acknowledged at the transfig-
uration (Mat. xvii. 5; Mark ix. 7; Luke ix.
35 ; 2 Pet. i. 17). It was sustained by his
character and by his works (John i. 14 ; x.
36-38; Heb. i. 3). And he was declared to
be the Son of God with power, according to
the spirit of holiness, by the resurrection of
the dead (Rom. i. 4), and by his ascension
(Heb. i. 3). There is a passage in the O. T.
(Dan. iii. 25, A. V.) where the expression
Son of God appears, but the R. V. alters this
to a son of the gods. The speaker was a
Babylonian heathen.

For the title sons of God applied to men
see Sons op God.

Son of Man.

A ])crson possessed of humanity in distinc-
tion from divinity ; a human being, witli the
emphasis on human (Num. xxiii. 19; Job
xxv. 6; Ps. viii. 4; Is. Ii. 12); see Son 5.

When Daniel fell aff"rightcd on his face before
the heavenly messenger, Gabriel addressed
him as son of man (Dan. viii. 17). When
Ezekiel had seen the vision of Jehovah and
fallen njion his face, a voice said : " Sou of
man, stand upon thy feet" (Ezek. ii. 1), and
thenceforth the prophet is constantly ad-
dres.sed as son of man. It was foretold ( Dan.
vii. 13, 14, K. V.) that the lu)stile worldly
power shall succumb before the Ancient of
days, and one like to a son of man, coming
with the clouds of heaven, shall receive do-
minion and a kingdom, that all the peoples,
nations, and languages shall serve him ; his
dominion is an everlasting dominion which
shall not ])ass away, and his kingdom that
which shall not be destroyed.

The title was adopted by our Lord. He is
recorded in the gospels as having applied it
to himself seventy-eight times. It is also
used of him by Stephen (Acts vii. 56) ; see
also Heb. ii. 6 ; and Rev. i. 13 ; xiv. 14, R. V.
margin. Chi'ist did not choose the title to
assert that he had a fellow-feeling for man
and was a brother to all men ; nor did he
employ it to denote that he was a mere man
and not divine, for he constantly claimed
divine attributes (Luke v. 24). But 1. He
proclaimed thereby, but in such a way that
the proclamation should not be understood
at first, that he was the predicted ruler of
the kingdom of heaven, with an everlasting
dominion (Ps. \aii. 4-6; Dan. vii. 13, 14). 2.
The emphasis laid on his humanity shows
some peculiarity. There would be no occasion
for asserting the humanity of a man. 3. The
use of the article separates him from other
human beings. He is the Son of man. 4.
Son of man and Son of God are united in
the same person. " Who do men say that the
Son of man is ? . . . . Simon Peter answered
and said. Thou art the Christ, the Son of the
living God. And Jesus answered and said unto
him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jonah :
for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto
thee, but my Father which is in heaven "
(Mat. xvi. 13, 16, 17). " The high i)riest
said unto him, I adjure thee by the living
God, that thou tell us whether thou be the
Christ, the Son of God. Jesus saith unto him,
Thou hast said : nevertheless I say unto you.
Henceforth ye shall see the Son of man sitting
at the right hand of power, and coming on
the clouds of heaven" (xxvi. 63, 64).

Song.

A poetical composition, generally brief,
capable of being set to music and sung,
whether or not it was intended for singing or
was ever actually sung (Ex. xv. 1-18 ; Dent,
xxxi. 30-xxxii. 44). It was often sung to
the accompaniment of music (Ex. xv. 20, 21 ;
Is. xxxviii. 20). It might be secular or re-
ligious (Gen. xxxi. 27 ; Num. xxi. 17, 18 ; and
Ps. xcii.. title ; cxxxvii. 3, 4) ; in praise of
men or of God (1 Sam. xviii. 6, 7 ; Ps. xxviii.
7) ; the expression of light-heartedness or

I

Song of Songs, The

699

Song of Songs, The

dec]) emotion ; tbe utterance of innocent
mirth or tlie outcome of a bacchanalian revel
(Ps. Ixix. 12).

Song of Songs, The.

Tile last of the live poetical books of the
O. T. in ouriiresent English Bil)lc. This ar-
rangement is derived from the Septuagint.
In the Helirew Scrijitures the Song stands
between Job and Euth, in the third section
of the canon, and is one of the five smaller
rolls which formed a group ))y themselves
because they had come to be read on the five
great anniversaries. The Song was read on
the eighth day of the passover festival, the
book l)eiug allegorically interpreted with ref-
erence to the history of the exodus. The
Song of Solomon is more fully called The
Song of Songs, which is Solomon's (i. 1).
The reduplication of the word song was not
intended to denote that it is a collecti(m of
many songs, nor that it is the chief one of the
many songs of Solomon ; but it has super-
lative force, like servant of .servants, holy of
holies, Lord of lords, heaven of heavens,
vanity of vanities (Gen. ix. 25 ; Ex. xxvi.
33 ; Deut. x. 17 ; 1 Kin. viii. 27 ; Ecc. 1. 2),
and intimates that the production is a song
of the highest character. In the Vulgate the
title is literally translated ('aiiticinn Cioiticor-
um, from which the name Canticles is de-
rived.

Several speakers take part in the dialogue.
The distinction between them is quite clear
in the Hebrew original, because the gram-
matical forms indicate gender. The E. V.
marks change of speaker by space between
the verses or sections. How many prominent
personages are there in the poem ? Are there
two, besides the daughters of Jerusalem, who
resemble the chorus in a Greek play ; or are
there three, either actually speaking or in-
troduced in the remarks of the Shulammite
maid ? According to the latter view in its
general form, the three chief speakers are a
country maid, her rustic lover, and Solomon.
The maid is betrothed to her country swain ;
but she is noticed by Solomon and his compan-
ions during some journey to the north (vi.
10-13), brought to Jerusalem, and there, sur-
rounded by the women of the palace, wooed
by the king in the hope of gaining her affec-
tions. But the maid resi-sts all enticements.
When Solomon praises her, she responds by
praising her rustic lover. She longs for him
by day, and dreams of him by night. She
sustains her devotion to him by recalling his
speeches. She is true to him and to her
vows. At length the parted lovers are re-
united (viii. 5-7), and she is praised by her
brothers for resisting all allurements.
Throughout .Solomon appears in an unfavor-
able light. He attempts to persuade the maid
to forsake her proper allegiance (vii. 1-9), and
he commits greater sin. The poem, accord-
ing to this view, celebrates a pure afiection,
which holds out against the temiitations of a

court, and is strong enough to resist the se»
ductive arts of a king.

This interpretation, which is known as the
shepherd hypothesis, seeks support in ex-
pressions of the Shulanmiite, which are cited
as jiassionate exclamations to her distant
lover (i. 4, 7 ; ii. l(j). But everything is
much simpler in these pa.ssages themselves
and throughout the jioem, if the ShuJaui-
mite's avowals of love are in all cases re-
ferred to king Solomon himself. The simple
country maid has no adequate conception of
royal life and occupations. She thinks of the
king, the shepherd of the people (cp. Jer.
xxiii. 4), under the figure of a rustic shep-
herd of her native hills, and she addresses
him in language borrowed from the shepherd
life familiar to her. And everywhere she
naturally draws imagery from the pastoral
and horticultural mountain life to which she
was accvistomed.

Instead of regarding the Shulammite as a
country girl, some interpreters, especially in
England, see in her the daughter of Pharaoh
whom Solomon married. She is a stranger,
dark of complexion, and a prince's daughter
(1. 5; vii. 1). The blackness of skin, how-
ever, was due to sunburn (i. G). and the title
of jirince's daughter probably does not indi-
cate her birth, which was a])parently lowly
(ibid. ; ii. 9), but her present high rank to
which she has been raised (cp. vi. 12 ; 1 Sam.
ii. 8), daughter meaning female or woman in
general (cji. Song vi. 9 ; 1 Sam. i. KJ), and the
jibrase signifying '' O noble woman."

The Song has been regarded as a drama.
Few, however, have imagined that it was de-
signed for presentation on the stage. It has
been thought to consist of four acts (Ewald
at first, Fricdrich), or of five acts containing
from thirteen to fifteen scenes (Ewald, Bott-
cher, and others), or of six acts with two
scenes each (Delitzsch, Halin). Bossuet dis-
covered seven acts, each filling a day, con-
cluding with the Sabbath, inasmuch as the
bridegroom on this day does not, as usual, go
forth to his rural employments. His several
days are: i. 1-ii. G; ii. 7-17 ; iii. 1-v. 1 ; v.
2-vi. 9; vi. 10-vii. 11; vii. 12-viii. 3; viii.
4-14. Delitzsch's scheme is as follows : Act 1.
Mutual passion of the lovers (i. 2-ii. 7), con-
cluding with, "I adjure you, O daughters of
Jerusalem." The scene is laid in the palace
of Solomon. Scene 1. Dialogue between the
Shulammite maid and the court ladies,
daughters of Jerusalem, at a meal (i. 2-8).
Scene 2. Enter Solomon : dialogue between
him and the maiden, who is not yet his bride
(9-ii. 7). Act 2. Mutual seeking and finding
(ii. 8-iii. 5), concluding with "I adjure you."
The scene is the Shulammite's country home.
Scene 1. She relates a rapturous meeting with
Solomon (ii. 8-17). Scene 2. She relates a
dream, in which she thought she had lost her
beloved, but found him again (iii. 1-5). Act 3.
Bringing the betrothed to the capital and the
marriage (iii. 6-v. 1), with the introduction,

Song of Songs, The

700

Song of Songs, The

" Who is this?" and the conclusion, "Eat, O
friends ; drink, yea, drink abundantly, O be-
loved." Scene 1. Procession to the palace
(iii. 6-11). Scene 2. Dialogue between Solo-
mon and his betrothed in the wedding cham-
ber (iv. 1-16). The wedding must be sup-
posed to follow ; and then v. 1, Solomon's
morning greeting to his bride, and afterwards
his exhortation to the guests. Act 4. Love dis-
dained, but regained (v. 2-vi. 9). Scene 1.
Shadows fall on the married life. The Shu-
lammite dreams of seeking her beloved, but
finding him not (v. 2-vi. 3). Scene 2. She has
found her Ijchived again (vi. 4-9). Act 5. The
Shulanimite the beautiful, but humble prin-
cess (vi. 10-viii. 4), with the introduction,
" Who is she?" and the conclusion. " I adjure
you." Scene 1. In the royal gardens; dia-
logue between the Shulammite and the
daughters of Jerusalem (vi. 10-vii. 6). Scene
2. In the palace ; Stdomon and the Shulam-
mite alone (vii. 7-viii.4). Act 6. The confirma-
tion of love's bond in the Shulammite's old
home (viii. 5-14), beginning " Who is this?"
Scene 1. Solomon and his bride appear in
the presence of her kinsfolk (5-7). Scene 2.
The Shulammite in her paternal home ; dia-
logue between her and her brothers and the
king (8-14).

But the opinion that the Song is a drama,
although widely entertained in modern times
and unobjectionable in itself, has not failed
to meet with decided and well-founded op-
position. The Song does not naturally con-
form to the rules of dramatic unity. A reg-
ular plot is not yielded by the poem itself. A
consecutive narrative can only be made out
by supplying connecting links of which the
poem knows nothing. Indeed, the several
parts have been made to tell very different
continuous tales, according as interpreters
have sujiplied this or that connecting link.
The Song as it stands is a continuous compo-
sition, with the love of Solomon and his bride
for its one theme ; but the several scenes are
grouped rather than linked, and the tran-
sitions are abrupt. The arrangement is not
pleasing to the occidental mind, which loves
order and logical sequence, but the structure
of the poem is in entire harmony with orien-
tal methods of literary composition.

Three leading methods of interpretation
have been adopted, and all still find advo-
cates : the allegorical, the literal, and the
typical methods. The Jews, wlio have al-
ways greatly prized the Song of Songs, have
generally regarded it as a .spiritual allegory.
Its sole intention was to teach God's love for
ancient Israel. He is the Lover, and it the
being beloved. The allegorical interpreta-
tion was introduced into the Christian
church by Origen, a great allegorizer, early
in the third century, but it underwent a
modification. Christ became the Lover, and
his church or the individual soul the be-
loved one. The details of this scheme may be
learned from the headings of the several

chapters in the A. V. On the literal inter-
pretation the poem is an historical tale, a
true story of Solomon's love for the Shulam-
mite. The typical interjjretation, to a cer-
tain extent, harmonizes the other two. The
pure, spontaneous, mutual love of a great
king and an humble maid was seen to exem-
plify the mutual affection between Jehovah
and his peojile, and the story was told, not
merely because it was beautiful, but chiefly
because it was typical of this great religious
truth. The Song of Songs is thus analogous
to Messianic p.salms, which are based on the
personal experiences or official position of
David or Solomon, and exhibit truths re-
garding the great king. The comparison of
the mutual love between the church and its
divine head to that of a bride and a bride-
groom frequently occurs in the N. T. (Eph.
v. 25-33; Eev. xix. 7-9; xxi.,9, etc.).

llegarding the date and authorship of the
Song, it will be perceived at once that the
shepherd theory disposes of the possibility
that the poem proceeded from the pen of
Solomon. The king had his faults, but there
is no reason to believe that he was a monster
of iniquity such as the poem, when inter-
preted on the shepherd hyiJothesis, depicts
him. Tlie shepherd hypothesis requires
the assumption of another and a later author
than Solomon. Turning to the marks of
authorship and date found in the poem, the
title first engages attention: "The Song of
songs, which is Solomon's" (i. 1). The words
are ambiguous, according to the Hebrew
idiom ; they may mean either that Solomon
was the author of the Song (cp. Hab. iii. 1,
Hebrew), or that the Song is about Solomon
(cp. Is. V. 1, Hebrew). The ambiguity is ad-
mitted, but the probabilities unquestionably
favor the belief that the title attri))utes the
poem to Solomon. The mind of the author
as revealed in the Song admirably comports
with all that is known of Solomon. Tlie
figurative language in the speeches of the
king not merely I'eflects nature, but mirrors
the gardens of exotics of which Solomon was
fond. Extensive knowledge of all realms of
nature, such as he possessed who spake of
trees, from the cedar even unto the hyssop,
and of beasts, fowl, creeping things, and
fishes, is exhibited throughout the poem.
And a minute and accurate picture of the
time of Solomon is presented. Aramai.sms
are urged as indicating a later date than
Solomon. But the orthography, apart from
three words, is not Aramaic ; and the syn-
tactic peculiarity of the poem is confined to
the use of a relative pronoun which occurs
among other places in the song of Deliorah
and the history of Elisha, both of which are
confessedly ancient Hebrew compositions, the
former antedating the reign of Solomon by
several centuries. Ewald and Hitzig believed
that the poem was produced in the best period
of the Hebrew language, and at a time of
great national prosperity. They attributed it

Sons of God

701

Sons of God

t<) a poet wlio lived iu the fjeneratiou after
Solomon. The three Aramaic forms, n'tar,
keep (i. (> ; viii. 11, VZ), b'ruth, ttr (i. 17),
s'thav, wiuter (ii. 11), are regarded by these
critics as au idiom in the dialect of northern
Palestine, and tliey accordingly attribute the
song to a poet of the nortliern kingdom.
But, assuming that these words were charac-
teristic of the north, Solomon himself in ad-
dressing the Shulammite maid, wlio was
probably from Shunem, and iu quoting her
speeches, may have adopted these words in
order to give to his poem the northern flavor.
It is affirmed that pardes, orchard, i)ark (iv.
13), and 'appirijo)i, palanquin (iii. 9, R. V ; in
Sanscrit paryunu : others, Greek phoreion) are
of Aryan origin, and accordingly betray the
post-exilic date of the poem. But even if
they are of Aryan origin, why should it be
thought strange that a king who sent his
ships to distant Ojihir, traded with India, and
brought to Palestine Indian goods and ob-
jects with Aryan names, such as apes, pea-
cocks, algum wood, should also import the
palanquin and retain its native name, and
give the oriental designation to the gardens
which he filled with oriental plants?

Sons of God.

Worshipers and beneficiaries of God ; see
Son 3. Such was its common Semitic meaning
in early times. There is abundant reason to
believe that this is its signification in the
celebrated passage where it first appears iu
the Bible. " It came to pass, when men
began to multiply on the face of the ground,
and daughters were born unto them, that
the sons of God saw the daughters of men
that they were fair; and they took them
wives of all that they chose" (Gen. vi. 1, 2).
Three interpretations have been proposed.
The sons of God are : 1. The great and noble
of the earth, and the daughters of men are
women of inferior rank (Samaritan version;
Greek translation of Symmachus; Targums
of Onkelos and Jonathan). 2. Angels, who
left their first estate and took wives from
among the children of men (Book of Enoch,
Philo. Josephus, Justin Martyr, Clement of
Alexandria. Tertullian). 3. Pious men, wor-
shipers of God, who were especially repre-
sented by the descendants of Seth. They
were attracted by the beauty of women who
did not belong to the godly line, married with
them, and became secularized (Julius Afri-
canus, Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria,
Augustine, Jerome). The first interpretation
has no longer any advocates. In favor of
the second, it is asserted that the term de-
notes angels everywhere else in the O. T.
(Job i. 6; ii. 1; xxxviii. 7; cp. a similar
expression Ps. xxix. 1; Ixxxix. 6; R. V.
margin : but not Dan. iii. 25) ; that the
designation describes angels according to
their nature, whereas the ordinary word for
angels, marakint. messengers, refers to their
official employment; and that this interpre-

tation is confirmed l)y Jude 6 and 2 Pet. ii.
4. But tliat the term relates to the nature
of angels lacks proof; it is quite as natural
that it should describe angels as worshipers
of God. As to the passages in Jude and
Peter, to cite them is begging the question,
since exegetes point out other references, as
Is. xxiv. 21-23. And unless the title be re-
stricted to the special form which it has in
the pa.ssage under discussion, it is not true
that the term denotes angels in all other
places where it occurs in the O. T. The
worshipers of the heathen deity Chemosh
are called the people of Chemosh, and his
sons and daughters (Num. xxi. 29 ; Jer.
xlviii. 4G). When the men of Judah, pro-
fessed worshipers of Jehovah, took heathen
women to wife, Judah was .said to have mar-
ried the daughter of a strange god (Mai. ii.
11). Moses was directed to say to Pharaoh :

" Thus saith the Lord, Israel is my son

Let my son go " (Ex. iv. 22, 23). "Ye are the
children [or sons] of the Lord your God "
(Deut. xiv. 1). "They have dealt corruptly
with him, they are not his children." "Is
not he [the Lord] thy father?" "The Lord
saw it. and abhorred them, because of the
provocation of his sons and his daughters"
(xxxii.5, 6, 19). " Yeare thesonsof the living
God " (Hos. i. 10). " When Israel was a child
.... I . . . . called my son out of Egyjit "
(xi. 1). "Bring my sons from far, and my
daughters from the end of the earth ; every
one that is called by my name, and whom I
have created for my glory " (Is. xliii.6, 7). The
pious are the generation of God's children
(Ps. Ixxiii. 15), and Ephraim is his dear sou
(Jer. xxxi. 20). Taking a broader survey,
and examining Semitic literature other than
Hebrew, one observ^es the same fact. Many
a Babylonian styled himself the son of the
god whom he worshiped and upon whom he
relied for protection and care.

Furthermore, the opinion that the title in
Gen. vi. 2 means angels is not the earliest
view, so far as the records go. The earliest
attested interpretation, that of the Samaritan
version, regarded the sons of God as men ;
and later when the angelic theory arose, it
was the opinion of a particular .school among
the Jews, while the more influential party
in religious matters still taught that the sous
of God were men.

The interpretation that the sons of God in
Gen. vi. 2 were pious people, the worshipers
of the true God, more especially that they
were the godly descendants of Adam through
Seth, whose genealogy is given in Gen. v., is
not only in accordance with Semitic, and
particularly biblical, usage of the designa-
tion, as already shown, but it is consistent
with the context. The sons of God are con-
trasted with the daughters of men, that is,
of other men. So Jeremiah says, "God did
set signs in Israel and among men ; " and
the English version supplies the word other
before men, in order to bring out the sense

Sons of God

702

Sorek

(Jer. xxxii. 20). Likewise tlie psalmist says
that tlie wicked "arc not iu trouble as men ;
neither are they plagued like men ; " and
again the English version su])])lies tlie word
other (I's. Ixxiii. 5). After the same manner
Gen. vi. 1, 2 may be read : " Wlien mankind
began to multiply on the face of tlie ground,
and daughters \vei"e born unto them, the sons
of God saw the daughters of other men that
they were fair; and they took them wives
of all that they chose." The meaning of the
writer is that when men began to increase in
number, the worshipers of God so far degen-
erated that in choosing wives for themselves
they neglected character, and esteemed beauty
of face and form above piety. The oflfspriug
of these marriages were perhaps stalwart
and violent (4). Mixture of race in marriage
often produces physical strength in the de-
scendants, and lack of religion in the parents
is apt to be reproduced in the children. The
intermarriage of the sons of God and the
daughters of men was otfensive in the sight
of God. Sentence was pronounced against
the wrongdoers (3). The penalty is not de-
nounced on angels, who were not only im-
plicated, but were the chief sinners, if the
sons of God were angels. The punishment
is pronounced against man only. Man, not
angels, had offended.

Sons of God everywhere in Scripture, from
the earliest to the latest times, means the
worshipers and beneficiaries of God, both
among mortal and immortal beings. But the
content of this idea did not remain the .same
through the ages. It became larger with in-
creasing knowledge of the riches of God.
It enlarged, for example, at the time when
the Israelites were delivered from Egyjit.
God said : "' I have seen the affliction of my
people" (Ex. iii. 7); and again: "Say unto
Pharaoh, Israel is my son, my firstborn;
who is as dear to me," so the following words
imply, " as Pharaoh's firstborn is to him " (iv.
22 with 23) ; and again : " I will take you to
me for a people, and I will be to you a God "
(vi. 7). Heretofore the title had emphasized
a filial relation of men to God, their de-
pendence upon him for protection and care,
and their duty of reverence and obedience.
Now God formally accepts the obligations
which implicitly devolve on him. The con-
tent of the title was further enlarged through
the teaching of Jesus Christ. He took truths
already known, shed light on them, and
connected them with this designation. He
exhibited the fact that God is an actual
father and that his people are actual chil-
dren of God. Tliey are such bv the new
birth (John iii. 3. 5, (i, 8; cp. Eev. xi. 11),
begotten of God (John i. 12, 13; v. 21 ; and
so Eph. ii. r-,; .las. i. 18; 1 Pet. i. 23), made
partakers of the divine nature through the
mediaticm of the indwelling Spirit (John vi.
48-51 ; XV. 4, 5 ; and so 1 John iii. 9), and
possessing a like character with God, re-
sembling him in holiness, love, and eleva-

tion above the illusions of earth (1 John iii.
9 ; i,v. 7; v. 4), although falling far short of
the divine character iu this life (i. 8, 10).
They have been adopted as sons (Gal. iv. 5),
are taught by the Spirit to say Abba, Father
(6 ; Rom. viii. 1.")^, and are led bj- the Spirit (14).

Sooth'say-er [sayer of truth].

A diviner (Josh. xiii. 22, with Num. xxii.
7), one who prognosticates future events (Jer.
xxvii. 9, Iv. v., in Hebrew ^on'iiim). As ren-
dering of the Aramaic Gastrin, it denotes one
who professed to he able to interpret dreams
(Dan. iv. 7) and explain dark sentences (9;
v. 11, 12), and to whom men in desperation
resorted to obtain, if possible, the revelation
of secrets (ii. 27).

Sop'a-ter [of good jia rentage].

A Christian from Bercea who, with other
converts, accompanied the apostle Paul from
Greece as far as the province of Asia, when
the apostle was returning from his third
missionary journey (Acts xx. 4). He was
son of Pyrrhus (K. V.).

Soph'e-reth, in K. V.Hassopliereth,with the
Hebrew article [secretariat, secretaryship].

One of the class known as Solomon's ser-
vants. He founded a family, members of
which returned from captivity with Zerub-
babel (Ezra ii. 55 ; Neh. vii. 57).

Sor'cer-er.

One who practices sorcery, uses potions
that derive a supposed efficacy from mag-
ical spells, and professes to possess super-
natural power or knowledge, gained in any
manner, especially through the connivance
of evil spirits (Ex. vii. 11 ; Antiq. xvii. 4. 1 ;
Life 31). Sorcerers were found in Egypt
(Ex. vii. 11), Assj'ria (Nah. iii. 4), Babylonia
(Is. xlvii. 9 ; Dan. ii. 2), and other heathen
lands (Deut. xviii. 10) ; but were strictly for-
bidden in Israel (Ex. xxii. 18; Deut. xviii.
10), and warning was uttered against their
deception (Jer. xxvii. 9), and their punish-
ment was foretold (Mic. v. 12 ; Mai. iii. 5 ;
Eev. xxi. 8). The Hebrew and Greek words
for sorcerer and sorcery are sometimes ren-
dered witch and witchcraft in the English
versions. Simon, called Magus or magician,
and Bar-jesus were prominent sorcerers in
apostolic history (Acts viii. 9, 11 : xiii. 6, 8).
A sorceress, and likewise the sorcerer and the
practicer of other forms of the black art,
were not to be permitted to live (Ex. xxii. 18 :
Lev. XX. 27; Deut. xviii. 10-12). God's own
attitude toward such per.sons and tho.sc who
consulted them was also one of destruction
(Lev. XX. G, 23 ; Deut. xviii. 12 ; Wisd. xii. 4-6).

So'rek [a choice vine].

A valley in which Delilah, lived (Judg.
xvi. 4). It is doubtless the wady es-Surar,
which commences about 13 miles west,
slightl,v south, of .Terusalem, and pursues a
tortuous course in a northwesterly direction
toward the Mediterranean Sea. It is ti^avei'sed
by a stream which falls into the sea about 8i

1

Sosipater

ro3

Soiil

miles south of Joppa. The name Surik is
still borne by a ruin north of the valley, 2
miles from Zorah, Samson's birtbjilaee.

So-sip'a-ter [saviour of a father].

A Christian who joined with Paul in send-
ing; salutations (Eom. xvi. 21).

Sos'the-nes [of sound strength].

A ruler of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth
when Paul was there. In the outbreak which
Paul's preaching excited, the riotous Jews
seized Sosthenes and beat him before the
judgment seat of Gallio (Acts xviii. 17).
Sosthenes was associated with Paul as a
brother Christian in the address to the Corin-
thians (1 Cor. i. 1).

So'tai [deviator].

One of the class known as Solomon's serv-
ants. He founded a family, members of
which returned with Zerubbabel from cap-
tivity (Ezra ii. 55 ; Neh. vii. 57).

Soul.

In ordinary English usage, a spirit is an
immaterial, incorporeal being, which may or
may not be associated with a body, as " God is
a Spirit," "My .spirit hath rejoiced in God my
Saviour" (John iv. 24 ; Luke i. 47) ; a soul is
a spirit that is or at least has been embodied,
as the souls of them that had been slain
(Kev. vi. 9); and a ghost is a disembodied
spirit.

Theologians entertain two main views as
to the soul, and consequently as to the nature
of man and irrational animals. One is em-
braced under the doctrine of trichotomy.
Trichotomists diflTer considerably among
themselves : but according to the doctrine,
in its general outlines, man consists of three
parts or essential elements, body, soul, and
spirit (1 Thes. v. 23). The body 'is the ma-
terial part of man's constitution. The soul,
in Hebrew nephesh, in Greek jisnrhe, is the
principle of animal life : man possesses it in
common with the brutes ; to it belong under-
standing, emotion, and sensibility, and it
ceases to exist at death. The spirit, in He-
brew nw?!, in Greek jjHp;(m«, is the mind, the
principle of man's rational and immortal life,
the pcssessor of reason, will, and conscience.
God created man by enlivening inorganic
matter formed into a body, and then creating
a rational .spirit and infusing it (Gen. ii. 7),
and at death the dust or body returns to the
earth as it was, and the spirit returns unto
God who gave it (Ecc. xii. 7). The soul of
life, in Hebrew nephesh hayyah, in the in-
stance of the animal (Gen. i. 21. 24) is only
the animal soul, which is physical and ma-
terial in its nature, and perishes with the
body of which it is the vital principle : but
the sfiul of life in the instance of man (ii. 7)
is a higher principle, the rational soul, which
was inbreathed by the Creator and made in
his image. Usually the biblical writers do
not distinguish the pfvche or animal soul,
which is the lower side of the human soul,
from the pneuma or rational soul, the higher

side, since they constitute one soul, pmch'c, in
distinction from the body, and they are some-
times designated in their unity by jmeumn,
and sometimes by psuchc. Commonly the
sacred writers speak of man as constituted
of body and soul, or body and spirit, and
not of body, soul, and spirit ; ])Ut in 1 Cor.
XV. 44, as in 1 Thes. v. 23 and Hcb. iv. 12,
Paul requires the distinction between the
animal and the rational soul for the purjjoses
of his discussion, and he accordingly makes
it.

According to dichotomy, on the other hand,
there are only two essential elements in the
constitution of man : the body formed from
the dust of the earth, and the soul or prin-
ciple of life (Gen. ii. 7). The soul is the
principle of the whole life of whatever sub-
ject is spoken of, whether man or beast. It
is the princijile of all life, physical, intel-
lectual, moral, religious. There is not one
substance, the soul, which feels and remem-
bers, and another substance, the spirit, that
has conscience and the knowledge of God.
The soul of the brute is the living principle
in the brute : it is conscious of the impres-
sions which are made by external objects on
the organs of sense belonging to the body ; it
is endowed with that measure of intelligence
which experience shows the lower animals
to possess, but it is irrational and mortal.
Brutes perish because God does not will that
the living principle in them should contiinie.
The soul of man is the same in kind with
that of the brute, but it differs in being of a
higher order : in addition to the attributes
of sensibility, memory, and instinct, it has
the higher powers which pertain to the in-
tellectual, moral, and religious life, and it
has continued existence after the death of
the body, not because of its inherent nature,
but because God wills to preserve it. It is
argued from the usage of words in Scripture
in defense of this dualism that 1. Soul of
life, vephenh hnyyah, means sim])ly animate
existence, a being in which there is a living
soul, and there is no authority to make it
mean one thing in the case of a brute and
(|uite another thing in the case of a man. 2.
The Bible does not ascribe to beasts a psvche
only, and both a psnchc and pneuma to man.
The living principle in brutes is called spirit,
»•»«//, as well as soul. H<>/^/(e.s7(, psnche. '"WhO'
knoweth the spirit of man whether it goeth
upward, and the spirit of the beast whether
it goeth downward to the earth?" (Ecc. iii.
21 ; cp. 19, R. V. margin ; Gen. vii. 15). 3.
No distinction is observed in the use of the
words soul and spirit. The souls of them
that were slain for the word of God are in
heaven (Rev. vi. 9 ; xx. 4), and likewise the
spirits of just men made perfect (Heb. xii.
23).

Trichotomists quote 1 Thes. v. 23 : "The God
of peace himself sanctify you wholly : and may
your spirit and soul and body be preserved
entire, without blame at the coming of our

Soul

704

Sparrow

1

Lord Jesus Christ" (cp. Heb. iv. 12), as evi-
dence that Paul distinguishes the animal
soul from the rational spirit. But dichoto-
mists reply that Paul's language is quite
analogous to that emploj'ed in the command,
"Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all
thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with
all thy mind, and with all thy strength "
(Mark xii. 30 ; cp. Luke i. 46, 47). The in-
tention in the demand for love, and in the
prayer for preservation, is simply to lay
stress on the whole man, and the description
is accordingly plethoric. As heart, soul,
strength, and mind are not so many essential
elements in man's constitution, so there is
no proof that body, soul, and spirit are. The
main passage relied upon to sujjport the tri-
chotomist position is 1 Cor. xv. 44 : " It is
sown a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual
body. If there is a natural body, there is
also a spiritual body." Trichotomists inter-
pret the soma pmchihon or natural body as
one marked by the qualities of the psuche or
animal soul ; namely, by physical appetites
and passions, such as hunger, thirst, and
sexual appetite. These are founded in "flesh
and blood," or that material substance of
which the present human body is composed.
The resurrection, or spiritual body, on the
other hand, will be marked by the qualities
of the pneuma or rational soul. It will not
be composed of flesh and blood, but of a sub-
stance which is more like the rational than
the animal soul. There is, however, another
interpretation, not only in harmony with
the doctrine of the dual constitution of man,
but in accord with the general usage of the
words psuchihos and pneximatikos, natural and
spiritual. The resurrection body of the re-
deemed will not be marked by the qualities
of ordinary animal life, right and proper
though that life is, but the resurrection body
will be opposed to everything carnal, and
will be characterized by the qualities which
belong to the Spirit-led man. This appears
from a study of the words. In establi-shed
usage among the Greeks psuche was the com-
mon word for the vital principle ; which,
however, might be thought of as a disem-
bodied soul, the immortal part of man, and
the organ of thought and judgment (Herod,
ii. 123; v. 124; Plato, Tim. x., i. e., p. 30''),
hence 2i^f^<^h'kos referred primarily to the
ordinary animal life, and is so used by
Paul, James, and Jude (1 Cor. ii. 14 ; Jas.
iii. 15 ; Jude 19). Pneumatikos, on the
other hand, almost exclusively has refer-
ence in Scripture to the Pneuma 'agion, the
Holy Spirit. It is opposed to carnal and
fleshly, to human nature deprived of the
Spirit of God; it refers to possession and
control by the Holy Spirit as contrasted with
the domination of the flesh (1 Cor. iii. 1) ; it
denotes what is eff'ected by the Spirit and
pertains to the Spirit (Eom. i. 11 ; 1 Cor. ii.
13 : xii. 1). Hence a spiritual body, con-
trasted with a natural body, is a body not

only free from fleshly lusts, but elevated
above the physical passions and appetites
which are natural to man (Mat. xxii. 30), in
vital union with the Spirit of God, and
marked by the qualities which characterize
the Spirit-led man.

South Ra'moth. See Eamah 6.

Sow. See Swine.

Sow'er and Sow'ing.

Sowing began with the rain of October;
see Year. The seed was required to be
ceremonially clean (Lev. xi. 37, 38). The
sower held the vessel containing the seed in
the left hand, and scattered the seed with
his right ; see illustration, article Plow.
When the soil was favorable, he seems some-
times to have cast in front of the plow, which
then served the purpose of a harrow to cover
the seed. Wheat was best sown, it was
thought, in rows (Is. xxviii. 25, E. V.). The
sowing of mixed seed was forbidden (Lev.
xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. 9), as being contrary to
nature as established by the Creator ; but the
planting of several kinds of seeds in difierent
sections of the same field was permitted.

Spain.

The well-known country in the south-
western portion of Europe. Its mines yielded
gold and silver (1 Mac. viii. 3). Paul desired
to visit it (Eom. xv. 24, 28), but it is unknown
whether or not he was able to carry out his
intention. See Takshish.

Spar'row.

The rendering of the Hebrew Sippor,
chirper, in Ps. Ixxxiv. 3; cii. 7; and E. Y.
of Prov. xxvi. 2. The word is more fre-
quently translated bird ; in fact, it is often
employed as a general term for bird or fowl
(Ps. viii. 8; cxlviii. 10; Ezek. xvii. 23). It
may be a bird of prey (Jer. xii. 9; Ezek.
xxxix. 17), such as the raven and crow,
which are passerine birds, although they
feed on carrion ; or it may be a bird cere-
monially clean, and large enough to be eaten
as food (Lev. xiv. 4; Neh. v. 18). It may
live in the mountains or in the town (Ps. xi.
1 ; Ixxxiv. 3), and may build its nest in trees
or on the ground or about human habita-
tions (Deut. xxii. 6; Ps. Ixxxiv. 3). The
term includes doves and pigeons (Gen. xv. 9,
10), and the etymology indicates that in the
first instance it designates chirping birds,
like the sparrow and the finch.

In the N. T. sparrow is the rendering of
the Greek Strouthioii, which denotes any
small bird, especially one of the sparrow
kind. It was sold and eaten (Mat. x. 29 ;
Luke xii. 6, 7).

The house sparrow (Passer domesticus),
familiarly known as the English sparrow, is
found through Europe, northern Africa, and
western Asia, and is common in the coast
towns of Palestine. Two .species of southern
Europe, closely allied to it, the Italian spar-
row (Passer italix) and the marsh sparrow

Spartans

ro5

Spikenard

(Passer hispaniolens-is), also occur, the latter
cliicfly iu the Jordan valley, where it breeds
in vast numbers in the thorn trees. The
tree sparrow (Passer montanits) is a near rela-
tive of the house sparrow, and perhaps in
Palestine should not be separated from it;
but the sparrows which frequent the sacred
precincts on the temple hill and arc common
on the mount of Olives have sometimes been
spoken of by writers of authority as tree
sparrows. Another sparrow {Passer moabit-
icKs) is found iu the vicinity of the Dead
Sea, but is rare. The rock or foolish sparrow
{Petroiiia stuUa) is common on the central
ridge of Palestine. It never resorts to in-
habited dwellings. Thomson says that a
sparrow which has lost its mate is often seen
sitting alone on the housetop, lamenting its
ftite (cp. Ps. cii. 7). Tristram is inclined to
see in this passage a reference to the blue
thrush {Monticola cyanus), a solitary bird
which perches on the housetop, uttering
meanwhile a monotonous and plaintive note.

Spar 'tans.

Inhabitants of the celebrated city of
Sparta in Greece. It was known also as
Lacedaemon. Jonathan Maccabaeus refers to
an ancient friendship which existed between
the Spartans and the Jews in the days of
king Arius and the high priest Onias, about
300 B. c. (1 Mac. xii. 7, 19-23 ; in A. V. Lace-
demonians) ; and he sent letters to them,
when he sent an embassy to Eome, to renew
the friendship with them (2, 5). Jonathan
did not live to hear their answer, but Simon
received cordial letters from them (xiv. 16,
20-23).

Spear.

The spear, called in Hebrew k'nith, con-
sisted of a metallic head on a shaft (1 Sam.
xiii. 19; xvii. 7; Is. ii. 4). It could be car-
ried in the hand ; stuck in the ground when
not wanted ; and though used for thrusting,
could be hurled (1 Sam. xviii. 10, in A. V.
javelin; xxvi. 7, 8; 2 Sam. ii. 23; John xix.
34).

A long spear, the Arab rumh, was used
{Judg. V. 8; 1 Chron. xii. 8, 24 ; Neh. iv. 13;
.ler. xlvi. 4). It was called romah by the
Hebrews, and was used for thrusting (Num.
XXV. 7. 8, E. v.), not for throwing. In E. V.,
it is once rendered lance (1 Kin. xviii. 28),
in A. V. of 1611 lancer, later corrupted into
lancet.

Spear'men.

The rendering of the Greek Dexiolabos or,
as in the Alexandrian manuscript, Deiioholos
in Acts xxiii. 23, a body of troops distin-
guished from the legionary soldiers and the
cavalry. In the only other passage where
the word occurs, which is late, they are
distinguished from archers and targeteers.
Evidently they were light-armed soldiers
who carried a weapon in the right hand.

Spelt.

The revised rendering of the Hebrew Kiia-
45

semeth (Ex. ix. 32 and Is. xxviii. 25, in A. V.
rje ; Ezek. iv. 9, in A. V. fitches). Spelt is
an inferior kind of wheat, the chaft" of
which slightly adheres to the grain. It was
sown in Egyi)t, springing up after the barley
(Ex. ix. .32). The Egy])tians made their
bread of it (Herod, ii. 36, 77). Eye is a
northern plant, and is not grown in Egypt
and Palestine.
Spice.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew Bnsem and
its plural B'sanvim, which are used generically
for fragrant stufl', spice, spicery (Ex. xxv. 6
with XXX. 23, 24; 1 Kin. x. 10; Song iv. 10,
14). Spice is a vegetable substance possess-
ing aromatic and pungent qualities (Song iv.
16). The chief spices were myrrh, cinna-
mon, calamus, and cassia or costus (Ex. xxx.
23, 24). Southern Arabia was the great, but
not exclusive, producer of them (1 Kin. x. 2 ;
Ezek. xxvii. 22). Bosem in Song v. 13 ; vi.
2, and hasam in v. 1, are probably applied
specifically to balsam or balm of Gilead (E.
V. margin).

2. N'ko'th (Gen. xxxvii. 25; xliii. 11) is
probably a specific term for tragacanth or
storax (E. Y. margin). A form of this word
is perhaps used in 2 Kin. xx. 13 ; Is. xxxix.
2 for spices in general.

3. Sammim, fragrant odors, were aromatic
substances used in the preparation of incense
(Ex. xxx. 7). Three are specified : stacte or
opobalsamum, ouycha, and galbanum (34).

4. The rendering of the Greek Aroma, a
generic term (Mark xvi. 1), including myrrh
and aloes (John xix. 40).

Spice Mer'chant.

The rendering of the Hebrew Eol-el in 1
Kin. X. 15. It means simply, as the E. V.
makes it, a merchant ; and A. V. renders it
so elsewhere, e. g. Ezek. xxvii. 13.

Spi'der.

An animal of the class Arachnida, called
in Hebrew 'ahkabish. It weaves a web (Job
viii. 14 ; Is. lix. 5). The number of species
in Palestine amounts to 600 or 700. In
A. V. spider is the rendering of the Hebrew
S'viamifh, poisonous thing (Prov. xxx. 28, in
E. V. lizard).

Spike'nard.

A fragrant jdant, in Hebrew nerd (Song iv.
13, 14), from which an aromatic ointment
was made, called nardos in Greek (Mark xiv.
3). It is believed to be Nardostachys jnta-
mansi. a plant with very fragrant roots,
growing in the Himalava Jlountains. at an
elevation of 11.000 to 17,000 feet. It was
u.sed by the Hindus as a medicine and per-
fume from remote antiquity, and was early
an article of commerce. The long distance
which it had to be brought to Palestine ren-
dered it on its arrival very precious. The
alabaster cruse of it, which was poured over
the head of Jesus, was worth .300 denarii
(Mark xiv. 3, 5). According to Pliny, the oint-
ment varied in price from 25 to 300 and even

Spinning

706

Star

400 denarii a pound, according to the quality
(Hist. Nat. xii. 26; xiii. 2, 4). In Mark xiv.
3 ; John xii. 3 (see E. V. margin), the spike-
nard is described by the Greek adjective

the gum of the storax tree, or else opobal-
samum (R. V. margin).

The storax (Styrax officinalis) is a resinous
shrub or small tree, from 10 to 20 feet high,

'^^-f^m

Spilcenard {Xardastachys Jatamansi).

pistilcos, a variant of pistos, genuine, or of
pistos, liquid. Some interpreters, however,
think that the adjective denotes the place
where this variety was obtained.

Spin'ning.

Spinning was the work of the women (Ex.
XXXV. 25). The wheel was unknown, and
spinning was done by hand. Distaff and
spindle were used (Prov. xxxi. 19). The
flax or wool was wound on the distaff, which
was held under the arm or stuck upright in
the ground, and the thread was drawn out
by hand. To the end of this thread the
spindle, with a circular rim to .steady it
when revolving, was attached and by rotating
it the spinner twisted the thread. See illus-
tration, article Weaving.

Spir'it. See Soul and Holy Ghost.

Spring. See Fountain.

Sta'chys [an ear of grain].

A Christian at Rome to whom the apostle
Paul sent a salutation (Rom. xvi. 9).

Stac'te.

The rendering of the Hebrew Kaiaph, a
drop. It denotes a sweet spice, which was
u.sed for incense (Ex. xxx. 34; cp. Ecclus.
xxiv. 15). The Septuagint interprets nataph
by stakte, which likewise signifies a drop or
exudation, and was emjdoyed for the oil
which trickles from fresh myrrh or cinna-
mon. It is believed, however, that iiataph is

Stacte (Slyrax officinalis).

with flowers resembling those of the orange
in color, size, and fragrance, and mostly
growing in spikes of four or five. The tree
is very showy when in bloom. It is native
in Asia Minor and Syria, and abounds in
Galilee. The officinal storax is the inspis-
sated juice of the bark ; it is used medici-
nally as an expectorant, and also in per-
fumery. The liquid storax of commerce is
the product of an entirely difierent plant.

Opobalsamum (R. V. margin) is a resinous
juice, also called balm and balm of Gilead
(q. v.).

Star.

The number of the stars and their grouping
in constellations early attracted man's atten-
tion (Gen. xxii. 17; Is. xiii. 10). Orion,
Pleiades, the Bear, the zodiac were pointed
out (Job is. 9; xxxviii. 31, 32), planets were
known and named (2 Kin. xxiii. 5 ; see
Babylonia, Chiun, Lucifkr), perhaps
meteors or comets are referred to (Jude 13),
the position of certain stars served as dates
(Antiq. xiii. 8, 2), and in Egypt the succes-
sive rising of thirty-six constellations marked
off an equal number of ten-day periods in
the year ; see Week. The stars were recog-
nized in Israel as the handiwork of God
(Gen. i. 16 ; Ps. viii. 3), and as under his
control (Is. xiii. 10; Jer. xxxi. 35).

star

707

Stephen

But among tlie lieathen and the degenerate
Israelites the stars became objects of wor-
ship (Dent. iv. lit; 2 Kin. xvii. 16); altars
were reared, and incense was burnt to them
(xxi. 5; xxiii. 5). They were believed to
exercise influence, not only in the ordinary
economy of nature (cp. Job xxxviii. 81, A.
v.), but also over the affairs of men. This
belief was widespread among the heathen.
Deborah may perha])s be subsidizing a phrase
of current speech, in which a reminiscence
of heathen notions lingers, when she poeti-
cally describes the stars from their courses
fighting against Sisera (Judg. v. 20) ; but
Bertheau is probably correct in understand-
ing her to speak poetically of divine assist-
ance (iv. 15), as if heaven or, to use her own
words, as if the stars, forsaking their usual
orbits, had fought against Sisera (cp. Ps.
xviii. 9). A reference has also been seen in
her words to a providential storm which dis-
comfited the Canaanites; and ver. 21 and
.Tosephus (Anti(i. v. 5, 4) are cited in con-
firmation: but Josephus probably deduces
this storm from the analogy of Josh. x. 10,
11 and 1 Sam. vii. 10. The stars were also
supposed by the heathen to portend coming
events, and they were observed with a view
to prognostication (Is. xlvii. 13). See As-
trologers. J. D. D.

Several stars mentioned in the N. T. re-
quire particular notice :

1. The day-star (2 Pet. i. 19) is probably a
figurative description of the signs immedi-
ately preceding the second advent. Others
understand it as the Spirit's illumination of
the believer's heart.

2. The morning star (Eev. ii. 28) : the
bright, the morning star (xxii. 16. K. Y.).
Both these phrases are probably designations
of Christ as the herald to his people of the
eternal day. See Lucifer.

3. The star of the wise men ; see Magi.
The usual view has been that this was a
purely supernatural phenomenon, a starlike
object which appeared to the Magi in their
eastern sky, and suggested to them, perhaps
through their acquaintance with the proph-
ecy of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 17) or other pre-
dictions, that the king of the Jews was born,
and which afterwards reai»peared, as they
journeyed from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, and
guided them on their way until it rested over
the house in which Jesus was. Others, how-
ever, consider it a natural phenomenon provi-
dentially used to direct the Magi. In Dec,
1603, the astronomer Kepler noted a con-
junction of Jupiter and Saturn, joined in
March, 1604, by Mars, and in Oct., 1604, by
a brilliant new star, which gradually faded
and vanished in Feb., 1606. Kepler calcu-
lated that the planets were in coiij unction in
7 and 6 b. c, and, supposing that the new
or variable star had followed the conjunction
then as it did in 1604, believed it to be the
star of the Magi. Otliers have identified the
Magi's star with the planetary conjunction

itself, and the calculations of Kepler have
been corrected by Ideler, Pritchard, and
Encke, with the result that we know that in
7 B. c. there were three conjunctions of
Jupiter and Saturn, in May, September, and
December. Hence, it has been supposed that
the Magi saw the heavenly spectacle in May ;
connected it, through their astrology and
knowledge of Hebrew projihecy and expecta-
tion, with the birth of a Jewish king; and,
when going from Jerusalem to Bethlehem in
December, saw again the conjunction over-
head. Butthe word star can hardly mean a con-
junction, and this view would i)lace Christ's
birth earlier than other considerations war-
rant. If we can believe that Kepler's variable
star followed the conjunction, as he supposed,
it would answer the conditions better than
the conjunction itself. It is on some accounts
more probable that the event was a natural
rather than a supernatural phenomenon. The
Magi were doubtless astrologers, and would
attach special ideas to the positions and vari-
ations of the stars. The star did not go be-
fore them to Judsea, but only, after its reap-
pearance, did it seem to lead them from Je-
rusalem to Bethlehem. On the other hand,
many think that Mat. ii. 9 cannot fairly be
understood (>{ anything but a supernatural
phenomenon ; nor can the astronomical cal-
culations above described safely be held to
have identified the star, even if it be regarded
as a natural object. g. t. p.

Sta'ter. See Money.

Steel.

A modified form of iron, resulting in elas-
ticity and hardness. The earliest known and
simplest method of reducing iron from its
ore was capable of yielding steel. The Cha-
lybes in Poutus were celebrated for hardening
iron, and their name was used by the Greeks
for steel. Steel seems to have been u.sed in
ancient Egypt. Comparison with Syriac
pal'da\ as well as the context, suggests that
the Hebrew word ]} aid ah in Nah. ii. 3 means
steel (E. v., in A. V. torches).

Where steel occurs in A. V., brass is cor-
rectly substituted in R. V.

Steph'a-nas [crowned].

A Christian convert at Corinth. Hishouse-
hold was the first fruit of Paul's labors in the
province of Achaia. The apo.stle himself
baptized its members, and they set themselves
to minister unto the saints. Stephanas also
visited the apostle, bringing him aid, and
was with him when the First Epistle to the
Corinthians was penned (1 Cor. i. 16 ; xvi.
1.5, 17).

Ste'phen [a wreath or crown].

The first Christian martyr. He is first
mentioned as first in the list of the seven
men chosen by the Jerusalem Christians, at
the suggestion of the apostles, to superintend
the distribution of the church's alms (Acts vi.
.5). Since the ajjpointment of these .seven
men, usually regarded as the first deacons,

Stephen

708

Stoics

arose from the complaints made by the
(Ireek-speakiiig or Hellenistic Jewish Chris-
tians that their widows were neglected in
the daily ministration, and since Stephen is
itself a Greek name, and since the subsequent
persecution of Stephen arose among the
Greek-speaking Jews of Jerusalem, it is
probable that Stephen himself was a Hellen-
ist, and perhaps had come from abroad. He
was a notable man ; full of faith and of the
Holy Ghost (5), who, after his appointment,
became more than ever conspicuous as a
preacher and worker of miracles (8). His
activity occasioned for the first time opx)o-
sition to the church among the foreign
Jews, who had synagogues in Jerusalem.
The trouble originated particularly in the
synagogue of the Libertines (or freedmen)
and Oyrenians and Alexandrians, with
whom united certain Jews from Cilicia
and Asia (9). These charged Stephen with
blaspheming Moses and God, and, more es-
pecially, with declaring that Jesus would
destroy the temple and change the customs
derived from Mo.ses (11-14). Luke states
that the witnesses produced against Stephen
were suborned and false, as those against
Christ had been ; but Stephen must have
said .something which could be thus perverted.
He was brought before the sanhedrin, and
from his defense, reported in Acts vii. 2-53,
we can understand his position. He first re-
cited God's early choice and guidance of the
patriarchs (2-22), apparently to bring out the
fact that God from the beginning had been
leading Israel to a definite goal; then, con-
tinuing the history, he showed that the He-
brews had repeatedly resisted God's purpose
with them, both in the days of Moses and
sub.sequently (23-43), and had failed to see
the temporary and typical character of both
tabernacle and temple (44-50). Then, sud-
denly stopping his argument, he bitterly
charged them with resisting, as their fathers
had done, the Holy Ghost, with having
slain the Christ as their fathers had slain
the prophets, and with failing to keep in
reality their own law (51-53). At this
point the listeners gnashed upon him with
their teeth and prepared to rush upon him.
A vision was given him of the Son of man
standing (as though to receive him) at the
right hand of God ; and, when he declared
it, they seized him, cast him out of the city,
and stoned him. It was not lawful for them
to put anyone to death without permission
from the Romans, but the martyrdom was
evidently the result of an uncontrollable out-
break. The speech and death of Stephen
mark the transition of Christianity from its
earliest Jewish form to its extension among
the gentiles. Peter ]ircached Christianity as
the fulfillment of pr()i)hecv ; Stephen preached
it as the goal of Hebrew history. Yet while
Stephen declared that Christianity could not
be limited by Judai.sm, he did not set forth,
like Paul afterwards, its gentile mission or

its deliverance, by the doctrine of salvation
by faith alone, from its Jewish environment.
He marks, therefore, the transition from
Jewish to gentile Christianity. Moreover,
the persecution which followed his martyr-
dom led to the di.spersion of the disciples,
and so in fact to the carrying of the gospel
to the Saniaritans and then to the gentiles.
Stephen's personal character also was very
beautiful. A.s a man he was " full of faith
and of the Holy Ghost " { vi. 5) ; as a preacher,
"full of faith and power" (8); before the
council, his enemies " saw his face as it had
been the face of an angel " (15) ; and his last
words were: " Lord, lay not this sin to their
charge " (vii. 60).

The inspiration of Stephen, so far as his
recorded speech is concerned, is a disputed
question. He is said (vii. 55) to have been
"full of the Holy Ghost," but some of his
historical statements are thought by many
not to harmonize with the O. T. Others hold
that they can be harmonized, or at least
might be, if we knew all the facts. Either
view, however, can be adjusted to the doc-
trine of the inspiration of the Bible, since
the phrase "full of the Holy Ghost" need
not mean " inspired " in the technical sense,
and since the inspiration of Luke merely
guarantees the correctness of his report of
what Stephen said, not the correctness of
Stephen's utterances themselves. G. t. p.

Stocks.

An instrument of punishment, called in
Hebrew sad, consisting of a wooden frame,
hence called xulon in Greek, in which the
feet were put and firmly held (Job xiii. 27 ;
xxxiii. 11; Acts xvi. 24). The prisoner sat
meanwhile. A special form of the apparatus,
apparently, was called in Hebrew mahpeketh,
turning, torsion, because the body was forced
into an unnatural position (2 Chron. xvi. 10,
R. V. margin ; Jer. xx. 2). It included
shackles or rather a collar ; at least these could
be used on the prisoner at the same time
(xxix. 26, R. v.), so that his neck, arms, and
legs could all be held fast together.

Sto'ica [Greek stoikos, i)ertaining to the
porch] .

A sect of philosophers, one of two which
Paul encountered at Athens (Acts xvii. 18).
Their founder was Zeno of Citium in Cyprus,
who must not be confounded with an earlier
philosopher, Zeno of Elea, in Italy. The
Cyprian Zeno was born, it is believed, be-
tween 357 and 352 B. c, and died between
263 and 259, having lived little short of a
century. Removing from his native place to
Athens, he taught for about fifty-eight years
in a stoa, or porch, on the public market
place. His doctrine was essentially panthe-
istic. The Stoics distinguished matter and
force as the ultimate principles in the uni-
verse ; and the force working everywhere
they called reason, providence, God, and re-
garded it as conscious and thinking, yet de-

4

stomacher

ro9

stone

pendent and imjHTsonal, a breath or a fire
which forms, permeates, and vivifies all
things, and whieli in aeeordanee with inex-
orable necessity calls beings and worlds into
existence and destroys them again, so that
at the end of a cosmical jieriod the universe
is resolved into fire in a general cdnllagration,
and the evolution of the world begins again,
and so on without end. The human soul is
a spark or emanation of this conscious but
impersonal deity. It survives the body, but
lives only for a cosmical period, and is reab-
sorbed at last into the source from which it
came. The Stoics classed themselves among
the followers of Socrates, and resembled him
in their theory of life. They rigidly severed
the morally good from the agreeable. They
declared that an act is good or evil in itself,
and that pleasure should never be made the
end of an action. The highest good is virtue.
Virtue is a life confoi-med to nature, or the
agreement of human conduct with the law of
the universe, and of the human with the di-
vine will ; it is especially resignation in respect
to fate. The cardinal virtues are practical
wisdom as to what is good and evil, courage,
prudence or self-restraint, and justice. Zeno
encouraged his followers to hold their feel-
ings in rigid control, so as to be as much as
possible independent of all disturbing influ-
ences, whatever occurrences might take place.
Stoicism made noble characters. It contin-
ued as a power for about 400 years, its most
eminent professors being the slave Epictetus,
the philosopher Seneca, and the emperor Mar-
cus Aurelius.

Stom'a-cher.

A part of dress, once worn by women,
covering the pit of the stomach and the
breast, and often highly ornamented. It is
the rendering adopted in Is. iii. 24 of the
Hebrew P'thigil, applied to an article of
female attire. The meaning of the Hebrew
word is not definitely known.

Stone.

Palestine is a stony country, and it was
often necessary to clear a field of stones
preparatory to its cultivation {Is. v. 2). An
enemy's fields were marred by throwing
stones on them, and his wells were choked
with stones (2 Kin. iii. 19, 25). Stones were
put to various uses: 1. For the foundations,
walls, pillars, and pavements of the statelier
class of buildings ; see Corner Stone, Mar-
ble, Pal.\ce. For these purposes the stone
was hewn and sawn. The Phoenicians were
famed for their skill in this work (2 Sam. v.
11). Stones of very large size were often
employed (Mark xiii. 1) ; see Jerusalem.
The walls of cities were often built of stone
(1 Kin. XV. 22), and in Herodian times at
least streets were paved with stone ; see
Street. Aqueducts, reservoirs, bridges, and
piers were constructed of stone. 2. For
altars, unhewn stones being employed by

the Hebrews (Ex. xx. 2."); Josh. viii. 31), for
walls or dikes around (iehls and vineyards
(Prov. xxiv. .'iO, ;;i), boundary marks (Deut.
xix. 14), pillars commemorative of persons
and events (see I'illar; cp. Herod, ii. 106),
and probably as way marks (Jer. xxxi. 21).
In Koman times mile stones were erected
along the chief public highways. They are
still to be seen on the road between Tyre
and Sidon, and between Pella and (lerasa.
Stones, both in their natural state and
graven, served as idols (Deut. xxix. 17; 2
Kin. xix. 18; cp. Is. Ivii. (j) ; and certain
stones, called in Greek hnUidoi and bailidia,
which were often, if not always, meteorites
and held sacred because they fell from heaven,
have been worshiped in various places
throughout western Asia. An etymological
connection between these Greek words and
beth 'el has not been established, and is very
questionable. 3. For clo.sing the mouth of
cisterns and wells, and the entrance of tombs
(Gen. xxix. 2 ; Mat. xxvii. 60), as tablets for
written documents (Ex. xxiv. 12 ; Deut. xxvii.
4, 8), in mills for grinding grain (xxiv. 6).

4. In slings and catapults (1 Sam. xvii. 40; 2
Chron. xxvi. 15; Wisd. v. 22; 1 Mac. vi. 51),
and for the execution of criminals, being
hurled by the witnesses and bystanders.
Flints were used for striking fire (2 Mac. x.
3), and were shaped into rude form to serve
as knives (Josh. v. 2). Weights for scales
were often cut out of stone (Deut. xxv. 13) ;
see Weights. Heaps of stones were made
to commemorate an event (Gen. xxxi. 46) or
to mark the grave of a notorious offender
(Josh. vii. 26; viii. 29; 2 Sam. xviii. 17). a
custom still in v'ogue in Sj-ria and Arabia,
but not restricted to the graves of evildoers.

5. Limestone was crushed and burned to
secure the lime (Is. xxxiii. 12).

The white stone mentioned in Kev. ii. 17
has been variously interpreted. 1. One of
the stone tablets, written with the name of a
person, which were used in some methods of
casting the lot. 2. The stone or bean, bear-
ing the name of a candidate, which was cast
at elections in Greece. 3. The pebble of
acquittal used in Greek courts. 4. The
ticket presented to the victor at the Olympic
games. 5. The instructions which the Roman
emperors caused to be thrown to victorious
contestants in the arena. And best — 6. A
small stone, a common writing material,
white to symbolize the heavenly character
of the victorious believer, and marked with
the name bestowed as .sign and seal of his
future glory.

Figuratively stone denotes hardness or in-
sensibility (1 Sam. xxv. 37 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 26),
firmness or strength (Job vi. 12; xli. 24). A
living stone is a stone in its natural condi-
tion, sound and not disintegrating. The fol-
lowers of Christ are living stones built into
the spiritual temple, of which Christ himself
is the chief cornerstone (Eph. ii. 20-22; 1
Pet. ii. 4-8).

stones, Precious

710

Stranger

stones, Pre'cious.

All tli(i precious stones referred to in tlie
canonical Scriptures, except three, are enu-
merated in R. V. of Ex. xxviii. 17-20 and
Rev. xxi. 11, 19-21, text and margin. The
three remaining ones are adamant (Ezek. iii.
9), and ligure and sardine (Ex. xxviii. 19;
Rev. iv. 3, both A. V.), and of these at least
two are merely other names for two of those
already mentioned. The precious stones are
adamant, agate, amber, amethyst, beryl, car-
buncle, chalcedony, chrysolite, chrysoprase
or chrysoprasus, crystal, diamond, emerald,
jacinth or hyacinth, Jasper, lapis lazuli,
ligure, onyx, pearl, ruby, sapphire, sardius
or sardine, sardonyx, and topaz. Ornaments
were made from them ; as seal rings. See
the several articles.

Ston'ing.

The ordinary mode of capital punishment
prescribed by Hebrew law (Lev. xx. 2) ; see
Punishment. It was an ancient method;
and it was not confined to the Hebrews, but
was practiced by the Macedonians and Per-
sians as well. The execution took place out-
side the city (Lev. xxiv. 14 ; 1 Kin. xxi. 10,
1.3; Acts vii. 58). The witnesses placed their
hands on the head of the criminal in token
that the guilt rested on him (Lev. xxiv. 14).
They laid aside any clothing that might im-
pede them in their solemn duty (Acts vii'.
58). In cases of idolatry, and apparently in
other cases also, the witne.sses hurled the
first stones (Deut.' xiii. 9 ; xvii. 7 ; cp. John
viii. 7 ; Acts vii. 58). The rabbins state that
the culprit was stripped of all clothing ex-
cept a cloth about the loins, and was thrown
to the ground from a scaflFold about 10 feet
high by the first witness, the first stone was
cast by the second witness, on the chest over
the heart of the criminal, and if it failed to
cause death, the bystanders completed the
execution. Sometimes the body was after-
wards suspended until sundown or burnt
(Deut. xxi. 23; Josh. vii. 25; Antiq. iv. 8,
24), and according to late Jewish law was
not buried in the family grave.

Stool, in R. V. Birth'stool.

A chair of peculiar form, upon which the
patient sat during parturition. It was de-
nominated 'obnayim, double stones, by the
Hebrews (Ex. i. 16), on account of its like-
ness to the potter's wheel. It is called kursee
el-wiladeh by the modern Egyptians.

Stork.

A bird called in Hebrew Jfsidah, affection-
ate, on account of its love for its young. It
was ceremonially unclean (Lev. xi. 19; Deut.
xiv. 18). It dwelt in fir trees (Ps. civ. 17),
but was a migratory bird (Jer. viii. 7). It is
the Ciconia alba, a white heron-like bird,
which s]>ends its winter in central and south-
ern Africa, but in spring visits continen-
tal Europe, Palestine, and northern Syria in
large numbers. It is about 4 feet high, with
bright red bill and legs, white plumage, and

glossy black wings. It feeds on frogs and
small reptiles ; but failing to get these it eats
offal, and hence was ceremonially unclean.
It is regarded as a sacred bird, and in most

places is unmolested, so that it has no .scrujjle
in visiting the haunts of man. Another
species found in Palestine, is Ciconia nigra,
the black stork, named so from the color of
its back and neck. It breeds in trees. It is
common in the valley of the Dead Sea.

Stran'ger.

A stranger in the Mosaic law, and in the
O. T. generally, means one not of Israelitish
descent dwelling with the Hebrews, as dis-
tinguished from a foreigner temporai-ily visit-
ing the land (Ex. xx. 10; Lev. xvi. 29; xvii.
8; 2 Sam. i. 13; Ezek. xiv. 7). The stranger
was not a full citizen, yet he had recognized
rights and duties. He was under tlie pro-
tection of God, and the Israelites were
charged to treat him kindly (Lev. xix. 3.3,
34 ; Deut. x. 18, 19). His rights were guarded
by injunctions in the law (Ex. xxii. 21 ;
xxiii. 9). When poor, he enjoyed the same
privileges as the Hebrew jioor (Deut. xxiv.
19, 20). The prohibitions that rested on an
Israelite rested on him (Ex. xii. 19; xx. 10;
Lev. xvi. 29 ; xvii. 10 ; xviii. 26 ; xx. 2 ;
xxiv. 16 ; and xvii. 15, which was modified
later by Deut. xiv. 21) ; but he was not
obligated to all positive religious duties
which devolved on the Israelite. He was ex-
empt, if he chose to be and if he was a free
man, from circumcision and participation in
the passover (Ex. xii. 4.3-46). The Israelites
were encouraged to invite him to the sacri-
ficial meals (Deut. xvi. 11, 14). He was al-
lowed to sacrifice to the Lord, he shared in the
atonement made for the sin of the congrega-
tion on account of sin unwittingly committed,
he had the privilege of a sin offering for aught
done unwittingly by himself, and the city '
of refuge offered him asylum in case of need
(Lev. xvii. 8; Num. xv. 14, 26, 29; xxxv.
15). In case he contracted uncle.Tuness he
was required to employ the riglits of jiurifi-
cation (Lev. xvii. 15; Num. xix. 10). If he

straw

711

Succoth

accepted cirounicision for his household, he
■was admitted to the passover (Ex. xii. 48, 49).
The chief disability under Mhich he labored
was that in case he became a bondman, the
year of jubile did not bring him release, he
fould be bought and made an inheritance for
the purchaser's children ( liev. xxv. 45, 46).

Ammonites and Moabites formed an ex-
cejitional class among the strangers. They
could not be admitted to membership in
Israel even by circumci.sion (Deut. xxiii. 3).
With the idolatrous Canaanites who were in
the land at the time of the conquest inter-
marriage was strictly forbidden (vii. 3), but
the remnant which was left after the conquest
eventually became to a large extent prose-
lytes. In Solomon's reign the census re-
vealed 153,000 strangers in the realm (2
Chron. 11. 17).

In the N. T. the word stranger does not
have this technical signification, but denotes
one who is unknown (John x. 5), an alien
(Luke xvii. Itj, 18), a sojourner away from
home (xxiv. 18, A. V.; Acts ii. 10, A. V.), an
Israelite dwelling in the Dispersipn (1 Pet. i.
1. A. v.).

Straw.

Wheat and barley straw, ground and cut
to small pieces in the process of threshing,
and doubtless often mixed with beans or
barley, w^as used by the ancient Hebrews as
fodder for their cattle, camels, asses, and
horses (Gen. xxiv. 25, 32; Judg. xix. 19; 1
Kin. iv. 28 ; Is. xi. 7). The Egyptians, in
making bricks, mixed it with clay to render
them more compact and prevent their crack-
ing. When Pharaoh withheld the chopped
straw, the Hebrew slaves were compelled to
go forth into the field and gather stubble, or
rather stalks, for themselves, and chop their
own straw (Ex. v. 7, 12, 16). Straw was
probably not used by the ancient Hebrews as
a litter in the stall. The people of Palestine
in the present day are accustomed to use
dried dung for the purpose.

Stream. See River.

Street.

The streets of an oriental town were doubt-
less in ancient times, as they are to-day,
narrow, tortuous, and dirty. They are seldom
wide enough to permit two laden camels to
pass each other ; and Josephus incidentally
attests the narrowness of the streets of Jeru-
salem in his day (Antiq. xx. 5, 3 ; War ii. 14,
■9 ; 15, 5) ; but some were suflSciently broad
for chariots to be driven through them (Jer.
xvii. 25: Nah. ii. 4). The street in Damascus
called Straight was an exception. It was a
magnificent thoroughfare, 100 feet broad
and divided into three avenues by rows of
columns. Many streets were flanked by
blank walls, seldom pierced except by doors,
the windows of the houses opening on interior '•
courts. The streets devoted to stores were '
lined by salesrooms with open fronts, and pre- !
sented a lively appearance. The character- I

istic bazaar streets, each surrendered to one
kind of business, were features of the ancient
city (Jer. xxxvii. 21 ; War v. 8, 1). The in-
tersections of the streets, since they afforded
more room, were centers of concourse and dis-
play (Prov. i. 21 ; Mat. vi. 5 ; Luke xiii. 26).
At the gates were broad, open places where
business was transacted. There is no evidence
that the streets were paved in ancient times,
although Josephus aflirms that Solomon paved
the roads leading to Jerus;ilem with l)lack
stones (Antiq. viii. 7. 4). At the time of the
Herods, however, pavements were laid (xvi.
5, 3 ; XX. 9, 7), and efforts were in some in-
stances made toward keei)iug the streets
clean (xv. 9, 6).

Stripes. See Scourge.

Strong Drink.

Intoxicating liquor, in Hebrew shekar (1
Sam. i. 13-15; Prov. xx. 1; Is. xxix. 9).
Wine and strong drink were forbidden to
the priest, when about to enter the sanctuary
(Lev. X. 9; cp. Ezek. xliv. 21), and kings
and princes were warned against its use, lest
it lead to perversion of judgment (Prov.
xxxi. 4, 5) ; yet Isaiah was compelled to
point to the sad spectacle of priests and
prophets, even in .ludah, scandalously failing
in duty through wine and strong drink (Is.
xxviii. 7). Wine, strong drink, vinegar, any
liquor of grapes, and even fresh grapes were
forbidden the Nazirite (Num. vi. 3; cp. Judg.
xiii. 4 ; Luke i. 15) ; see Nazirite. Both
wine and strong drink were allowed at the
feast spread by the bringer of tithes (Deut.
xiv. 26). On the basis of the exhortation,
" Give strong drink unto him that is ready
to perish" (Prov. xxxi. 6), kind-hearted
women of Jerusalem provided stupefying
draughts for criminals condemned to death
(Mishna ; cp. Mark xv. 23).

Stub'ble. See Straw.

Su'ah [sweepings].

An Asherite, a son of Zophah (1 Chron.
vii. 36).

Su'cath-ite, in A. V. SuchatMte.
A native or an inhabitant of an unknown
place called Sucah (1 Chron. ii. 55).

Suc'coth [booths or huts].

1. A place east of the Jordan (Judg. viii.
4, 5; and Jerome on Gen. xxxiii. 17), at
which Jacob, on his return from Mesopota-
mia, after crossing the Jabbok (Gen. xxxii.
22), built himself a house, with booths for
his cattle, giving the spot from the latter
circumstance the name of Succoth (Gen.
xxxiii. 17). He journeyed thence to Shechem
(18). It was in the valley of the Jordan,
near Zarethan (1 Kin. vii. 46; Ps. Ix. 6;
cviii. 7), and was assigned to the Gadites
(Josh. xiii. 27). In the time of Gideon it was
an important town, ruled by seventy-seven
elders. They refused him assistance when
he was pursuing Zebah and Zalmunna, and
were in consequence punished by him when

Succoth-benoth

712

Suphah

he returned a victor (Judg. viii. 5-16). The
site must be sought neai* the ford of Daiuieh,
on the road between es-Salt and Nablus.
Tell Deir 'Alia scarcely marks the i>lace,
although the Talmud states that the latter
name of Succoth was Dar'alah ; for the tell
is on the northern side of the Jabbok, and
the narrative almost certainly indicates that
Succoth was on tlie southern side.

2. The first camping ground of the Israel-
ites after leaving Rameses (Ex. xii. 37; xiii.
20; Num. xxxiii. 5, 6). Succoth is probably
the Hebrew modification of Thuku, the
Egyptian name of the civil city surrounding
the sacred buildings of Pithom (q. v.).

Suc-coth-be'noth.

An idol which the Babylonian colonists set
up in Samaria (2 Kin. xvii. 30). The tute-
lary deity of Babylon was Marduk, and bis
consort was Zarpanitum, although numerous
other deities were worshiped in the city.
The historian Eawlinson, followed by Schra-
der, proposed to identify Succoth-benoth with
Zarpanitum, the latter part of the two names
being essentially the same. Friedrich De-
litzsch has a more plausible theory. He re-
gards Succoth-benoth as a Hebraization of
the Assyrian words sakkut binnti, supreme
judge of the universe, and he considers it to
have been in this instance a title of Marduk.

Su'chath-ite. See Sucathitb.

Suk'ki-im, in A. Y. Sukkiims [to the He-
brew ear, people living in huts, nomads].

One of the peoples furnishing soldiers to
the army of Shishak, king of Egypt, when
he invaded Palestine. They were evidently
an African race (2 Chron. xii. 3).

Sun.

The luminary of the day, created by God
(Gen. i. 16; Ps. Ixxiv. 16; cxxxvi. 8), pre-
served by God (Jer. xxxi. 35; Mat. v. 45),
and subject to God (Ps. civ. 19) ; influential
in promoting vegetation (Deut. xxxiii. 14 ; 2
Sam. xxiii. 4), and also burning it with its
lieat (Jon. iv. 8). It is spoken of as rising
and setting, and is poetically described as
occupying a tent iu the heavens, yet under
the earth, whence it issues in the morning
and whither it returns at night (Ps xix.
4-6). Death when in the meridian of one's
days, and the sudden loss of prosperity, are
likened to the setting of the sun at mid-
daj' (Jer. xv. 9; Amos viii. 9; Mic. iii. 6).
The sun was worshiped by the nations con-
temporary with the Hebrews, notably by the
Phoenicians under the name of Baal, by the
Assyrians under that of Shamash, and by the
Egyptians under that of Ra ; .see Assyria,
Ba.\.l, Egypt II. 6, Ox. The Hebrews were
warned against all such heathenism, but sun
worship nevertheless found entrance among
them. Altars were erected to all the host of
heaven (2 Kin. xxi. 5), incense was burned
to the sun and horses were dedicated to it
(xxiii. 5, 11 ; cp. the Persian worship, Herod.

i. 189 ; vii. 54), and kisses were thrown to it
with the hand (Job xxxi. 26, 27).

Joshua commanded the sun to stand still.
The older commentators referred the words
of Hab. iii. 11 to this event, but the Hebrew
construction and the context are against it.
Sun and moon withdraw into their habita-
tion. Dread before the presence of the Lord
seizes all nature, and reveals itself in the
trembling of the mountains, in the raging of
the sea, and in the withdrawal of their light
by sun and moon (10, 11). The first refer-
ence to the astronomical lengthening of the
day at Beth-boron is found in Ecclesiasticus,
and its author evidently believed that the
sun and moon were checked in their courses.
" Did not the sun go back by his hand ? And
did not one day become as two" (Ecclus.
xlvi. 4). Josephus also understood that the
day was lengthened (Antiq. v. 1, 17). Un-
questionably God could work this wonder,
with all that it involved. The circumstances,
however, scarcely aflbrded an adequate occa-
sion for so stupendous a miracle. Another
interpretation has much in its favor. It is
certain that Josh. x. 12'' and 1.3" are poetry.
Verses 12-15 in all probability form a para-
graph by themselves (cp. the repetition, 15
and 43), and are quoted from the Book of
Jashar, a collection of poems with introduc-
tory and perhaps concluding remarks in
prose (see Jashar ; cp. Job with its prose
introduction and conclusion ; cp. the position
of the quoting clause in Josh. x. 13 and 2
Sam. i. 18). Joshua's words are the impas-
sioned utterance of a general inspiring his
army on the field of battle. Desirous that
Israel may have time com])letely to over-
throw the foe, he apostroj)hizes sun and
moon. In fervent, imperious words, he de-
mands time. " Sun, stand thou still upon
Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the valley of
Aijalon." God granted the prayer. A hail-
storm as.sisted the Israelites, they drove the
enemy to Azekah and Makkedah, and made
a great slaughter. This event, it seems, was
worked up poetically in the Book of Jashar,
and must be interpreted as poetry, as one
interprets the psalmist when telling of the
gift of manna, he says: "He commanded
the skies above, and opened the doors of
heaven ; and he rained down manna upon
them to eat, and gave them of the corn of
heaven" (Ps. Ixxviii. 23, 24) ; or as one un-
derstands the poet who, after relating the
passage of the Red Sea and the Jordan, adds :
" The mountains skipped like rams, and the
little hills like lambs" (cxiv. 6); or as one
understands the i)rophet Habakkuk when he
pictures Jehovah as a warrior and .says :
" Thou didst ride upon thine horses, ujion
thy chariots of salvation " (Hab. iii. 8).

Su'phah [a rotatory storm, cultivable soil
in the midst of dry land].

Probably a i)ro])er name, denoting the re-
gion in which Vaheb was situated (Num. xxi.

Surety

•13

Swine

14, R. v.). Tristram couuects it with what is
now called hy the Arabs the Sufieh or Ghor :
t. e., the great depression in which the Jordan
runs and the Dead Sea lies, continued south-
ward to the Hue of cliffs 10 miles south of
that sea.

Sure'ty.

A person who makes himself liable for the
obligations of another (Prov. xxii. 26, 27).
A surety was sometimes offered for a service
to be rendered (Gen. xliv. 32) ; and, when
commercial transactions were common, a
surety was often required to be found before
credit was given. The formalities consisted
in giving the hand, in the presence of wit-
nesses, to the person to whom the debt was
due, and promising to discharge the obliga-
tion in case the debtor defaulted (Prov. vi.
1, 2 ; xvii. 18). The folly of becoming surety,
especially in behalf of a stranger, was pro-
verbial (xi. 15 ; xvii. 18; xx. 16) ; but it was
regarded as proper under circumstances and
for a moderate amount, and as a neighborly
act (Ecclus. viii. 13; xxix. 14, 20), yet its
grave dangers and its liability to abuse by
a dishonest client were recognized (xxix.
16-18).

Su'san-chite. See Shushanchite.

Su-san'na [a lily].

One of the women who ministered to Jesus
of their substance (Luke viii. 3).

Su'si [horseman].

Father of Gaddi, the spy from the tribe of
Manasseh (Num. xiii. 11).

Swal'low.

1. A bird, in biblical and talmudic Hebrew
d'lor. shooting straight out or freedom. It

--^:

Swallow.

frequented the sanctuary at Jerusalem, and
nested there (Ps. Ixxxiv. 3), and it was found
in company with other small birds, like the
.sparrow (ibid. ; Prov. xxvi. 2. R. V.). The barn
swallow of Great Britain {Hirundo rufitica} is
abundant in Palestine from March to the
approach of winter. Several other species
also occur, but are less common.

2. The rendering in the R. V. of the He-
brew Sus or !<is. a bird with a chattering note
(Is. xxxviii. 14), and migratory (.Jer. viii. 7).
Swallow is the rendering adopted by the
Septuagint, Vulgate, and Syriac versions, but

the A. v., following the rabbins, translates it
crane. Tristram believes that the swift is
intended. He says that the common swift
(Cypffelus apus) is called sis in the vernacular
Arabic. It visits Palestine in immense num-
bers in its migrations, remaining from April
to November, and building in tlie interval.
Two other species of the genus occur in Pal-
estine, the white-bellied sv/h't {Cypselus melba)
and the white-rumped swift (Cy2)selusaffinis).

3. The rendering in A. V. of the Hebrew
'Agar (Is. xxxviii. 14; Jer. viii. 7). The
R. V. in both passages renders it crane
(q. v.).

Swan.

The rendering of the Hebrew Tinshemeth,
breathing, inflation, a name applied to an
unclean bird (Lev. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 16;
text of A. v., margin of R. Y.). The R. V.
text makes it the horned owl. The same
name belonged to a reptile classed with the
lizards (Lev. xi. 30, in R. V. chameleon, in
A. V. mole). Tristram thinks that the bird
was probably either the purple gallinule
(Porphyrio csendeus) or the glossy ibis {Ibis
fidciuellus).

Swear'ing. See Oath.

Sweat.

It is a common occurrence for perspiration
to break out suddenly over the body when
the individual is under the influence of
strong mental excitement. V»'ell-autbenti-
cated cases have been recorded in which this
perspiration has been colored with blood.
The phenomenon is recognized in medical
science, and is called diapedesis, or the oozing
of the blood corpuscles through the walls of
the blood vessels without rupture. During
Christ's agony in Gethsemane his sweat be-
came as it were great drops of blood falling
down upon the ground (Luke xxii. 44).

Swine.

The swine was a ceremonially unclean
animal (Lev. xi. 7 ; Deut. xiv. 8). It is dirty,
does not refuse to eat offal and carrion , and the
use of its flesh for food in hot countries is sup-
posed to produce cutaneous diseases. It was not
raised by the Arabs (Pliny, Hist. Nat. viii. 78),
and was regarded as unclean by Phoenicians,
Ethiopians, and Egyptians. In Egypt, how-
ever, a pig was sacrificed and eaten on the an-
nual festival of the moon-god and Osiris (Bac-
chus) ; nevertheless, a man who accidentally
touched a pig at once washed, a swineherd was
not allowed to enter a temple, and was com-
pelled to find a wife among the people of his
own occupation, as no other man would give a
daughter to him in marriage (Herod, ii. 47 ;
con. Apion. ii. 14). To the Jews swine's flesh
was abominable (Is. Ixv. 4), the pig was the
emblem of filth and coarseness (Prov. xi. 22 ;
Mat. vii. 6; 2 Pet. ii. 22), and to feed swine
was the lowest and most despicable occupa-
tion to which a Jew could be reduced (Luke
XV. 15). Yet pork found entrance to the
idolatrous feasts of degenerate Hebrews (Is.

Sword

714

Ssmagogue

Ixv. 4 ; Ixvi. 17). In the reign of Antiochus
Epiphaues the command to a Jew to offer or
to taste swine's flesh was used as a means of
determining whether he was loyal to the re-
ligion of his fathers or was willing to accept
the worship favored by his conquerors (1 Mac.
i.47, 50; 2Mac. vi. 18, 21 ; vii. 1, 7). But many
Jews affected Grecian manners, and John
Hyrcanus some years later found it advisable
to issue an edict that no one should keep
swine. In the time of Christ one large herd
of swine at least was pastured in the Decapo-
lis (Mark v. 11-13), a region colonized by
Greeks, among whom the swine was highly
esteemed as an article of food. There is no
reason to suppose that Jews owned either
these swine or those in the far country fed by
the prodigal son (Luke xv. 13). See Boar.
Sword.

A weapon with which an adversary was
cut by being struck or was thrust through (1
Sam. xvii. 51 ; xxxi. 4 ; 2 Sam. ii. 16 ; Mat.
xxvi. 51). It had hilt and
blade (Judg. iii. 22), was car-
ried in a sheath (1 Sam.
xvii. 51 ; Jer. xlvii. 6), and
girded on the loins (Ex.
xxxii. 27 ; 2 Sam. xx. 8),
usually at the left side
(Judg. iii. 16 with 15, 21).
The hilt was often highly
ornamented, at least among
the Egyptians and Assyr-
ians. The blade was com-
monly made of iron (Is. ii.
4), perhaps also of bronze,
as not seldom in Egypt.
It was straight or slightly
curved, long or short (Judg.
iii. 16, a cuJait long), single
or double edged (ibid. ; Ps.
cxlix. 6).

In the Roman period a
short, slightly curved dag-
ger was worn under the
clothing by the Jewish
sicarii, or assassins (Antiq.
XX. 8, 10; War ii. 13, 3).
Roman infantry wore the
sword on the left side and
the dagger on the right, but the cavalry wore
the sword on the right (iii. 5, 5). This, how-
ever, was not an invariable rule.

Syc'a-mine Tree.

The mulberry tree, called in Greek sulca-
mino.i (Luke xvii. 6). The reference is to the
black mulberry (Morus nigra), a tree 20 or
30 feet high, which is the species commonly
cultivated for its fruit, as well as for its
leaves, on which the silkworm feeds. The
fruit is dark red or black, with an uneven
surface. The tree has been planted exten-
sively in Palestine.

Sy'char.

A town of Samaria, in the vicinity of the
land given by Jacob to his son Joseph, near

Jacob's well (John iv. 5 ; cp. Gen. xlviii. 22).
Formerly it was supposed to be a Greek cor-
ruption of Shechem, or a nickname for the
city after it became the abode of the Samari-
tans, either from Hebrew sheker, falsehood,
or shikkor, drunkard ; but it is now believed
by many to be the village of 'Askar, on the
eastern declivity of mount Ebal, a little north
of Jacob's well.

Sy'chem. See Shechem.

Syc'o-more.

A fig tree, called in Hebrew shikmah, in
Greek sukoinoren. It was abundant in the
lowland of Judah (1 Kin. x. 27 ; 1 Chron.
xxvii. 28 ; 2 Chron. i. 15 ; ix. 27) ; and it
grew in the Jordan valley. Zacchseus climbed
one in order to see Jesus as he i)assed (Luke
xix. 4). Amos was a dresser of sycomore
trees (Amos vii. 14, R. V.). It was, and still
is, cultivated also in Egypt (Ps. Ixxviii. 47).
As a building material, sycomore timber is
contrasted with cedar, as bricks are with

^it.^

Branch and Fruit of the Sycomore.

stone, the less durable with the more valua-
ble (Is. ix. 10). The tree is the Ficus syco-
morus, a fig tree, 25 to 50 feet high and 60
feet broad, with' persistent, heart-shaped
leaves downy beneath, and eatable fruit. It
affords grateful shade the year round. The
fruit grows in clusters on twigs which spring
directly from the trunk and larger branches.
The tree is quite common.

The sycomore must not be confounded with
our sycamore {Acer j's^eiido-platauus) , which is
not mentioned in the Bible.

Sy-e'ne. See Seveneh.

Sym'e-on. See Simeon.

Syn'a-gogue [in Greek an assembly, a syn-
agogue].

Synagogue

ri5

Synagogue

A Jewish place of worship. The building
served also for local law court and school.
Previous to the captivity, worship of the
highest kind could be performed only at the
t-emple at Jerusalem. Of course, the Scrip-
tures could be publicly read elsewhere (Jer.
xxxvi. 6, 10, 12-15), aud the people could re-
sort to the prophets anywhere for religious
instruction (2 Kin. iv. 38). Worship at Je-
rusalem was impossible when the peoj)le were
in captivity in Babylon, and it seems to have
been then and there that synagogues first
arose. They were designed to be places, not
of sacrifice, but of scriptural instruction and
prayer. The English word synagogue occurs
only once in the O. T. (Ps. Ixxiv. 8). The
margin of E. V. has "places of assembly "
instead of synagogues, and the Septuagint
renders by a word which means a feast, a
festival, a holiday. It is not, therefore, cer-
tain that there is any reference to a synagogue
in the O. T. lu the first century they were
found wherever Jews dwelt. Even small
communities of Jews in the lesser cities
outside of Palestine had their synagogues ;
as in Salamis in Cyprus (Acts xiii. 5), Antioch
of Pisidia (14), Iconium (xiv. 1), Bercea (xvii.
10). In large cities synagogues were often
numerous ; as in Jerusalem (vi. 9) and Alex-
andria. These religious communities main-
tained an existence separate from the state,
and managed their own religious and civil
aflairs. subordinate, of course, to the law of
the land (Antiq. xix. 5, 3). A board of elders
managed the affairs of the synagogue and of
the religious community which it repre-
sented (Luke vii. 3-5). The special ofli-
cers, who directed the worship, maintained
order and looked after the temporalities,
were : 1. The ruler of the synagogue (Acts
xviii. 8). In some synagogues several rulers
were in office (xiii. 15 ; Mark v. 22). The ruler
presided at the service ; appointed or per-
mitted suitable members to pray, read the
Scriptures, and exhort (Acts xiii. 15) ; and
was responsible for the proprieties (Luke
xiii. 14). The services were not conducted
by permanent officers set apart for the duty,
but by private members who had shown
qualifications for it. Thus Jesus read the
Scriptures in the synagogue at Nazareth (iv.
16), and he often taught in the synagogues
(Mat. iv. 23). Paul aud Barnabas were called
on by the rulers of the synagogue at Antioch
of Pisidia for words of exhortation (Acts
xiii. 15). 2. One or more attendants for the
humbler and menial duties. They brought
the Scriptures to the reader and replaced the
roll in its depository (Luke iv. 20), and they
inflicted the corporal punishment to which
the authorities sentenced a member. 3. Dis-
pensers of alms (cp. Mat. vi. 2). 4. Wealthy
men of leisure, if possible ten or more, who
represented the congregation at every serv-
ice. The congregation assembled every Sab-
bath for worship (Acts xv. 21), and on the
second and fifth daj's of the week to hear a

portion of the law read. The men and the
women sat apart. At the Sabbath service
prayer was offered by a member of the con-
gregation. It consisted chiefly in reading
Dent. vi. 4-9; xi. 13-21; Num. xv. 37-41 ;
and offering some or all of the eighteen pray-
ers and benedictions. The people were ac-
customed to stand during this prayer (Mat.
vi. 5 ; Mark xi. 25), and united in saying
Amen at its close. A lesson from the law
was read (Acts xv. 21) by several members,
each taking a short paragraph in turn. This
reading was prefaced and concluded bj'
thanksgiving. Then came a lesson from the
prophets, read by the person who had opened
the service with prayer. The reading was
followed by an exi)osition aud an exhortation
given by the reader or some other person
(Luke iv. 16-22 ; Acts xiii. 15). The service
was concluded by a benediction, which was
pronounced by a priest, if one were present,
and the congregation said, Amen. The .syna-
gogue was called by the Jews in their own
language assembly house. Euins of these
buildings still exist in Galilee at Tell Hum,
which is perhaps the site of Capernaum,
at Irbid, Kefr Bir'im, Nebartein, and some

1 I nt of ruined Synagogue at Kefr Bir'im

other places. They were rectangular struc-
tures. All lay north and south, and had
a large middle portal and two smaller side
doors on the southern side. The interior
was divided into five aisles by four rows of
columns, and the two northern cornei-s were
formed by double-engaged columns. At Tell
Hum there are Corinthian capitals ; at Irbid
a mixture of Corinthian and Ionic. The
faces of the lintels over the gateways have
as a frequent ornament the representation of
a scroll of vine leaves with bunches of grapes.
At Nebartein there is a figure of the seven-
branched caudlestick, with an inscription ;

Syntyche

716

Taanach

at Kefr Bir'im what is intended apparently
for the paschal lamb; while at Tell Hum,
there are both the lamb and the jtot of mauua.
The assembly room was provided with a
reading desk, a chest or closet for the Scrip-
tures, and seats for at least the elders and
richer members (Mat. xxiii. (J : Jas. ii. 2, 3).
The more honorable seats were near the place
where the Scriptures were kept. The con-
gregation was divided ; the men on one side,
the women on the other. Punishment or-
dered by the authorities of the synagogue
was inflicted in the building, possibly in some
chamber (Mat. x. 17; Acts xxii. 19).

The great synagogue denotes a council,
said to have been organized by Nehemiah
about 410 B. c. It consisted of 120 members
(Megilloth, 17, 18), Ezra was its president.
To this body the prophets transmitted the
law of Moses (Pirke aboth i. 1). Simon the
Just, who died about 275 B. c, was one of
the last of its members (ibid.). It was suc-
ceeded by the sanhedriu (x. 1). Its special
work was to reorganize religious worship
among the returned captives and gather to-
gether the canonical books. Such is the
Jewish tradition. The existence of the great
synagogue has been doubted, since there is
no mention of any such body in the Apocry-
pha, in Josephus, or in Philo. Nor does the
name appear anywhere iu Scripture. But
the tradition is not to be wholly rejected.
The great synagogue was probably a council
of scribes for the, decision of theological
questions ; contained from first to last, dur-
ing an existence of a little more than a cen-
tury and a half, about 120 prominent mem-
bers ; and numbered among them all the
leading scribes from Ezra to Simon the Just.

Syn'ty-che [fortunate].

A female in the Pliilippian church whom
Paul exhorted to make up her quarrel with
another female, Euodia (Phil. iv. 2).

Syr'a-cuse.

A celebrated city on the east coast of
Sicily. It was founded about 735 b. c. by
Archias of Corinth, who led thither a colony
of Corinthians and Dorians. It greatly flour-
ished, and in 414 its inhabitants defeated
and destroyed an Athenian fleet of 200 ves-
sels. In 212 B. c. it was taken by the Ro-
mans. Paul visited it on his voyage to Rome
(Acts xxviii. 12). It was taken by the Sara-
cens in A. D. 878. It is still called Siracusa,
but is now much reduced in size and popu-
lation.

Syr'i-a.

A country along the eastern coast of the
Mediterranean and extending far inland. It
comprehended most of the regions known in
O. T. times as Canaan and Aram. The wis-
dom of introducing the name into the E. V.
of the O. T. is questionable, for the country
referred to in the O. T. is Aram, an inland re-
gion. The name Syria is an abbreviated form
of Assyria, and became current after the con-

quests of Alexander the Great. Syria formed
the most important province, both commer-
cially and from a military point of view, of
the kingdom of tlie Seleucida?, whose cajjital
was at Babylon. It soon became apparent
that western Asia required a government of
its own, more in the Greek spirit than was
the system suitable for the far east. For this
purpose Antioch was founded as a royal city
about 300 B. c. (cp. 1 Mac. iii. 37 and 31, 32).
The kingdom of the Seleucidse was gradually
reduced by the encroachment of its foes, un-
til at the close of the second century b. c.
only Syria was left. With the Roman con-
quest in 64 B. c, the kingdom was erected
into the province of Syria, with a Roman
governor resident in Antioch. The name
Syria was limited to this province, which in-
cluded the country west of the Euphrates
from the Taurus mountains to the borders
of Egypt. From the time of Augustus it
was governed by a consular legate of the em-
peror. In A. D. 70 Judffia was separated from
Syria and made a distinct province under an
imperial legate.

Syr'i-ac Ver'sion. See Versions.

Syr'i-an.

One of the Syrian race, or an inhabitant of
Syria. In O. T. times the word Syria was not
in use ; and where Syrian occurs in the E. V.
of the O. T. it denotes a native of Aram,
properly called an Aramtean (Gen. xxviii. 5) ;
see Aram, Damascus, and for the period
after the conquests of Alexander the Great,
Syria.

Sy-ro-phoe-ni'ci-an, in A. V. Syropheni-
cian.

A Phoenician of Syria in distinction from
the Libypha?nicians of north Africa (Mark
vii. 26; cp. Mat. xv. 22). A new distinction
arose toward the end of the second century
of the Christian era, when the province of
Syria was divided into Syria Magna and
Syria-Phoenice.

Syr'tis. See Quicksand.

T.

Ta'a-nach, in A. V. once Tanach (Josh,
xxi. 25).

A Canaanite city, the king of which was
defeated and slain by Joshua (Josh. xii. 21).
It lay within the limits of Issachar or Asher,
probably the former, but was nominally pos-
sessed by the Manassites (Josh. xvii. 11; 1
Chron. vii. 20). It was assigned, with its
suburbs, to the Kohathite Levites (Josh. xxi.
25). The Manassites could not expel the
Canaanite inhabitants, though when strong
they rendered them tributary (Judg. i. 27).
The great battle between Barak and Sisera
was fought near Taanach (v. 19). The place
was important in Solomon's reign (1 Kin. iv.
12). The name remains, as Ta'annuk, on

Copijriyht, is-j<:,by Trustees of the Pi-esbyteiian Board of Publiculion and Sabbath School Iforfc

I

Taanath-shiloh

717

Tabernacle

the southeast side of a h)W mound among
the hills hounding the soutliern side of the
plain of Jezreel, about 7 miles west-south-
west of the city of that name. There are
rock-cut tombs in the vicinity. Taanak is
one of the places mentioned in an inscriiition
at Karnak, in Egypt, in connection with the
conquests of Thothnies III., about 1600 B. C.

Ta-a-natli-sM'loh [approach to Shiloh].

A town on the boundary line between
Ephraim and Mauasseh (Josli. xvi. 6). It is
the ruin Ta'na, 7 miles southeast by east of
Shechem.

Tab'ba-oth [rings].

A family of Nethinim, members of which
returned with Zerubbabel from captivity
(Ezra ii. 43 ; Neb. vii. 46).

Tafbath.

A place near Abel-meholah (Judg. vii. 22).
Site unknown.

Ta'be-al, in R. V. Tabeel [probably, good-
uot ; a scornful modification of Tabeel
(q- V.)].

A man whose son was to have been set up
as puppet king in Jerusalem by Rezin, king
of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, if
tliev bad succeeded in capturing the city (Is.
vii. '6).

Ta'be-el [Aramaic, God is good].

1. Probably the original pronunciation of
Tabeal (q. v.).

2. A Persian petty governor, probably of
Syrian descent, one of those who complained
to Artaxerxes Longimanus that the wall of
Jerusalem was being rebuilt (Ezra iv. 7).

Tab'e-rah [burning].

A place where the Israelites murmured,
and the fire of the Lord burnt among them
in the uttermost part of the camp (Num. xi.
1-3; Deut. ix. 22). The burning abated at
the intercession of Moses. The event per-
haps occurred at no formal encampment, or
only in the uttermost part of the camp at
Kibroth-hattaavah (Num. xi. 1, 35).

Ta'ber-ing.

Striking frequently, as on a tabor, tabret,
tamborine, or timbrel (Nab. ii. 7).
Tab'er-na-cle [a tent].

1. A provisional tent where the Lord met
his people (Ex. xxxiii. 7-10) ; see Tent of
Meeting.

2. The movable sanctuary in the form
of a tent which God directed Moses at
Sinai to make, that God might dwell asking
among his people (Ex. xxv. 8, 9). Hence
it was called "the dwelling" (9; xxvi. 1,
margin of E. V.), and, as the place where
.Tehovah met his jicople, "the tent of meet-
ing" (xl. 34, .35, in E. V.), and as the
<lepository of the tables of the law or tes-
timony, "the tent of the testimony"
(xxxviii. 21; cp. xxv. 21, 22; Num. ix. 15).
The materials for its construction were largely
obtained in the vicinity : the acacia wood of
the wilderness, hair and skins of the flocks,

skin of the tachash, a porpoise or similar brute,
from the Red Sea. Gold, silver, brass, and
linen, or perhaps muslin, were liberally fur-
nished by the people, who gave their orna-
ments for the work (Ex. xxxv. 21-29). The
tabernacle liad the form of a parallelogram,

/fttifWfCIDrar.

Oi^va

□

Ground Plan of the Taljcrnaclc.

30 cubits long by 10 broad, with the entrance
at the eastern end. The rear end and the
two sides were made of boards, 48 in number,
20 on each side and 8 in the rear, of which 2
formed the posts at the angles. Each plank
was 10 cubits long by Ii cubits broad, and
was overlaid with gold. They were scarcely
cut from the log in a single piece, but were
probably framed of several pieces. They
were set on end, and were held in place at
the bottom by tenons sunk in sockets of
silver, two to each plank, and they were
bound together laterally by transverse bars
of acacia wood, which were arranged five
on a side externally and thrust through
rings attached to each plank (xxvi. 1.5-30).
The entire front was left as an entrance.
This portal consisted of a row of five pillars
overlaid with gold, resting in sockets of
brass, and supporting a curtain. The in-
terior was divided into two apartments
by four similar pillars sunk in sockets of
silver and hung with a curtain (32, 37).
These rooms were respectively the western,

Tabernacle

718

Tabernacles, Feast of

called the holy of holies, measuring 10
cubits in every direction, and the sanctuary
or holy place, which was 20 cubits long by
10 cubits in breadth and height. The hang-
ings were four: 1. The ceiling and appar-
ently the walls were hung with a curtain of
white twined linen, blue, purple, and scarlet,
and figured with cherubim. This curtain
was made in ten pieces, each 28 cubits by 4,
sewed together in two sheets. These sheets
were then looped together. One formed the
ceiling and three sides of the holy of holies,
and the other the ceiling and two sides
of the sanctuary (1-6). 2. The main ex-
ternal covering was of goats' hair, and
consisted of eleven narrow curtains, each 30
cubits by 4 ; that is, 2 cubits longer than
the under curtain of linen (cp. 13).. These
strips were united into two great curtains,
which were looped together. The smaller
one, which was made of five strips, covered
the top and three sides of the holy of holies ;
the larger one covered the top and sides of
the sanctuary, and had one breadth depend-
ing over the portal in front (7-13). 3. Over
this covering of goats' hair a double roof of
red-dyed rams' skins and tachash (perhaps
porpoise) skins was thrown (14). 4. Two
veils were hung, one at the entrance to the
sanctuary and the other in front of the holy
of holies. Each was wrought of blue, purple,
scarlet, and fine twisted linen ; but on the
inner veil, which separated the holy of holies,
were figures of cheriibim, in token of the
presence and unapproachableness of Jehovah,
while the outer veil, which was passed by
the priests when they entered the sanctuary
to minister, lacked symbols to prevent man's
ingress (31-37).

The tabernacle stood in a courtyard, like
itself rectangular in form, its longer sides,
running east and west, being 100 cubits, and
the shorter two, running north and south, 50.
The court was inclosed by a fence, 5 cubits
high, formed of pillars filleted with silver,
resting in sockets of brass, placed 5 cubits
apart, and hung with fine twisted linen.
The entrance was at the east. It was 20
cubits wide and was closed by a curtain of
blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twisted linen,
hung on four pillars (Ex. xxvii. 9-18). The
tabernacle was pitched in the western half
of this area, the laver and the altar of burnt
offering being erected in the open eastern half.
The ark was the central feature. The de-
scription given in the Bible starts from this
essential object. The ark stood in the holy
of holies. In the sanctuary were the altar
of incense, which however belonged to the
oracle (1 Kin. vi. 22, R. V. ; Heb. ix. 3, 4),
the table of showbread, and the golden can-
dlestick. In the court .stood the laver and
tlie altar of burnt ottering. For the descrip-
tion of these objects and their symbolism,
see the several articles. The tabernacle
was dedicated on the first day of the sec-
ond year after the departure of the Israel-

ites from Egypt. A cloud rested on it by
day and a pillar of fire by night during all
the period of the wandering. When the
people broke camp, the Levites took the
structure to pieces and put it together again
at the new camping ground ( Ex. xxvi. ; xxvii.
9-19 ; XXXV. 4-xxxvi. 38 ; xl. 1-38). During
the conquest of Canaan, the ark remained in
the camp at Gilgal. After the settlement of
the Israelites, Joshua set up the tabernacle
at Shiloh, where it remained during the
period of the judges (Josh, xviii. 1). By
the capture of the ark by the Philistines,
the tabernacle lost its glory and its value (I*s.
Ixxviii. 60). In the reign of Saul it was at
Nob (cp. 1 Sam. xxi. 1 with Mark ii. 26).
During the greater part of David's reign,
and in that of Solomon to the building of
the temple, the tabernacle was at the high
place of Gibeon (1 Chron. xxi. 29). After-
wards Solomon laid it up in the temple
(1 Kin. viii. 4 ; 2 Chron. v. 5), which was
constructed on the same model, but in every
part was of dimensions twice as great.

Tab'er-na-cles, Feast of.

The last of the three great annual festi-
vals at which every man of Israel was re-
quired to appear before the Lord at the
sanctuary, and the second of the harvest
festivals "(Deut. xvi. 16; 2 Chron. viii. 12, 13 ;
cp. 1 Kin. ix. 25 ; xii. 32, 33 ; Zech. xiv. 16).
It took its name from the custom of dwelling
in booths during its celebration (Lev. xxiii.
40-42), which, after the establishment of the
sanctuary at Jerusalem, were erected in the
open places of the city, on the roofs and in
the courts of the houses, in the precincts of
the temple (Neh. viii. 16), and in the open
country outside the walls. It was the cul-
minating festival of the year ; and while
preeminently and essentially agricultural, it
combined an historical association, the re-
verse in this respect of the passover (Lev.
xxiii. 39, 43). It was kept in the seventh
month, which by reason of the number was
sacred, at the close of the agricultural season,
when all the products of the year from grain-
field, oliveyard, and vineyard were gar-
nered. Hence the name feast of ingather-
ing, under which it was instituted (Ex. xxiii.
16; xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 39; Deut. xvi. 13,
15). It was celebrated during seven days.
The special burnt offering amounted to sev-
enty bullocks, distributed on a decreasing
scale over the week, together witli two rams
and fourteen lambs daily ; and as a sin offer-
ing a he goat was daily sacrificed (Num. xxix.
12-34; cp. Lev. xxiii.' 36; Ezra iii. 4). The
booths made of the boughs of trees suggested
the vintage life ; but they were also made a
reminder of the march from Egypt through
the wilderness (Lev. xxiii. 43; cp. Hos. xii.
9). Every seven years the law of Moses was
publicly read, the year of reading coinciding
with the year of release, when there was ho
occasion to celebrate an ingathered harvest

•

Tabernacles, Feast of

■19

Tabor

(Deut. xxxi. 9-13). The festival occurred
almost immediately after the day of atone-
ment. The people, purged ceremonially
from their sinfulness, could keep the feast
with a glad sense of their fitness to com-
mune with the hountiful tiod. The needy
were rememhered (Deut. xvi, 14). An eighth
day of solemn assembly was added to the
festival. It was distinct from the festival ;
the requirement to dwell in booths did not
extend to it, and its offerings stood in no re-
lation to those of the festival proper (Lev.
xxiii. 3(j, 39; Num. xxix. 35-3S ; Antiq. iii.
10, 4). It was not intended to conclude the
feast of tabernacles, but only to bring the
annual cycle of festivals to a fitting close.
Later, however, the festival was spoken of
as continuing for eight days (2 Mac. x. fi ;
Antiq. iii. 10, 4). It is disputed whether the
seventh or the eighth day was the great day
referred to in John vii. 37. Splendid cere-
monies were subsequently added to those pre-
scribed in the law for the festival. At the
time of the morning sacrifice the people took
branches of palm, myrtle, and willow inter-
twined and fruit in their hands, repaired to
the temple, and marched around the altar of
burnt offering once daily and seven times on
the seventh day, after the manner of com-
passing Jericho (Antiq, iii. 10, 4 ; xiii. 13, 5 ;
cp. 2 Mac. X. 6, 7). Another custom, possibly
also in vogue in Christ's day, was that daily

ceived with trumpet blast and the words of
Is. xii. 3 : " With joy shall ye draw water out
of the wells of Siilvation," It was mixed with
the wine of the sacrifices and, while priests
blew trumpets and Levites played on instru-
ments and sang psalms, was poured out be-
side the altar, whence it was conducted by a
sewer into the Kidrou valley. It was also
customary in the evening following the first
day of the festival, and perhaps on the sub-
sequent evenings, to illuminate the court of
the women from two lofty stands, each sup-
porting four immense lamps, which threw
their light not only into the courts of the
temple, but far and wide over the city. The
wicks were made of the cast-off linen of the
priests. Levites, stationed on the steps of
the court, rendered instrumental music and
sang psalms : and a dance was performed by
prominent laymen and priests.

Jews who were unable to attend the cele-
bration at Jerusalem on account of the dis-
tance of the city from their home, especially
Jews dwelling in foreign countries, kept the
festival at the synagogue of the town where
they lived, but of course without the offering
of sacrifices.

Tab'i-tha. See Doecas.

Ta'bor.

1. A mountain on the boundary of the
territory of Issachar (Antiq. v. 1, 22 ; perhaps

Mount Tabor, as seen from Nain.

during the festival, at the time of the morn-
ing and evening oblation, a priest filled a
golden vessel with water at the pool of Siloam
and carried it to the temple, where it was re-

Josh, xix. 22). Barak assembled there the
forces of Issachar and Zebulun with which it
was designed to fight with Sisera (Judg. iv. 6,
12, 14). Tabor is vastly inferior in size to Her-

Tabret

720

Tahpanhes

mou, yet as a notable mountain is coupled with
it in Ps. Ixxxix. 12. Tabor was situated inland
among the mountains, and not, like Carmel,
by the sea (Jer. xlvi. 18). Josephus fortified
its summit, inclosing it with a wall (Life 37;
War iv. 1, 8). Tabor, now called Jebel et-
Tor, is a detached hill 1843 feet above the
level of the Mediterranean, in the north-
eastern part of the plain of Jezreel, about 1'2
miles north of mount (lilboa, 5J east by
south of Nazareth, and 12 west by south
of the southern curve of the lake of Gen-
nesaret. Fi-om the west-northwest it looks
like a truncated cone, and from the south-
west the segment of a sphere. The sides,
which are not particularly steep, have oak
thickets, inhabited by wild swine. The top
is flat and elliptical. In the fourth century
the opinion sprang up that Tabor was the
scene of the transfiguration, but Robinson
has shown the high improbability of this
being correct, as in the days of Christ there
was a fortified city on the hilltop. The
effect of the tradition, however, was that
ecclesiastical buildings in memory of the
transfiguration were erected to a larger and
larger extent. Their ruins remain.

2. A town of Zebulun, given to the Me-
rarite Levites (1 Chron. vi. 77). It may be
the place on the border of Issachar (Josh,
xix. 22). The latter is scarcely identical
with the border town Chisloth-tabor (12),
which rather corresponds with ChesuUoth
(18).

3. An oak or terebinth (1 Sam. x. 3 ; not
plain, as in A. V.), which seems to have
grown within the territory of Benjamin, but
the exact spot is unknown.

Tab'ret.

A musical instrument (1 Sam. x. 5), a tim-
brel (q. v.).

Tab-rim'mon, in A. V. Tab'rim-on [Ara-
maic, Rimmon is good].

A son of Hezion, and father of Beuhadad
I., king of Syria (1 Kin. xv. 18).

Tache.

A catch for taking hold or holding together.
It was used about the tabernacle for coupling
curtains together (Ex. xxvi. 6, 11, in R. V.
clasp).

Tach'mo-nite, in R. V. Tahchemonite.

A word found in 2 Sam. xxiii. 8. It is
doubtless a corruption, in the Hebrew text
itself, of "the Hachmonite," a copyist hav-
ing mistaken He})rew h for t. See Hach-
aroNi.

Tad'mor [formed from tn war, a, palm tree].

A town in the desert (2 Chron. viii. 4). It
was fortified by Solomon, doubtless to control
the caravan route across it. In the parallel
passage (1 Kin. ix. 18, R. V.) it is called
Tamar in the wilderness, and described as
l)eing not only in the desert, but also in the
land. Tliis latter phrase is probably broad
enough to denote the extensive kingdom of

Solomon (19; iv. 21, 24). The suggestion
has been made that the town may be identi-
cal with Tamar at the southeastern corner
of the promi.sed boundaries of the land
(Ezek. xlvii. 19 ; xlviii. 28), probablj- on the
road from Hebron to Elath ; see Tamak 5.
This identification is in itself suitable, and
may include or correct Tadmor in 2 Chron.
viii. 4, which has been proposed in explana-
tion of 1 Kin. ix. 18. But the text of Kings
is suspicious : for the phrase "in the land"
is superfluous, since all the towns mentioned
were in the land, and the text departs from
the parallel enumeration in Chronicles in
failing to locate in Hamath the store cities
of Solomon. Perhaps the original text was
"Tamar in the wilderness, in the land of
Hamath all the store cities." Tadmor eventu-
ally became subject to the Romans, who
Latinized the name into Palmyra (Autiq.
viii. 6, 1). Between A. d. 251 and 273 it was
at first partially, and then for a time totally,
independent. The place still retains the
name of Tadmur. It is in an oasis about 140
miles east-northeast of Damascus, and about
120 from the Euphrates. It is now a ruin,
stretching more than a mile and a half. It
has long rows of Corinthian columns and a
few of the Ionic order, with a number of
tower-like tombs. The inscriptions found
in the place have been chiefly Greek and
Semitic.

Ta'han [perhaps, inclination].
A descendant of Ephraim, and founder of
a tribal family (Num. xxvi. 35). His descent
was probably through Telah, Rephah, and
Beriah to Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 25).
Ta-hap'a-nes. See Tahpanhes.
Ta'hash, in A.V. Thahash [porpoise or sim-
ilar fishlike animal].

A son of Nahor by his concubine Reumah
(Gen. xxii. 24).

Ta'hath [that which is beneath] .

1. A station of the Israelites in the wil-
derness (Num. xxxiii. 26, 27). Situation un-
known.

2. A Levite, fomily of Kohath, house of
Izhar, and of the line of Korah and Abiasaph
(1 Chron. vi. 24, 37). From him two families
branched. Uriel and Zephaniah.

3. An Ephraimite, son of Bered, family of
Shuthelah (1 Chron. vii. 20).

4. A son of Eleadah, and a descendant of
Tahath, son of Bered (1 Chron. vii. 20).

Tah-che'mo-nite. See Tachmonite.

Tah'pan-hes, and once Tehaphnehes
(Ezek. XXX. 18) ; in A. V. once also Tahapa-
nes (Jer. ii. 16).

An Egyptian city (Ezek. xxx. 18), to which
Jews fled to escape Babylonian vengeance
after the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. xliii. 7-9).
Jews seem to have become permanent resi-
dents there (xliv. 1 ; xlvi. 14). The Septu-
agint translators render the name Taphne or
Taphnai, obviously the same as Daphne, a

Tahpenes

r2i

Tamarisk Tree

fortified city on the Pelusiac channel of tlie
Kih- (Heroci. ii. ;5(), 107). The site is helieved
to have lu'cn at a mound still called Defenneh,
ajijiarently a moditicatiou of the old name.

Tah'pe-nes.

A queen of Egypt, wife of that Pharaoh
who received Hadad when he was a fugitive
from Solomon (1 Kin. xi. 19, 20).

Tali're-a and Tarea [perhaps, adroitness
or cunning].

A descendant of king Saul through Jona-
tlian (1 Chron. viii. 35; ix. 41).

Tah-tim-hod'shi.

A region visited by David's census takers
in connection with Gilead, before they came
to l)an-jaan and roundabout to Zidou (2 Sam.
xxiv. 6). The name is elsewhere unknown,
and perhaps stands for "the Hittites toward
Kadesh ; " see Kadesh 2.

Tal'ent.

A weight u.sed both for ordinary commod-
ities and for the precious metals, but of dif-
ferent standard in the respective cases ; see
Weights. The value of the talent of gold
was about $29,374.50; and that of silver
about §1300 ; but the margin of Mat. xviii.
24, E. v., makes it somewhat less, about
/.'240. From the parable of the talents, in
Avhich a master distributes talents among his
servants, according to their several ability,
to be put to profitable use
(Mat. XXV. 14-30), the Eng-
lish figurative use of the
word talents is probably
derived in such expressions
as that one uses his talents
well.

Tal'i-tha cu'mi [Ara-
maic, maiden arise] (Mark
V. 41).

Tal'mai [pertaining to
furrows].

1. A son of Auak, and
probably founder of a fam-
ily of Anakim (Num. xiii.
22), driven from Hebron
bv Caleb (Josh. xv. 14 ;
Jiidg. i. 10).

2. A king of Geshur,
whose daughter Maacah
was one of David's wives,
and Absalom's mother (2
Sam. iii. 3; xiii. 37; 1
•C'liroii. iii. 2).

Tal'mon [oppressed].

A porter, and the family
which he founded (1 Chron.
ix. 17 ; Neb. xi. 19 ; xii. 25). Some of them re-
turned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii. 42 ; Neh. vii. 45), and performed the same
service at the new temple.

Ta'mah. See Tem.a^h.

Ta'mar, in A. V. of N. T. Ttamar [a palm
tree, sjjecially a date palm] .
46

1. The wife of Er, son of Judah. When
left a widow, she became the mother of Perez
and Zerah by Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 6-2G),
and thus the ancestress of several tribal fam-
ilies (Num. xxvi. 20, 21).

2. The beautiful sister of Absalom, who liad
his ))rother Anunon assassinati'd for ill-using
her (2 Sam. xiii. 1-39 ; 1 Chron. iii. 9).

3. A daughter of Absalom, named doubt-
less after his sister (2 Sam. xiv. 27).

4. A town in the desert (1 Kin. ix. 18).
The Hebrew K'ri, or ])referrcd reading, the
A. v., the margin of the R. V., and 2 Chron.
viii. 4 have Tadmor; see Tadmor.

5. A place at the eastern end of the
promised southern frontier of Palestine
(Ezek. xlvii. 19 ; xlviii. 28). It would lie
south of the Dead Sea ; and perhaps is iden-
tical with the village Tamara, located by
Eusebius on the road between Hebron and
Elalh.

Tam'a-risk Tree.

The tamarisk {Tnmarix articidata) is called
'athl in Arabic, 'aihla' in Aramaic ; and accord-
ingly the cognate Hebrew word 'eshel doubt-
less likewise denotes the tamarisk. Abraham
planted one in Beer-sheba (Gen. xxi. .33 ; in
A. Y. grove), Saul dwelt beneath one in
Eamah (1 Sam. xxii. (5 ; in A. V. a tree), and
the bones of Saul and his sons were buried
beneath one in Jabesb-gilead (xxxi. 13 ; in

Tamarisk Tree.

A. V. a tree). The chronicler states that the
bones of the king and his .sous were interred
beneath the 'elah in Jabesh (1 Chron. x. 12;
in E. y. oak, R. V. margin terebinth). He may,
however, use the term 'elah in its broad signifi-
cation of strong tree : see Oak. The tamarisk
is a small tree, growing fnmi 10 to 20, 25, or
30 feet higli, with durable wood, deciduous

Tammuz

722

Tarpelites

branches, and iniimte, scale-like, evergreen
leaves. Nine species occur in Palestine. The
most widely distributed is Tamarix pallasii,
which attains a height of from 10 to 20 feet.
The largest species is Tamarix articulata, from
15 to 30 feet. It is found along the western
border of the desert of the wandering.
Tamarix mannifera, from 10 to 15 feet in
height, growing in ancient Moab, Edom, and
the peninsula of Sinai, yields the substance
popularly known as manna; see Manna.

Tam'muz.

A deity of the Babylonians, called by them
Dnmu-zi or Du-zi, jirobably meaning sou of
life, from which the name Tammuz is de-
rived. He was worshiped throughout Baby-
lonia, and in Assyria. Phoenicia, and Pales-
tine ; and he gave name to the fourth month
of the Semitic year; see Year. He was the
husband of the goddess Ishtar, and king of
the nether world. He was also god of the
pasture, the patron of flocks and their keep-
ers, and hence was himself entitled shep-
herd. He was represented as dying annually
and returning to life with each recurring
year. It was understood, by some at least,
that he was slain by the sun-god Shamash.
The story is confessedly a nature myth.
However its details may be explained, it
symbolizes more or less inclusively the an-
nual withdrawal and invariable return of
the sun, and the death and revival of vegeta-
tion. Ezekiel in vision saw the worship of
Tammuz in favor among the Jews, and
women sitting at the northern gate of the
temple weeping for the god (Ezek. viii. 14).
Cyril of Alexandria and Jerome identified
him with the Phcenician Adonis. Though
not proven, their conjecture has found much
favor. Jerome says that the Syrians cele-
brated an annual solemnity to Adonis in
June, when he was lamented by the women as
dead, and afterwards his coming to life again
was celebrated with songs. From other sources
it appears that Byblos in Phoenicia was the
headquarters of the Adonis worship. The
annual feast in his honor was held at the
neighboring temple of Aphrodite in mount
Lebanon, and lasted seven days. It began
with a commemoration of the disappearance
of the god. Vessels filled with mold and
containing stalks of wheat, barley, lettuce,
and fennel, and called gardens of Adonis,
were exposed to the heat of the sun. The
withering of the plants symbolized the
.slaughter of the youth by the fire-god Mars.
Then followed a search for Adonis by the
women. At length his image was found in
one of the gardens. The finding was cele-
brated by lewdness and song. The image
was then coffined, and the wound made by
the symbolical boar which slew the young
god was shown on his body. The people sat
on the ground around the bier with their
clothes rent, and the women raised loud
lamentation. Sacrifice was offered for the
dead god, and the image was buried.

Ta'nach. See Taanach.

Tan'hu-meth [con.sohition].

A Netophathite (2 Kin. xxv. 23 ; Jer. xl. 8).

Ta'phath [a drop].

A daughter of Solomon, and wife of Abin-
adab (1 Kin. iv. 11).

Ta'phon. See Tephon.

Tap'pu-ah [apple or, perhaps, quince or
apricot] .

1. A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 34). Site unknown.

2. A town of Manasseh west of Shechem
and on the boundary of Ephraim (Josh. xvi.
8 ; xvii. 7, 8).

3. A son of Hebron (1 Chron. ii. 43).

Ta'rah. See Terah.

Tar'a-lah [staggering, reeling].
A city of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 27). Site
unknown.
Ta're-a. See Tahrea.

Tares.

The rendering of the Greek Zizanion in
Mat. xiii. 25-27, 29, 30 ; on K. V. margin dar-
nel. The tare {Vicia saiiva), a vetch, with
pinnate leaves and purple-blue or red papil-
ionaceous flowers, would be easily distin-
guished from the wheat. The Greek word

Bearded Darnel.

zizanion corresponds to the Arabic suwdn^
which denotes Lolium, and to the talmudic
zonin. The bearded darnel {Loliian temulen-
tum) is a poisonous grass, almost undistin-
guishable from wheat while the two are only,
in blade, but which can be separated without
difficulty when they come into ear (cp. ver.
29, 30).

Tar'get. See Armor.

Tar'gum. See Versions.

Tar'pel-ites.

The inhabitants of an unknown place,
presumably called Tarpel, and situated near
Babylonia or Elam. They were brought by
Asnapper to Samaria after the deportation of
the ten tribes (Ezra iv. 9).

4

Tarshish

723

Tatnai

Tar'sMsh, in A. V. four times TliarsMsh
(1 Kin. x. 'J-J; xxii. 48; 1 Clirou. vii. 10).

]. A people deseeiided from Javan ((Ten.
X. 4) aiul their country. As Jonah entered
a sliip at .Toppa in order to tiee thither, the
route to it was evidently across the waters
of the Mediterranean. It was a distant land
(Is. Ixvi. 1!)). Tyre was the "daughter" of
Tarshish (xxiii. 10), perhaps in the sense
that the commerce with Tarsliish was the
making of Tyre. The imports from Tarshish
were silver beaten into plates (Jer. x. 9), also
iron, tin, and lead (Ezek. xxvii. 12). It is
believed that Tarshish was Tartes.sus, in the
south of Spain, near Gibraltar (Herod, iv.
152), and the countrj' of the Turti or Turdi-
taui, to which tlie town belonged. The
mineral wealth of the region attracted the
Phoenicians, who established a colony there
and Semitized the name. Spain lias long
been noted for its mineral wealth.

Tar'sus [not from Greek larsos, a crate of
witkerwork, any broad, flat surface]. The
name was pronounced Tarzi by the Assyri-
ans, and appears written on coins in Aramaic
character as Trz.

The chief city of Cilicia, in the eastern
7)art of Asia Minor. It was situated on both
banks of the river Cydnus, about 12 miles
from the sea. About 8'SS b. c. it is men-
tioned by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria.
When the Romans formed the province of
Cilicia in (54 B. c, they made Tarsus the
residence of the governor. To comiiensate
it for the sufferings it endured in its alle-
giance to the ])arty of Cajsar, Marc Antony
granted it freedom and excnii)tion from taxa-
tion. It was particularly celebrated for its
schools, which almost rivaled those of Athens
and Alexandria. It was the birthplace of
the apostle Paul, and he revisited it at least
once after his conversion (Acts ix. 11. 30 ; xi.

Tarsus.

Ships of Tarshish were originally ships
trading to and from Tarshish. but ultimately
ships of first-rate magnitude to whatever
place their voyages may have been made
(Ps. xlviii. 7; Is. ii. 16; xxiii. 1, 14; Ix. 9 ;
Ezek. xxvii. 25). Such vessels, built by Je-
hoshaphat to go to Ophir, lay in the harbor
at Ezion-geber on the Ked Sea (1 Kin. xxii.
48). The term Tarshish ship is paraphrased
as "ship going to Tarshish" (2 Chron. ix.
21, Hebrew text ; cp. 1 Kin. x. 22) and "ship
to go to Tarshish" (2 Chron. xx. 36).

2. A Benjamite, son of Bilhan (1 Chron.
vii. 10).

3. One of the seven highest princes of
Persia (Esth. i. 14).

25; xxi. 39; xxii. 3). Though much de-
cayed from its former grandeur, it still exists
as a considerable town. There are few rem-
nants of antiquity at the old .site.

Tar'tak.

An idol set up by the Avvites in Samaria
(2 Kin. xvii. 31).

Tar'tan.

The title of the commander-in-chief of
the Assyrian army (2 Kin. xviii. 17; Is. xx.
1). The name was pronounced by the As-
syrians both tartanu and iitrtanu.

Tat'nai.

A Persian governor west of the river Eu-
phrates. He opposed the building of the

Tau

724

Tebah

temple by the returned exiles (Ezra v. 3;
vi. 6).

Tau.

The twenty-second and last letter of the
Hebrew alphabet, pronounced t or th ac-
cording to position. English T comes from
the same source, and with th represents it
in anglicized Hebrew names; as Tamar,
Nathan. It heads the twenty-second section
of Ps. cxix., in which section each verse of
the original begins with this letter.

Scribes occasionally confused tau and he
(q. v.).

Tax'es.

Under the judges the regular payments
obligatory on the Israelites were for the
worship of Jehovah. There was as yet no
army and no royal court to support. But
there was a tabernacle and a priesthood, and
these were maintained by the tithes and
other offerings, and by the land which was
permanently placed at the disposal of the
Levites.

After the establishment of the kingdom,
revenue for its support was obtained from
various sources: 1. Taxes in kind were
levied by Solomon on the produce of the
field and the flock {1 Kin. iv. 7-28; cp.
Amos vii. 1). 2. Special gifts were brought
to the king at the commencement of his
reign (1 Sam. x. 27) or in time of war (xvi.
20; xvii. 18). 3. Tribute was rendered by
subject peoples (2 Sam. viii. 6, 14 ; 1 Kin. x.
15 ; 2 Kin. iii. 4), and service was exacted
of the Canaanites who dwelt in the midst
of Israel (Judg. i. 28, .30; 1 Kin. ix. 20, 21).
When the Hebrews were subject to a foreign
prince, they had to pay tribute to him in
addition to taxes for the support of their
own government. 4. Duties were paid by
tradesmen and merchants (1 Kin. x. 1.5).
Without levying taxes in money or produce,
and with little expense to himself, David at-
tained the object of a standing army by divid-
ing the men of military age into brigades of
24,000 men, and requiring each brigade in
turn to hold itself in readiness during one
month for instant service (1 Chron. xxvii. 1).
Under Solomon the people were oppressed by
taxation, and this grievous burden was an
immediate cause of the disruption of the
kingdom (1 Kin. xii. 4). Exemption from
taxation was a reward for service (1 Sam.
xvii. 2.5 ; Antiq. xvii. 2, 1).

Under the Persian empire, by decree of
Darius Hystaspis the satraps of each prov-
ince paid a fixed sum into the royal treasury
(Herod, iii. 89). The inhabitants had to
provide for the maintenance of the govern-
or's household also. This provision was
called the bread of the governor, and so far
as .Tudah was concerned included food and
forty shekels daily in money (Neh. v. 14, 15).
The revenue was derived from tribute, cus-
toms, and toll (Ezra iv. 13, 20). Priests,
Levites, and Nethinim were exempted from

the.se taxes in Judah (vii. 24) ; but the bur-
dens pressed heavily on the great body of
the people, who had the sanctuary likewise
to support, and many were forced to mort-
gage their fields and vineyards to raise money
for the tribute (Neh. v. 4 ; ix. 37).

Under the Egyptian and Syrian kings, in-
stead of a fixed amount being levied by the
crown on the people, the i)rivilege of collect-
ing the taxes of a district was put up at
auction and sold to the highest responsible
bidder. The party who promised the most
revenue from a province was authorized to
collect it and was furnished with military
power sufficient to enable him to enforce his
demands (Antiq. xii. 4, 1-5). The Syrian
kings imposed a poll tax and a duty on .salt,
exacted a sum of money in lieu of the an-
nual present of a crown of gold, which it
had become customary to demand, took one-
third of the grain and one-half of the fruit,
and in addition levied on the tithes and tolls
paid into the temple at Jerusalem (1 Mac.
X. 29-31 ; xi. 34, 35 ; xiii. 37, 39 ; Antiq. xii.
3, 3).

When the Romans under Pompey took
Jerusalem in 63 B. c, tribute was imposed
on the Jews which in a short time amounted
to more than 10,000 talents (Antiq. xiv. 4, 4,
and 5). Julius Caesar decreed that the tribute
should not be farmed, that it should not be
levied in a Sabbatic year, and that in the
year following a Sabbatic year only one-
fourth of the usual amount should be col-
lected (10, 5 and 6). Herod the Great taxed
the produce of the field (xv. 9, 1), and levied
duties on commodities bought and sold (xvii.
8, 4). When Judsea was placed under proc-
urators, the financial system of the empire
was introduced. The revenues were farmed ;
.see Publican. There were levied : 1. Trib-
ute of the soil, paid either in kind or in
money. 2. A poll tax (Mat. xxii. 17) and,
under the same name, a tax on personal
property. 3. Export and import duties, col-
lected at seaports and at the gates of cities.
In Jerusalem a house duty was paid by the
inhabitants (Antiq. xix. 6, 3).

After tlie exile a temple tax of half a
shekel was imposed on every Israelite who
had reached the age of twenty years (Mat.
xvii. 24). The collectors visited each town
of Judsea annually at a fixed time, and in
foreign countries places were designated
where it might be paid. See Tribute 2.

Tax'ing.

An enrollment, ordered by the Roman em-
peror Augustus, which in the providence of
God brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem,
and led to the fulfillment of the ancient
prophecy that the Messiah should be born in
that town (Mic. v. 2 ; Mat. ii. 5, 6 ; Luke ii.
1-20). A later enrollment led to tumults
among the Jews (Acts v. 37). See Quikinius.

Te'bali [slaughter (specially of cattle)].
A son of Nahor by Reumah, his concubine

Tebaliah

725

Temple

(tien. xxii. 24), and the tribe descended from
iiim. The name is found in 2 8ani. viii. 8,
according to the .Sei)tuagint and the Syriac
version, and also in 1 Chron. xviii. 8 iu the
form Tihliath, and denotes a town of Araiu-
zobah.

Teb-a-li'aL [Jchovali luith immersed, i.e.,
ceremonially purified].

A Merarite Levite, the third son of Hosah
(1 Chron. xxvi. 11).

Te'beth.

The tenth mouth of the Semitic calendar
(Ksth. ii. 10). See Year.

Te-haph'ne-hes. See Tahpanhes.

Te-Mn'nah [grace, supplications].

A man of Judah, descended from Chelub,
and ancestor of the inhabitants of Ir-nahash
(1 Chron. iv. 12).

Teil Tree.

The linden, a tree of the genus THin. The
Hebrew word 'elah is once translated thus in
A. V. (Is. vi. 13 ; iu R. V. terebinth) ; see
Oak 1 and Terebinth. The teil tree does
not grow in Palestine.

Te'kel. See Mexe.

Te-ko'a, in A. V. thrice Tekoah (2 Sam.
xiv. 2, 4, 9), and so in E. V. of 1 Mac. ix. 33,
where A. V. has Thecoe.

A town in Judah (1 Chron. ii. 24; iv. 5;
Septuagint of Josh. xv. 60), in the wilderness
toward En-gedi (2 Chron. xx. 20; cp. 2, 16).
It was fortitied by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 6).
It was the home of the prophet Amos (Amos
i. 1). In Xehemiah's time the common peo-
ple of Tekoa helped to rebuild the wall of
Jerusalem, while the nobles of the place
showed indifference to the work (Neh. iii. 5,
27). The name still lingers as Tekii'a, a
ruined village 5 miles south of Bethlehem.
It is on a hill broad at the top, where are
found the remains of the foundations of
houses, often with beveled stones, the whole
occupying an area of 4 or 5 acres. There is
also a castle, but of more modern date.

Te-ko'ite.

A native or inhabitant of Tekoa (2 Sam.
xxiii. 26).

Tel-a'bib [heap, or liill of ears of grain].

A place in BabyloTiia, near the river Che-
bar. Jewish exiles were located there (Ezek.
iii. 1.5). Situation unknown.

Te'lah [fracture].

A descendant of Ephraim, probably through
Beriah (1 Chron. vii. 25).

Tel'a-im [little lambs].

A place where Saul assembled his army to
war against the Amalekites (1 Sam. xv. 4 ;
and xxvii. 8, Septuagint). It may be Teleni
of Josh. XV. 24 ; but the two names, as tra-
ditionally pronounced, have a different mean-
ing.

Te-las'sar, in A. V. once Thelasar (2 Kin.
xix. 12) [probably, hill of Asshur, or the As-
syrians].

A place inhabited by the children of Eden
(2 Kin. xix. 12; Is. xsxvii. 12), and hence
in western Mesopotamia, near Haran. Exact
situation unknown.

Te'lem [perhaps, oppression].

1. A town iu the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 24). Site unknown. See Telaim.

2. A porter, whom Ezra induced to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 24).

Tel-har'sha, in A. V. Tel-har'sa and Tel-
har'e-sha [in Hebrew and Assyrian, mound
of the artificer's work or of enchantment].

A place in Babylonia whence certain people
who claimed to be Israelite exiles returned
with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem ( Ezra ii. .59 ;
Neh. vii. 61). Situation unknown.

Tel-me'lah [hill of salt].

A place in Babylonia, whence certain people
who claimed to be Israelite exiles came to
Jeru.salem with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 59 ; Neh.
vii. 61). Situation unknown.

Te'ma.

A tribe of Ishmaelites and the district they
inhabited (Gen. xxv. 15 ; Is. xxi. 14). Their
caravans were well known (Job vi. 19).
Tema is often identified with Taima in the
Hauran ; but it rather denotes the important
people who dwelt in and about Taima, east
of the yElanitic gulf of the Eed Sea and mid-
way between Damascus and Medina.

Te'mah, in A. Y. Tamah and Thamah

[perhaps, laughter].

Founder of a family of Nethinim, mem-
bers of which returned with Zerubbabel
from the captivity (Ezra ii. 53 ; Neh. vii. 55).

Te'man [southern].

A tribe descended from Esau, and the dis-
trict they inhabited (den. xxxvi. 11, 15, 34).
The territory was in Edom ( Jer. xlix. 20 ;
Amos i. 12), apparently in the northern part
(Ezek. xxv. 13). Its inhabitants were noted
for their wisdom (Jer. xlix. 7).

Te'man-ite, in A. V. once Tem'a-ni (Gen.
xxxvi. 34).

A member of the tribe of Teman (Gen.
xxxvi. 34), or of Tema. It is not certain in
which sense Eliphaz, Job's friend, was a
Temanite (Job ii. 11).

Tem'e-ni.

A son of Ashhur (1 Chron. iv. 5, 6).

Tem'ple [in Hebrew, large house, palace,
as 1 Kin. i. 21; 2 Kin. xx. 18; Dan. i. 4 ;
iv. 4].

A building dedicated to the worship of a
deity (Joel iii. 5 ; Ezra v. 14 with i. 7 : Acts
xix. 27). In three passages it is applied to
the tabernacle (1 Sam. i. 9; iii. 3; 2 Sam.
xxii. 7 ; cp. Rev. xv. 5) ; but generally the
reference is to some one of the temples suc-
cessively erected to Jehovah at Jerusalem.

1. (Solomon's Temple. The erection of a
permanent house of the Lord, instead of the
movable tabernacle, was proposed by David,
and the necessary materials were largely

Temple

726

amassed by him (2 Sam. vii. ; 1 Kin. v. 3-5 ;
viii. 17; 1 Cbroii. xxii. ; xxviii. 11-xxix. 9).
He gathered 100,000 talents of gold and
1,000,000 talents of silver for the prospective
structure and its furnishings (1 (Jhron. xxii.
14), and added from his own private for-
tune 3000 talents of gold and 7000 tal-
ents of silver, and the princes contributed
5000 talents of gold, 10,000 darics of gold,
and 10,000 talents of silver (xxix. 4, 7),
making a total of 108,000 talents of gold,
10,000 darics of gold, and 1,017,000 talents
of silver. This sum is equivalent to nearly
4900 million dollars or, if it may be legiti-
mately reckoned by the lighter system of
weights, nearly 2450 million dollars. Tliis
latter amount is perhaps not incredible, in
view of the booty which David brought
home from his wars and received as tribute.
Still the sum is very large, and it is well to
admit the probability of the text being cor-
rupt. This store of precious metals was
placed at the disposal of Solomon for the use
of the temple, but it was not all exi)ended
(1 Kin. vii. 51; 2 Chron. v. 1). Solomon
began the work in the fourth year of his
reign, and it was completed in seven years
and six months (1 Kin. vi. 1, 38). The alli-
ance with Hiram, king of Tyre, rendered it
easy to obtain timber from Lebanon, and
skilled Phcenician artificers. 30,000 Israel-
ites were levied, and sent in detachments of
10,000 for a month to the Lebanon mountains
(1 Kin. v. 13), and the remnant of the Ca-
naanites was impressed to the number of
150,000 to serve as hewers of stone and car-
riers (1 Kin. v. 15 ; ix. 20, 21 ; 2 Chron. ii. 2,
17, 18). Overseers were appointed, appa-
rently 550 chiefs and 3300 subordinates (1
Kin. v. 16; ix. 23), of whom 3600 were Ca-
naanites and 2.50 Israelites {2 Chron. ii. 17 ;
viii. 10). The building was erected on mount
Moriah, at the spot where the threshing floor
of Oman, or Araunah, the Jebusite, had
stood (2 Chron. iii. 1). Its general plan was
that of the tabernacle, but the dimensions
were double and the ornamentation was
richer. The interior of the edifice measured
60 cubits in length, 20 in breadth, and 30 in
height, in this last particular deviating from
the proportions of the tabernacle (1 Kin. vi.
2). The walls were built of stone made
ready at the quarry (7). The roof was con-
structed of beams and planks of cedar (9),
the floor was laid with cypress, and the walls
from the floor to the ceiling were lined with
cedar (15 ; and 2 Chron. iii. 5, where the
Greek translators read cedar, not fir). The
whole interior was overlaid with gold (1
Kin. vi. 20, 22, 30 ; 2 Chron. iii. 7 et passim),
and its walls were carved not only with cher-
ubim, but al.so with palm trees and flowers.

The holy of holies was a cube. Each side
measured 20 cubits (1 Kin. vi. 16, 20). The
space, nearly 10 cubits high, between its ceil-
ing and the roof was probably occupied by up-
per chambers, gold lined (1 Chron. xxviii. 11 ;

Temple

2 Chron. iii. 9). In the holy of holies itself
was placed the ark (1 Kin. viii. 6), under the
wings of two colossal cherubim of olive wood
overlaid with gold. Each cherub was 10
cubits in height, and had wings 5 cubits long.
With the tip of one wing it touched a side
wall, and with the other wing it reached
forward to the center of the room and
touched the corresponding wing of its com-
panion. The four wings thus extended across
the width of the house, while the cherubim
turned their faces toward the .sanctuary
(1 Kin. vi. 2.3-28; 2 Chron. iii. 13). Under
their wings the ark was placed (1 Kin. viii.
6). The i)artitiou between the holy and the
most holy place was of cedar boards, overlaid
on both sides with gold, and it had two doors
of olive wood, decorated with palm trees,
flowers, and cherubim, and overlaid with
gold ; see Le.\f. This was hung, toward the
sanctuary, with chains of gold and a cur-
tain patterned after that of the tabernacle
(1 Kin. vi. 16, 21, 31, 32; 2 Chron. iii. 14; cp.
Antiq. viii. 3, 3 and 7).

The holy place or sanctuary was 40 cubits
long, 20 wide, and 30 high. Its walls were
pierced by latticed windows; probably near
the roof, above the top of the exterior build-
ing, and intended for ventilation and the
escape of smoke (1 Kin. vi. 4). The altar of
incense was made of cedar, instead of acacia,
and overlaid with gold (20, 22 ; vii. 48).
It belonged to the holy of holies (22, E. V. ;
Heb. ix. 3, 4), but stood in the holy place,
doubtless because the priest, who might en-
ter the holy of holies but once in the year,
had occasion to off'er incense daily. There
were ten golden candlesticks instead of
one, and likewise ten tables, although
doubtless the showbread was displayed on
but one ; see Candlestick and Showbee.'VD.
The entrance to the sanctuary from the court
had doors of cypress (vi. 33, 34). ^

Against the two exterior sides and the rear
of the temple a three-story building was
erected, containing chambers for officials and
for storage (vi. 5-10). Before the front en-
trance a portico was built, 10 cubits wide, 20
long, and 120 or more probably 20 high (3 ;
2 Chron. iii. 4; cp. Septuagint; Syriac). By
it stood the two brazen pillars, Boaz and
Jachin, each 18 cubits high, and richly orna-
mented (1 Kin. vii. 15-22 ; 2 Chron. iii. 15-17).

The courts of the temple were two ; the
inner, upper court of the priests, and the
great court (2 Kin. xxiii. 12 ; 2 Chron. iv. 9;
Jer. xxxvi. 10). They were separated from
one another, both by the diflerence of level
and by a low wall, consisting of three courses
of hewn stone and one course of cedar beams
(1 Kin. vi. 36 ; vii. 12). In the court of the
jiriests were a brazen altar for .sacrifice (viii.
64 ; 2 Kin. xvi. 14; 2 Chron. xv. 8), in size
nearly four times that used at the tabernacle
(iv. 1) ; and a brazen sea and ten brazen
layers (1 Kin. vii. 23-39). The sea was for
the priests to wash in ; the lavers were for

1

Temple

727

Temple

-R-asliing such things as belonged to the burnt
oflViing (2 Chron. iv. 6); see Ai.tak, Sp:a,
Lavkr. The great outer court was for Israel
(cp. 1 Kin. viii. 14). It was paved (2 Chron.
"vii. 3) ; and it was surrounded by a wall, for
gates are mentioned (iv. 9; cp. Ezek. xl. 5).

This temple was plundered and burned by
the Babylonians when they captured Jerusa-
lem in 587 B. C. (2 Kin. xxv. 8-17).

2. Zeruhhahel's Temple. — Cyrus authorized
the erection of a temple (10 cubits iu breadth
and height (Ezra vi. 3 ; Antiq. xi. 4, 6). The
limits which Cyrus set may have been at-
tiiined by the exterior of the new building ;
for Herod the Great, with 2 Chron. iii. 4 in
miud, assigns 60 cubits to the height (xv. 11,
1*. It was begun iu the year 537 B. c,
the second year after the return from cap-
tivity; and, after much opposition from
the inhabitants of Samaria, was completed
in the sixth year of Darius, 515 B. c.
(Ezra iii. 8; vi. 15; con. Ajdon. i. 21). The
dimensions of the several parts are not
known. The plan of Solomon's temple was,
however, followed ; though the new building
was projected on a scale of far less magnifi-
cence. In the construction of the house,
cedar from Lebanon was used (Ezra iii. 7) ;
and precious metals, which were provided, as
in the wilderness, by the freewill ofieriugsof
the people (i. 6 ; ii. 68, 69). Many of the
vessels used in the former temple were re-
stored (i. 7-11). The interior walls were
overlaid with gold ; and the house was di-
vided, as usual, into the holy of holies and
the sanctuary, apparently separated from
each other by at least a veil (1 Mac. i. 21,22 ;
iv. 48, 51). The holy of holies was empty,
for the ark of the covenant had disappeared
(Cicero, pro Flac. 28 ; Tacitus, Hist. v. 0).
The sanctuary was furnished with an altar
of incense, and, like the tabernacle, with
onlv one candlestick and one table for show-
bread (1 Mac. i. 21, 22: iv. 49). Exterior
chambers were attached to the building
(Xeh. X. 37-39; xii. 44; xiii. 4; 1 Mac. iv.
38) ; and the whole was surrounded with
courts (Neh. viii. 16 ; xiii. 7 ; Antiq. xiv. 16,
2). A brazen sea (Ecclus. 1. 3) and an altar
for sacrifice were used (Ezra vii. 17). The
altar was built of stones (1 Mac. iv. 44-
47). The court of the priests was event-
ually separated from the outer court by
a wooden railing (Antiq. xiii. 13, 5). The
temple and its precincts were closed by doors
and gates (Neh. vi. 10 ; 1 Mac. iv. 38).

3. Herod's temple superseded Zerubbabel's.
It is fully described by Josephus, who was
thoroughly familiar with the building (An-
tiq. XV. 11 ; War v. 5), and in the Mishna
(Middoth). The materials were brought to-
gether before the old structure was taken
down. Work was commenced in the eight-
eenth year of Herod's reign, 19 B. c. The
main edifice was built by priests in a year
and a half, and the cloisters were finished
in eight years, either in 11 or 9 B. c. ; but the

work on the entire complex of courts and
buildings was not comj)leted until the proc-
uratorship of Alhinus, A. D. 62-64 (Antiq.
XV. 11, 5 and 6; xx. 9, 7 ; cp. John ii. 20).
The old area was enlarged to twice its former
dimensions (War i. 21, 1). The temple
proper stood upon the highest ground in the
inclosure. It was built of great blocks of
white stone. Its interior had the length and
breadth of Solomon's temjile ; but a height
of 40 cubits, exclusive of an ujipor chamber,
instead of 30 cubits. It was divided into the
holy of holies and the sanctuarj- on the cus-
tomary lines. The holy of holies was empty.
It was separated from the holy place by a
veil (War v. 5. 5). The rending of this veil
by an earthquake at the death of Christ sig-
nified that the way to the mercy seat is no
longer closed to all save the mediating high
priest, but is at all times open to the sincere
worshiper (Mat. xxvii. 51; Heb. vi. 19; x.
20). The holy place contained, as usual, a
golden altar for incense, a table for show-
bread, and a candlestick. It was entered
from the east by a great doorway clo.sed by
goldeu doors, each 55 cubits high and 16
broad ; hung with a veil of blue, purple,
scarlet and fine linen ; and encompassed on
the outer or court side by a golden vine from
which depended immense clusters of golden
grapes. Agaiust the two sides and rear of
the temple, a three-story building, 40 cubits
high, containing chambers, was constructed
(cp. War vi. 4, 7). and in addition two wings,
one containing winding stairs, sjirang from
the front corners. The building meas-
ured externally 100 cubits in leugth and 54
or, including the two wings at the front, 70
cubits iu width. Over the holy place and
the holy of holies was an attic, which had
the same dimensions as the sacred apartments
beneath. This attic, together with its floor
and the roof, increased the height of
the sacred edifice to over 90 cubits. A ves-
tibule or porch ran along the entire front
of the house, 100 cubits long and high
and 20 broad. Its portal was 70 cubits high
by 25 broad (or, according to the Mishna, 40
and 20), without doors, allowing the great
doorwaj' of the sanctuary to be seen from
without. Above this porch Herod erected
the celebrated goldeu eagle (Antiq. xvii. 6, 2
and 3; War i. 33, 2 and 3). Twelve steps de-
scended from the vestibule to the court of
the priests. This court surrounded the sacred
edifice. It contained the altar for burnt
olferiugs, of which the height was 15 cubits,
and the base a square measuring 50 cubits to
the side. According to the Mishna. it was
built of unhewn stones ; and contracted from
a base 32 cubits .square to a top 24 cubits
square. It was reached by an inclined plane.
A brazen sea or laver was also in use (Mish-
na). This court was encompassed by a wall
or coping, about a cubit iu height. All
around the court of the priests lay, as of old,
the great court, now double. It was inclosed

Temple

728

Temple

by a wall, whose top was 25 cubits higher
than the pavement. Against the inner side
of this wall storage chambers were built
(War vi. 5, 2), and in front of these, that is,
on the temple side, ran a covered colonnade.
This court was divided into two parts by a

CASTLE OF

A N T O N I A

gate in the center of the partition wall and
by a descent of fifteen steps. Only Israelites
might enter this court, and women might
not advance farther. These three courts and
the temple were embraced in the chel, or
sacred inclosure. The inclosing barrier was

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TERRACE

COURT

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G E N T I L E S

Approximate Plan of Herod's Temple and its Courts.

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wall. The western portion, that encompass-
ing the court of the priests, was the court of
Israel. Only the men of Israel were allowed
within it. The court of the women was the
eastern and lower portion. It was reached
from the court of the men through a great

triple : the wall of the courts of Israel and
the women, which has been already men-
tioned, and which was very thick, like the
walls of a fortress (cp. War vi. 4, 1) ; a ter-
race, of which the top was level and 10 cubits
broad : and at the foot of the terrace a wall

Temple

r29

Temple

3 cubits in height, surmounted by jiillars, on
whieb were inscriptions forbidding ;ill per-
sons save those of the commonwealth of Is-
rael, from entering the inclosure. "Let no
gentile," so ran the Greek inscription, "'en-
ter inside of the barrier and the fence around
the sanctuary. Anyone trespassing will bring
death upon himself as a penalty." This
triple wall of partition (Eph. ii. 14) was
pierced by nine gates. These tower-like
structures were sheatlied with gold and sil-
ver. Four were on the northern, and four
ou the southern side. Of these, one on each
side led into the court of the women and three
into that of Israel. The ninth was the great
eastern gate, the only one on that side, prob-
ablv the gate Beautiful (Acts iii. 2, 10). The

forming three aisles. Each column was a
monolith of white stone, 25 cubits high.
The roof was ceiled with cedar, curiously
carved and carefully polished. The other
colonnades consisted of two rows of columns.
That along the eastern side of the court was
regarded as a remnant of the first temple,
and was called Solomon's porch (John x. 23 ;
Acts iii. 11 ; Antiq. xx. 9, 7 ; War v. 5, 1).
It was this court which was so far abused
that money changers were allowed to set up
their tables and traders were permitted to
expose cattle for sale there (Mat. xxi. 12 ;
John ii. 14). Finally the sacred area was
surrounded by massive walls. The western
wall was pierced by four gates : the two more
northerly ones led to the suburbs ; the third

Stones in the Western Wall of the Temple, with the Wailing Place of the Jews.

diflFerence of level between the vestibule of
the temple within the inclosure and the
court of the gentiles without appears to have
been about 15 cubits. From the vestibule to
the court of the priests were 12 steps ; from
the court of Israel to that of the women 15;
thence to the terrace 5, and thence to the
court of the gentiles 14. This court of the
gentiles occupied the remainder of the temple
yard and completely surrounded the sacred
inclosure. It was foursquare (War vi. 5, 4),
and measured fully 6 stades, or three-quarters
of a mile, in circuit (War v. 5, 2). It was
paved throughout. At the northwestern cor-
ner stood the castle of Antonia (q. v.). Except
perhaps at that point, it was bordered on all
sides by magnificent, covered colonnades or
cloisters (Antiq. xvii. 10. 2 : cp. War vi. 3.2).
Those on the south were the finest. They
contained 162 columns, arranged in four rows,

crossed the Tyropoeon valley at a point now
marked by Wilson's arch ; and the fourth,
still farther south, opened into the valley,
and was reached by steps from the temple
yard (Antiq. xv. 11, 5). In the southern wall
were two gates, known by the name of Hul-
dah. In the eastern wall was the Shushan
gate. One is mentioned in the northern
wall (War vi. 4, 1).

During the siege of Jerusalem by the
Eomans in a. d. 70, the Jews themselves,
who were using the temple yard as a fortress,
set fire to the outer cloisters : but the temple
itself was fired by a Eoman soldier contrary
to the orders of Titus, and all that was com-
bustible was destroyed (War vi. 3, 1 ; 4, 5 ;
cp. 5, 1 ; 9. 2). Afterwards the conquerors
threw down the walls (vii. 1. 1). On its
site the emperor Hadrian dedicated a temple
to Jupiter Capitolinus in a. d. 136 or earlier.

Ten Commandments

^30

Ten Commandments

In A. D. 363 the emperor Julian, in order to
defeat the prophecy of Christ (Mat. xxiv. 1,
2 1, undertook to rebuild the temple ; but his
plans were frustrated by flames which burst
from the foundation. The Dome of the
Eock, generally called the Mosque of Omar,
now occupies the place where the old tem-
ples stood. Warren between February, 1867,
and April, 1870, sunk shafts in the rubbish, in
some places 100 and in one place 125 feet deep,
which now covers portions of mount Moriah.
The corner stones of the foundations, which
still remain, are 14 to 15 feet long, and from

the free citation of the words by Moses in
Deut. V. 6-21. The principal ditf'erence is
that the law of the Sal)batli is enforced, in
the original law, ))y reference to God's rest-
ing on the seventh day from the work of
creation ; whereas when Moses cites the law
in his public address, he omits this funda-
mental basis of the command and urges the
deliverance from Egypt as the reason why
Israel should remember the day. Another
ditf'erence, and one upon which undue stress
has been laid, is that when Moses repeats
the tenth commandment, he uses the word

The Warning Tablet of Herod's Temple.

Discovered by Clermonl-Ganneau ia 1871.

3A to 4i feet high. Some of those at the south-
east angle have on them Phcenician charac-
ters, coming down at least from Herod's, and
perhaps from Solomon's time. The walls
surrounding the temple area were found to
have been 1000 feet long, and the platform
on which the holy place stood to have been
supported by a buttress 200 feet high from
the valley beneath. Finally, one of the
actual inscriptions has been recovered which
forbade any foreigner to enter the second
court.

Ten Com-mand'ments.

The fundamental law of the Hebrew state;
see Theocracy. The Hebrews called them
the ten words (E. V. margin of Ex. xxxiv.
28; Deut. iv. 13; x. 4). They were spoken
by God at Sinai, and written by him on
tables of stone. They appear in two forms:
the original form, contained in Ex. xx., and

covet in one clause only and employs de-
sire instead of covet in reference to a
neighbor's house, field, etc. (E. V.). These
differences are not contradictions, and they
are fully explained by the character of
Deuteronomy. See Deuteeonomy, S.^vb-

BATH.

The ten commandments are not indi-
vidually numbered in the Bible. Later .Tews
regarded the words " I am the Lord thy God,
which have brought thee out of the land of
Egypt, out of the house of bondage" (Ex.
XX. 2) as the first commandment. These
words, however, are not in the form of a
command. They constitute the preface to
the ten laws which follow. Omitting the
preface, there are two methods of enumera-
tion : 1. According to the received teaching of
the Eoman Catholic and Lutheran churches,
based on Augustine, the first table contains
three commandments and the second table

Ten Commandments

731

Tent of Meeting

seven. Augustine adopted this classification
because it exhibits the symbolical numbers
three, seven, teu, and represents a real dif-
ference in the nature of the commands, the
first three lieiug duties toward God and tlie
last .seven duties toward man. The first
division included the command to remember
the Sabbath ; and to make out three com-
mands in this table, Augustine joined into
one the commands to have no other gods
and to make no graven image; and to secure
seven in the second table he divided the
command against covetousness into two laws.
He followed the text of Deuteronomy, and
made the command not to covet a neighbor's
wife the ninth commandment, and that
against desiring a neighbor's property the
tenth. The Roman Catholic church follows
the text of Exodus, and makes the command
not to covet a neighbors house the ninth,
and that against coveting a neighbor's wife,
manservant, etc., the tenth. The great ob-
jections to this method of enumeration are
that it makes no distinction between poly-
theism and idolatry, and introduces an arbi-
trary distinction regarding kinds of cov-
etousness. 2. The division which numbers
the command against polytheism as the first,
that again.st idolatry as the second, and that
against covetousness as the tenth. This divi-
sion is the oldest that is known. It was
recognized by Josephus (Antiq. iii. 5, .5), by
Philo (de Dec. i.t, and by Origen ; and it
was adopted by the Reformed churches at
the Reformation. But there are two methods
of distributing the teu between the two
tables: (1) They are ordinarily grouped as
four relating to man's duty toward God and
six to his duty to his fellows. This division
is simple enough, and it is ethically correct ;
but it lacks symmetry. (2) Five are as-
signed to each table (Antiq. iii. •^. 8). This
arrangement preserves the grouping of laws
into decads, subdivided into pentads,
which characterizes much of the legisla-
tion. And from the Jewish point of view,
doubtless, the division is ethically correct ;
for the first table includes duties of piety,
which imply no corresponding rights, and
the second table embraces duties of jus-
tice, which involve rights. The duty of
honoring parents to the extent of maintain-
ing them if need be, was regarded as absolute
and unconditional (Mark vii. 10-13). It was
a pious duty, a religious duty, and properly
belonged to the first table. Paul is some-
times cited as lending countenance to this
division : for when summing up the duties
which are comprehended in the command to
love one's neighbor as one's self, he enumer-
ates the last commandments, and makes no
mention of honoring parents (Rom. xiii. 9).
But Paul's enumeration is not intended to be
complete. He omits the ninth command-
ment. Jesus placed the fifth commandment
in the same group with the last five (Mark
X. 19).

Tent.

1. A movable habitation ; such as is used
by nomads, shepherds, and soldiers (Gen. iv.
20; XXV. 27; Judg. viii. 11). The tent was
frequently made of black cloth woven from
goats' hair (Song i. 'i), fastened with cords

Arab's Tent.

and stakes (Ex. xxxv. 18; Is. liv. 2). There
were both round and tapering tents; and
flat, oblong tents.

2. A habitation generally: a part of the
dwellings being put for all, or one kind for
another, according to circumstances (Gen.
ix. 27; 1 Kin. viii. 66: 2 Kin. xiii. 5: Job
viii. 22, R. V.: Ps. Ixxxiv. 10; Jer xxx. 18;
Lam. ii. 4, R. Y. ; Zech. xii. 7; Mai. ii. 12,
R. v.).

Tent of the Con-gre-ga'tion. See next
article.

Tent of Meet'ing, in A. V. Tent or Taber-
nacle of the Congregation [tent where Jeho-
vah meets his people].

1. A provisional tent where Jehovah met
with his people (Ex. xxxiii. 7-11 ; xxxiv.
34, 35). After the golden calf was made,
Jehovah refused to acknowledge Israel any
longer as his people and to dwell in their
midst. He was estranged and distant. Be-
cause of this fact and to symbolize it, Moses
used to pitch the tent outside the camp.
What tent this was is uncertain. A tent was
needed in which to keep the book of the
covenant (xxiv. 3-7). Doubtless Moses sat
there in judgment, and the people resorted
thither to inquire of the Lord (xviii. ].5-20i.
It was probably this tent (the Greek trans-
lators read "his tent") which Moses now
pitched without the camp. He called it the
tent of meeting, because it was a place of
revelation : there Jehovah met his people in
their representative, when the pillar of cloud
descended to the door of the tent ; and
thither went everv one that sought the Lord
(xxxiii. 7, 9). It may have borne its appro-
priate name from the beginning ; if not,

Tent of the Testimony

732

Teresh

Moses borrowed the name from the in-
structions which he received regarding the
permanent tabernacle, since it represented
the same truth (xxvii. 21). The tent was
cared for by Moses' minister, because the
house of Aaron and the tribe of Levi had
not yet been set apart for the service
of the sanctuary. The cloud descended
upon this tent when Moses entered it to in-
quire of God ; but the cloud abode on the
permanent tabernacle and the glory of the
Lord tilled it, and Moses could not enter it
(xl. 34, 35, 38).

2. The tabernacle (q. v.).

Tent of the Tes'ti-mo-ny (Num. ix. 15).
See Tabernacle.

Te'phon, in A. V. Taphon.

A town of Judaea fortified by Bacchides (1
Mac. ix. .50). Tephon is perhaps a modifica-
tion of Tappuah, a name which was borne
by several towns.

Te'rah, in A. V. twice Tarah, (Num. xxxiii.
27. 28) once Thara (Luke iii. 34) [prob-
ably, wild goat].

1. The son of Nahor, and the father of
Abraham, another Nahor, and Haran. He
was a resident at Ur of the Chaldees dur-
ing the greater part of his life ; serving other
divinities than Jehovah (Josh. xxiv. 2), prob-
ably among the rest the moon-god, who had
a celebrated temple at Ur. With Abraham
and Lot, he removed to Haran, where he
died, at the age of '^05 (Gen. xi. 25-32).

2. A station of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness (Num. xxxiii. 27, 28). The site is un-
known.

Ter'a-phim.

Images, but not of a particular deity, which
were used in the household and by private
individuals, and which varied in size from
such as were small enough to be easily car-
ried in hasty flight and concealed in the
furniture of a camel (Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, 34,
R. V.) to one apparently large enough to
represent a man (1 Sam. xix. 13, R. V.).
They were probably regarded as bringers of
good luck. They were consulted with re-
.spect to the advisability of proposed actions
(Ezek. xxi. 21 ; Zech. x. 2, both R. V.). The
word, like the usual word for God, is plural
in form, but may be singular in signification
(1 Sam. xix. 13). Teraphim were employed
in Babylonia (Ezek. xxi. 21). Laban used
them in Haran, and his daughter Rachel
stole them and carried them with her to
Canaan (Gen. xxxi. 19, 34). This was done
without Jacob's knowledge (32). When he
reached Shechem, he demanded the surren-
der of all the strange gods which members
of his company had brought with them, and
he removed them from his people (xxxv. 2-4).
In the days of the judges Micah of mount
Ephraim had a private sanctuary with priest,
ephod, and teraphim (Judg. xvii. 5), and
eventually a molten image and a graven
image (4 ; xviii. 14). Through them prob-

ably the Lord was consulted (5, 6). All these
idols the band of Danites carried off for their
own use (17-20). Samuel the prophet classed
teraphim with witchcraft and rebellion (1
Sam. XV. 23, R. V.) ; nevertheless, there was
one in David's house, doubtless belonging to
his wife (xix. 13, R. V.). Teraphim figured
largely in the corrupt religion of the north-
ern Israelites (Hos. iii. 4). The teraphim
were condemned with other idols as abom-
inations, and were destroyed by Josiah in
his work of reformation (2 Kin. xxiii. 24,
R. V.) ; but they still found favor with a
part of the people after the exile (Zech.
X. 2).

Ter'e-binth.

The rendering of the Hebrew 'Elah, a ro-
bust tree, on the R. V. margin with oak in
the text. Twice, when it is associated with
another word which is rendered oak, it ap-
pears in the text of the R. V. (Is. vi. 13 ;
Hos. iv. 13). 'E!ah is probably the terebinth.
The terebinth or turpentine tree {Pistacia
terebinthus) is a small tree with pinnate leaves,

Terebinth.

inconspicuous flowers, with tlic sexes sepa-
rated, and little roundish dark-purple fruit.
It is a native of southern Europe, northern
Africa, and western Asia, including Palestine.
The turpentine is obtained by making in-
cisions in the trunk. It merges into Pistacia
palwstina, which is also found in Palestine,
and is but a variety of the species.

Te'resli [perhaj^s Persian, austere].

A chamberlain who kept a door in the
palace of king Ahasuerus, and plotted the

Tertius

733

Theocracy

murder of his master and king, a crime for
which he and an accomplice were executed
(Esth. ii. 21-2o; vi. 2).

Ter'ti-us [third].

Paul's amanuensis, who wrote for him the
Epistle to the Romans (Rom. xvi. 22).

Ter-tul'lus [diminutive of Tertius].

A Roman advocate, employed by the Jew-
ish authorities to prosecute Paul before the
tribunal of Felix, the Roman procurator
(Acts xxiv. 1-8). His rhetorical address is
thoroughly in the style affected by Roman
advocates of the time.

Tes'ta-ment.

The rendering of the Greek Diaiheke, a
will, a covenant. A third meaning has no
bearing on the present subject. In Heb.
ix. 16, 17 diatheke is clearly a will. But in
viii. 6-10, 13 and ix. 1, 4 the meaning is
evidently covenant, and the term is so trans-
lated in the text. The Old Covenant and
the New Covenant would be more accurate
designations of the two parts of the Bible
than the Old Testament and the New Testa-
ment. See Heik, New Testament, Old
Testament.

Teth.

The ninth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
Greek theta comes from the same source ; but
the Greek versions represent it in Hebrew
names by tau, reserving theta for the aspi-
rated Hebrew tau. In the English versions
teth is represented by t. It stands at the
beginning of the ninth section of Ps. cxix.
in several versions, in which section each
verse begins with that letter.

Te'trarch.

One who rules over the fourth part of a
kingdom or province. Philip of Macedon
divided Thessaly into four districts called
tetrarchies. Eventually the word was used
loosely for a petty .subject prince, even though
the land was not divided among four such
rulers. The Romans adopted the term, and
used it as a convenient title for a prince to
whom they granted a small territory only,
and whom they were unwilling to dignify
with the authority and rank of a king. The
N. T. names three of these petty digni-
taries : Herod, tetrarch of Galilee, Philip, te-
trarch of Ituraa and Trachonitis, and Lysa-
nias, tetrarch of Abilene (Luke iii. 1). In the
case of the tetrarchs Herod Antipas and Philip
the title was appropriate, even in its original
sense, for Augustus gave one-half of the
kingdom of Herod the Great to Archelaus,
with the title of ethnarch. and divided the
remainder into two tetrarchies, which he gave
to them (Antiq. xvii. 11, 4; War ii. 6, 3). A
tetrarch was sometimes in courtesy called a
king (Mat. xiv. 1 with 9; see also Mark vi.
14).

Thad-dse'us. See Judas 5.

Tha'hash.
Tha'mah.

See Tahash.
See Temah.

Tha'mar. Sec Tamar.

Tham'na-tha. See Timnah.

Thank Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Tha'ra. See Terah.

Thar'sMsh. See Tarshish.

Tlie'a-ter.

A place where dramatic performances are
given. The theater, with its auditorium,
orchestra, and stage, and capable of seating
immense throngs (see Ephesus), was admir-
ably adapted for large public meetings and
the transaction of public business, and was
often put to that use (Acts xix. 29, 31 ; An-
tiq. xix. 8, 2).

Thebes. See No.

The'bez [perhaps, brightness or sydendor].

A town near Shechem, having in it a
strong tower, in besieging which Abimelech
was killed (Judg. ix. 50-55; 2 Sam. xi. 21).
It continues to exist in the large village of
Tubas, 9J miles northeast of Shechem, on
the road to Beth-shean. .

The-co'e. See Tekoa.

The-la'ser. See Telassar.

The-oc'ra-cy.

Josephus coined the word theocracy to de-
scribe the government instituted at Sinai.
" Our legislator . . . ordered our government
to be what I may call by a strained expres-
sion a theocracy, attributing the power and
the authority to God" (con. Apion. ii. IT).
Jehovah was the head of the nation, dwell-
ing in its midst between the cherubim (Ex.
XXV. 22). In him all the powers of the state,
legislative, executive, judicial, were united.
As legislator, he announced the fundamental
law of the state in the hearing of the con-
gregation. After that immediate i)resenta-
tion of himself to the nation, he exercised
his governmental offices for the most part
through men whom he raised up. Like all
potentates, he delegated the judicial func-
tion for the most part to judges ; only the
most difficult matters were referred to Jeho-
vah (Ex. xviii. 19) ; see Urim and Thum-
MIM. His legislative function he exercised
through Moses and through ]>ro]ihets (Dent,
xviii. 15-19). Legislation was intermittent ;
the given body of laws was a sufficient rule,
and seldom required modification or enlarge-
ment. The executive function was likewise ex-
ercised for many years intermittently through
leaders, called judges, who were raised up
from time to time, and who. accredited by the
great deeds which were wrought by their
hands, secured public confidence and became
the acknowledged head in state affairs.

The theocratic government was proposed
by God at Sinai on condition of obedience
(Ex. xix. 4-9). The terms were accepted by
the elders of the peojde (7, 8). The ten com-
mandments, which formed the basis of the
covenant, were proclaimed by .Tehovah him-
self in such a manner that all the people could

Theocracy

734

Theophany

hear (xx. 1, 19, 22 ; Dent. iv. 12, 33, 36 ; v.
4, 22), in order that they might believe (Ex.
xix. !)). At the people's request, the remain-
ing law.s, which are a practical application
and interpretation of the ten commandments,
were not spoken directly to them, but
through Moses (xx. 18-21). Then the cov-
enant was ratified. Moses wrote all the
words of the Lord, erected an altar and
twelve pillars, ordered a sacrifice, and
sprinkled the altar with half the blood. He
read the book of the covenant in the audi-
ence of the people, and, on their formal ac-
ceptance of it, sprinkled the remaining por-
tion of the blood upon the people, saying :
" Behold the blood of the covenant, which
the Lord hath made with you concerning all
these words" (xxiv. 3-8). Thus the theocra-
cy was established.

This book of the covenant contains the
constitution and earliest laws of Israel. The
ten commandments formed the fundamental
law of the state. In modern mode of thought
and expression, they would be called the con-
stitution ; in Hebrew conception and as a
matter of fact, they were a covenant between
God and the nation. There was a treaty,
not between several communities, but be-
tween the commnnity and God. Being fun-
damental law, they were engraven on stone,
and deposited in the ark ; they were known
as the covenant (Dent. iv. 13 ; ix. 9, 11 ; 1
Kin. viii. 9-21 ; see also Num. x. 33 ; Judg.
XX. 27 ; 1 Sam. iv. 3) ;'or the testimony (Ex.
xxxi. 18; xxxii. 15, etc.). The laws which
follow the ten commandments are by-laws
or statutes. They are constitutional, involv-
ing no principle contrary to the organic law
of the state ; they are expository, being the
application of the doctrines of the constitu-
tion to the affairs of daily life ; they are tem-
porary, liable to abrogation and amendment
and numerical increase to meet the new con-
ditions and peculiar needs of each age. They
are presented in the form of a code ; they
are not a loose aggregation of statutes, but
are disposed in orderly arrangement : 1.
Laws relating to the form of worship (xx.
23-26). 2. Laws to protect the rights of man.
(a) To protect liberty (xxi. 2-11). (b) Con-
cerning injury of person (12-36). (c) Concern-
ing property rights (xxii. 1-17). 3. Laws to
govern personal conduct (18-xxiii. 9). 4.
Laws concerning sacred seasons and sacrifice
(10-19). 5. The promise annexed (20-33).

At the institution of the theocratic govern-
ment at Sinai, the idea before the people was
simply that God was ruler and Moses his
accredited representative through whom he
exercised the legislative, judicial, and execu-
tive offices. Moses already had subordinate
judges to assist him (Ex. xviii. 21-26); and
at the end of the wilderness period, promise
was made of future legislation, that is the
continued revelation of the will of God
(Deut. xviii. 1.5-19). The expectation was
also entertained by Moses that God would

appoint leaders to succeed him, and that
eventually, on account of the people's lack
of faith, a king would be needed as earthly,
visible representative of the executive power
when the people should be settled in Pales-
tine. Accordingly a general law of the king
was framed (xvii. 14-20).

The stability of the state under theocratic
form of government depended in the first in-
stance and ultimately on the faithfulness of
God to his election and his promises ; but the
success of the theocracy at any given period
was conditioned by the attitude of the peoj)]e
toward God and toward the provisions of the
covenant. Their obedience to God and
reliance on him were requisite. The the-
ocracy was based on the conception of
Israel as a community, and it is well
to note the weakness of the bond which
at the first bound Israel into a commun-
ity. The children of Lsrael were divided
into twelve tribes ; they were bound to-
gether by common blood and common lan-
guage, by common misfortune and common
need. They were held together in i)ursuit
of a great end by the enthusiasm and expec-
tation which one man had awakened, by the
hope of freedom and a country, by the prom-
ise and evidence of God's protection. They
were kept together by providence. All these
unifying elements save the last were weak.
They were bonds that might easily be, and
constantly were, broken. This lack of com-
munal strength was an obstacle to the theoc-
racy, which even the establishment of the
monarchy did not rectify.

The-oph'a-ny.

A manifestation of God to man by actual
appearance. It was not an immediate
revelation of God the Father (John i. 18 ; 1
Tim. vi. 16) ; but a manifestation of Jehovah
in the person of the angel of the Lord (Gen.
xvi. 7), the angel of the presence or the Lord's
presence (Ex. xxxii. 34 ; xxxiii. 14), the
angel of the covenant (Mai. iii. 1), or Christ.
A common classification is: 1. The O. T. the-
ophany, an epiphany of the future Christ.
2. The incarnation of Christ, as the revelation
of God in the flesh. 3. The second coming
of Christ.

The O. T. theophanies were transient man-
ifestations and permanent localization. They
were temporary manifestations to the patri-
archs, and became abiding in the shekinah.
The theophanies which were granted to the
patriarchs may have been unsubstantial mani-
festations, incorporeal and merely the appear-
ance of the human form. Some interpreters,
like Tertullian, believe that occasionally at
least there was actual flesh, not putative
flesh; real and solid human substance; just
as Christ, who was God manifested in the
flesh, had flesh and blood both before and
after his resurrection, and could be seen
and handled (Luke xxiv. 30-43; John
XX. 27). If the angel of the Lord assumed

i

Theophany

735 Thessalonians, Epistles to the

I

an actual body, be did so miraculouijly,
as Cbrist made tbe water wiue ; and it
disappeared iiiiraciilously, as Christ who
possessed a human l)uily of flesh and blood
vanished from men's siglit. In the O. T.
theophany the angel of the Lord ate actual
food (Gen. xviii. 1-8). Does this prove that
the angel had assumed an actual body? 1.
Josepbus interprets the eating as mere ap-
pearance (Antiq. i. 11, 2) ; so also Philo (Op.
ii. 18) and the writer of Tobit (Tob. sii. 19).
2. Justin Martyr speaks of the angel as con-
suming food "as fire consumes" (Dial. c.
Tryph. xxxiv.). The angel of the Lord who
appeared to Manoab, touched the food, and
it was burnt. "The thirsty earth absorbs
water in one manner, tlie hot ray of the sun
in another" (Augustine).

The transient manifestations gradually gave
place to the permanent localization. The
shekinah was the visible majesty of the divine
presence, especially when dwelling between
the cherubim in the tabernacle and temple in
the midst of God's people Israel. It first ap-
peared at the exodus. The Lord went be-
fore the Israelites in a pillar of cloud by day,
and by night in a pillar of fire to give them
light (Ex. xiii. 21, 22). A thick cloud rested
upon mount Sinai, and the mountain was al-
together on smoke, because the Lord de-
scended upon mount Sinai in fire (xix. 16, 18).
Later the glory of the Lord abode on mount
Sinai,*and tbe cloud covered it six days ; and
the seventh day he called unto Moses out of
the midst of the cloud, and the appearance
of the glory of the Lord was like devouring
fire on the top of the mount in the eyes of
the children of Israel (xxiv. Ifi, 17). When
Moses entered the first tent of meeting the
cloud descended and hovered at the door, and
the Lord talked with Moses face to face (Ex.
xxxiii. 11 ; cp. Deut. v. 4). When the
tabernacle was erected, the Lord took pos-
session of it. The cloud, dark by day and
luminous bv night, covered the tent, and the
glory of the Lord filled it (Ex. xl. 34, 35;
Num. ix. 15, 16). When Moses appeared
before the Lord in the tabernacle, he
heard the voice of one speaking unto him
from off the mercy seat (Num. vii. 89: cp.
Ex. XXV. 22 ; Lev. xvi. 2). Probably the
glory was not seen constantly, but gleamed
forth occasionally from the cloud which con-
cealed it (Ex. xvi. 7, 10 ; Lev. ix. 6, 23 ;
Num. xiv. 10; xvi. 19, 42; xx. 6). From
frequent references, it seems that God con-
tinued to manifest bis presence between the
cherubim on the ark. At length, when the
temple of Solomon was dedicated, the cloud
filled the house of the Lord, so that the
priests could not stand to minister by reason
of the cloud ; for the glory of the Lord filled
the house (1 Kin. viii. 10, 11).

The temporary manifestations had given
place to the abiding presence in the tabernacle
and Solomon's temple : and finally the Word
became flesh and dwelt among men ; and men

beheld his glory, glory as of the only begotten
from the Father (John i. 14). The latter
glory of the house was greater than the for-
mer (Hag. ii. 9, R. V.). The divine presence
dwelt in Christ's body as in the temple.

The-oph'i-lus [loved by God].

The Christian to whom Luke addressed his
Gospel (Luke i. 3) and The Acts of tlie Apostles
(Acts i. 1). See Acts of the Apostles, The,

Thes-sa-lo'ni-ans, Epistles to the.

The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to
the Thessalonians is the earliest of Paul's
epistles. It was written by the apostle in
conjunction with Silvanus (Silas) and Timo-
thy, to the church at Thessalonica. Paul
had founded this church on his second mis-
sionary journey, and had been driven from
Thessalonica to Bercea and from Bercea to
Athens by the persecuting Jews ; see Paul.
The epistle contains allusions (1 Thes. ii.) to
his life at Thessalonica. It also relates that,
when at Athens, he had sent Timothy back
to Thessalonica to encourage the Christians
amid their persecutions (iii. 1-3) and that
Timothy had recently brought him good
news of their steadfastness. In Acts xviii.
5 we learn that Silas and Timothy rejoined
the apostle at Corinth. Hence the epistle
was written from that city, probably in the
year A. D. 52. The allusions which the epistle
contains to Paul's life in Thessalonica and to
the distress felt by the Thessalonians over the
death of their friends, as well as the ele-
mentary character of the instruction given,
confirm this date. There appear to have
been three special features in the condition of
the Thessalonians which occasioned anxiety
to the apostle, and led him to write this
epistle : (1 ) a tendency to neglect their daily
work, probably under the idea that the
second advent would soon take place, — and
with this was sometimes found a failure to-
preserve moral purity of life; (2) distress
lest their Christian friends who died would
fail to enjoy the glories of the kingdom
which the returning Christ was to establish ;
(3) friction between the regular oflicers of
the church and those who ]>ossessed miracu-
lous endowments of the Spirit. Hence the
analysis of the epistle : 1. A grateful state-
ment of their Christian earnestness, their
endurance of trial, and the influence they had
already exerted over others (i.). 2. A re-
minder of the uprightness and industry with
which he had lived among them, and of the
enthusiasm with which they had received
his preaching even in the face of persecu-
tion from the Jews (ii.). 3. A recital of the
joy he had had in Timothy's good report of
their condition (iii.). 4. Instruction on spe-
cial points (iv. 1-v. 24) : (a) Concerning
purity in the relation of the sexes (iv. 3-8).
(b) Concerning a life of mutual love and
orderliness (9-12). (c) Concerning dead be-
lievers, declaring that at the advent they
will rise first and be caught up with the

Thessalonians, Epistles to the 736

Thessalonica

living to meet the Lord in the air, and thus
willnotfailof their reward (13-18). (d) Con-
cerning watchfulness and sobriety of life (v.
1-11). (e) Concerning respect for officers of the
church, consideration for those in need, culti-
vation of spiritual gifts, and otherduties of the
CTiristian life (12-24). 5. Closing words (25-28).

The epistle strikingly illustrates the dif-
ficulties natural to a newly formed gentile
church and the breadth and practical wisdom
of the apostle's instructions.

The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to
the Thessalonians evidently followed the
first after but a short period. It too, there-
fore, is to be assigned to a. d. 52, and was
written from Corinth. We learn from it
that the difficulties of the Thessalonians had
become more serious, but were still of the
same general character as those dealt with in
the first epistle. Like the first, this was
written by Paul in conjunction with Sil-
vanus (Silas) and Timothy ; it deals largely
with the second advent and misconceptions
about it; and refers again to the tendency
of some to disorderly living (2 Thes. iii. 6-
12). If, however, the first epistle treated of
the relation of the advent to believers, the

The ei)istle may be divided as follows :
1. Thanksgiving for their fidelity amid per-
secution, and assurance that persecution
should only make stronger their faith in
the vindication of the saints and in the
punishment of the ungodly which will take
place at the second advent (i.). 2. Warning
against supposing that " the day of the Lord
is now present," and description of the apos-
tasy and rise of the man of lawlessness,
which must precede the coming of the Lord
(ii. 1-12). 3. Expression of his confidence
in their election and fidelity (13-17). 4.
Concluding exhortations, — that they pray for
him, that they avoid tliose who are disor-
derly, that they be industrious and faithful,
that they all subject themselves to the
authority which he as an apostle exercised,
etc. (iii.). From ii. 2 it appears that a forged
letter of Paul's bad been circulated ; hence in
iii. 17 he appends his signature. We thus see
also that from the beginning the same author-
ity was attached in the church to the apos-
tle's letters as to his oral teaching. The
statements concerning the apostasy and the
man of lawlessness have been variously in-
terpreted. We think it most probable that

Saloniki.

second treats of its relation to the wicked
(i. 5-10). Further the apostle warns them
not to suppose that " the day of the Lord is
now present" (ii. 2, R. V.), and that the
visible advent would therefore soon come ;
for, before that happens, there must be the
apostasy (predicted by Christ ; cp. Mat.
xxiv. 9-12) and the revelation of the man
of lawlessness (2 Thes. ii. 3, R. V. ; see
Antichrist), whom the Lord will destroy
at his coming. He had, when with them,
told them of these things (ii. 5).

the apostasy was contemplated by Paul as
arising within the church ; the man of law-
lessness as the culmination of the apostasy in
a personal antichrist ; and he or that which
hindereth (ii. 7) as either the civil power or
else, and w'ith much probability, the Holy
Spirit. G. T. p.

Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca [conquest of Thessaly].

A city on the Therniaic Gulf, now called
the gulf of Saloniki. The city was first
called Therme, or Therma, hot spring ; but

Theudas

737

Thief

Cassander, one of the sticcossors of Alexander
the (ireat, made it liis residence and renamed
it Thessaloniea, after liis wife Thessah)nike,
a (huigliter of the conqueror of tlie C'herso-
iiesiis and sister of tiie great Alexander.
I'nder the Koiiiaiis it was the capital of the
second district out of four into wliich they
had divideil Macedonia. The .Jews had a
.synagogue in the city. I'aul ])reached there
and made converts, who hecame the nucleus
of a Christian church (Acts xvii. 1-13; cp.
riiil. iv. It)). To this church Paul sent two
letters. Two of his coworkers, Aristarchusand
.Secuudus, were men of Thessalouica (Acts
XX. 4; xxvii. 2). Thessalouica was taken
l>y the Saracens in A. D. 904. After other
vicissitudes, it was captured by the Turkish
sultan Amurath II. in 1430. It still exists
as Saloniki, with a pojmlation of about
100,000 Mohammedans, Christians, and Jews.

Theu'das.

(lamaliel, in his speech before the .sanhe-
drin. about A. D. 32, referred to Theudas,
who gave himself out to be somebody, to
whom a number of men, about 400, joined
themselves, who was slain, and all, as many
as obeyed him, were dispersed and came to
nought, and after whom Judas of Galilee
rose up in the days of the enrollment (Acts
v. 3fi, 37). There can be no doubt that the
Judas here spoken of was Judas the Gaulon-
ite of Gamala, who, in the times of Quirinins,
during the procuratorship of Copouius, raised
an insurrection by opposing the enrollment
(.Antiq. xviii. 1, 1; War ii. 8, 1). Theudas
accordingly arose sometime before A. D. 6.
Now Josejilnis mentions a magician named
Theudas, who, while Fadus was procurator
of Judaea, a. r>. 44-46, persuaded a great part
of the people to follow him to the river
Jordan, for he told them that he was a
prophet, and that at his command the waters
would divide and allow them a passage. But
Fadus sent a troop of horse against him,
wlio fell upon the people unexpectedly, slew
many and took many others alive, and se-
cured Theudas, cut off his head, and carried
it to Jerusalem (Autiq. xx. 5, 1).

The question is. Do Luke and Josephus
refer to the same person ? Some answer that
they do, and say that either Luke or Josephus
errs. Josephus scarcely is mistaken, for he
gives details. But Luke has fully estab-
lished his credibility as a historian, and it is
a rash thing to accuse him of an error.
Accordingly other interpreters believe that
it is quite probaVde that two persons by the
name of Theudas, at a distance of forty years
or more from each other, laid themselves
open to the just vengeance or justifiable sus-
picions of the Romans and were punished.
It is not at all clear that Theudas the Gau-
lonite was an insurgent of the same class as
Theudas whom Gamaliel cites. Tlie one was
an impo.stor, a pretended prophet, who, on
the faith of the people in his supernatural
47

powers, drew crowds of followers after
him. The other made some sort of claim
to greatness, gained a following of 400
men, and came to naught. Who then was
Theudas to whom Gamaliel refers? He was
probably one of the insurrectionary chiefs,
who led belligerent bands in the closing year
of Herod the Great. That year was remark-
ably turbulent. Josej)hus mentions three
disturbers by name, and makes general allu-
sion to others. Theudas was either 1. One
of these unnamed insurrectionists, whom
Gamaliel cites to show that a bad cause and
its leaders come to grief. Theudas w^as a
common name, and within a period of half
a century, might be borne by two persons of
some j)rominence and somewhat similar in
their career. Analogouslj- Josephus gives
an account of four men named Simon,
who followed each other within forty
years, and of three named Judas, within
ten years, who were all instigators of rebel-
lion. Or 2. One of the three insurgents who
are named by Josephus. Two are advocated
as identical with Theudas. (1) Simon (Antiq.
xvii. 10, 6 ; War ii. 4, 2), a slave of
Herod, who attempted to make himself
king when Herod died. He was noted as a
disturber of the peace at this time and his
name would be apt to occur to Gamaliel ; he
was a man of lofty pretensions ; he died a
violent death ; he appears to have had com-
paratively few^ adherents ; he was a slave,
and it was quite common among the Jews
to assume a new name on changing occupa-
tion or mode of life. Gamaliel speaks of him
as Theudas, the name he had borne longest,
and by which he was best known in Jerusa-
lem and to the members of the sanhedrin,
while Josephus calls him by the name Simon,
which he had adopted when appearing as
king of the Jews and by which he was nat-
urally known to the Eoman government and
people. (2) The man called Matthias by
Josephus (Antiq. xvii. 6, 2; War i. 33, 2).
Matthias is a Greek form of the Hebrew
Mattanyah, gift of God, and is equivalent to
the Greek name Theudas, which, it is urged,
is the same as Theodas, shortened from Theo-
doras, gift of God. Matthias was an eloqueni
teacher, who with another teacher headed a
band in the days of king Herod, and de-
stroyed the golden eagle .set up by the king
over the great gate of the temple. He was
caught and burnt alive with some of his
companions, and many of the rest were put
to death by other means.

Thief.

In a broad sense, anyone who appropriates
what is not his own, as the petty pilferer
(John xii. 6), the robber or high-^^-ayman
(Luke X. .30, E. V. robber), the burglar (Mat.
vi. SO). The highwayman was often a rebel
against Roman rule and a fomcnter of strife,
like Barabbas (Mark xv. 7), who was com-
pelled by the exigencies of the case, as much.

Thimnathah

738

Thorns and Thistles

as by the lust of plunder, to flee from the sol-
diers and adopt the wild, robber life. Under
the Mosaic law a thief caught had to make
restitution of twice the amount he had
taken, and if he were unable, could be sold
into temporary servitude till he had earned
the requisite amount. If a thief entered a
house and, coming into contact with the
owner in the dark, was killed, the homicide
was not to be charged with blood-guiltiness ;
but if the sun had risen, the householder
was held to be guilty if he killed the in-
truder (Ex. xxii. 1-4). That the thieves on
the cross were something far beyond petty
pilferers is plain from the Greek term applied
to them, the severity of their punishment
(War ii. 13, 2), and the fact that one of them
acknowledged the justice of the death pen-
alty inflicted on him (Luke xxiii. 41) ; he
must have been a robber at the least (Mat.
xxvii. 38, R. V.), and quite possibly even a
brigand. Both reviled Jesus on the cross (44),
but subsequently one was touched with awe at
the meekness and forgiving spirit of Jesus,
and with the fear of God in his heart, the
confession of the sinfulness of his past life,
the acknowledgment that Jesus had done
nothing amiss, and was the true King, and
would reign in power after the death on the
cross, turned to Jesus for acceptance after
death (Luke xxiii. 39-43).

TMm'na-thah. See Timnah.

This'tle. See Thorns and Thistles.

Thom'as [Greek, from Hebrew ta'om, a
twin] .

One of the twelve apostles (Mat. x. 3). He
was also called Didymus, a Greek name,
meaning, like Thomas, a twin. When the
disciples were astonished that Jesus intended
going again to Judaea, where a little before
the Jews had threatened to stone him (John
xi. 7, 8), Thomas, in devotion to Jesus, de-
termined to share the peril, and said to his
fellow-disciples : " Let us also go, that we
may die with him" (16). When Jesus, in
anticipation of his departure, spoke of going
to prepare a place for them, and added that
they knew whither he was going and the
way, Thomas said : " Lord, we know not
whither thou goest ; and how can we know
the way?" To which the reply commenced
with the well-known words : " I am the
way, the truth, and the life " (xiv. 1-6).
Thomas was not at the first meeting at which
the privilege was granted of seeing the risen
Lord, and when he heard that Jesus had
been present he .said : " Except I shall see in
his hands the print of the nails, and put my
finger into the print of the nails, and thrust
my hand into his side, I will not believe " (xx.
24, 25). This incident has given rise to his des-
ignation, "doubting Thomas." But God
turned the doubt of Thomas to the good of oth-
ers. " He doubted that we might not doubt "
(Augustine), and eight days later Jesus gave
him the evidence he required, and elicited

from him the adoring exclamation : " My Lord
and my God ! " (26-29). He was on the sea
of Galilee with six other disciples when Jesus
hailed them from the beach and told them
where to cast the net (xxi. 1-8) ; and was with
the rest of the apostles in the upper room at
Jerusalem after the ascension (Acts i. 13).
Tradition makes Thomas afterwards labor in
Parthia and Persia, dying in the latter coun-
try. At a later period India was named as
the place where he had preached and suffered
martyrdom, and a place near Madras is called
St. Thomas' mount.

Thorns and This'tles.

In most passages where these words occur
the terms are generic rather than specific.
Thorny weeds, bushes, and small trees of
various kinds are abundant in Palestine.
Among them may be mentioned the thorny
burnet {Poteiium spinosum), which is burnt as
fuel in lime kilns and ovens; the thorny
caper {Capparis spinosa), seen everywhere
hanging from rocks and walls ; the James-
town or jirason weed (Datura stramonium) l)y
the roadside and in waste places ; the arti-
choke ((Tj/nara .s.(/ri«ca) ; and in the uplands
the acanthus with its whitish flowers. The
prickly pear (Opuntia ficus indica), a cactus
with yellow flowers, is the characteristic
hedge plant of modern Syria ; but it was in-
troduced from America and was unknown in
ancient times. For hedge purposes there are
also used the box thorn (Lycium europieum)
and the bramble (Rubus discolor). Various
hawthorns are found, Cratiegus azarolus, C.
monogj/na, and east of the Jordan C. orieuiaUs.
Numerous thistles grow in the fields and
waste places: such as Cirsium acarna. with
its leaves tipped with long, yellow spines ;
Carthamus lanatus, with yellow flowerets. C.
glaucus, with purple, C. cseruleus, with blue,
and C. tinctorius, with red flowerets, which
are used as a red dye ; Carduus pycnocephalus
and arqentalus ; Echinops riscosus ; the tall
Notobasis syriaca, with pink flowers and pow-
erful spines; cotton thistles {Onopordon illy-
ricum and cynarocephalum) ; the milk thistle
(Silybum marianum) ; sow thistles (Sonchus
oleraceus and (jlaucescens) ; star thistles (Cen-
tauvca caJcitrapa and rerutum), the former
with ])urple, the latter with yellow flowers.
The cocklebur (Xanthium) is common, as is
also teasel (Dij)sacus sylvestris).

Several words rendered thorn or thistle
appear to be used speciflcally : 1. Hebrew
dardar, Greek tribolos, which grows in fields
(Gen. iii. 18 ; Hos. x. 8 ; Mat. vii. 16 ; all in
E. V. thistle ; and Heb. vi. 8, in A. V. brier) is
probably a species of Tribulus, perhaps T. ter-
restris, one of the plants called caltrop. It is
common in the fields and by the roadside.
The fruit is composed of bony cells armed
with prickles on the back. It does not be-
long to the Composite, as do the thistles. 2, 3,
and 4, see Bramble, Brier 5, 6, Nettle 2.

The crown of thorns, which was plaited by

i

Three Taverns

739

Throne

the Eoman soldiers and placed on the head
of Jesus to torture and insult him (Mat. xxvii.
29), is generally believed to have been made
of the Zizi/phus spina Christi, a speeies of
jujube or lotus tree, with soft, round, pliant
branches, and with leaves resembling the
ivy with which emperors and generals were
wont to be crowned. See Bkamble.

The thorn in the tiesh was some bodily
pain or iutirmity, sent as a messenger of Sa-
tan to buflet the apostle Paul and keep him
humble amid all his spiritual triumphs (2 Cor.
xii. 7). Its nature is unknown.

Three Tav'erns.

A small station on the Appian Way, about
a mile from Apjyii Forum, and 30 miles from
Kome, where a number of Koman Christians
met Paul ou his way to Eome (Acts xxviii.
15).

Threshing.

The process of separating grain from the
straw. Small quantities of grain were beaten
out with a stick or flail (Judg. vi. 11 ; Euth ii.
7), and this was the customary method of hull-
ing fitches and cummin (Is. xxviii. 27) ; but
when much work was to be done, oxen and
threshing floors were employed. The weather
of Palestine permits the thi-eshing floor to be
under the open sky (Judg. vi. 37). It is gen-
erally common to the whole village, but
may have a private owner (2 Sam. xxiv. 16).
If possible, it is the surface of a flat rock on
the top of a hill, exposed to any wind that
blows. If such a natural floor is not avail-
able, an artificial floor is laid out by the
roadside, and soon assumes a circular shape,

Threshing Floor.

about 50 feet in diameter, and becomes firm
and hard under the trampling of the oxen.
The sheaves are loosened and arranged in a
circle on the floor ; or, if the straw is to be
preserved whole, the ears are cut from the
stock and cast on the floor. Oxen, which to
this day are unmuzzled except by the nig-

gardly (Dent. XX v. 4), are driven round and
round to trample out the kernels; or else are
made to drag a sled or cart, weighted by a
heavy stone or the driver, to facilitate the
operation. The sled is made of two heavy
planks, curved upward at the front and fast-
ened side by side. Sharp pieces of stone are
fixed in holes bored in the bottom. The cart,
at least as used in Egypt, consists of a frame
containing three wooden rollers set with
sharp iron knives. If there is any wind, the
threshed grain is tossed high in the air with
a shovel or a fork (Is. xxx. 24 ; Mat. iii. 12 ;
Iliad xiii. 586), when the chafl' is blown
away and the clean grain falls to the ground ;
but if there is no wind, a large fan is plied
by one man. while another tosses the grain
with his shovel. The fan, however, is sel-
dom used except to purge the floor of the
refuse dust. Winnowing is done in the even-
ing for the sake of the wind ; and it is cus-
tomary for the owner of the grain to spend
the night at the floor during the time of
threshing to prevent stealing (Euth iii. 2
seq.). The grain is finally passed through a
sieve to cleanse it from dirt, after which it is
ready for grinding (Amos ix. 9).

Thresh'olds of the Gates.

A building, in Hebrew '"sttppim, which was
intended for the storage of temple goods (Neh.
xii. 25, A. v.). See Asuppim.

Throne.

A chair of state, in Hebrew Mss^, in Greek
thronos, which was occupied by a person
of authority, whether high priest, judge,

Ancient Egyptian Throne.

military leader, governor, or king (Gen. xii.
40; 1 Sam. i. 9; 2 .Sam. iii. 10; Neh. iii. 7;
Ps. cxxii. 5 ; Jer. i. 15; Mat. xix. 28). Eoyal

Thummim

r4o

Tiberias

thrones were often i)(>rt;il)le, like those of
Ahiib and Jehoshaphat (1 Kin. xxii. 10), and
the one used by Sennacherib at Lachish ; see
Sennachkrib. Solomon's throne was an
elevated seat reached by six steps. Its frame
was probably made of cedar. It was inlaid
with ivory, and elsewhere overlaid with gold ;
the back of it was arched or rounded otif ; it
was furnished with arms and was provided
with a footstool. A lion stood at each side,
ornamenting the arms, and on each end of each
of the six steps (1 Kin. x. 18-20 ; 2Chron. ix.
17-19). It resembled the thrones of the As-
syrian and Egyptian monarchs, but with its
dais was the most magnificent royal chair of
the time.

The king, arrayed in his royal robes, regu-
larly sat on his throne when granting audi-
ences, receiving homage, administering jus-
tice, or promulgating commands (1 Kin. ii.
19; vii. 7; xxii. 10; 2 Kin. xi. 19; Jon.
iii. fi).

The throne symliolized supreme power and
authority (Gen. xli. 40). It is constantly at-
tributed to Jehovah.

Thum'mim. See Ueim and Thummim.

Thun'der.

Tlie noise which follows a flash of light-
ning. It intensifies the awfulness of a ter-
rific storm (Ex. ix. 23). Thunder is an un-
usual event during summer, which is the
dry season in Palestine (Prov. xxvi. 1) ; and
hence, when it occurred at that time of year
after prayer for it, it was an evident answer
and served as a sign (1 Sam. xii. 17). It was
often called simply kol, voice, sound, noise ;
and was poetically described as the voice of
Jehovah (Job xxxvii. 2-5 ; xl. 9 ; Ps. xxi.x.
3-9), who sends and directs the storm (Job
xxviii. 26). It accompanied manifestations
of God's presence when he came in dread
majesty (Ex. xix. 16 ; Rev. iv. 5) ; it was an
indication of divine power at work in nature
(Ps. xxix. 3-9) ; and as thunder is a precurscn*
of the destructive storm, it symbolized divine
vengeance (1 Sam. ii. 10 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 14, 15 ;
Ps. 1 XX vii. 18).

Thy-a-ti'ra.

A city of Asia Minor, in Lydia, near the
boundary of Mysia. It was on the road from
Pergamos to Sardis. It had already come
into existence and been known as Pelopia
and Euhippia when Seleucus Nicator about
280 K. c. colonized it with Greeks, giving it
the name of Thyatira. Its inhabitants were
famed for their skill in dyeing purple ; and
I^ydia, the seller of purple at Philippi, came
from Thyatira (Acts xvi. 14). It contained
one of the seven churches in Asia (Rev. i. 11 ;
ii. 18-24). Traces of its existence remain in
fragments of columns built into the streets
and edifices of its modern successor, Ak His-
sar. dliristians still live in the place.

Thy'ine Wood.

One of tlie commodities sold in the mar-
kets of the mystic Babylon, Rome (Rev.

xviii. 12). It was the wood of Callitris quad-
rivalvis, a large tree of the cypress family. It

Thyiue Wood.

is reddish-brown, hard, and fragrant ; and
was greatly prized by the Romans for orna-
mental purposes. They ran it up to a high
price. "The resin which exudes from the tree
is gum sandarac.

Ti-be'ri-as.

A city on the sea of Galilee (John vi. 23),
built by Herod the tetrarch, and named by
him after the then reigning Roman emperor,
Tiberius Cisesar (Antiq. xviii. 2, 3 ; War ii. 9,
1). Tiberias was fortified by Joseph us during
the Jewish war (Life 8 ; War ii. 20, 6). It
opened its gates to Vespasian. A number of
the inhabitants of Taricheje, a neighboring
town, whom he had assured of their lives,
were afterwards slain in cold blood in
the race course of Tiberias (War iii. 10,
1-10). After the destruction of Jeru.salem
and after the expulsion of the Jews from
Judaea, consequent on the failure of Bar-
cocheba's rebellion, Tiberias became the
virtual metropolis of the Jewish nation, and
coins of the city have been found, bearing
the names of Tiberius, Claudius, Trajan,
Adrian, and Antoninus Pius. The sanhedrin
was transferred to Tiberias about the middle
of the second century, and the city became

4

Tiberius Caesar

741

Tiglath-pileser

the center of Jewisli Icariiiii}?. A (-elehrated
wliool was estal)lislicil in it, wliicii iiriidiiccd
the volume of Scripture tradition called tlie
Mishua about A. u. 190 or '^20, and its su[i-
plement, the Geniara, which was codified in
the fourth century. The Masorah, or body
of traditions which transmitted thedetails of
the Hebrew text of the O. T. and preserved its
pronunciation by means of vowel signs, orig-
inated in a great measure at Tib(;rias ; see
Old Testament. The Jews regard Ti-
berias as one of their four sacred cities, Jeru-

competitor for the throne of Israel with
Omri (1 Kin. xvi. 21, 22j.

Ti'dal.

King of Goiim and one of Chedorlaomer's
confederates (Gen. xiv. ], 9, R. V.). He was
Tudhul, king of Gutium, northeast of Baby-
lonia.

Tlg-lath-pi-le'ser, in Chronicles Tilgath-
pilneser [Assyrian Tuknlti-npU-Eshani, my
strength is the god Ninib].

A king of Assyria, who reigned from 745 to

salem, Hebron, and Safed being the others,
in which prayer must be offered continually,
or the world will instantly fall back into
chaos. It still exists under the name of
Tubariya, on the western shore of the sea
of Galilee, Hi miles from the entrance and
t; from the exit of the Jordan. At that place
the steep mountain ridge does not closely
approach the lake, but leaves on its margin
a narrow strip of undulating land, at the
northern part of which Tiberias stands. It
extends about half a mile along the shore,
and is defended on the land side by a wall,
towers, and a castle. The houses are mostly
of black basalt. On January 1, 1837, it suf-
fered severely from an earthquake, but has
since in a large measure been rebuilt. The
Jewish quarter is near the lake.

The sea of Tiberias is more commonly
called the sea of Galilee (John vi. 1 ; xxi. 1),

Ti-be'ri-us Cae'sar. See C^sar.
Tib'hath [slaughter].

A town of Aram-zobah (1 Chron. xviii. 8).
Site unknown. See Betah and Tebah.
Tib'ni.
A son of Ginath, and the unsuccessful

727b. c. Tiglath-pileser is but another name
for Pul, as appears from the fact that wliere
Ptolemy's list of Babylonian kings gives
Poros, and the so-called dynastic tablets of
the Babylonians give Pulu, the Babylonian
chronicle gives Tiglath-pileser. Probably Pul
was his original name, and when be secured
the throne he assumed the grander title of
Tiglath-pileser, wiiich had already been made
famous by a great king of the past. There
is reason to believe that he owed his eleva-
tion to the throne to tlie disturbances in
C'alah, which are recorded for the year 746 B. c.
He seated himself upon the Assyrian throne
on the twelfth day of the second month,
and in the .seventh mouth was marching
against Babylonia. He first became known
to the Israelites as Pul. During the years
743-740 his military headquarters were at
Arpad in northern Syria, not far from the
site of the later Antioch ; but be found op-
portunity to send or lead expeditions and
terrify the country within a radius <»f 100
miles or more. Among other places against
which became at that time or a little later
was the land of Israel, but Meuahcni paid
him tribute and the Assyrian confirmed the

Tigris

742

Timna

kingdom to Menahem and left the country
(2 Kin. XV. 19, 20) ; see Pekah. Tiglath-
pileser records the names of kings wlio ahout
738 B. c. paid him tribute, and among others
the name of Menahem of Samaria. During
the next few years he was conducting war
first in the far east, and then in the country
north and northwest of Nineveh ; but in
7;{4 he was again in the west. The alliance
of Pekah and Kezin against Ahaz of Judah
impelled Ahaz, contrary to tlie exhortation
of the prophet Isaiah, to turn for help to a
human po^ntate. Tiglath-pileser was in-
duced by large money (xvi. 7, 8), and by the
favorable opportunity afforded him of ex-
tending his authority, to side with Ahaz.
He marched against Philistia, capturing cities
on the Phcenician coast as he proceeded. He
apparently records the seizure of towns in
northern Israel; but whether he makes the
record or not, it was during his advance
south or as he returned north that he took
IJMi, Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh,
Hafeor, Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of
Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria
(xv. 29). He captured Gaza. Thus he pun-
ished the Philistines, who had taken advan-
tage of Judah's straits to pillage (2 Chron.
xxviii. 18). In the years 733 and 732 he
was at Damascus, according to the Assyrian
records. During the siege or immediately
after the capture of the city, he ravaged
sixteen districts of Dama.scus ; leaving them,
as he says, like ruins after a flood-storm.
He slew Rezin king of Damascus. At this
time God stirred up the spirit of Pnl king
of A.ssyria and (or rather, as it may equally
well be translated, even) the spirit of Tiglath-
pileser king of Assyria, and he carried them
away, even the Reubenites and the Gadites,
and the half tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. v.
2G). He reports his reception of tribute
from many kings, among others from the
kings of Ammon, Moab, and Edom, and
from Jehoahaz of Judah. This statement
agrees with the biblical record that king
Ahaz went to Damascus to meet Tiglath-
pileser (2 Kin. xvi. 10). In 730 B. c, accord-
ing to biblical chronology, Hoshea revolted
against Pekah. The revolt was instigated
or assisted by Tiglath-pileser, who may have
been in Nineveh at the time, for he says :
" Pekah I slew and appointed Hoshea to rule
over them." After the fall of Damascus in
733 or 732 Tiglath-pileser returned to Nin-
eveh. During the remainder of his life he
was much engaged in building operations;
but he found time for war, and among other
expeditions he conducted an army into Baby-
lonia and made himself king of Babylon.
He died in the tenth month, Tebeth, 727
B. c, after having occupied the throne for
eighteen years and having raised the As-
syrian empire to a power and glory unknown
to it under any of his predecessors.

Ti'gris. See Hiddekel.

Tik'vah [expectation].

1. The father of Shallum, the husband of
Huldah the prophetess (2 Kin. xxii. 14). In
2 Chron. xxxiv. 22 the name appears as
Tokhath, in A. V. Tikvath ; but the Hebrew
form is probably a corruption of Tikvah (cp.
Lucian's Septuagint).

2. The father of a certain Jahaziah (Ezra
X. 15).

Tik'vath. See preceding article.

Tile.

A slab or plate of baked clay. Tiles were
the common writing material of Babylonia
(Ezek. iv. 1). The characters were impressed
on the surface while it was yet soft, and the
clay was then baked to render the writing
indelible. Tiles were used in many countries
as roofing material (Luke v. 19), but not, or
not commonly, in Palestine. Probably either
Luke, accustomed to the tiled roofs of Greek
houses, uses the expression " through the
tiles " for through the roof, without reference
to the material of the roof in question, or
else in this particular house there was an
opening in the roof to permit the inmates to
ascend from the room to the coolness of the
outer air, but which during the winter was
closed with a frame and bricked over.

Til-gath-pil-ne'ser. See Tiglath-pile-
ser.

Ti'lon.

A son of Shimon, whose registry was with
the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 20).

Ti-mse'us [highly prized].

Father of the blind beggar of Jericho
(Mark x. 46).

Tim'brel or Tab'ret.

An humble kind of drum, which has de-
veloped into our modern tambourine. By
the Hebrews it was called tojjh, an in-

Tiinbrel.

strument that is beaten. It was much used
in domestic festivities, was often played by
women to accompany song and beat time for
dances, and was emjiloyed alone or in orches-
tra in the worship of God (Gen. xxxi. 27 ;
Ex. XV. 20 ; Judg. xi. 34 ; 1 Sam. x. 5 ; xviii.
6; 1 Chron. xiii. 8; Job xxi. 12; Ps. Ixxxi.
2 ; Is. V. 12).

Tim'na, in A. V. twice Timnah (Gen.
xxxvi. 40; 1 Chron. i. 51), and so once in

Timnah

743

Timothy

E. v., oddly enough (Gen. xxxvi. 40) [re-
straint, inaccessible].

1. Daughter ofSeir and sister of Lotan. She
became a concubine of Eliphaz, Esau's eldest
son, and the mother of Ainalek (Gen. xxxvi.
12. 22 : 1 C'hron. i. 39). In interpreting the.se
statements, it must be remembered that
terms of relationship are used in describing
tribes as well as individuals.

2. A duke of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 40; 1
Chrou. i. 51).

Tim'nah, in A. V. eight times Timnath
((tch. xxxviii. 12-14 ; Judg. xiv. 1-5), once
TMmnatliali (Josh. xix. 43), and once Tham-
natha il Mac. i.K. 50) [an assigned portion].

1. A town on the border line of the terri-
tory assigned to Judah. and not far from
Beth-shemesh (Josh. xv. 10). It was subse-
quently given over to the tribe of Dan (xix.
43). It was occupied by the Philistines in
the days of Samson (Judg. xiv. 2), and was
captured by them in the reign of Ahaz (2
C'hron. xxviii. 18). Its site is at Tibnah,
about 3 miles west by south of Beth-shemesh,
151 west by south of Jerusalem, and l(i east
of Ashdod.

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. .57), probably the place referred to
in Gen. xxxviii. 12, 14 ; cp. 1. On the survey
map it is placed at Tibna, 9 miles west by
south of Bethlehem ; but this site appears to
be too remote from Maon, Carmel, and Ziph.

3. A town enumerated after Emmaus, Beth-
horon, and Bethel, and before Pharathon (1
Mac. ix. .50). It was fortified by Bacchides.
The data point to Thamna, chief city of a
toparchy (War iii. 3, 5). which bordered on
the toparchies of Gophna, Lydda, and Em-
maus (ii. 20, 4), and lay between Antipatris
and Lydda (iv. 8, 1). Its site is probably
marked by the ruins Tibneh, 7i miles west-
northwest of Jufna (Gophna), on the old
road from Antipatris by way of Gophna to
Jerusalem. See Timx.\th-ser.\h.

4. An improper spelling, found in both
versions, of the name of Timna, daughter of
Seir.

Tim'nath. See preceding article.

Tim-nath-he'res. See Timnath-serah.

Tim-nath-se'rah [superfluous or extra
portion].

A village in the hill country of Ephraim,
on the north side of the hill of Gaash. It
was given to Jo.shua as an inheritance, and
there he was buried (Josh. xix. 50 ; xxiv. 30).
It is once written Timnath-heres, portion of
the sun (Judg. ii. 9), but heres is probably
serah accidentally written backwards. Con-
der locates it at Kefr Haris, which might be
an echo of Heres, and where Samaritan tra-
dition locates the graves of Joshua and Caleb.
It is rather 8^ miles south bv west of this
village, at Tibneh. See Timnah 3.

Tim'nite.

A native or inhabitant of Timnah (Judg.
XV. 6).

Ti'mon [deeming worthy].

One of the seven men chosen to relieve
the apostles from semisecular work in the
primitive church (Acts vi. 5).

Ti-mo'the-us [worshiping God].

1. Leader of a large body of Ammonites,
with whom Judas Maccaba-us fought several
battles (1 Mac. v. 6, 40).

2. Paul's convert and fellow-worker. See
Timothy.

Tim'o-tliy, in A. V. usually Timotheus
[venerating or worshiping God].

The well-known companion and assistant
of Paul. The terms which the apostle ap-
plies to him, "my beloved and faithful child
in the Lord " (1 Cor. iv. 17, E. V.), " mv true
child in faith " (1 Tim. i. 2, E. V., etc. )' seem
to indicate not only the apostle's love for his
youthful friend, but also that he had been
the means of Timothy's conversion. At any
rate it is clear (2 Tim. i. 5 ; iii. 11) that when
on his first missionary journey Paul visited
Lystra in Lycaonia Timothy's mother Eunice
and grandmother Lois were led to Christ,
and that Timothy was old enough to be in-
structed in the new faith which his mother
had adopted. Though his mother was a
Jewess, his father was a gentile (Acts xvi. 1).
On the one hand, he had from a child been
instructed in the O. T. (2 Tim. iii. 15) ; yet,
on the other he had not been circumcised
(Acts xvi. 3). But, whether converted
through Paul, or afterwards through the in-
struction of his mother, Timothy soon be-
came active in Chri.stian work, so that when,
a few years later, Paul on his second journey
again visited Lystra he found the young
man well reported of by the brethren both
at Lystra and Iconium (xvi. 2). Already the
voice of prophecy had indicated that Timo-
thy was destined for special service (1 Tim.
i. 18; iv. 14). Paul therefore determined to
take him with him ; and the young man was
set apart to the work of an evangelist by
the laying on of the hands both of Paul and
of the presbytery (iv. 14 ; 2 Tim. i .6). In
order also not to oflend the Jews, Timothy
was circumcised ; the apostle thus indicating
his wish, where no principle was involved,
to conciliate those among whom in nearly
every place he would have to begin work.
Thereafter Timothy's fortunes were united
with Paul's. He evidently accompanied the
apostle through Galatia, then to Troas and
Philippi, and then to Thessalonica and Bercea,
for it is mentioned (Acts xvii. 14) that he
and Silas remained in Beroea when Paul
went on to Athens. Paul sent word for them
to follow him to Athens speedily (15) ; but
from 1 Thes. iii. 1, 2 it appears that he sent
Timothy back to Thessalonica, and that Silas
and Timothy did not rejoin him until he had
reached Corinth (Acts xviii. 5: 1 Thes. iii.
6). Timothv then remained with Paul in
Corintli (1 Thes. i. 1 ; 2 Thes. i. 1) and prob-
ably, though his name is not mentioned, ac-

Timothy

744

Timothy

comjianied the apostle on bis return voyage.
We next hear of hira during Paul's ministry
in Ephesus. Paul inforjns us in 1 C'or. iv. 17
that, before vvriting that epistle, he had sent
Timothy to Corinth to correct abuses there.
Yet for some reason, as 1 t'or. xvi. 10 inti-
mates, there was a possibility that Timothy
might not reach Corinth, and in fact we do
not know whether he did so or not. At any
rate he seems to have returned to Ephesus,
for shortly before Paul left that city Timothy
and Erastus preceded him into Macedonia
(Acts xix. 22), where Paul soon joined his
young friend (2 Cor. i. 1). Together they
went to Corinth (Kom. xvi. 21), and Timothy
is mentioned as one of the company who
escorted the apostle on his return from the
third journey toward Jerusalem (Acts xx. 4).
Whether Timothy went with the apostle to
Jerusalem does not appear. No mention of
him occurs during the imprisonment at CaiS-
area or the voyage to Rome. But in the
epistles written from Rome his name occurs
(Phil. i. 1; ii. 19-22; Col. i. 1; Philem. 1).
He had evidentlj^ followed the apostle to the
capital, and was his devoted coworker.
After the apostle's release, he seems to have
more than ever intrusted important duties
to Timothy. In 1 Tim. we tind that he had
been left in charge of the church at E])hesus.
It was a i)ost of responsibility and difficulty,
especially for one who was still a young man
(1 Tim. iv. 12). False teachers were to be
combated, officials wfere to be appointed,
church customs were to be organized or regu-
lated. The position of Timothy appears to
have been that of an apostolic deputy, and
it is not surprising that Paul wrote to him a
special epistle with regard to his task. To
Timothy he also wrote his last epistle shortly
before his death (2 Tim.). Almost alone,
and with death impending, Paul desired
ardently the presence of liis "child" (iv.
9, 21), and to him he laid bare his whole
heart. It is probable that Timothy reached
Paul before the latter's death, but we do not
know. The only further reference to him is
Heb. xiii. 23. From it we learn that Timo-
thy had suffered imprisonment, but had been
set at liberty again. If that epistle was
written by Paul, Timothy's imprisonment
must have occurred during the period be-
tween Paul's release and his second arrest ;
see P.\UL. If the epistle to the Hebrews was
not by Paul, then we may believe that Timo-
thy joined Paul and for a while shared his
imprisonment. This, however, is mere con-
jecture. We know nothing certainly of
'Timothv's last year.s.

The First Ejiistle of Paul the Apostle to Tim-
othy was written after the ain)stle's release
from his first Roman im])risonment and re-
sumption of missionary work (cp. above ; also
Paul). Timothy had been left in charge of
the church of Ephesus Avhile Paul went into
Macedonia (1 Tim. i. '.i). Many su])pose that
the epistle was written from Macedonia, but

that is by no means clear. It should prob-
ably be assigned to A. D. (J4 or (J5. It deals
with the ecclesiatical difficulties which con-
fronted Timothy, and gives him personal ad-
vice. It evinces tlie interest of the apostle
in the practical working of the church and
his personal interest in Timothy's own wel-
fare and success. Its contents may be ar-
ranged as follows: 1. Instructions concern-
ing the church (i.-iii.) ; including warnings
again.st false teachers (i.), instructions con-
cerning worship (ii.), instructions concerning
church officers, closing -with a brief state-
ment of the dignity of the church and the
fundamental truths on which it rests (iii.).
2. Advice for Timothy's own guidance (iv.-
vi.), with respect to the false doctrines and
practical errors which he had to meet (iv.),
and with respect to his treatment of various
classes in the church (v. 1-vi. 2), followed by
concluding exhortations partly of a i)ersoual
character and partly to reinforce the previous
instructions (vi. 3-21).

The Second Epistle of Paul the Apo.stle to
Timothy was written from Rome after the
apostle had been arrested the second time,
A. D. 67. It is the last product of his
pen. He speaks of himself as a prisoner
(2 Tim. i. 8, 16; ii. 9), charged with be-
ing an evildoer (ii. 9), and he expected
soon to suffer martyrdom (iv. 6). Many of
his friends had left him (i. 15 ; iv. 10, 12).
Luke only, of his former friends, was with
him (iv. 11), though other friends had gath-
ered round him (21). He had already had
one trial, at which he had not been con-
demned (16, 17), but he was still held on
some other charge. In his loneliness and
danger his heart turned to Timothy, and
this letter was written partly to encourage
Timothy in his work as an evangelist and
partly to urge him to hasten to Rome and to
perform some personal services for the apostle.
It maybe divided as follows: 1. After a brief
introduction, expressive of his wish to see
Timothy and his confidence in him (i. 1-5),
he urges him to be courageous in spite of ex-
isting trials (6-12), and to be faithful to-
the truth he had received in spite of all op-
ponents (13-18). 2. He charges Timothy
to be strong ; to secure the preservation of
the truth ; to be a good soldier ; to bear in
mind the imperishable foundation of fact
and truth on which the gospel rests; to
avoid false teaching ; and to take heed to his
own spiritual life (ii.). 3. He warns Iiim that
errors will increase, and bids him remember
the example of steadfast endurance which
Paul himself had shown him and the teach-
ing of inspired Scripture in which he had
been trained (iii.). 4. As his last direction,
he bids him preach the word and make full
proof of his ministry (iv. 1-5), solemnly
adding that he, on the verge of death, re-
joiced that he had been able to do the same
(6-8). The cjiistle then closes with some
personal directions (9-22).

Tin

745

Tishbite

The epistles to Timothy and Titus are
called, from their contents, the Pastoral
Epistles. Iliitioualistie critics refuse to lic-
lieve that Paul wrote them, at least in their
present form ; hut the external evidence
that the church of the post-apostolic age re-
ceived them as Pauline is ahundant, and it
is most natural that tiie closing years of the
apostle's ministry should he occupied with
the practical affairs of the churches. These
ei)istles teach the same doctrines which are
found in Paul's other writings, with only
such an added emphasis on the jiractical
aspects of Christian faith as the situation
called for; and Paul would not be the large-
minded man that we know he was if he had
not dealt, as he does in these epistles, with
the organization of the churches which he
was so soon to leave. G. T. p.

Tin.

A metal, in Hebrew bUlil, separated, alloy.
It was obtained from its ore by smelting ; and
was sometimes refuse from silver ore (Ezek.
xxii. 20). It was in use in Palestine and
neighboring countries before the exodus
(Num. xxxi.22), in Egyptasearly as the sixth
dynasty at least. Itsprincipal use was in mak-
ing bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin.
The Tyrians got their supply from Tarshish
(Ezek. xxvii. 12). Tin was obtained in
Spain, but the most of it came from islands in
the western ocean (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiv.
47; Herod, iii. 115). There is little doubt
that these islands were identical with Eng-
land, thinly disguised, and that the mines
of Britain were the chief source of supi)ly
to the ancient world, and that Phoenician
mariners made direct voyages from Gades in
Spain to Cornwall for the metal (Strabo iii.
IT.")). Later it was transported across France
to the mouth of the Ehone by a thirty days'
journey (Diodorus Siculus v. 21, 22). The
same word signifies the base metal existing
in combination with silver in the ore (Is. i.
25), and is supposed to denote the slag which
separates from the lead when silver is being
smelted from the ore.

Tiph'sah [a passage].

1. A town at the extreme limit of Solo-
mon's dominions, in the direction of the
Euphrates (1 Kin. iv. 24). It is generally
identified with Thajisacns, a large city on
the Eu])hrates, near the modern Eakka, by a
ford. The ford was used by the armies of
Cyrus the Younger and Alexander the Great.

2. A jilace on the inhabitants of which
Menahem inflicted barbarous cruelties (2
Kin. XV. 16). It is mentioned in connec-
tion with Tirziih, from which it would seem
not to have been far distant. Conder identi-
fies it with the ruined village Tafsah, 6^
miles southwest of Shechem.

Ti'ras.

A land and its inhabitants, who were a
Japhetic people (Gen. x. 2). Ancient opinion
identified it with Thrace (Antiq. 1. 6, 1), from

.slight similarity of sound. The river Turas,
the modern Diuister. and the Turitai, who
dwelt on its banks (Herod, iv. 51), have also
been suggested. The conditions are best met
by the Tursenoi, an ancient Pela.sgic peojile
who occupied islands and coast lands of the
iEgean Sea (Herod, i. .57, !)4). Ttirsrnos is
the Ionic and old Attic form of Tioreiios,
Tyrrhenian.

Ti'rath-ites.

A family of scribes, Kenites from Tirah,
dwelling at Jabez (1 Chron. ii. 55).

Tire.

The rendering of the Hebrew P^'er, orna-
mental. It means an ornamental headdress
(Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23). Aaron in his priestly
capacity wore one of fine linen (Ex. xxxix.
28; in A. V. bonnet). Women used them (Is.
iii. 20; in A. V. bonnet). The bridegroom
decked himself with it (Is. Ixi. 10 ; in A. V.
ornaments, E. V. garland).

Tir'ha-kah. See Phaeaoh.

Tir'ha-nah.

A son of Caleb, the brother of Jerahmeel,
by Maacah, his concubine (1 Chron. ii. 48).

Tir'i-a.

A son of Jehallelel (1 Chron. iv. 16).

Tir-sha'tha.

The I'ersian title of the governor of ,Tudah
under the Persians. It is borne by Zeruh-
babel (Ezra ii. f)3 ; Neh. vii. 65, 70), and Ne-
hemiah (Neh. viii. 9; x. 1). In xii. 26 the
latter ruler is called jjehah or governor, to
which Tirshatha, therefore, must have been
practically equivalent.

Tir'zah [pleasantness, delightfulness].

1. The youngest among the five daughters
of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi. 33 ; xxvii. 1 ;
xxxvi. 11 ; Josh. xvii. 3).

2. A town noted for beauty (Song vi. 4),
which belonged originally to the Canaanites,
but was captured by Joshua (Josh. xii. 24).
Jeroboam I. took up his residence in Tirzah
(1 Kin. xiv. 17), and it became the capital of
the ten tribes (xv. 21, 33 ; xvi. 6, 8, 9, 15, 17)
till Omri built Samaria (23, 24), after which it
sank into a provincial but still important
town (2 Kin. xv. 14, 16). Eobinson, with
much doubt, suggests as its site Tulluza. 6
miles east, very slightly south, of Samaria.
Conder, with no hesitation, fixes it at Teiasir,
with ancient ruins, 13 miles east-northeast of
Samaria, on a table-land where the valleys
begin to dip suddenly toward the Jordan.

Tish'bite.

A member of the family, or native of the
town, called Tishbeh or something similar
(1 Kin. xvii. 1). A family of the name is
unknown. Towns only claim attention.
One is mentioned by Tobit (i. 2), "Thisbe on
the right [south] of Kydiosof Naphtali," /.''.,
Kedcsh of Naphtali (E. V.). Another is dis-
cerned by the Septuagint and Josephus in the
text of 1 Kin. xvii. 1, lying east of the Jor-
dan, in Gilead. The con.struct plural before

Tithe

746

Tithe

Gilead in the Hebrew text, which is ren-
dered sojourners in the E. V., the makers of
the Septuagint regarded as a local name, and
transferred it to their pages as a genitive
plural, Theshon or Thessebon, of Thesbeh.
Josephus prefixed the word city and added a
singular termination to the name (Autiq. viii.
13, 2, Niese's text).

Tithe.

A tenth part of one's income consecrated to
God. The separation of a certain proportion
of the products of one's industry or of the
spoils of war as tribute to their gods was prac-
ticed by various nations of antiquity. The
Lydians offered a tithe of their booty (Herod.
1. 89). The Phoenicians and Carthaginians
sent a tithe annually to the Tyrian Hercules.
These tithes might be regular or occasional,
voluntary or prescribed by law. The Egyp-
tians were required to give a fifth pai't of
their crops to Pharaoh (Gen. xlvii. 24). Be-
fore the days of Joseph and Pharaoh, Abra-
ham, returning with spoil from his victory
over the confederate kings, gave to Melchiz-
edek, priest-king of Salem, a tenth part of
all (xiv. 20). Jacob said that if God con-
ferred on him certain specified benefits, he
would surely give the tenth of it unto God
(xxviii.22). Under the Mosaic law the fruits
of the ground and cattle were subject to
tithing (Lev. xxvii. 30, 32). The tithe of
grain and fruit need not be paid in kind.
The owner might redeem it by purchasing it
at one-fifth more than its market value (31).
But the tithe of the herd and Hock might
not be redeemed. This tithe was .separated
by causing the cattle to pass under the rod,
and every tenth animal was taken, whether
it was defective or without blemish. The
choice had been committed to God, and the
beast might not be exchanged (32, 33). Grain
was threshed before it was tithed, and the fruit
of vineyard and oliveyard was converted into
wine and oil before the tenth was taken (Num.
xviii. 27). All the tithe of Israel, which
they offered as a heave ofiering, was given
unto the Levites (21, 24). It was given to
them as an inheritance in return for the serv-
ice which they rendered at the sanctuary
(21), and as compensation for their lack of
landed possessions. They paid a tithe of it
to the priest (26, 27), and freely ate the rest
anywhere (31). On the eve of entering
Canaan, where many of the Israelites would
obtain homes far from the sanctuary, it was
necessary to insist that the people should
bring all prescribed sacrifices and freewill
offerings, and all tithes, to the sanctuary
(Deut. xii. 5, 0, 11). They might not eat at
home the tithe of their grain, wine, or oil,
nor any offering, but before the Lord (17, 18).
They must tithe all the increase of the field,
and eat before the Lord the tithe of grain,
wine, and oil, and the firstlings of flock and
herd; l)ut if the distance to the sanctuary
was great, they might convert the offering

into money, carry that to the sanctuary, and
there buy what they chose for the euchari.stic
meal (xiv. 23-27). Every third year each
man's tithe should be laid up in his town,
and the Levite, the stranger, the widow, and
the fatherless should go to the store and eat
(28,29). After tithing the tithe in this third
year, which was distinguished as the year of
tithing, and reminded the people that the
tithe was to be kei)t in the town, it was put
at the dis])osal of those for whom it was in-
tended (xxvi. 12). There were two third-
year tithings between Sabbatic years, when
there was no tithe.

Inconsistencies between these laws do not
exist, although interpreters often force them
into contradiction. The Israelites took the
tithe to the sanctuary both during the so-
journ in the wilderness and after the settle-
ment in the land (Num. xviii. 24 ; Deiit. xii.
6). There a portion was eaten by the offerer
and the Levites in a eucharistic feast, and
the rest was given to the Levites. The law
was slightly modified in anticipation of the
settlement of Canaan, and the residence of
Levites and producers in many cases far from
the sanctuary. Every third year they should
store the tithe in the town where they dwelt,
dispense with the eucharistic meal, place all
the tithe at the disposal of the Levites and
other dependent persons, and make solemn
protestation before the Lord to having done
this (Deut. xxvi. 12-15). This asseveration
before the Lord may have been made in the
town, or at the sanctuary on occasion of
attending one of the annual festivals. It is
sometimes asserted that Deuteronomy is pecu-
liar in two respects : it prescribes vegetable
tithes only, and enjoins that they shall be
eaten at the altar by the offerer and the
Levites in company. If Detiteronomy does
actually differ from the law of Leviticus and
Numbers in these points, it is a modification
of the law forty years after its first enact-
ment and in view of new circumstances. In
the later historj% even when the Levitical
legislation was in full force, the vegetable
tithe alone is often mentioned (Neh. x.37; xii.
44; xiii. 12). It was the more prominent, since
agriculture and horticulture were the chief
industries of the peojde. The tithe of the cat-
tle is, however, referred to(2Clirou. xxxi. 6).
It would be in itself natural, if the euchar-
istic feast did not already exist, for Moses
to introduce it in connection with tithes and
fii'stlings, in view of the fact that the offerer
frequently came from a distance, and natur-
ally required at least one meal at the sanctu-
ary before returning. Still the omission of
all mention of the feast in Leviticus and
Numbers may be due to the feast's being re-
garded as a matter of course, a meal having
been customary from time immemorial in
connection with certain kinds of sacrifices
and offerings; and the tithe on agricultural
and horticultural products alone is mentioned
in Deuteronomy, because among tithes it was

Titus

747

Tizite

with them only tliat a iiu-al at the sanctu-
ary was connoi'ted, and the legislation in
question is treating of cueharistic meals.

Another interpretation of the tithing laws
requires mention. Not a few scholars have
believed tliat tlie setting apart of one-fifth
for riiaraoli, to wliicli the Israelites had been
accustomed in Egypt, was jierpetuated by the
Mosaic law as tribute to Jehovali. This fifth
was made up of two tithes. The first went
to the Levites, the second was taken to the
sanctuary and consumed there (Antiq. iv.
8, 8), but in the third year was given to the
Levites in addition to their own tithe. Some
interi)reters have even thought of three
tithes. They regard the tithing of the third
year as addititmal to the two others. This
interpretation is as old as Josephus at least
(8, 22 ). but it is unnecessary, and was scarcely
the original intention of the law. The law
is satisfiei^by the theory of one tithing.

In tnnes of religious declension the people
neglected to jiay tithes. Hezekiah found it
necessary to call authoritatively for their
payment (2 Chron. xxxi. 4-12), and the
prophet Malachi was obliged to rebuke the
people of his day for robbing God by with-
iiolding tithes and offerings (Mai. iii. 7-12).
The respou.se of the people to Hezekiah's
appeal was so hearty that he had to prepare
chambers in the temple precincts for storing
the tithes (2 Chron. xxxi. 11). ^Yhether he
built additional quarters or cleared out old
storehouses is not stated. The second temple
was likewise provided with storehouses (Xeh.
xiii. 10-14; Mai. iii. 10), and Levites under
the superintendence of a priest gathered the
tithes into the towns and tithed them for the
sanctuary (Xeh. x. 37, 38). The payment of
tithes continued (Ecclus. xxxv. 8 ; 1 Mac. iii.
49 ; Luke xi. 42 ; xviii. 12) ; but by the time of
Christ changes had occurred. The tithe
went to the priests (Antiq. xi. 5, 8 ; con.
Apion. i. 22; cp. Heb. vii. .5), and was col-
lected by them (Life 12, 15). Later the
ordinary priests suffered from the cupidity
of the chief priests, who forcibly took pos-
session of the tithes (Antiq. xx. 8, 8; 9, 2).

Ti'tus.

1. A godly man of Corinth who was sur-
named Justus (Acts xviii. 7, R. V.) ; see Justus.

2. A trusted c(jmpanion of Paul. He is not
mentioned in The Acts, but is frequently re-
ferred to in Paul's epistles. He was born of
gentile parents (Gal. ii. 3), and was one of
the delegation from Antioch (Actsxv. 2) who
accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusa-
lem at the time of the council (Gal. ii. 3). It
is possible that he was a native of Antioch,
and, since Paul calls him "my true child
after a common faith " (Tit. i. 4, E. V.), he
may liave been converted through the instru-
mentality of the apostle. He was evidently
also much younger tlian Paul. His presence
at the council gave offense to the .Tudaizers,
but the church refused to compel him to be

circumcised, thus siding with Paul in his ad-
vocacy of the freedom of gentiles from the
Mosaic law (Gal. ii. 3-;")). Titus next appears
during and after Paul's residence in Kphesus.
We learn from 2 Cor. ii. 13; vii. fi, 13; viii.
(J, Id ; xii. 18 that Titus had been .sent to
Corinth to correct certain abuses there which
caused anxiety to the apostle. Some suppose
that he was one of the brethren who carried
the first epistle to the Corinthians (1 Cor.
xvi. 12). It is more probable, however, that
he and another (2 Cor. xii. 18) were dispatched
after 1 Cor. had been sent, on account of
later reports whicli the apostle had received.
His task was a delicate one, and Paul
awaited his return with much solicitude (2
Cor. ii. 13). When the apostle left Ephesus,
he expected to meet Titus at Troas (12, 13),
and, failing in this, went to Macedonia.
There Titus rejoined him with good news
(vii. 6, 13, 14), and was forthwith sent back
to Corinth with our Second Epistle to the Cor-
inthians (viii. 6,18,23). We do not read again
of Titus until after Paul's release from his
first Roman imprisonment ; see Paul. The
Epistle to Titus informs us that he had been
left in Crete to superintend the organization
of the churches in that island. He seems to
have been, like Timothy in Ephesus, an
apostolic deputy. His mi.ssion, however, was
but a temporary one, and he was told to re-
join the apostle in Nicopolis. The only re-
maining notice of him is in 2 Tim. iv. 10,
where he is said to have gone to Dalmatia.

The Epistle of Paul to Titus was written
after Paul's release from his first Roman im-
prisonment and resumption of missionary
work. It may be assigned to A. P. 65 or 66.
Titus had been left as superintendent of the
churches in Crete, and the epistle, like the
First Epistle to Timothy, was intended to di-
rect him in the performance of his difficult
task. It may be divided as follows : 1. Saluta-
tion, particularly describing the dignity of the
apostolic message (i. 1-4). 2. Instructions
concerning the character of those selected for
bishops or elders, especially in view of the
many false disciples whom Titus would be
likely to meet and by whom he might be im-
posed upon (5-16). 3. Instructions which
Titus should give to various classes in the
church, all to the effect that Christians
.should be " zealous of good works" (ii.). 4.
Directions concerning the duty of Christians
to society, bidding them emulate the love of
man which God has shown in Christ (iii. 1-8).
5. Warnings against false teaching and here-
tics (9-11). 6. Personal directions and clos-
ing exhortation and benediction (12-15).
The leading thought of the epistle is the im-
portance of good works in all tho.se repre-
senting or professing Christianity. On the
pastoral epistles see remarks at close of the
article on Timothy. o. t. p.

Ti'zite.

The designation of a certain Joha (iCliron.

Toah

748

Tongue

xi. 45), probably derived from tbe place of
which he was a native.

To'ah [perliaps, low].

A Kohathite Levite (1 Chron. vi. 34) ; see
Nahath.

Tob [good].

A region east of the Jordan, to which
Jephthah tied when disowned by his breth-
ren (Judg. xi. ;}, 5). When Hanun, king of
Amnion, gave David just offense, he drew
soldiers from Tob, among other places (2
Sam. X. 6, R. V.), which indicates that it
was beyond the borders of Israel. It was
probably the district of Gilead known in
Greek as the land of Tnbias (1 Mac. v. 13;
cp. 2 Mac. xii. 17). Exact situation is debata-
ble.

Tob-ad-o-ni'jah [good is my Lord Jeho-
vah].

One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat
to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

To-bi'ah [Jehovah is good].

1. Founder of a family, members of which,
coming to Jerusalem after the captivity,
failed to prove their descent (Ezra ii. 60;
Neh. vii. 62).

2. An Ammonite .servant who ridiculed the
effort of the Jews to rebuild the wall of Je-
rusalem (Neh. ii. 10; iv. 3, 7).

To'bie. See Tubias.

To-bi'Jah [Jehovah- is good].

1. One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat
to teach in the cities of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 8).

2. A Jew, one of those of the captivity
from whom the prophet Zechariah obtained
gold and silver to make crowns to put on
the head of Joshua, the high priest (Zech. vi.
10. 14).

To'bit. See Apocrypha.
To'chen [a weight, a measure].
A city belonging to the tribe of Simeon (1
Chron. iv. 32). Site unknown.

To-gar'mah.

A country of the far north (Ezek. xxxviii.
6), inhabited by a people descended from
Japheth through Gomer (Gen. x. 3). They
traded in horses and mules (Ezek. xxvii. 14).
It is generally identified with Armenia.
Friedrich Delitzsch, however, believes that
the name api)cars in Til-garimmu, a city in
the extreme east of Cappadocia, mentioned
in the Assyrian inscriptions.

To'hu [perhaps, low].

A son of Znjih (1 Sam. i. 1) ; see Nahath.

To'i and To'u [wandering, error].

A king of Hamath, probably a Hittite,
who was at war with Hadadezer, king of
Zobah, a Syrian. He sent to congratulate
David on his victorv over their common foe
(2 Sam. viii. 9-12; 1 Chnm. xviii. 9-11).

Tok'hath. See Tikvah.

To 'la [worm, scarlet].

1. A son of Issachar, and founder of a tribal
family (Gen. xlvi. 13; Num. xxvi. 23; 1
Chron. vii. 1).

2. Son of Puah, of the tribe of Issachar,
who judged Israel twenty-three years. He
lived, dii^d, and was buried at Shamir, on
mount Ephraim (Judg. x. 1, 2).

To'lad. See Eltolad.

Tomb. See Sepulchek.

Tongue.

An organ of the body (Ex. xi. 7; Jas. iii.
6), situated in the mouth (Job xxix. 10), and
much used in sjjcaking (Ps. xxxix. 3; Ixxi.
24 ; Mark vii. 35). Figuratively, speech or
language (Gen. x. 5 ; Acts ii. 8 with 11).

The descendants of Noah spoke one lan-
guage for a long time after the flood (Gen.
xi. 1). Differences of speech were produced
by divine judgment at Babel, which resulted
in scattering the people who had gathered
there abroad, to all parts of the known
world (2-9) ; see Babel, Tower of. This
event, which is known as the confusion of
tongues, may have occurred after the rise of
the family of Eber (x. 25). In process of
time the descendants of Noah came to speak
several distinct languages and many dif-
ferent dialects. The Japhetic peoples largely
used the languages now classed as Indo-Ger-
manic (x. 2-5), including the languages
spoken in Media and Ionia (ver. 2). The
Semitic peoples generally spoke various dia-
lects of the Semitic group (21-31), embracing
Assyrian, Aramaic (22), Arabic (26-29), and
Hebrew ; but the Elamites (22) used an ag-
glutinative language, which is supposed to
be akin to the Finnish. Many of the de-
scendants of Ham also spoke Semitic ; as, for
example, Cush in Assyria (11), Arabia (6, 7),
and Africa, and Canaan in Palestine and
Phoenicia (15) ; but the old inhabitants of
Mizraim (6, 13), better known as Egypt, u.sed
an agglutinative language, although many
Egyptologists of the first rank believe in its
descent from the same stock as tlie Semitic.
It must be remembered that tribes which
migrate to a new locality frequently adopt
the language of the people among whom
they have taken up their residence.

The gift of tongues was granted on the day
of Pentecost which followed the feast of the
passover at which Jesus suttered. The disci-
jdes being a.ssembled together, suddenly there
came from heaven a sound like that of a
rushing, mighty wind, and visible tongues,
having the appearance of fire, were dis-
tributed to each, and they were all filled
with the Holy Spirit (Acts ii. 1-4). The
church was qualified and .symljolically com-
missioned by the Spirit to declare the gospel
to all men. Two general theories exist as to
the nature of this gift. 1. The gift of tongues
was manifested in ecstatic or elevated praise
of God (Acts X. 4()), but which was unintel-
I ligible to man. The tongue was the organ

Topaz

r49

Tower

<if the Holy Spirit, and not of the person to
whom llie ^il't was j;iven : and tlie words
spoken were devotional and not for the in-
stnietiou of the church. In defense of this
view it is urged that : (1) Paul makes .no
mention of furei};n languages having heen
introduced at t'orintli ; and if tongues were
referred to in 1 Cor. xiv. only, the impres-
sion would never have been made that they
denote foreign languages. (2) Paul teaches
that tlie understanding was not engaged (1
Cor. xiv. 2). (3) The multitude could not
understand them at Pentecost, and accused
the speakers of being drunken. It was
necessary for Peter to interpret to the mul-
titude what had taken jilace (Acts ii. 13-17).
Or if the di.sciples used foreign languages on
the day of Pentecost, this was a temporary
form in which the gift of tongues w-as mani-
fested and did not aj)pear again. 2. The
gift of tongues was manifested in intelligible
discourse in tongues before unknown. (1)
Luke's language clearly implies this (Acts ii.
6-12). (2) Anybody could babble hysteri-
cally ; only when the speakers used lan-
guages which they did not know before
could the gift of tongues be recognized as
miraculous. (3) The whole argument in 1
(Jot. assumes that the gift was speech in a
foreign language, Paul contrasting speech
and prayer in a foreign language uninter-
preted with speaking and praying so as to
be understood (xii. 10, .30 ; xiv. 13-lfi. 27, 28).
Chri.stians who had the gift should use it for
missionary purposes, and not exhibit their
skill before their brethren, who did not un-
derstand what they said unless an inter-
preter were present.

Tongues were a sign that followed them
that believed (Mark xvi. 17). They were a
visible gift of the Holy Spirit bestowed in
cimnectiou with the preaching of the apostles,
or bj' the apostles through laj-ing on of their
hands (Acts x. 44-4G ; xix. 1-7; cp. viii. 14-
24). They were a phenomenon of the apos-
tolic age, and gradually disappeared after-
wards. In the next century, perhaps fifty
or sixty years after the death of the last
apostle, Irenseus can still report that he had
"heard many brethren who had prophetic
gifts and spoke through the Spirit in all kinds
of tongues" (adv. Haer. v. 6, 1).

In 1830 some jjeople in Scotland, and in
1831 others in London, chiefly females of ex-
citable temperament, believed that they had
received the gift of tongues. They persuaded
the Rev. Edward Irving to emVjrace their opin-
ions, but failed to convince his brethren in
the ministry. The movement led to the
creation of the Catholic Apostolic Church.

To'paz.

A precious stone, called by the Greeks to-
pazion, and generally believed to be denoted
by the Hebrew pit'iJah. It was the second
stone in the first row of the high priest's
breastplate (Ex. xxviii. 17). It was found in

Ethiopia (Job xxviii. 19) and on an i.sland in
the Red Sea (I)iodorus Siculus iii. '.if*; Pliny,
Hist. Xat. xxxvii. 9), and was known at Tyre
(Ezek. xxviii. 13). It adorns the ninth foun-
dation of the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi.20).
The topaz of the ancients was a yellow va-
riety of corundum. The Romans seem to
have transferred the name chrysolite to to-
paz, and called both chrysolite and precious
stones resembling it topaz.

To'phel [perhaps, untempered mortar],

A place, perhaps once a station of the Is-
raelites in the wilderness (Deut. i. 1). Rob-
inson and others have identified it with
Tufileh, about 14 miles southeast of the
southeastern curve of the Dead Sea. The
consonants, however, are different, teth in-
stead of tau, which raises a doubt as to the
correctness of the identification.

To'pheth, in A. Y. Tophet (except 2 Kin.
xxiii. 10) [spitting out, abhorrence].

Certain high places built in the valley of
the son of Hinnom, on which the people of
Jerusalem in the times of I.saiah and Jere-
miah were accustomed to burn their sons and
their daughters in the fire (Jer. vii. 31), as
offerings to Molech (2 Kin. xxiii. 10). Appar-
ently on the top of the high place there was
a deep and large hole, in which much wood
was piled, ignition being produced by a
stream of brimstone (Is. xxx. 33). Josiah
defiled it (2 Kin. xxiii. 10), and Jeremiah
prophesied that such a number of people
should be kflled there that the name To-
pheth should disappear, and the valley where
it stood be called the valley of slaughter
(Jer. vii. 32, 33 ; xix. 6). A Topheth, appar-
ently of the same type, was to be prepared
for the king of Assyria (Is. xxx. 33). See
Hinnom.

Tor'mah [fraud].

A town in which Abimelech was once
found (Judg. ix. 31, margin). More proba-
bly the word means craftily, as it is rendered
in the R. V. ; in which case the town of Tor-
mali disappears.

Tor-ment'ors.

The jailers who were to keep the debtor
safe and make his life miserable by chains,
stocks, and doubtless other means of distress
and torture until his debts were paid (Mat.
xviii. 34). Torture was often applied to ex-
tort confessions (Acts xxii. 24 ; Antiq. xvi.
8, 4; 11, 6).

Tor'toise. See Lizard.

To'u. See Toi.

Tow'er.

A lofty building, much higher than broad.
A booth was sufficient to shelter the watch-
man placed to guard a vineyard (Is. i. 8) ;
but a tower, being more permanent and or-
namental, indicated the owner's interest in
his vineyard and his expectation of many
seasons of fruitfulness (v. 2; Mat. xxi. 33;
I Mark xii. 1). Stronger towers were built for

Town Clerk

750

Tribute

defense. They were erected in the wilder-
ness for the security of the shepherds and
to keep marauders away [2 Kin. xvii. 9 ; 2
Chron. xxvi. 10). They formed part of the
defenses of fortified cities (xiv. 7 ; Neh. iii.
1). The}' were erected beside the city gates,
at tlie corners of the walls, and at intervals
in the intervening space (2 Chron. xxvi. 9) ;
see illustrations, Lachis-h, Ram. Watch-
men were stationed on them (2 Kin. ix. 17),
military engines for shooting arrows and
stones were mounted on them (2 Chron.
xxvi. 1.")), and the citizens found refuge in
them when sore pressed by the enemy ( Judg.
ix. 51, 52 ; Ps. Ixi. 3). Within their massive
walls the inmates were secure ; their height
allowed openings for light and air, out of
reach of the adversary ; and from their top
missiles could be advantageously discharged
at the foe.

Town Clerk.

An ofhcial with the title of (jrammafeus or
scribe (Acts xix. .35). Probably the duties
of a grammateus originally were to record the
laws and read them in public, but in course
of time other functions were added to the
office. Coins show" that in the several cities
of Asia Minor the town clerk presided in
popular assemblies, and was the virtual, or in
some cases the actual, head of the municipal
government.

Trach-o-ni'tis [rough, stony].

A region which at the appearance of John
the Baptist as a preacher constituted, with
Itursea, a tetrarchy, ruled over by Philip, the
brother of Herod, the tetrarch of Galilee
(Luke iii. 1). It lay behind Damascus
(Strabo xvi. 2, 20), and comprehended the
stretch of volcanic rocks now called el-Lej-
jah, and extended westward to Ulatlia and
Paneas, and southward to the borders of Ba-
tanea and Jebel Hauran (Antiq. xv. 10, 3 ;
xvii. 2, 1 and 2 ; Ptolemy v. 15, 4).

Trag'a-canth.

A gum (Gen. xxxvii. 25; xliii. 11, E. V.
margin), produced by several low, spiny
shrubs of the genus Astragalus, especially
from Astragalus giimm if er. The plant is legum-
inous. Those from which gum is obtained
are dwarf shrubs, protected by a dense mass
of long thorns. The flowers are axillary ;
and in most species are yellow, but in .some
are white or purple. Under the heat of the
sun the gum exudes from the trunk, branches,
thorns, and leaves; and is collc^cted in Pales-
tine by passing over the shrub a cloth or
bunch of threads to which the viscous ex-
udation adheres. It is used to impart firm-
ness to pills, to marble books, and to stiffen
crapes and calicoes.

Trance.

A state in which the functions of the
senses are suspended and the soul seems to
be liberated from the body while it contem-
plates some extraordinary object; ecstasy.
Peter on one occasion (Acts xi. 5), and Paul

on another, fell into such a trance (xxii. 17).
See Visions.

Tres'pass Of fer-ing. See Offerings.

Tribe. See Egypt III. 7.

Trib'ute.

1. Money, goods, or service exacted by a
nation or king from foreign subjects (Deut.
XX. 11, E. V. margin taskwork ; Judg. i. 28 ;
Ezra iv. 13 ; Neh. v. 4 ; Esth. x. 1 ; Mat.
xvii. 25). The Pharisees endeavored to put
Jesus in a dilemma by asking him whether
it was lawful to pay tribute to the Eomau
emperor (Mat. xxii. 17). If he answered in
the aflirmative, he would ofiend the people,
since with them independence was a matter
of religion and they paid the foreign tax
with undisguised reluctiince. The Pharisees
expected him to declare that tribute to the
Eomans was unlawful, for they knew that
he had publicly announced his claims to the
throne of David ; and an answer of this sort
would justify a charge of rebellion against
him. He replied by calling for a coin. The
coinage of money is the prerogative of the
ruler. Pointing to the image of the Roman
emperor which it bore, he said: "Give to
the ruler whom you acknowledge whatever
belongs to him, and to God whatever belongs
to God." Jesus recognized the distinction
between the two spheres of duty.

2. The didrachma or half shekel paid for
the expenses of the temple worship (Mat.
xvii. 24, in R. V. half shekel). This pay-
ment was suggested at first by the half
shekel which each male Israelite above
twenty years of age paid as atonement
money when he was numbered in the census
(Ex. XXX. 11-16). In the time of Xehemiah
the Israelites voluntarily assumed an annual
payment of the third part of a shekel
toward defraying the cost of the temple
service (Xeh. x. 32, 33). Later the third
part of a shekel was changed to half a
shekel, and was made an annual tax col-
lected from every Jew of twenty years of age
and upward tliroughout the world (Antiq.
xviii . 9, 1). The collector at Capernaum
asked Peter whether his Master paid this
half shekel, and Peter impulsively answered
that he did (Mat. xvii. 24, 25). Jesus did in-
deed pay it ; but it was incongruous for him to
do so, and he drew Peter's attention to the
matter. He pointed out to him that earthly
kings exact tribute from aliens, not from
their own children. Peter had recently con-
fessed Jesus as the Son of God. It was for
God's house and worship that this tax was
levied, and it was scarcely proper for God's
Son to be required to pay it. Such is the
common interpretation of Christ's words on
this occasion. After the fall of Jerusalem
the Eoman emperor Vespasian enjoined the
Jews throughout the empire to bring to
Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome the two drachmas
which they had formerly paid to the temple
(War vii. 6, 6).

Troas

751

Trumpet

Tro'as [the Troad, region around Troy].

The I'ity where Paul saw in vision the
man of Macedonia inviting him to Eurojie
(Acts xvi. 8-10 ; 2 Cor. ii. 12). It was a sea-
port (Acts xvi. 11). Paul tarried there a
week while returning from his third journey
(XX. 6). On one occasion he left his cloak,
hooks, and parchments there {2 Tim. iv. 13).
It was founded by Antigonus, one of Alex-
ander's successors, who called it Antigonia ;
hut after his death his opponent Lysimachus,
king of Thrace, altered its name to Alex-
andria, and Troas was added to distinguish
it from Alexandria in Egypt. It was situated
some distance south of Homer's Troy, which
furnished the name Troas to the district.
Its ruins, which are extensive, are now
called Eski Stam]>oul.

Tro-gyl'li-tun.

A town and a promontory on the western
coast of Asia Minor, opposite the island of
Samos. Paul tarried there on the return to
Jerusalem from his third journey (Acts xx.
lo). An anchorage at the place is called St.
Paul's Port.

Troph'1-mus [nourishing].

A gentile Christian of Ephesus, who was
with Paul for a time on his missionary
travels, and whom he was falsely accused of
having brought into the temple in defiance
of the law (Acts xx. 4; xxi. 29). The last
we hear of him is that he was left by the
apostle at Miletus sick (2 Tim. iv. 20, in A.
V. Miletum).

Trump'et.

1. A wind instrument, made of the horn
of an animal or in imitation of it (Josh. vi.
5; cp. Dan. iii. 5, where keren, horn, is ren-
dered cornet), and called in Hebrew shophar.
The word is rendered cornet in four passages

blc the army (Judg. iii. 27; vi. 34 ; 1 Sam.
xiii. 3), to sound the attack (Job xxxix. 24),
to signal the cessation of the pursuit (2 Sam.
ii. 28 ; xviii. 16), and to announce the dis-
banding of the army (xx. 1, 22). Watchmen
blew it to sound the alarm (Jer. vi. 1 ; Amos
iii. 6). Its blast proclaimed the accession of
the king (2 Sam. xv. 10; 1 Kin. i. 34; 2 Kin.
ix. 13), and the commencement of the year
of jubile (Lev. xxv. 9). The first day of
the seventh mouth was celebrated by solemn
rest from ordinary labor, a holy convocation,
and the ofl'ering of special burnt ofl'erings
(xxiii, 24, 2o; Xum. xxix. 1-6), because
the day marked a recurring seventh portion
of time. It was a day or memorial of blow-

Ancient Horns and Curved Trumpets.

ingof trumpets, designed to bring the people
into remembrance before the Lord (cp. Ex.
xxviii. 12, 29; xxx. 16). The Jewish tradi-
tion is doubtless correct which states that
the trumpet used was the shophar (cp. Lev.
xxv. 9).

2. The invariable rendering of the Hebrew
H''sos'rah. Two were made for use at the

Assyrian and Egyptian Trumpets.

where the h'sofrah is mentioned with it
and rendered trumpet (1 Chron. xv. 28 ; 2
Chron. xv. 14; Ps. xcviii. 6; Hos. v. 8). Its
sound was loud, and audible at a great dis-
tance (Ex. xix. 16, 19) ; and was well adapted
to increase the noise of shouting (2 Sam. vi.
15; 2 Chron. xv. 14; Ps. xcviii. 6), but was
ill suited to be played with harps and pipes
in an orchestra. It was used in war to assem-

tabernacle (Num. x. 2) : but the number was
increased as time went on (2 Kin. xii. 13).
One hundred and twenty were blown at the
dedication of the temple (2 Chron. v. 12).
Those used at the sanctuary were of silver
(Num. X. 2). They were a little less than a
cubit in length. The tube was narrow, some-
what thicker than a flute, and ended in the
form of a bell, like common trumpets (An-

Tryphaena

752

TycMcus

tiq. iii. 12, 6) ; see illustration under Show-
BUEAD. They were used by the priests to
announce festivals, to call the cougrej^ation,
and on advancing to battle (Num. x. 1-10 ;
xxxi. 6). Earely is mention made of their
being blown by laymen in war (Hos. v. 8).
Priests may have blown them at the corona-
tion of Joash (2 Kin. xi. 14; 2 Chron. xxiii.
13). For their use in the temple orcliestra
see Music.

3. Trumpet is expressed by the Greek
word mlpUjx in N. T. It was used in war (1
Cor. xiv. 8), and will announce the second ad-
vent of Christ (Mat. xxiv. 31), and the resur-
rection of the dead (1 Cor. xv. 52). Seven
trum])ets were sounded to introduce as many
apocalyiitic visions (Rev'. viii.-xi. 19). By
salphjx the h'sofrah or sacred trumpet is
meant in Ecclus. 1. 16 ; 1 Mac. iii. 54 ; and
probably iv. 40; v. 33; xvi. 8.

Try-pbse'na, in A. Y. Tryphena [delicate,
dainty] . '

A woman at Rome to whom Paul sent his
salutation, commending her for laboring in
the Lord (Rom. xvi. 12).

Try'plion [luxurious].

A general of Alexander Balas (1 Mac. xi.
39j. He was a native of Casiana near Apamea
in Syria, and originally bore the name of
Diodotus (Strabo xvi. 2, 10). After .the
death of Balas and the recognition of
Demetrius II. as king of Syria. 146 b. c,
Tryphon set up Antiochus VI., the infant

Tryphon.

son of Alexander Balas, as a rival to De-
metrius (xi. 39, 40), and with the help of the
Jews was rapidly conquering the country. His
treachery to Jonathan ^lacrabaeus, however
(xii. 39-50; xiii. 23), caused his Jewish allies
to go over to the side of Demetrius. Tryphon
meantime had murdered young Antiochus
and declared himself king (xii. 31, 39). The
capture of Demetrius by Ar.saces, the Par-
thian king, left Tryphon to his own schemes
for a while, but Demetrius' brother, Anti-
ochus VII., opposed him and succeeded in
besieging him, first in Dor on the Phoenician
coast (xv. 10-14, 37), and afterwards in
Apamea, where Tryphon lost his life in 138
B. c. (Antiq. xiii. 7. 2).

Try-pho'sa [delicate].

A woman at Rome whose name is coupled

with that of Tryphfena in the list of those
Romans to whom Paul sent his salutation.
They may have l)eeu sisters or fellow-deacon-
esses. They are mentioned as laboring in the
Lord (Rom. xvi. 12).

Tu'bal.

A tribe descended from Japheth (Gen. x.
2). It is mentioned with Javan (Is. Ixvi.
19) and with Mcshech (Ezek. xxxii. 26) as
trading in the Tyrian markets with slaves
and vessels of brass (xxvii. 13). Gog was
prince of Meshech and Tubal (xxxviii. 2,
3 ; xxxix. 1). The descendants of Tubal are
the Tublii of the Assyrian inscriptions and
the Tibareni or Tibarenoi of the classical
writers. For their country and history, see
Mesiiech.

Tu'bal-cain [possibly, production of forged
work] .

A son of the Cainite Lamech, by his wife
Zillah. He was the forger of cutting instru-
ments of brass and iron (Gen iv. 22).

Tu'bi-as, in A. V. To'bie.

A district east of the Jordan (1 Mac. v. 13;
cp. 2 Mac. xii. 17), probably the land of Tob ;
see Tob.

Tur'ban. See Di.^dem.

Tur'tle and Tur'tle-dove.

A species of pigeon. It is gentle and harm-
less, fit emblem of a defenseless and innocent
people (Ps. Ixxiv. 19). It is migratory (Jer.
viii. 7), and a herald of spring (Song ii. 12).
Abraham sacrificed a turtledove and other
victims when the Lord's covenant was made
with him (Gen. xv. 9). Under the law it
served as a burnt otfering (Lev. i. 14) and for
a sin offering ; and two turtledoves were
prescribed for these two sacrifices in case a
poor person was obliged to make a guilt ofltr-
ing, and for the purification of a woman after
childbirth if she was poor, of a man or woman
with an issue, and of a Nazirite (v. 7 ; xii. 6,
8; XV. 14, 29, 30; Xum. vi. 10, 11). It was
readily obtainable by the poor, for it abounds
in Palestine and is easily trapped. Three spe-
cies of turtledove are described by Tristram
as occurring in Palestine. The most abun-
dant is the common turtledove (Turtnr rul-
(lavix), which reaches Palestine from the
south in countless numbers at the beginning
of March, and departs again at the a])])roach
of wnnter. The second is the collared turtle-
dove ( Tnrtiir risoriiis). It is a summer mi-
grant, breeding in Palestine in trees and
bushes. The third species, the palm turtle-
dove {TurtHr senegalensis), does not migrate,
but remains permanently in the Dead Sea
valley, which has a tropical climate.

Tu'tor. See Schoolmaster.

Twin Broth'ers. See Castor and Pollux.

Tych'1-cus [fortuitous].

A Christian of the province of Asia who,
with others, traveled on in advance of Paul
from Macedonia to Troas, and awaited the
apostle's arrival in that city (Acts xx. 4). He

Tyrannus

753

Tyre

was a beloved hrotlior and faitliful minister
iu tlie Lord, and was sent l)y Paul to carry
to tlu'ir (1( stination the Eiiistles to the Ephe-
sians and Colossians (Eph. vi. -21 ; Col. iv. 7).
Paul i)nij)()sed also to send him as a messen-
ger to Titus in Crete (Titus iii. 12). After-
wards he was disjjatched to Ephesus (2 Tim.
iv. 12).

Ty-ran'nus [an absolute sovereigu, a ty-
rant].

A man at Ephesus who was either a teacher
of philosophy or rhetoric, or else a Jewish
scribe who gave instruction in the law. In
his school Paul disputed with the view of
making ChrLstiauity known after he no
longer had access for the purpose to the Jew-
ish synagogue (Acts xix. iJ).

Tyre, in A. V. often Ty'rus [a rock].

An important city of Phu'uicia. It was a
place of great antiquity (Is. xxiii. 7 ; Antiq.
viii. 3, 1) ; but it was founded or attained to
importance after Sidon (Gen. x. 15 ; Is. xxiii.
12). The priests of Melkarth told Herodotus
that it was founded 2300 years before his
visit, which would make the city come into
existence about 2750 b. c. (Herod, ii. 44).
According to ancient testimony, Tyre origin-
ally stood on the mainland ; but in course
of time, for safety against besiegers, it was
transferred to the neighboring rocky island
which gave name to the locality. The town
on the mainland became known as Palatyrus.
Tyre was nearer to the Israelites than Sidon,
and this fact, with the increasing greatness
of Tyre over Sidon, established the constant
order observed in speaking of the two cities.
Tyre and Sidon. As early as the times of
Joshua, Tyre was a strong place. It lay on
the border of Asher. but was not assigned to
that or any other tribe (Josh. xix. 29 ; Judg.
i. 31, 32), nor do the Israelites appear to have
possessed it at any period of their history.
In the time of David it was regarded as a
stronghold (2 Sam. xxiv. 7). Hiram, king
of Tyre, was friendly with David and Solo-
mon, and aided them with materials for the
erection by the former of his palace (v. 11 ;
1 Kin. V. 1 ; 1 Chron. xiv. 1) and by thelatter
of the temple and the other edifices which
he built (1 Kin. v. 1 ; ix. 10-14 : 2 Chron. ii.
3. 11 ; cp. Ps. xlv. 12). Another Hiram, a
brass founder, who cast pillars and other
work for the temple, was of mixed Tyrian
and Hebrew parentage (1 Kin. vii. 13, 14, 40.
45). The taste of the Tyrians was not for
war, but for commerce, money-making, sea
voyages, and colonization. They traded with
all countries (Ezek. xxvii.) ; their merchants
were princes, the honorable of the earth (Is.
xxiii. 8). In the ninth century b. c. a
colony from Tyre founded Carthage, which
became a formidable rival to Eome. Still,
though by taste a commercial people, they
were often forced into war. About 724 B. c.
Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, besieged Tyre,
from which he had previouslv exacted heavy
48

tribute, but he died in 722 without etfecting
its capture (Antiq. ix. 14, 2; cp. probably Is.
xxiii.). The friendliness of the Tyrians to-
ward Israel ceased about this time. The
prophets denounced the Tyrians for deliver-
ing Israelites to the Edomites (Amos i. 9),
and plundering them of goods and selling
them as slaves to the (ireeks (Joel iii. 5, 6).
Jeremiah proi)hesied Tyre's subjection ( Jer.
xxvii. 1-11). The classic prophecy against
Tyre, entering into more details, is that of
Ezekiel (Ezek. xxvi.-xxviii. 19 ; xxix. 18-20).
These })rophecies of Jeremiah and Ezekiel re-
fer largely to a siege of Tyre by Nebuchad-
nezzar, lasting thirteen years (con. A])ion. i.
21). It is not certainly known whether he
took any part of the two cities (cp. Ezek.
xxix. 18-20); if he did, it was probably only
the one on the shore. In 332 B. c. Alexan-
der the Great took the city on the island
after a siege of seven months, having made
his way to it by building a mole from the
mainland across the narrow strait. But it
soon again recovered its prosperity (cp. Is.
xxiii. 15-18). Our Lord once visited the
coasts of Tyre and Sidon (Mat. xv. 21-31 ;
Mark vii. 24-31), and people from the region
occasionally attended on his ministry (Mark
iii. 8 ; Luke vi. 17). He jjointed out that the
responsibilities of those heathen cities were
much less than those of the places around
the sea of Galilee, which constantly heard
his preaching and saw his miracles (Mat. xi.
21,22; Luke x. 13, 14 >. A Christian com-
munitA' existed there in the first century
(Acts xxi. 3-6). On the 27th of June, 1124,
Tyre was taken by the Crusaders, who lost
it again in March, 1291. Since then it
has nearly always been in Mohammedan
hands. It is now called es-Siir. The walls
are in ruinous condition, and have iu
part disap]ieared or been covered with sand.
Formerly there were two harbors ; now
only the old Sidonian jiort is in use. It is
on the northeast side of the island ; the
other, or the Egyptian port, has been filled
with sand. Alexander's mole still remains;
its breadth is nearly lialf a mile. Most of the
ruins, including a cathedral, are of Crusading
times. The fountains and reservoirs called
Ras el-'Ain supplied the city with water by
means of an aqueduct starting 15 or 20 feet
above the level of the ground, so as to give a
sufficient slope for its descent. Tyre was for
a considerable period all but destitute of in-
habitants. In the present century it has
slightlv revived, so that it may have at pres-
ent 3000 to 4000 inhabitants, 'its houses are
chiefly on the eastern part of what was once
the island, but the former island has lieen
converted by Alexander's mole and accumu-
lated sand into a jiromontory jutting out
from the shore.

The Ladder of Tyre is a high mountain on
the coast of Syria, 100 stades or about 11
miles north of Ptolemais (War ii. 10, 2). This
statement of distance and direction identi-

Tzade

754

Unclean Animals

fies it with a part or the whole of the mas-
sive, mountainous promontory, 7 miles in
width, which thrusts itself into the sea and
forms the natural boundary between Pales-
tine and Phcenicia (1 Mac. xi. 59). At its
southwestern angle Ras en-Nakurah, a bold
headland, projects, leaving no beach between
its base and the water, and forcing the coast
road to ascend and cross it. This part of the
great promontory is commonly identified
with the Ladder. Some travelers, however,
localize the Ladder at the northwestern angle,
where Ras el-'Abyad, the white promontory,
stands. In its precipitous clifls the road is
cut for about a mile, overhanging the sea and
rising at points to the height of 200 feet above
the water.

Tza'de, in A. V. Tzaddi.

The eighteenth letter of the Hebrew alpha-
bet. No letter in the English alphabet cor-
responds to it. In anglicizing Hebrew names,
s, t, or z is used to represent it. It heads the
eighteenth section of Ps. cxix., in which sec-
tion each verse of the original begins with
this letter.

U.

U'cal [I am strong].

One of two sons, pupils, or contemporaries,
to whom Agur addressed his prophecy or
proverbs (Prov. xxx. 1). This interpretation
represents the traditional Hebrew punctua-
tion, and derives support from ver. 4, where
a person is addressed and asked to answer,
if he knows. Another interpretation, which,
however, neglects the punctuation, is given
on the margin of the R. V.

U'el [will of God].

A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 34).

Uk'naz.

The marginal reading at 1 Chron. iv. 15,
A. V. ; but a Hebrew proper name would not
begin as this word does. In the text it is
properly regarded as two words, and the
R. V. correctly renders it "and Kenaz."

U'lai.

A river on the banks of which Daniel was
in vision when he saw the prophetic ram,
the he goat, etc. (Dan. viii. 2, 16). The Ulai
is undoubtedly the Eulpeus ; identified both
with the Kerkha, which washes the walls
of Susa, that is Shushau, and the Karun,
which flows considerably eastward of the
city. The conflicting views have been recon-
ciled by the apparently well-founded suppo-
sition that the Kerkha sent out a branch
from a spot 20 miles northwest of Susa,
which joined the Karun, so that the name
Ulai might be applied to both rivers.

U'lam [front].

1. A Manassite (1 Chron. vii. 16, 17).

2. A son of Eshek, a Benjamite descended I

from Saul thi-ough Jonathan (1 Chron. viii>
39, 40).

Ul'la [a yoke].

An Asherite (1 Chron. vii. 39), probably
descended from Helem (35).

Um'mah [conjunction].

A town of Asher (Josh. xix. 30). Not
identified. Thomson proposes 'Alma, about 5
miles from the shore at Ras en-Nakurah.
Some considerations suggest that Akko may
be the original text. Caph was not infre-
quently mistaken for mem, i. e. k for m ; see
Beth.

Un'cle.

The brother of one's father (2 Kin. xxiv.
17, Hebrew). The Hebrew word is clod,
which is of broader meaning than uncle and
denotes any kinsman on the father's side
(Lev. X. 4 ; Amos vi. 10) ; as a cousin (Jer.
xxxii. 12 with 8, 9), or a member of the same
tribe (Num. xxxvi. 11).

Un-clean' An'i-mals.

A general distinction between clean and
unclean meats was made by the nations of
antiquitJ^ Some animals were recognized as
fit for food and sacrifice, while others were
not. The distinction was based partly on
the discovered unsuitableness or unwhole-
someness of the flesh for food, partly on
habits and prey, and partly on an inexplica-
ble natural abhorrence to certain animals.
Regard was paid in the Mosaic legislation to
this customary attitude of the men of the
age, and the distinction between clean and
unclean meats was incorporated in the law.
Other animals were added to the list Qf the
unclean, out of special considerations in-
volved in the religion of the Israelites. LTn-
clean animals were classified as follows : 1.
Beasts that do not both part the hoof en-
tirely and chew the cud (Lev. xi. 3, 4),
including all that go on four paws (27). The
law accordingly allows only animals of the
ox, sheep, and goat kind, and deer and
gazelles (Deut. xiv. 4, 5). It excludes among
other animals all carnivorous beasts. They
eat blood or carrion, and were therefore in-
tolerable to the Israelite. 2. Carnivorous
birds, of which twenty or twenty-one are
specially named (Lev. xi. 13-19 ; Deut. xiv.
12-18). The enumeration included the bat,
which was classed as a bird. They eat blood
or carrion. 3. Winged insects which do not
have in addition to the four legs two hind legs
for leaping (Lev. xi. 20-23). All insects are
excluded except the locust (grasshopper). 4.
Whatever in the water had not both fins and
scales (9, 10). This prohibition left for use
the most wholesome varieties of fish found
in the waters of Palestine. It excludes eels,
and water animals which are not fish, such
as crabs. Noma forbade the Romans to ofl'er
scaleless fish in sacrifice (Pliny, Hist. Nat.
xxxii. 10) ; and the modern Egyptians are
said to regard such fish as unwholesome.
Some of these scaleless and Unless creatures

Uncleanuess

755

Unicorn

were suakelike, and recalled the first sin and
its curse. 5. Small crci'itinfi things (Lev. xi.
29, 30) ; every creeping thing that goeth
upon its belly or upou all fours, or has many
feet (41, 42). Some were unwholesome.
Others crej^t in the dust or through slime.
Others still were snakelike. Not iniprol>al)ly
there was a religious repugnance to creei)ing
things in general, because their mode of lo-
comotion was a reminder of the sei-pent and
the curse on the teui])ter.

These animals were unclean under any
circumstance. But the tie.sh of even clean
animals might become unclean. The law
forbade the eating of things ottered in sac-
ritice to idols, things strangled or dead of
themselves or killed by beast or bird of prey.
Blood and fat of bird and beast were sacred
to the Lord. None might eat of the blood,
not even the stranger that sojourned in Israel
(Lev. xvii. 10-14). The violator of the law
respecting blood was cut off from his people
(vii. 27; xvii. 10, 14). The otlender against
the laws regarding unclean animals was un-
clean until the evening (xi. 24, 40; xvii. 15).
Animals that died of themselves might be
sold to strangers and eaten by them ( Deut.
xiv. 21).

Un-clean'ness.

The law distinguished between clean and
holy (Lev. x. 10) ; for example, animals are
clean or unclean, not holy or unholy. Un-
cleanuess, when not presumptuously in-
curred, was ceremonial, not moral defile-
ment. It excluded man from the sanctuary
(vii. 20, 21) and from fellowship with mem-
bers of the commonwealth of Israel, but it
did not interrupt spiritual communion with
God in prayer. At the same time, the laws
that defined uncleanness were in some cases
enforced by the injunction, " Be ye holy, for
I am holy " (xi. 44, 45). In keeping himself
from the unclean, man had regard to the fact
that he was set apart from a common to a
sacred service, and that as a man of God he
was holy unto the Lord and must be separate
and touch no unclean thing. Furthermore,
ceremonial uncleanness was typical of sin.
Physical cleanliness also is different from
ceremonial cleanness. The two were not
synonymous, although the two conditions
sometimes coincided. Comfort and the de-
mands of society required bodily cleanliness
on the part of the Hebrews. There were
divers washings which had nothing to do
with ceremonial purity. The laws of clean-
liness which governed men in their inter-
course M-ith each other were instinctively
observed by reverent persons in their ap-
proach to God, and found expression in com-
mands and institutions (Ex. xix. 12, 14 ; xxx.
18-21 : .Tosh. iii. 5). Ceremonial defilenient,
for which purification was provided, was
incurred in a si)ecial manner and was re-
stricted to certain acts and processes. It
was acquired by — 1. Contact with a human

corpse (Num. xix. 11-22). This defilement
was the gravest, for the effect of sin is re-
vealed in strongest liglit in the death of man
and the dis.solution of the body. Unclean-
ness arising from this cause continued seven
days, and was removed by tlie water of
separation. Even the necessary handling
of the ashes of the red heifer, which were
used to cleanse from defilement by contact
with the dead, rendered unclean (7-10) ; and
contact with the unclean person rendered
the clean person unclean until ev<-ning (22).
2. Leprosy in man, clothing, or building
(Lev. xiii., xiv.). The leper was excluded
from human society (xiii. 46), and for his
cleansing he required special ablution and
sacrifice. 3. Natural and morbid issues from
the generative organs (xv.), including puer-
peral uncleanness (xii.). Generation and
parturition were not sinful in themselves;
they were ordained by the Creator (Gen. i.
27, 28). The bodily issues connected with
them, however, in man or woman, whether
voluntary or involuntary, defiled ; man's
aflBnity to the lower animals is api)arent in
reproduction, for right though it is, in
heaven they neither marry nor are given
in marriage; and prol>ably the divine judg-
ment pronounced on Eve for sin was remem-
bered in connection with childbirth. 4.
Eating the flesh of an unclean animal, or
contact with its carcass or with that of a
clean animal not slain for food and which
had thus become subject to the corruption
of death (Lev. xi.). See Unclean Animals;
Purification.

U'nl-corn.

Any one-horned animal, as the rhinoceros
(Is. xxxiv. 7, A. Y. margin). The biblical ani-
mal, however, was two-horned (Deut. xxxiii.
17, where the word is singular, and not plural,
as in A. Y.). It was possessed of great
strength (Num. xxiii. 22; xxiv. 8), but was
too untamable to bend its neck to the yoke,
or assist man in his agricultural labors (Job
xxxix. 9-12). It was frisky in youth (Ps.
xxix. 6). It was not the wild buffalo, for
this beast is quite tamable. The E. V. margin
(Num. xxiii. 22) renders it by ox-antelope,
meaning the oryx (Antilope leucori/x) ; see
Antelope. This interpretation is supported
by the analogy of the Hebrew r'^eru to the
Arabic rhn. which is now used in Syria for
the white and yellow gazelle ; but the oryx
is timid and in ancient Egypt was frequently
tamed and used in the plow. There is every
reason to believe that the Hebrew word sig-
nifies the wild ox (R. Y.) ; for this animal is
denoted by the corresponding Assyrian word
rimu. Admirable representations of it by
Assyrian artists show it to be the anroch.s
{Bos primitieniiis). Tiglath-pileser about 1120
to 1100 B. c. hunted it in the land of the
Hittifes, at the foot of Lebanon. It is now
extinct, and its name has been transferred
in Syria to another animal ; but ilvS previous

Unni

756

Uriah

occurrence on and around Lebanon is inde-
pendently proved by the fact that Tristram
discovered its teeth in the bone caves of
Lebanon. Julius Csesar, who met with it in
Gaul, described it as the Boa unm (Bello Gal-
ileo vi. 28). Independently of its size, it is
distinguished from its descendant, the com-
mon ox, by having a flatter forehead and
large horns with double curvature.

Un'ni [oppres.sed, afflicted].

1. A Leviteof the second degree in David's
reign, who played the psaltery (1 Chron. xv.
18, 20). It is doubtful whether the word
doorkeepers (18) is intended to include him.

2. A Levite in the time of Zerubbabel
(Neh. xii. 9, A. V.) ; see Unno.

Un'no, in A. V. Unni, which was substi-
tuted by the Hebrews in reading the text
[oppres.sed, afflicted].

A I.ievite who was a contemporary of the
high priest Jeshua (Neh. xii. 9).

U-phar'sin. See Mene.

U'phaz.

A place from which gold was brought (Jer.
X. 9; Dan. x. 5). The same, a])parently, as
Ophir, though tlie difference in form has not
been satisfactorily explained.

Ur, I. [perhaps, settlement].

A city of the Chaldees, the birthplace of
Abraham (Gen. xi. 28, 31 ; xv. 7; Neh. ix. 7).
Its site is now generally held to have been
at Mugheir or Um-mugheir, Bitumened or

called Kaldu as early as at least the ninth
century B. c. ; and was a .seat of the worship
of the moon-god. Considerable ruins are
still found on its site.

Ur, II.

Father of one of David's mighty men (1
Chron. xi. 35). The transcriber perhaj)s made
two heroes, Ur and Hepher, out of one whose
name was Ahasbai or something similar (cp.
2 Sam. xxiii. 3'!).

Ur-ba'nus, in A. V. Ur'bane [urbane, po-
lite],

A Christian to whom the apostle Paul sent
his salutation (Rom. xvi. 9).

U'ri [fiery, or, perhaps, light of (Jehovah),
being an abbreviation of Urijah].

1. Father of Bezalel, the craftsman (Ex.
xxxi. 2).

2. Father of Solomon's taxgatherer Geber
(1 Kin. iv. 19).

3. A porter whom Ezra induced to put away
his foreign wife (Ezra x. 24j.

U-ri'ah, in A. V. of N. T. Urias [light of
Jehovah]. The Hebrew name is often ren-
dered Urijah.

1. A Hittite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sara, xxiii. 39 ; 1 Chron. xi. 41), whom
the king arranged to have placed at an ex-
posed point in a battle with the Ammonites
and lose his life, to prevent his discovering
an intrigue which his sovereign had been

ii^^'

Mugheir, the Site of Ur of the Chaldees.

the Mother of Bitumen, in Lower Babylonia,
on the western bank of the Euphrates. It is
called on inscribed tablets ITru ; was in a dis-
trict which, according to inscriptions, was

carrving on with the faithful soldier's wife
(2 Sam. xi. 1-27; Mat. i. 6).

2. A priest, one of two witnesses to a tablet
M'ritten by Isaiah (Is. viii. 2) ; see Urijah 1.

Uriel

757

Urim and Thummim

3. A priest, father of a certain Meremoth
(Ezra viii. 33). Called in Neb. iii. 4, 21 Uri-
jah.

4. One of those, pro])ably priests, who
stood bv Ezra while he addressed the i>eoi)le
(Neh. viii. 4 ; in A. V. Urijah).

U'ri-el [light of God].

1. A Levite, fiimily of Kohath, bouse of
Izhar, descended through Korah, Abiasaj)!!,
and Tahath (1 l^hron. vi. 24). He is proba-
bly a ditlereut pei'son from Zephaniah (36),
and belonged to the collateral line which
sprang from Tahath. The head of the Ko-
hathite family in David's reign bore this
name (xv. 5, 11), and is conceivably the same
person.

2. A man of Gibeah who.se daughter Mica-
iah was Abijah's mother (2 Chron. xiii. 2).

U-ri'jah [light of Jehovah].

1. The high priest in Ahaz' reign who was
directed to make an altar like that which
caught the king's fancy at Damascus (2 Kin.
xvi. 10-16). He was probably one of the two
witnesses to the enigmatical inscription writ-
ten by Isaiah ( Is. viii. 2, in E. V. Uriah).

2. A prophet, the sou of Sheniaiah of Kii--
jath-jearim. He agreed with Jeremiah in
predicting that the kingdom of Judah was
about to be temporarily destroyed, which so
enraged king Jehoiakim that he sought to
kill the prophet of evil. Urijah fled to Egyx>t,
but was brought back and slain (Jer. xxvi.
20-23).

3. A priest (Neh. iii. 4, 21) ; .see Uriah 3.

4. One who stood by Ezra while he ad-
dressed the people (Neh. viii. 4; in R. V.
Uriah) ; see Uriah 4.

U'rim and Thurn'mim [lights and perfec-
tions]. The order is once reversed (Deut.
xxxiii. 8), and twice Urim alone is used
(Num. xxvii. 21 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 6).

One or more objects belonging to the e]ihod
of the high priest, put in the breastplat<' of
judgment so as to be on the high priest's
heart when he went in before the Lord (Ex.
xxviii. 30; Lev. viii. 8). The receptacle was
probably a fold of the l)reast})late or the
space underneath it. In connection with the
Urim and Thummim, the high priest learned
the will of God in doubtful cases. This
method was not adopted for inquiring the
divine will concerning private individuals or
private matters, but was only employed in
behalf of the nation ; hence the required
place for the L^rim and Thummim was in the
breastplate of judgment, which bore the
names of the twelve tribes of Israel on
twelve precious stones. With the Urim and
Thummim, the will of Jehovah, the judge,
concerning judicial matters, and the royal
desire of Jehovah, the king, were learned
(Num. xxvii. 21 ; cp Josh. ix. 14 ; Judg. i. 1 ;
XX. 18, 23. 27, 28; 1 Sam. x. 22; xiv. 36-
42; xxii. 10, 13; xxiii. 9-12; xxviii. 6; xxx.
7, 8 ; 2 Sam. ii. 1 ; v. 1ft. 23, 24). The will
of Jehovah was inquired with Urim and

Thummim, not only in the sanctuary or
where the ark was (Judg. .\x. 27, 28 ; 1 Sam.
xxii. 10), but in any place, provided tlie
authorized priest with the ejdiod was present.
The answer was usually (juite .simple, often a
mere afhrniation or denial, or a clioice of one
tribe or jilace out of several ; but it was not
always so (1 Sam. x. 22 ; 2 Sam. v. 23,24).
Occasionally, also, when sin had interruj)ted
communion with God, no answer was granted
(1 Sam. xiv. 37 ; xxviii. 6). There is no ref-
erence to the use of Urim and Thimimiin
after the reign of David, and at the time of
the return from exile there was no priest
with Urim and Thummim (Ezra ii. 63; Neh.
vii. 65) ; hence Josephus is probably wrong in
saying that the virtue or use ceased 200 years
before his time (Antiq. iii. 8, 9). The use
of this method was a prerogative of the high
priest alone ; and, since he belonged to the
tribe of Levi, the po.ssessicm of the Urim and
Thummim was a glory of that tribe (Deut.
xxxiii. 8).

Different explanations of the Urim and
Thummim have been offered. For cxami)le,
an analogue has been sought in the badge of
office which the Egyptian high priest, as su-
preme judge, is reported by classical writers
to have worn, consisting of an emblem of
truth suspended from his neck on a golden
chain ; but the Egyptian high priest carried
this official token during the judicial pro-
ceedings only, and hanged it on the person
in whose favor judgment was pronounced ;
and there is no evidence that it was ever
used as a means for inquiring the divine
will. Other interpreters have supposed that
when to the high priest, clad in the ei)hod
with the L^rim and Thummim and offering
prayer, an idea occurred, its divine origin
and truth were confirmed by the unwonted
gleaming of the gems in the breastplate.
From this phenomenon was derived the name
L'rim, lights. It has been suggested that the
answer was spelled out by the successive
gleaming of the letters which composed the
proper names on the stones ; but to say noth-
ing of the fact that the complete al])habet is
not yielded by these names, and that in sev-
eral of the recorded responses letters occur
which are not found on the stones, the whole
idea smacks of the feigned miracles of Greek
and Roman priests, and is foreign to the
methods and conceptions of the Hebrew
ritual.

Only two theories are important. 1. The
Lfrim and Thummim were one or more ap-
pendages of the ephod and detachable, and
were used as the lot, cast like dice, and by
their fall revealed the divine will. This is,
indeed, a possible conception, but it lacks
proof. Support is sought for it in the fact
that the casting of the lot is twice referred
to in close association with seeking revelation
through Urim and Thummim (1 Sam. x. 19-22;
xiv. 37-42). In the latter case, Saul prayed :
" Give a perfect lot " (41, R. V. margin). The

Usury

758

Uzziah

word thamim is used, which it is proposed to
l)ronounce thummim, and thus make the Urim
and Thummim to have been a kind of sacred
lot. But in the two cases mentioned, the
casting of lots was a distinct act from inquir-
ing of the Lord, and was undertaken for a
different purpose from that for which coun-
sel was asked. 2. The Urim and Thummim
gave no outward manifestation, but served
as a symbol. The high priest arrayed him-
.st^lf in the ephod with Urim and Thummim,
■which I)etokened his authority to obtain
light and truth, as the name indicates, in
order tliat he might seek counsel of Je-
hovah in the divinely appointed manner.
He laid the matter humbly before God in
prayer ; the answer dawned in his mind ; he
believed that the response was correct, be-
cause he had made his request in the manner
of God's appointment, and because he had
God's promise that he should receive light
and truth. Faith in God was the evidence
of things not seen. This interpretation of
the u.se of the Urim and Thummim accords
with the spirituality of the entire ritualism
of the tabernacle. The answer was inward
illumination, without any external sign, and
finds its parallel in the revelations granted to
the i)rophets.

U'su-ry.

Interest on loaned money, the word being
used in its primary sense, without any im-
putation that the interest is extortionate in
amount. See Loan.

U'thai [probably, helpful].

1. A man of Judah, family of Perez, and
son of Ammihud. He was the head of the
father's house to which he belonged, and
dwelt at Jerusalem (1 Chron. ix. 4).

2. A descendant of Bigvai. He accom-
panied Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii. 14).

Uz, in A. V. once Huz (Gen. xxii. 21).

A tribe of the Aramseans (Gen. x. 23), able
to trace their descent partly from Nahor
(xxii. 21), and connected by blood or political
ties with Dishan the Horite (xxxvi. 28). Job
resided in the land of Uz (Job i. 1), and was
exposed to attack from the Sabeans and Chal-
deans (1.5, 17). At the time of Jeremiah,
Edomites dwelt in the land of Uz (Lam. iv.
21). Josephus regarded Uz as the founder
of Trachonitis and Damascus (Antiq. i. 6, 4).
Ptolemy locates the Ausitai in the desert
west of the Euphrates. Uz, according to
these data, was in the Syrian desert between
the latitudes of Damascus and Edom.

U'zai.

Father of one who helped to rebuild the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 25).

U'zal [possibly, travel or wandering].

A peoi)le of Arabia descended from Joktan
(Gen. X. 27; 1 Chron. i. 21; Ezek. xxvii. 19,
R. V. margin). The kindred name Azal was,
according to Arabian tradition, the ancient
name of Sana, the capital of Yemen, in Arabia.

Uz'za [strength]. The orthography is
Aramaic.

1. A Benjamite, a son or a descendant of
Ehud (1 Chron. viii. 7).

2. The founder of a family of Nethinim,
members of which returned from captivity
(Ezra ii. 49; Neh. vii. 51).

3. A man known only as the original owner
of a garden. This garden ultimately i)as.sed
into the hands of Manasseh, king of Judah,
and was within the precincts of his palace.
Both Manasseh and his son Amon were buried
in it (2 Kin. xxi. 18, 26; cp. 2 Chron. xxxiii,
20). The garden was apparently at or near
Jerusalem, but the exact spot -is undeter-
mined.

4 and 5. Two men otherwise called Uzzah.
Uz'zah, and Uzza in 1 Chron. xiii. 7-11
and A. V. of vi. 29 [strength].

1. A son of Abinadab, of what tribe is un-
known. When the ark had reached the
threshing floor of Nacon, or Chidon, on its
way to the city of David, the oxen stumbled,
and Uzzah, putting forth his hand to sup
port the sacred symbol, was struck dead.
The place was therefore called Perez-uzzah,
breach of Uzzah, or breaking out against
Uzzah, and long retained the name (2 Sam.
vi. 3-11 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 7-14).

2. A son of Merari (1 Chron. vi. 29).
Uz-zen-she'e-rali, in A. V. Uzzen-sherah.
A village built by Sheerah, daughter of an

Ephraimite named Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 24).
It is mentioned in connection with the two
Beth-horons, and is considered to have been
at Beit Sira, 3 miles west by south of the
nether Beth-horon, and 13 west by north of
Jerusalem.

Uz'zi [my strength, or might of (Jehovah)].

1. A man of Issachar, family of Tola, and
head of a father's hou.se (1 Cliron. vii. 2, 3).

2. A priest, son of Bukki, and father of
Zerahiab, of the line of Eleazar (1 Chron. vi.
5, 6, 51). He was an ancestor of Ezra (Ezra
vii. 4).

3. A Benjamite, family of Bela, and head
of a father's house (1 Chron. vii. 7).

4. Another Benjamite, .son of Michri, and
father of Elah (1 Chron. ix. 8).

5. A Levite of the sons of Asaph. He was
son of Bani, and overseer of the Levites at
Jerusalem (Neh. xi. 22).

6. A priest, head of the house of Jedaiah
in the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh.
xii. 19).

7. A priest, one of those who assisted at
the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusa-
lem (Neh. xii. 42).

Uz-zi'a [probably, Aramaic spelling of
'Usziyi/ah, might of Jehovah].

A man from the town of Ashtaroth, and
one of David's mighty men (1 Chron. xi. 44).

Uz-zi'ah, in A. V. of N. T. Ozias [might
of Jehovah].

1. A Kohathite Levite, the son of Shaul
(1 Chron. vi. 24).

Uzziel

759

Vau

2. The father of a certain Jehonathan in
David's lime (1 Chrou. xxvii. 2')).

3. A kiiij: of Judah, who is called in 2 Kin.
XV. 1 Azariah, and by the Assyrians Azri-
yau ; but in 2 Cbron. xxvi. and in Is. i. 1;
vi. 1 ; Hos. i. 1 ; Amos i. 1 ; and Zech. xiv. 5
Uzziah. He succeeded his father Aniaziuh
about '."'(j B. c, durinj; tlie hitter's lifetime,
a few years after the crusliing defeat was in-
flicted on Amaziah by the king of Israel.
That he reigned during his father's lifetime
is evident from the statement made in con-
nection with the record of his reign, that he
built Elath after the death of the king (2
Kin. xiv. 22). He was sixteen years old
when he aseended the throne (21). After
i-ouducting the government for twenty-four
years, it is recorded tliat "he reigned in
the twenty-seventh year of Jeroboam " (xv.
1 ; the word " began " is not in the He-
brew text). This statement "is most easily
explained," says Kleinert, "by the assump-
tion that in this year the kingdom of Judah
had regained the full sovereignty ; " freeing
itself from vassalage to Jeroboam, in which
it had been held since the overthrow of
Amaziah, the capture and dismantlement of
Jerusalem, and the enforcement of hostages.
tJzziah organized the army ; and he improved
the fortifications of Jerusalem, and the
weapons and military engines of his troops.
He gained important victories over the Phi-
listines, the Arabs, the Ammonites, and other
foes. So strong did Judah become, that the
kingdom of Hamath .sought alliance with it,
as the Assyrian records relate (cp. 2 t'hron.
xxvi. 8). He promoted agriculture by build-
ing towers in the desert and digging wells.
Uzziah himself worshiped Jehovah, but did
not take away the high places at which his
people sacrificed to other gods. At length,
elated by his prosperity, he entered the tem-
ple against priestly remonstrance, and at-
tempted to otl'er incense, but was struck
with leprosy, from which he never recovered.
He had therefore to associate his son Jotham
with him in the government. A notable
earthquake occurred during his reign (Amos
i. 1; Zech. xiv. 5), which took place near
enough to his attempt to invade the priest's
office to be connected with it in the popular
memory (Antiq. ix. 10, 4). His reign ex-
tended to fifty-two years. He died about the
year 735 b. c. (2 Kin. xv. 1-7 ; 2 Chron. xxvi.
1-23). Before his decea.se the prophets Isaiah,
Hosea, and Amos had Vjegun their public
career (Is. i. 1 ; vi. 1 ; Hos. i. 1 ; Amos
i. 1).

4. A priest, son of Harim. He was in-
duced bv Ezra to put away his foreign wife
(Ezra x.'21).

5. A man of Judah, familv of Perez (Neh.
xi. 4).

Uz'zi-el [might of God].
1. A Levite, son of Kohath, and founder
of a tribal family (Ex. vi. 18, 22 ; Num. iii.

19, 27, 30). He was a kinsman of Aaron on
the father's side (Lev. x. 4). Amniinadab,
the chief of the Uzzielites, and 112 of his
brethren, were organized by David for ser-
vice wlien he brought up the ark to the citv
of David (1 Chron. xv. 10).

2. A Benjamite, family of Bela (1 Chron.
vii. 7).

3. A Levite, instrumentalist in David's
reign (1 Chron. xxv. 4). Called in verse 18
Azarel ; see Az.^rkl 2.

4. A Levite, son of Jeduthun. He assisted
king Hezekiah in his work of reformation (2
Clirun. xxix. 14).

5. A Simeonite captain, one of those who,
in Hezekiah's reign, led a successful expedi-
tion against the Amalekites of mount Seir (1
Chron. iv. 41-43).

6. A goldsmith, son of Harhaiah. He
helped to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. iii. 8).

V.

Va'heb.

A place near the Arnon (Num. xxi. 14, 15,
E. v.), otherwise unknown. See Di-zah.\b.

Va-iz'a-tha, in A. V. Va-jez'a-tha [Per-
sian, pei-haps meaning strong as the wind].

A son of Haman (Esth. ix. 9).

Vale and Valley.

The vale or the valley, 2""" excellence, is
in A. V. the Shephelah or lowland (q. v.).

Va-ni'ah [perhaps, distress].

A son of Bani, induced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 36).

Vash'ni.

According to 1 Chron. vi. 28 (A. Y. follow-
ing the Hebrew text), the eldest son of Sam-
uel, in which case he would be the same as
Joel of verse 33, and of 1 Sam. viii. 2. But
the text is corrupt. Joel has accidentally
slipped out, the conjunction van before
Abiah has crept in, and vashii should be ren-
dered "and the second" (R. V. following
Syriac and 1 Sam. viii. 2).

Vash'ti.

The queen of the Persian sovereign Ahasn-
erus. For refusing to show herself to the
king's guests at a feast, she was divorced and
deposed (Esth. i. 9-ii. 1). Vashti may be a
title, old Persian rnhi.ihti, sweetest ; or it
may be the Hebrew reproduction of the Per-
sian name which the Greeks pronounced
Amestris. Amestris was the wife of Xerxes
(Herod, vii. 61, 1141. If she was Vashti,
Vashti was ultimately restored to favor.

Vau.

The sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
The English F, through the Greek digamma
or fan, has the same origin. Where it is a
consonant in Hebrew names, it appears as v
in the anglicized form.

Veil

760

Versions

It stands at the head of the sixth section
of Ps. cxix. in several versions, in which sec-
tion each verse begins with this letter.

At several ditiereut periods in the develop-
ment of the Hebrew alphabet it has had
similarity with other letters. On the tomb
of James, dating from the first century be-
fore Christ, van and zain are scarcely dis-
tinguishable from one another, and jod dif-
fers only by a hook at the top and a slope ;
thus, in the order named, ^»ll,'^
In the inscription on the synagogue at Kefr
Bir'im the diti'erence between vau and jod
has disajipeai-ed.

Veil, in A. V. often Vail. See Clothing,
T.\BKKNACLE, and Temple, Herod's.

Ver-mil'ion.

A red pigment obtained by grinding the
mineral ciuual)ar (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiii.
38). It was called shashar in Hebrew, miltos
in Greek ; and was used to paint walls,
mural decorations, and idols (Jer. xxii. 14 ;
Ezek. xxiii. 14 ; Wisd. xiii. 14). Vermilion
is a satisfactoiy translation of the word in
these passages; but miltos was of broader
meaning and denoted any red, mineral, color-
ing matter ; as red lead, or clay mingled with
the oxide of iron and kiiown as oclier. Rude
Africans bedaubed the body with it (Herod,
iv. 191, 194), and certain tribes used it as war
paint (vii. 69).

Ver'sions.

Translations of the Bible or of any por-
tions of it into vernacular tongues, for the
benefit of those who understand the original
imperfectly or not at all. It would not be
possible within narrow limits to treat the
subject exhaustively ; all that can be done
will be to select the versions which are most
valuable for critical purposes or are of most
interest to the English reader.

Ver-sions are imnudiate or mediate, accord-
ing as they are made directly from the orig-
inal text or through the medium of other
translations. Four ancient immediate ver-
sions of the O. T. have come down to modern
times : the Septuagint, the Targums of On-
kelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel, the Syriac
Peshito with a considerable portion of its pred-
ecessors, and the Latin Vulgate. They de-
rive special value from the fact that they
were made before the Hebrew text of the
Masoretes was established.

The Samaritan Pentateuch is not a version ;
it is the Hebrew text written in Samaritan
or old Hebrew characters, with various di-
vergences from the Hebrew text of the Mas-
oretes (see Samaritan Pentateuch) ; and
the Samaritan version of the Pentateuch is
a translation of this divergent text into the
Samaritan dialect.

I. Ancient Versions of the 0. T., made for
the use of Jews.

1. The Sepfua(ji)if. The most celebrated
Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures

and the oldest complete translation of them.
It was called the Septuagint, commonly
designated by LXX., after the seventy
translators reputed to have been employed
on it in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
285-247 B. e. Aristobulus, a Jewish priest
who lived in Alexandria during the reign
of Ptolemy Philometor, 181-14() B. c, and
who is mentioned in 2 Mac. i. 10, is quoted by
Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius as
stating that while portions relating to He-
brew history had been translated into Greek
previously, the entire law was translated
from the Hebrew in the reign of Ptolemy
Philadelphus under the direction of Deme-
trius Phalereus. The same tradition, but con-
siderably embellished, is contained in a letter
purporting to have been written by Aristeas
to his brother. This letter is condemned by
modern scholars as spurious. The same story
as that told by Aristeas is repeated with
slight variations by Josephus, who may have
had the letter before him. Josephus relates
that Demetrius Phalereus, librarian to Ptol-
emy Philadelphus, who reigned alone from
283-247 B. C, wished to add to the 200,000
volumes in the library a copy of the Hebrew
books of the law, and to have them translated
into Greek, as they were unintelligible in
the original. The king consented, and made
application to Eleazar the high priest at
Jerusalem for seventy-two aged and skillful
interpreters, six from each tribe, to make the
translation. They arrived in Alexandria,
bi-inging the law written in golden letters
on books of parchment. They were hos-
pitably received, were assigned a quiet house
on the island of Pharos in the harbor of
Alexandria, and transcribed and interpreted
the law in seventy-two days (Antiq. xii. 2,
1-13; con. Apion. ii. 4).

These ancient reports concerning the origin
of the Septuagint have great value, although
reliance cannot be placed on the details, and
the statements regarding the scope of the
work are difficult of interpretation. It is,
however, commonly agreed that the Sep-
tuagint originated in Egypt, that the Penta-
teuch was translated into Greek in the time
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, that the other
books followed gradually, and that the entire
work was completed by 150 B. c. Reference
to a Greek version of the law, the prophets,
and the other books is made by Jesus, .son of
Sirach, as early as 132 b. c. (Ecclus. prologue).
It is possible that the work was revised in
the Maccabjean period. The version is the
work of many translators, as differences in
style and method show, and its quality is
unequal in different parts; it is also much
corrupted. The translation of the Penta-
teuch, except poetic portions (Gen. xlix. ;
Deut. xxxii., xxxiii.), is the best part of the
work, and on the whole is well executed, al-
though not literal. The translators of The
Proverl)s and Job were masters of a good
Greek style, but were imperfectly acquainted

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with Hebrew and handled the eriginal arbi-
trarily. The translatitin ol" The Proverbs is
based on a Hebrew text whieh ditl'ered from
the present ]\Iasoretic one. Tlie general
sense of the Psalms is fairly well reproduced.
The translation of the prophets is not satis-
factory, but diflerences are discernible. The
version of Jeremiah was possibly made from
a dittereut text than the Masorotic. That
of Amos and Ezekiel is tolerably well done,
but that of Isiiiah is quite inferior. Of all
the O. T. books, Daniel is the most jjoorly
translated, so much so that the early Chris-
tians, since the time of Irenjeus and Hip-
polytus, substituted for it the version of
Theodotion.

Christ and his apostles used the Septuagint
frequently. In quoting passages from the
O. T., sometimes they did so verbatim, or
with unimjiortant verbal changes, from the
Septuagint; at others, they set it aside, and
api)arently themselves translated fmm the
original Hebrew. There are about '.I'A) quo-
tations from the O. T. in the gospels. The
Acts, and the epistles, of which only about
fifty materially difier from the Greek. When
Philip met the Ethiopian eunuch, the latter
was reading the Septuagint (Acts viii. 30-33).

Three main recensions of the Septuagint
were made. One was issued about a. d. 236,
and the others previous to a. d. 311. They
were that of Origen in Palestine, of Luciau
in Asia Minor and Constantinople, and of
Hesychius in Egypt. The Vatican manu-
script of the Septuagint is acknowledged to
exhibit relatively the purest and most origi-
nal test, and it probably descended from that
upon which Origen based the text of the Septu-
agint given in the fifth column of his Hex-
apla ; see 1. 2. Lucian's recension has been
recovered, and has been edited by Lagarde.
Lucian was a presbyter of Antioch, and died
a martyr's death at Nicomedia in a. d. 311
or 312. He issued a revised text of the Sep-
tuagint based on a comjjarison of the com-
mon Greek text with the Hebrew text,
which proves to have been a good text, but
diflferent from that of the Masoretes. Hesy-
chius was bishop of Egypt, and suffered
martyrdom A. d. 310 or 311 ; his text has
been lost.

2. Minor Greek Versions. After the de-
struction of Jerusalem in a. d. 70, the
Septuagint lost favor among the Jews, partly
because of the successful use made of it
by the Christians in establishing the claims
of Jesus, and partly because they discovered
that its style lacked elegance. Accordingly
three translations of the canonical books of
the O. T. were made by Jews in the second
century. 1. The translation by Aquila, a
native of Pontus and a proselyte to Judaism.
He lived in the time of the emperor Hadrian,
and he undertook to make a literal version
of the Hebrew Scriptures in order to coun-
teract the use of the Septuagint made by the
Christians in advancing their doctrines. It

was so slavislily literal as often to be unin-
telligible to readers who did not know Helirew
as well as Greek. 2. The revision of the
Siptuagint by Theodotion, a Jewish prose-
lyte of Ephesus according to IrcuiEUs, and
according to Eusebiiis an Ebionite, believ-
ing in the JIessialishi]>, but not in the divinity
of Christ. He lived bt'l'ore A. D. ItiO, for he
is mentioned by Justin Martyr. In his re-
vision of the Septuagint he made use both
of A(|uila's translation and of the Hebrew
original. 3. The elegant, but jjeriphrastic,
translation by Symmachus, a Samaritan
Ebionite.

Origen arranged the Hebrew text and four
different versions in six parallel columns for
l)Urpo.ses of comparison. In the first colunm
he put the Hebrew text, in the second the
Hebrew written in Cireek letters, in the third
the version of Aquila, in the fourth that of
Symmachus, in the fifth the Septuagint, in
the sixth the revision by Theodotion. From
these six columns his work takes its name
of Hexapla. In the column devoted to the
Septuagint he marked with obeli words
which were not in his Hebrew text. He
emended the Greek text by supjilying words
lacking in it, but foxind in the Hebrew.
These he indicated by asterisks. He con-
formed the spelling of proper names to the
Hebrew. Origen's work has perished as a
whole, but fragments are preserved in quo-
tations made by the fathers. The Septuagint
column was separately edited and widely
used, and it was translated into Svriac by
Paul, bishop of Telia, in a. d." 617-18.
Origen pur.sued an unfortunate method,
when he conformed the text of the Sep-
tuagint to the Hebrew text of his day ;
since the great desideratum of scholars is
the Greek text as it left the translators'
hands, for that text would throw light on
the Hebrew text which they used. More-
over, the obeli and a.sterisks, which Origen
used, were often neglected or carelessly em-
ployed by copj-ists, so that the additions
which he made to the Septuagint and the
portions of the Septuagint which he did not
find in his Hebrew text cannot always be
discovered. V

3. The Targnms. When the Jews returned
from the BabJ'lonian exile, the Hebrew of
their forefathers ceased to be their ordinary
speech, and Aramaic, misnamed Chaldee,
took its place. It soon became neces.sai-y at
the public reading of the Scriptures for the
reader or his assistant to translate the pas-
sage orally that the people might understand.
The custom of explaining obscure words and
phrases at the public reading was in vogue
in Ezra's time (Neh. viii. 8). The event re-
ferred to has been cited as evidence that the
words read were translated ; but this is more
than the statement warrants, and depinds
upon the answer to the question whether
the Hebrews had adopted a foreign language
during the exile. The oral targum— that is.

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r62

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interpretation or translation — which became
necessary, was at first a simple paraphrase in
Aramaic ; but eventually it became elaborate,
and in order to fix it as a translation and
render it authoritative as an interpretation,
it was reduced to writing. These written
Targums are a valuable aid in determining
the text as read in the early synagogues and
in discovering the meaning which the Jews
attached to difficult passages. The principal
Targums are the Targum of Onkelos on the
Pentateuch and the Targum of Jonathan
ben Uzziel on the prophets. According to
the Talmud, Onkelos was the friend of
Gamaliel and a fellow-pupil of Paul, and
therefore lived about A. D. 70. His Targum
would then antedate the beginning of the
second century ; but it is generally regarded
as a later production, perhaps as early as
the second century. It is quite literal. The
Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel, on the other
hand, is periphrastic ; and it is of later date.
The Targums on the Hagiographa date from
the eleventh century.

II. Ancient Versions of a part or the whole of
the Bible, and intended chiefly for Christians.

1. Si/riac Versions.

(1) The Old Syriac Version of the N. T.
This is represented by the gospels discov-
ered by Mrs. Lewis in the convent of St.
Catherine on mount Sinai in 1892, and by
the closely related fragments found by Cure-
ton in a Syrian convent in the Nitrian desert
in 1841-43.

(2) The Peshito. Peshito means simple or
■vulgate. The O. T. was made directly from
the Hebrew, and in the first instance was
probably prepared for the use of Jewish
proselytes. It was made as earlj- as the first
century. The N. T. is a revision of the old
Syriac in order to bring it into closer agree-
ment with the Greek text and improve its
•diction and style. The Peshito seems to
have been in circulation in the second cen-
tury. By reason of its elegance it has often
been called the queen of versions.

(3) The Philoxenian Version of the N. T.
This is so called because it was translated
in A. D. 508 by Philoxenus, bishop of Hier-
apolis, in Asia Minor.

(4) The Jerusalem or Palestinian Syriac Ver-
sion of the N. T. is but little known as yet,
but promises to be of critical value.

2. Latin Versions.

(1) The Old Latin or North African Version.
By the end of the second century a Latin
version of the Scriptures was in circulation
in northern Africa. It was used by Tertul-
lian, who died about A. D. 220, and by
Cyprian and Augustine. The O. T. was not
translated immediately from the Hebrew,
but was based on the Greek version.

(2) The Itnla or Italian Version. Augustine
testifies that a translation of the N. T. was
made by any one who had sufficient knowl-
edge of Greek. The North African version
of the O. and N. T. was provincial in its lan-

guage and offensive to the ears of the Latin-
speaking Romans of the capital. In the
fourth century, therefore, a recension of the
text took place, which, from being made in
Italy, was called the Itala.

(3) The VuUjnte. The issue of the Itala
was followed by other recensions, of which
almost the only efl'ect was to bring the text
into confusion ; till at length in A. D. 383 a
Christian father, Jerome or Hieronymus,
A. D. 329 or 331 to 420, the most learned
scholar of his day and a man of moral
earnestness and piety, was requested by
Damasus, bishop of Rome, to undertake a
revision of the Latin N. T. The gospels
were compared with the original Greek, in-
terpolations were removed, and gross errors
were corrected. He also made two revisions
of the old Latin version of the Psalms by
comparing it with the Septuagint. These
are known as the Eoman and Galilean
psalters, because introduced into Rome and
Gaul respectively. Jerome then designed a
revision of the entire O. T. In 387 he took
up his residence in a monastery at Bethle-
hem. He began and completed a revision
based on the hexaplar text of Origen ; but
ultimately he made a version immediately
from the Hebrew, with constant reference to
the Greek versions and with special respect
for Symmachus. As a yo>ith he had pursued
the study of Hebrew, and after his removal
to Bethlehem he resumed it with the aid of
Jewish teachers. Samuel and Kings, prefaced
by the famous Proloqus galleatus giving an
account of the Hebrew canon, were issued
in 392, and the entire work was completed
in 405. His own generation gave him abuse
rather than gratitude for the very important
service he had rendered it ; and the eminent
father, whose temper was none of the best,
retorted by expressing the contempt which
knowledge feels for blatant and aggressive
ignorance. As the ages rolled forward, his
work, which was done not for one genera-
tion, but for all succeeding time, was more
and more appreciated. The Vulgate became
the Bible of the whole western church in
the Middle Ages, and notwithstanding ver-
nacular tran.slations, remains the Bible of
the Roman Catholic church still. A recen-
sion of the text was made by Alcuin, at the
instance of Charlemagne, about 802. The
Latin Vulgate was the first book ever printed,
having been Lssued from the press about
1455, soon after the invention of print-
ing. On April 8, 1546, the Council of Trent
made a decree which ex]>ressed the wish for
a fresh revision. Scholars were dilatory
about undertaking the duty, till a pontiil"
of iron will, Sixtus V., urged on the work
and even took a personal part in its accom-
plishment. The revision was jniblished in
1590. A difterent one came forth under the
ausi)ices of pope Clement VIII. in 1592. It
was an improvement on the Sixtine edition,
but did not quite render it obsolete. Both

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763

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editions are still in use. The Clementine
test of tlie Vulgate of the (). T., with the
various readings of the codex Aniiatinus,
Las been edited by Hej-se and Tischendorf,
and tlie X. T. according to the codex Anii-
atinus by Tischendorf. It is from the Vul-
gate that a large part of the technical lan-
guage used in theology is derived. For
instance, sacrament, justification, and sanc-
tification are simjily the anglicized forms of
sacrameutnm, justijicatio, and sanctificatio, oc-
curring in the Vulgate.

3. Coptic ]'eisionsof the N. T. They appear
principally in two dialects, Memphitic and
Thebaic. The Memphitic version is supposed
to date from the close of the second century.
It is for the mo.st part faithful, and preserves
the best text as current among the Alexan-
drian fathers, free from the corruptions
that prevailed in the second century. The
Thebaic version is believed to be slightly
later in date, and it is less faithful to the
original.

4. The Ethiopic Versio)t of the Bible waii made
some time between the fourth and sixth cen-
turies A. D. ; it is the oldest monument as
well as the foundation of the whole Ethiopic
literature. Its translators were not learned
men, nor entirely familiar with Greek, but
the rendering is faithful and has preserved
peculiarities. The O. T. portion was not
translated immediately from the Hebrew,
hut was made from the Greek version, and
is therefore valuable as an aid in determining
the text of the Septuagint.

5. The Gothic J'ersion was made in the latter
half of the fourth century by Ulphilas,
bishop of the West Goths. It embraced the
whole Bible except the books of Samuel and
Kings, which the bishop omitted, because he
thought it would be dangerous to place them,
with their warlike spirit and opposition to
idolatrv, in the hands of the Goths. Most
of the'N. T., but little of the O. T. in this
version is extant. The translation is faith-
ful and skillful.

fi. The extant Arabic Versimis are late, and
of no critical importance.
III. English Ver.votia.

1. Early En(}lish Versions. In Anglo-Saxon
times portions of Scripture, especially the
Psalms, the ten commandments, and por-
tions of the gospels, were translated into
the vernacular tongue. After the language
had been modified by the Norman conquest,
various jiortions of Scripture, especially the
gospels, were rendered into the language of
the nation. But no effort was made simi-
larly to treat the Bi))le as a whole.

2. Wycliffe and Piirrei/'s Bible. Of this
there are two versions: the first apparently
between 1382 and 1383, and the second about
1388. Tlie first, which was robust and terse,
but unpolished in language, was mainly Wye-
liffe's: the second, which was more refined,
emanated chiefly from Purvey, for Wycliffe,
who was born about A. d. 1324, had died

on December 31, 1384. The best-known ver-
sion is Purveys. Here are specimens of
both versions. Gen. i. 1 : "In the firste made
God of noust heuene and erthe." In the later
version this reads : " In the bigynuyng God
made of noU3t heuene and erthe." In
the older version John iii. KS is: " Forsothe
God so loued the world, that he gaf his oon
bigetun sone, that ech man that bileueth in
to him perische not, but haue euere lasting
lyf " ; but in the later version it is changed
to : " For God louede so the world, that he gaf
his oon bigetun sone, that ech man that
bileueth in him peri.sche not, but haue euer-
lastyuge lijf." Both versions were made
from the Latin Vulgate. Wycliife's version
was the first rendering of the Scriptures into
any form of modern English, and it helped
to mold the language ; it al.so exerted great
influence on the national life ; but it was
circulated in manuscript copies only, and
was not printed until 1848.

3. About 1526 there arrived from abroad a
translation of the N. T. from the original
Greek by the reformer William Tyndale,
who had left his native England to escape
persecution. It was published at Worms,
and was made from the Greek of Erasmus,
probably from the edition of 1519, although
the edition of 1522 was consulted. Tyndale
translated immediately from the Greek, using
the German X. T. of Luther and the Vulgate
as aids. His work excited great opposition
from the leading dignitaries of the then
dominant church, though many of the com-
mon people received it gladly. The book
was pronounced full of pestilent err()rs, and
was burnt at Paul's Cross. In 1530, and
again in 1534, he published a translation of
the Pentateuch, and in 1531 of the book of
Jonah. They were made immediately from
the original Hebrew, Luther and the Vulgate
being used as aids. In 1534 a fresh edition
of his N. T. was issued from Antwerp. There
is evidence that he translated other portions
of the O. T. besides those already mentioned,
mofst probably to the end of Chronicles with
several prophetical books; but he did not
live to publish them. He was arrested on
the 23d or 24th of May, 1535, at Antwerp,
where he had permanently .settled, and on
the ()th of October, 1536, was fir.st strangled
and then burnt as a heretic. But his work
remained. It fixed the English standard of
Bible translation, and its diction and style
still live in the English version and lend it
literary charm and character.

4. Corerdale's Bible. This work was pub-
lished in 1535. with no mention who the
printer was nor from what city or town it
issued. Probably Zurich is entitled to the
honor, but possibly Frankfort or Cologne. It
was the first complete English Bible issued
from the press. The X'. T. and much of the
O. T. are practically Tyndalc's. Only the
portion from .Job to ]\Ialachi was translated
independently by ISIiles Coverdale, and he

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764

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1

used not the original Hebrew, but a Swiss-
German Bible printed at Zurich in 1527-29.
He describes the book as " translated out of
Douche and Latyn in to Englishe." Cover-
dale's version of the Psalms, virtually un-
changed, is still used by the church of Eng-
land in its Book of Common Prayer.

5. Matthew's Bible. Thomas Matthew is
believed to have been only a name assumed
by John Rogers, successor to Tyndale as
chaplain to the English merchants of the
Steelyard at Antwerp, the first martyr in the
persecution under Mary Tudor. In 1537 he
printed an edition of the Bible, perhaps at
Antwerp. It contains Tyndale's translations
in their latest form. For books not trans-
lated by Tyndale, the text is taken from
Coverdale's version. It had bold annota-
tions, yet it was the first Bible licensed by
public authority.

6. Taverner's Bible. This was published in
the year 1539, and was designed to counter-
act the influence of Matthew's Bible, and
especially of his daring explanatory notes.

7. The Great Bible : called also Cranmer's
Bible. The first name was given it on ac-
count of its size, the page of type measuring
13| by 7^ inches, and the second name came
into use because Cranmer wrote the introduc-
tion to it. It was undertaken by Coverdale
at Cromwell's suggestion, was produced
mainly by the revision of the text of Mat-
thew's Bible, and appeared in 1539-41. ' It
was warmly welcomed, and seven editions of
it ere long appeared.

8. The Geneva Bible. This revision was the
work of thi-ee exiles, who had taken refuge
in Geneva during the Marian persecution,
Whittingham, Gilby, and Sampson. It was
a revision of Tyndale, collated with the
Great Bible. From the occurrence of the
word breeches in Gen. iii., where the A. V.
was subsequently to have aprons, it is some-
times called the Breeches Bible. The N. T.
appeai'ed in 1.557, and the whole Bible in
1560. It was the first to introduce the di-
vision into verses into the N. T. Its trans-
lators availed themselves of the aids fur-
nished by the best biblical scholarship of the
age, and it is itself the most scholarly of the
early English versions. It was a handy vol-
ume, being small quarto in size. It was well
received among the common people, espe-
cially those of Puritan tendency, and for sev-
enty-five years was the Bible in current use.
It was provided with notes, which form a
sound and helpful commentary along practi-
cal, expository, and doctrinal lines, and was
the first Bible printed in Scotland.

9. The Bishops' Bible. The popularity of the
Geneva Bible was not acceptable to the bish-
ops, and in 1568 thejMssued one of their own.
It borrowed from the Geneva version the
division of the chapters into verses. In 1571
Convocation pronounced in its favor, and
ordered copies to be placed in all the churches.
It was founded chiefly on the Great Bible,

though borrowing a few variations from the
Geneva version.

10. The Bheims and Douay Bible. This is
the Roman Catholic version of the Scriptures
into English. It was made from the Vulgate,
and published, the N. T. at Rheims in 1582,
and the U. T. at Douay in 1609-10. It con-
tains a highly controversial commentary. Its
language and style smack more of Latin
than English ; but it gave currency to many
words borrowed from the Latin, and not a
few of them, such as impenitent, propitia-
tion, remission, found a place in the A. \ .

11. The Authorised Version. The proposal
to make this version came, apparently on the
.spur of the moment, from Dr. Reinolds, or
Reynolds, president of Corpus Christi Col-
lege, Oxford, during the discussion between
the Anglicans and the Puritans at the
Hampton Court Conference, on the 14th,
16th, and 18th of January, 1604. King James
I., whose interest in theology is well known,
was pleased bj' the proposal, and on the 10th
of February, 1604, he ordered, among other
things, " that a translation be made of the
whole Bible, as consonant as can be to tlie
original Hebrew and Greek ; and this to be
set out and printed, without any marginal
notes, and only to be i;sed in all churches of
England in time of divine service." The
king appointed fifty-four translators, but
only forty-seven took part in the work. They
were formed into six companies, two of
which met at Westminster, two at Oxford,
and two at Caml)ridge. The work was issued
in 1611, with a fulsome dedication to king
James. It was not a new translation, but, as
tho.se who prepared it desired it to be, a schol-
arly revision of a good version. It isthe transla-
tion now in common use, which has so endeared
itself to all English-speaking Christians.

12. The Revised Version. A revision of the
A. V. became necessary because in the course
of more than two centuries and a half
through new manuscripts and careful study
corruptions had been discovered in the text
of the Greek Testament which had been
used for the English version, and a superior
text had been ])rovided. Greek and Hebrew
scholarship had also made great advances
during the same period. In February, 1870,
the Convocation of the Province of Canter-
bury planned, not a new translation, but a
fresh revision of the time-honored version.
Two companies were formed for the purpose,
one for each Testament. That for the O. T.
consisted of twenty-seven members; and
that for the N. T. likewise of twenty-seven
members at first, but for the greater part of
the time of twenty-four. Two-thirds of
these belonged to the church of England.
Two comi)anies of scholars in America co-
operated, fourteen for the O. T. and thirteen
for the N. T., repi-esenting the difi"ei'ent
Protestant churches. The work was begun
on the 22d of June, 1870. The N. T. took
ten and a half years, and was published in

Vine

765

Vine of Sodom

May, 1881. The revision of the O. T. was
commenced on the 30th of June, 1870, and
was completed in fourteen years, on June 20th,
1884. As a work of art, the Revised is in-
ferior to the A. v., the phrases in some ca.ses
being less felicitous, and the sentences less
perfect in their rhythm and their cadence.
As a work of science, it is a great improve-
ment on the A. V. Especially in the poetic
portions of the O. T. and in tlie epistles of
the N. T. has the true meaning been made
clear. The orthography also of the proper
names has been vastly improved.

Vine.

Any plant with a long, slender, prostrate
or climbing stem, with leudrils, as a gourd
(2 Kin. iv. 39). The word usually denotes
the common or grape vine ( ]"ttis viuifera). It
is believed to be indigenous in western Asia
south of the Caspian Sea (cp. Gen. ix. 20, 21).

Vintage in Ancient Egypt.

It was largely cultivated in Egypt (xl. 9-11 ;
Ps. Ixxviii. 47) ; and Egyptian sculptures of
the Old Empire, before the time of Joseph,
represent vineyards, vines laden with grapes,
presses, and the manufacture of wine. The
soil and climate of Palestine were favorable
to the vine, which was cultivated in Canaan
as early as the time of Melchizedek (Gen. xiv.
18). It is incidentally referred to as growing
in the lowland of Philistia, at Jezreel, and in
the plain of Gennesaret (Judg. xv. 5 ; 1 Kin.
xxi. 1 ; War iii. 10, 8), and especially in the
mountainous districts, as near Hebron, Shiloh,
andShechem (Num. xiii. 23; Judg. ix.27; xxi.
20; Jer. xxxi. 5). Especial mention is made
of the vines of Eshcol in the hill country of
Judali (Num. xiii. 23), of En-gedi in the valley
of the Dead Sea (Song i. 14), of Heshbon,
Elealeh, and Siltmah bevond .lordan (Is. xvi.
8-10; Jer. xlviii. 32), and of Lebanon (Hos.
xiv. 7). Under cultivation, varieties of the
vine arose, and there was the greatest differ-
ence in value between one of the choicest
vines (Is. v. 2), called also a noble vine,
wholly a right seed, and the degenerate plant
of a strange vine (Jer. ii. 21). Israel is com-

pared to a vine (Ps. Ixxx. 8-l(J), and our Lord
to the stem of a vine, his true followers being
the branches (John xv. 1-8).

The vineyard was frequently on a hill-
side or peak (Is. v. 1 ; Joel iii. 18), which was
terraced when necessary. It w'as surrounded
by a hedge or a stone wall to keep out destruc-
tive animals (Num. xxii. 24 ; Ps. Ixxx. 8-13 ;
Prov. xxiv. 31 ; Song ii. I.')-, Is. v. 5). The
ground was cleared of stones, the vines were
planted, a booth or tower was erected for the
watchman, a press was constructed, and a
vat w'as hewn in the rock (Is. i. 8 ; v. 1-7;
Mat. xxi. 3.3-41). Laborers were some-
times hired to work in it (xx. l-Ki), for it
was necessary to prune the vines, dig about
them, and keep the ground free from weeds
(Lev. XXV. 3; Prov. xxiv. 30, 31; Is. v. 6 :
John XV. 2). The vines were allowed to
spread on the ground, the stock not being
supported, only the fruit-bearing branches
being slightly rai.sed from the earth (Is. xvi.
8; Ezek. xvii. (i; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xvii. 3.">,
15). Other vines were doubtless trained to
trees; and yet others were probably planted,
as at present in Palestine, in rows, 8 to 10
feet apart, the stock being allowed to grow 6
or 8 feet high and then fastened to stout
stakes and the branches trained from stock
to stock.

The grapes ordinarily grown M'ere red (Is.
Ixiii. 2 ; Rev. xiv. 19, 20) ; but at the ju-esent
day a white variety is almost exclusively
i-aised at Bethlehem and Hebron. The
grapes began to ripen about August, in fa-
vored localities simiewhat earlier. They
were eaten both fresh and dried (Num. vi.
3 ; Deut. xxiii. 24). The dried grapes or
raisins were preserved in clusters or pres.sed
into cakes, and were esteemed as food (1 Sam.
XXV. 18 ; 1 Chron. xvi. 3). The juice of grai)es
was expressed, and was drunk fresh and fer-
mented : see Wixe.

The vintage began in the middle of Sep-
tember and continued into October. It was
a season of festivity. In the vineyards there
were singing and joyful noise, and the tread-
ers in the press kept time bj- shouting as they
trod the grapes (Judg. ix. 27 ; Is. xvi. 10 ;
Jer. XXV. 30; xlviii. 33).

Vine of Sod'om.

A plant growing near Sodom, and bearing
clusters of bitter fruit (Deut. xxxii. 32). But
the language may be figurative. Josephus
describes fruits growing near the site of
Sodom, which bear a color as if they are fit
to be eaten ; but contain ashes, and if
plucked with the hands, dissolve into smoke
and ashes (War iv. 8, 4; cp. Tacitus, Hist. v.
6). This fruit does not correspond to the
grapes of gall and hitter clusters which ap-
parently characterize the vine of Sodom. It
is often assumed, however, that the plants
are one. and the effort is made to identify it.
Excluding plants which are common else-
where in Palestine, the principal claimants

Vinegar

766

Vow

are: 1. What the Arabs call the 'ushdr, an
asclepiadaceous plaut (Cahtropis giguntea or
procera), a native of Upper Egypt, Arabia,
and India. It grows at En-gedi and other
parts of the tropical Dead Sea valley, is a tree
10 or 15 feet high, and bears a fruit resem-
bling an apple or orange, three or four of them
in a cluster. They are pleasant to the eye
and to the touch ; but if pressed or struck
they explode like a puffball, leaving only
fragments of the rind and a few fibers in the
hand. A formidable objection to the identi-
fication is the difficulty of seeing how the
terra vine can be applied to a small, erect tree.
2. The colocynth (CitruUus colocynthus), a
trailing plant. Its fruit is " fair to look
upon ; but when fully ripe, merely a quantity
of dusty powder with the seeds inside its
beautiful orange rind" (Tristram); see
Gourd, Wild.

Vin'e-gar.

Wine or other strong drink turned sour by
acetous fermentation (Num. vi. 3). If vinous
fermentation was pushed too far, or if the
Avine was kept too long, it became vinegar.
Vinegar is acid, .setting the teeth on edge
(Prov. X. 26), and hardening soap or neutral-
izing its alkali (xxv. 20). In itself it is unfit
to drink (Ps. Ixix. 21) ; but mingled Avith a
little oil it is drunk by the common people
in the East to quench thirst when fresh water
is not obtainable ; and it was used at meals
in the heat of harves't, bread being dipped in
it, as it brought grateful refreshment to the
system (Ruth ii. 14). The vinegar used by
Boaz' reapers is, however, regarded by many
interpreters as sour, not soured, wine. The
Roman soldiers when in camp drank a thin,
sour wine called acetnm, vinegar, both in its
pure state and diluted with water. In the
latter condition it was termed posea (Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xix. 29). It was lu-oliablya drink
of this sort which the Roman soldier off'ered
to Jesus on the cross to quench his burning
thirst (Mark xv. 36 ; John xix. 29, 30). This
draught, which Jesus accepted, was different
from the sour wine, previously offered and
refused, which w^as mingled with a bitter
substance or more definitely with myrrh,
which is astringent (Mat. xxvii. 34 ; Mark
XV. 23).

Vine'yard. See Vine.

Vine'yards, Plain of. See Abel-cheka-

MIM.

Vi'ol. See Psaltery.

Vi'per.

1. The rendering of the Hebrew 'Eph'rh,
blowing, hi.ssing ; a venomous serpent re-
ferred to as inhabiting the south country
(Job XX. 16 ; Is. XXX. 6 ; lix. 5). The species
is not properly determined.

2. A poisonous reptile, in Greek echi/Jna,
incidentally mentioned as found on the island
of Melita (Acts xxviii. 3) and familiar to the
Jews (Mat. iii. 7) ; probably the common

viper ( Vipera communis or Pelias berus), which
is common on the Mediterranean coast.

Vi'sions.

No sharp line of demarcation is discernible
between visions and dreams (q. v.). The one
shades into the other. The Bible recognizes
— 1. Vain visions (Job xx. 8 ; Is. xxix. 7).
2. Visions of the prophets. The.se were for
the most part private ; they were appre-
hended by the individual, not by his com-
panions. A natural cause sometimes co-
operated in producing the vision : the vision
of the great sheet let down from heaven,
which Peter saw, and the voice heard saying
"Rise, Peter; kill and eat," stood in some
relation to his bodily hunger, as the account
in the book of The Acts clearly intimates (x. 9
seq.). Thus far the visions of the prophets
have points in common with visions begotten
of an abnormal mental condition, and to this
extent are to be classed as mental phe-
nomena. These facts are only additional
proofs of what might be expected, namely,
that God, in holding communication with
men, works in accordance with the laws of
man's mind. The vi.sions of the prophets,
however, form a unique class. AVith per-
haps one exception (Num. xxiv. 4), they
were granted to holy men only, men who
were surrendered to God's service, men be-
tween whom and their divine sovereign
there "had arisen an understanding." These
visions, again, were clearly distinguished, by
those who saw them, from ordinary visions
and were recognized as proceeding from God.
They were cautiously accepted by the church ;
by law they were not received as genuine
until their teaching and their credentials
had been subjected to tests (Jer. xxiii. 16, 21,
22, 27; cp. Is. viii. 20; Dent, xviii. 10 seq.).
The visions recorded in the Bible stand
alone, in the history of religions, for purity
and righteousness. They were never vain ;
never meaningless vagaries or lying wonders.
They always have a clearly discernible moral
and didactic content. They were often pre-
dictive, upon which fulfillment has set the
seal of truth. They belong to an age of
revelation and came to men wiio in mani-
fold manner proved themselves to be vehicles
of revelation.

Because there were genuine visions, false
prophets feigned visions. These men are
denounced and their destruction is foretold
(Jer. xiv. 14 ; xxiii. 16; Ezek. xiii. 7 seq.).

Voph'si.

Father of Nahbi, the Naphtalite spy (Num.
xiii. 14).

Vow.

A voluntary obligation to God, generally
assumed on condition of his bestowing cer-
tain specified blessings. Man has shown a
tendency during sickness or any other afflic-
tion, or in time of anxiety or earnest desire,
to make a vow to God to be fulfilled when
the calamity is over or the desired object

Vulgate

767

War

obtained (Gen. xxviii. 20-22; Num. xxi. 2 ;
1 8ani. i. 11 ; 2 Sam. xv. 8). The vow sprang
primarily from the consciousness of entire
dependeucc on tlic will of (iod and of the
obligation of thankfulness. Vows were taken
by persons of every nation (Jonah i. 16), and
not by the Jews only. The earliest mention
of a vow in Scripture, and a ty]iical case, is
that of Jacob at Bethel, who promised that
if God would care for him and bring him
again to his father's house, the place where
he was should be a sanctuary and the tenth
of his income should be the Lord's (Gen.
xxviii. 18-22).

The Mosaic law did not prescribe vows, it
only regulated them. Three kinds were the
subject of legislation. Vows of devotion, of
abstinence, aud of devotion to destruction.
1. By the vow of devotion, any ])erson or
possession, not already set apart for sacred
uses, or otherwise removed from the legal
control of the devoter, might be devoted and
turned over to the sanctuary ; but anything
thus devoted to the service of God was re-
deemable, except a sacrificial animal (Lev.
xxvii. 1-27), usually at one-fifth more than
its assessed value. Devoted land sold by the
owner, without having been first redeemed,
was retained by the buyer, but at the year
of jubilc did not return to the seller, but
became the po!5session of the sanctuary (20,
21). Persons devoted to God served at the
sanctuary (1 Sam. i. 11, 24, 28), but Mere
usually redeemed (2 Kin. xii. 4), especially as
the service of the Levites rendered such de-
votion as a rule useless. The price of re-
demption varied with age and sex. 2. The
vow of abstinence involved a renunciation
of some enjoyment, otherwise allowable, for
the glory of God. It included such acts as
fasting, in testimony of penitence, and such
obligation as was assumed by the Nazirite.
3. It has been inferred from Ex. xxii. 20;
Deut. xiii. 16, that only what was under
judgment for idolatry could be devoted by a
vow of destruction. Nothing devoted by such
a vow was redeemable (Lev. xxvii. 28, 29).

(xeneral princii)les applying to vows were :
1. Vows were assumed voluntarily, but once
made were regarded as compulsory (Num.
XXX. 2 ; Deut. xxiii. 21-23) ; only in excep-
tional cases as in those of Samson, Samuel,
and John the Baptist, who had a special
mission to fulfill, was the Nazirite vow pre-
.scribed. 2. A vow, especially a vow of ab-
stinence, made by an unmarried daughter or
a wife, was void if disallowed by the father
or husband (Num. xxx. 3-16). 3. The
produce of sinful traffic could not be devoted
(Deut. xxiii. 18); see Dori. 4. Vows must
not be taken rashly. This principle was en-
forced by the example of Je]ihthah, and
inculcated by proverb (Prov. xx. 25).

Vul'gate. See Versions.

Vul'ture.

A bird of prey, which has the head naked

or but thinly covered with feathers, and
feeds largely or wholly on carrion. It is
enii)loyed in the A. V. to render the Hebrew
words \l!/!/iih (Job xxviii. 7, elsewhere kite;
in K. V. always falcon), La ah (Lev. xi. 14;
in E. V. kite), and Dai/yah (Deut. xiv. 13;
Is. xxxiv. 17 ; in R. V. kite). In the R. V. it is
used to translate Rahnm (Lev. xi. 18; in A. V.
gier eagle) ; and frequently on the margin,
where the text has eagle, to render the He-
brew Nesher, Greek Aeios.

The great vulture (Lev. xi. 13, R. V.
margin) is the fulvous or tawny vulture,
generally called the grillin {(iyps fulvus).
The neck and head are bald, covered with
down. The whole of the body, the wings,
and the back on to the tail are yellowish-
brown. It is about 4 feet high. Its talons
are not formidable, but its bill is. "The
griffon," says Tristram, "is the most strik-
ing ornithological feature of Palestine. It
is impossible in any part of the country
to look up without seeing some of them
majestically soaring at an immense height,
and their eyries abound in great colonies in
all the ravinec of the country."

W.

Wa'ges.

In early times and not infrequently at a com-
paratively late date wages were paid in kind
(Gen. xxix. 1.5, 20 ; xxx. 28-34). In Egypt
money or goods were given as hire at the time
of the sojourn of the Lsraelites there (Ex. ii. 9).
By the law of Moses, wages were to be paid
each evening (Lev. xix. 13; Deut. xxiv. 14,
15), and the withholding of wages due was
severely denounced bv religious teachers
(Jer. xxii. 13; Mai. iii."5; Ja.s. v. 4). Tobit
offered a drachma, or 16 cents, a day and food
as wages (Tob. v. 14). When our Lord was
on earth the rate for a day's labor was a
denarius, worth about 17 cents (Mat. xx. 2,
in E. V. penny). What the purchasing
power of that amount was is, however, un-
known ; it was evidently great (cp. Luke x.
35). In the later days of the Roman re-
public, the usual pay of a Roman .soldier was
10 asses, or about a dime, a day (Tacitus,
Annal. i. 17).

Wag'on. See Cart.

Wal'let. See Scrip.

War.

Before engaging in aggressive war, the
Israelites consulted God's will in the matter
(Judg. XX. 23, 27, 28 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 37 ; xxiii. 2 ;
1 Kin. xxii. 6) or, when conflict was unavoid-
able, invoked God's help by prayer and
sometimes bv sacrifice (1 Sam. vii. 8, 9 ; xiii.
12; 2 Chroii. xx. 6-12; 1 Mac. iii. 47-54).
The heathen had recourse to divination for
the same purpose (Ezek. xxi. 21), and were
careful to set forth on a day jironounced to
be propitious. Frequently before entering a

War

768

Wave Offering

hostile country or engaging in battle spies
were sent forward to obtain information re-
garding the country, and the preparation for
resistance {Num. xiii. 17 ; Josh. ii. 1 ; Judg. vii.
10; 1 Sam. xxvi. 4) ; and, when captives were
taken, they were questioned with the same
intention (Judg. viii. 14; 1 Sam. xxx. 11).
When the host drew nigh unto battle, a
priest or the commander encouraged the
people by reminding them of God's presence
and help ; and the officers exempted from
service those who were faint-hearted and
those who had ))uilt a new house but not
inhabited it, planted a vinej^ard but not
enjoyed the fruit of it, betrothed a wife but
not married her (Deut. xx. 2-9; 2 Chron. xx.
14-20; 1 Mac. iii. 5<3 ; iv. 8-11). Various
stratagems were practiced, such as surprise,
ambush, pretended flight, circumvention
(Gen. xiv. 15 ; Josh. viii. 2, 5 ; Judg. vii. 16;
2 Sam. V. 23). Occasionally when the op-
posing armies were di-awn up in battle array,
a champion was chosen by each party (1
Sam. xvii.). Otherwise the battle was joined.
A trumpet sounded the attack, the blast
being both a signal to advance and an appeal
to God (Num. x. 9; Josh. vi. 5; Judg. vii.
20; 2 Chron. xiii. 12; 1 Mac. iv. 13; v. 33).
The host pressed forward with shouting
(Josh. vi. 5 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 52 ; Jer. 1. 42 ;
Ezek. xxi. 22; Amos i. 14), and engaged in
hand to hand conflict. The pursuit was
bloody. Like other nations of their time,
the Israelites when victorious pillaged the
camp of the enemy, robbed the dead (Judg.
viii. 24-26; 1 Sam.'xxxi. 9; 2 Chron. xx.25;
1 Mac. iv. 17-23), and sometimes killed or
mutilated the prisoners (Josh. viii. 23, 29 ; x.
22-27 ; Judg. i. 6 ; viii. 21 ; 2 Sam. viii. 2),
but more frequently reduced them to slavery.
When a city was besieged, the besiegers
fortified their own camp against attack (War
V. 2, 3) ; if possible, they cut oflf the water
supply from the city (Judith vii. 7). In
order to bring their engines into play they
cast up mounds in the direction of the city
(2 Sam. XX. 15 ; Ezek. iv. 2). The mound grad-
ually increased in height until it was some-
times half as high as the city wall. Upon
this inclined plane the battering-ram was
rolled into position ; from its roof and from
the mound, archers and slingers discharged
their missiles, and from the summit of the
mound scaling-ladders were leaned against
the wall ; see illustrations Lachish, Ram.
Sometimes fuel was laid against the gates
and fired in order to burn them and afford
ingress (Judg. ix. 52) ; and often the de-
fenders of the wall were attacked by archers
posted, not on the mound, but at the base of
the wall. The besieged were not idle : they
prepared for the investment by protecting
their water su])i)ly, and repairing and
strengthening the fortifications (2 Chron.
xxxii. 3-5) ; they harassed the enemy and
attempted to drive them off by sallies ; they
repelled attack and hindered the besiegers

in their aggressive operations by casting
darts and stones and shooting arrows at
them from the walls ; and they destroyed,
or attempted to destroy, the militarj' engines
by hurling burning torches at them and by
undermining the banks on which the batter-
ing-rams stood (2 Sam. xi. 21, 24 ; 2 Chron.
xxvi. 15; 1 Mac. vi. 31 ; War v. 2, 2 and 4 ;
6, 4; 11, 4). Captured cities were often de-
stroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered,
neither age nor sex being s])ai'ed (.Josh. vi.
21, 24; viii. 24-29; x. 22-27; 2 Kin. xv. 16).
Victory was celebrated with song and dance
(Ex. XV. 1-18; Judg. v. ; 1 Sam. xviii. 6 ; 2
Chron. xx. 26-28 ; 1 Mac. iv. 24). See Akmy.

Wash'ing. See Bathing.

Watch. Sec NifiHT.

Wa'ter of Bit'ter-ness.

Holy water in an earthen vessel, mingled
with dust from tiie floor of the sanctuary
(Num. V. 17), intended to reveal the inno-
cence or guilt of a woman accused of adultery
by her husband, when there were no wit-
nesses. The charge was perhaps only brought
when suspicion was aroused by the woman's
being found with child. The accu.sed woman,
with loosened hair, sat before the Lord in
the sanctuary, and held an offering of dry,
unscented, barley meal in her hand (18,
E. v.). The priest, taking the water of bit-
terness, asked that it have no efl'ect upon
the woman, if she were innocent, but that
God would cause her body to swell and her
thigh to fall away, if she were guilty. The
woman responded. Amen. The jiriest wrote
the imprecation in a book, and washed it out
into the water ; and having waved the meal
oflering before the Lord and thrown a hand-
ful of it on the altar, he gave the water of
bitterness to the woman to drink. If guilty,
it became bitter within lier and the cur.se
went into effect; if innocent, the potion re-
mained inoperative, and the woman was
pronounced clean and received or retained
ability to conceive. The essential part of
this procedure was the oath, the ritual was
symbolical, the efiect was left to God. It is
probable that this ordeal was an old custom,
which the Mosaic law took up in order to
regulate and elevate it.

Wa'ter of Sep-a-ra'tion. See Purifica-
tion 1.

Wa'ter-pot. See Pitcher, Pot.
Wave Of 'fer-ing.

Tlie rite of waving was regularly per-
formed in connection with — 1. Peace offer-
ings : the right thigh or shoulder was heaved
and the breast was waved before the Lord
and, having been thus consecrated, were
eaten by the priest. 2. The sheaf of first
ripe grain on the second day of the passover,
wiiereby the harvest was consecrated to the
Lord (Lev. xxiii. 10, 11). 3. The two loaves
made from the !iew grain and the two lambs
for a peace oft'ering at Pentecost, fifty days

Weasel

J69

Weaving

from the waviug of the sheaf at the
pas>=over (15, 20). 4. The guilt ofler-
itig of the leper (xiv. r^. 21 ), whereby
the oflerer represented by it was con-
secrated again to the service of God.
5. The meal oflering of jealousy
(Num. V. S.'i).

\Vhon the peace oflering was i)ri-
vate. the wave breast and the heave
shoulder or thigh went to the priest,
and the rest of the tlesh was eaten
by the oflerer and his friends before
the Lord at the .sanctuary (Lev. vii.
:5n :}4; x. 14, 15; Num. xviii. IS
Of the peace oflering brought by the
Nazirite, the sodden shoulder of the
ram went to the priest, iu addition
to his regular perquisites (Num. vi.
17-20). At Pentecost, the whole of
the two lambs of the peace oflering
and the loaves went to the priests
(Lev. xxiii. 20), since they were of-
ered iu behalf of the nation.

In performing the rite the priest
laid the matter to be waved upon
the hands of the oflerer, ])robabIy
placed his own hands under the
hands of the latter, and moved them
(Ex. xxix. 24, 25; Num. vi. 19, 20). The
motion was horizontal backward and for-
ward (Talmud), and toward the right and
left (Rabbis), that is, toward the four car-
dinal points; but this fourfold movement
may have been a late refinement of the
original waving.

Wea'sel.

The rendering of the Hebrew Holed, glider
or burrower, applied to an unclean quad-
ruped (Lev. xi. 29). It is confessedly either
a weasel or a mole. The corresponding word
in Arabic and Syrian signifies a mole: but
probably the former meaning is intended by
the Hebrew word, as the ancient versions,
followed by the A. V. and R. Y., render
it by weasel ; in the Talmud the hnl'dah
is often mentioned as an animal that cap-
tures birds and creeping things, like the
mouse, and that can lap water out of a dish ;
and, finally, the typical mole genus Tnlpa is
not believed tooccurin Palestine (see Mole 2),
while the weasel {Putorius vnlqaris) and the
polecat {Putorius fcetidus) are found through-
out the country.

Weaving.

The Egyptians ]iracticed the art of weav-
ing before the arrival of the Israelites in
their midst, producing woven goods, such as
linen (Gen. xli. 42). The work was usually
done by men (Herod, ii. 35), but not ex-
<lusively, for women appear at the loom in
ancient Egyptian delineations. At the time
of the exodus the Hebrews understood both
simple and elaborate weaving (Ex. xxxv. 35).
They produced various textures on the
looms. Coarse kinds, such as tent cloth and
rough garments for the poor, were made of
49

Eastern 'Waterpots.

goats' and camels' hair (xxvi. 7: Mat. iii. 4) ;
finer goods were woven of tlax and wool
(Lev. xiii. 47) ; chequered and figured pat-
terns, as well as variegated stuff's, were made
by the use of diflerentlj^ colored threads
(Ex. xxvi. 1 ; cp. xxviii. 39, E. \. ; c\k
Herod, iii. 47;, and gold threads were even
woven in (Ex. xxxix. 3) ; cloth was also em-
broidered with figures or patterns (xxvii. Ifi ;
xxxviii. 23) with the needle (ibid., Septua-
gint) ; see Embroidkry. Many interpre-
ters, however, believe that the Hebrew word
rendered embroiderer denotes one who in-
weaves designs, as the modern Arabic nmrktim,
from the same root, .signifies the curtain with
inwoven flowers or other patterns which is
used to partition off ajtartments in a tent.
Among the Hebrews, the weaving as well as
the spinning was usually done by the women
(2 Kin. xxiii, 7 ; cp. 1 Sam. ii. 19; Prov. xxxi.
22, 24; Acts ix. 39). Mantles and even
tunics came from the loom ready for use ; the
latter, when thus woven complete, required no
seam. Such tunics were prescribed for the
priests (Ex. xxviii. (5, 8 ; Antiq. iii. 7, 4) : and
one was worn by Jesus previous to his cruci-
fixion (.John xix. 23), perhaps not without
symbolical ])urpose.

The loom in Egypt was placed either ver-
tically or horizontally. The accompanying
illustration is intended to rei)resent a loom
in the latter position. The frame is but
slightly raised above the ground, the weaver
squats at his work and apparently treads on
the threads. The warp threads run in paral-
lel relation and extend between the two
beams to which they are attached ; heddles
of primitive sort, which separate the warp
threads into two series and form a shed for

Wedding

70

Week

the passage of the shuttle or other bearer of
the woof threads, are uext to him, between
him and the woven cloth. With a reed he
strikes the last thread which he shot through
against the woof, pressing it close.

Weaving and Spinning in Ancient Egypt.

The Hebrew loom likewise had its beam
and shuttle (1 Sam. xvii. 7; 2 Sam. xxi. 19 ;
Job vii. 6). The pin of the beam, or rather
weaving pin, for a ditferent Hebrew word is
used from that elsewhere rendered beam,
may have been the slay or reed by which
the thread of the woof was struck home
(Judg. xvi. 1.3, 14). The web was cut off
from the thrum (Is. xxxviii. 12, R. V. mar-
gin), or to speak more generally from the
loom (R. V. text).

Wed'ding. See Marriage.

Week.

The division of time into periods of seven
days appears in Scripture in connection with
the institution of the Sabbath (Gen. ii. 1-3),
and according to both the Hebrew and
Babylonian account was in vogue at the time
of the tlood (vii. 4, 10 ; viii. 10, 12) ; .see Flood.
In the Babylonian legend of Adapa, which
was current fifteen centuries and more be-
fore Christ, it is mentioned that the wind
ceased to blow for seven days. There is
reason to believe that the reference to its
cessation for seven days is more than the
mere note of a chance fact. Izdubar's sleep
lasted six days and seven nights; and this
peculiar phrase was the familiar designation
for a week. Gudea, prince of Lagash, cele-
brated the completion of a temple by a fes-
tival of .seven days' duration. Seven days
was the conventional period for marriage
festivities in Syria at the time of Laban and
Jacob (Gen. xxix. 27, 28) ; and the same
custom prevailed among the Philistines in
the days of Sam.son (Judg. xiv. 12, 17).
Funeral obsequies also, like those of Jacob
and others, were conducted for seven days
(Gen. 1. 10; 1 Sara. xxxi. 1.3). Weeks con-
stantly entered into all the arrangements of
the ceremonial law^ (Ex. xii. 1.5; xiii. 6,7;
xxii. 30 ; xxix. 30, So, 37 ; Lev. xii. 2 ; xiii. 5 ;
xiv. 8, etc.). A week with a fixed beginning,
which everybody reckoned as the first day,
is, of course, not intended in all or even in the

majority of these eases. The week of nup-
tial festivities, for example, began on the day
of the wedding on whatever date it occurred.
Nevertheless these numerous instances show
that the seven-day period was a standard in
common use ; and it is
worthy of notice that the
periods are consecutive
in the narrative of the
flood (see Flood), as well
as later, in determining
the date of Pentecost.
For the origin of the
week, see Sabbath.

The ancient Hebrews
named none of the days
of the week except the
seventh day, which they
called the Sabbath. They
numbered the days of the
festivals, and the Baby-
lonian narrator enumerates each of the seven
days during which the ark lay stranded. In
the N. T. period the Hebrews numbered the
days of the week (Mat. xxviii. 1 ; Acts xx.
7), and besides the seventh day named also
the preceding day, which they called the prep-
aration (Mark xv. 42).

The week and the names of its days were
introduced at a comparatively late period
into the Roman empire. The ancient Romans
had a week of eight days. The Greeks di-
vided the month into three periods. The
Egyptians, as early as the time wiien the
pyramids were built, had a ten-day period,
each one of which began with the rising of
one of thirty-six constellations in succession.
Dio Cassius, who wrote in the second cen-
tury A. D., speaks of the hebdomadal division
of time being universal in his day in the
Roman empire and a recent introduction.
He represents it as borrowed from the Egyp-
tians, and as based upon astrology. Of the
two schemes, by one or the other of which
he con.siders that the planetary names of the
different days were fixed, only one has
plausibility : each day in succession was as-
signed to one of the planets as regent, and
the hours were also allotted to the planets.
If the planets are arranged in the order of
their distance from the earth, as believed at
the time of Dio Cassius, Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, Sun. Venus, Mercury, Moon, and if,
further, the fir.st hour is allotted to Saturn,
the second to Jupiter, and so on, the twenty-
fifth hour, or the first hour of the morrow,
will fall to the sun and on the following
morning to the moon, and so on to Mars,
Mercury, Jui)iter, and Venus. If the planet
to which the first hour of the day belongs
be r-eckoned as the regent of the day, the
days of the week will be, Saturn's day. Sun's
day. Moon's day, and so on. This theory must
be held with cautious reserve. There may be
an entirely different reason from that given
for the order of the planets, although the
effort to explain satisfactorily the names from

Weeks, Feast of

771

Weights

Babylonian astronomy lias not boon suocoss-
ful as yot. Tlio nanios passod froiii Kotnan
to Europoan use, both in tlioir Latin form,
and also, wlion translated into the Germanic
languages, \\nth the names of Germanic
deities substituted for the corresponding
Roman ones. Tliey are found also in India,
which is believed to have received them with
astronomy and astrology from Greece and
Eome. The names are of heathen origin,
and originated in superstition, but no asso-
ciations of any kind are now connected with
them any more than with January, the
month of Janus, god of the sun and the
year, or with March, month of Mars, god
of war, or with June, which was sacred to
the goddess Juno.

The Hebrew word for week, shabua', heb-
domad, might of itself refer to a period of
seven years as well as to one of seven days.
The existence of the Sabbatic year would
tend to produce this usage. It is therefore
not surprising to find the Hebrew word for
week used by Daniel for a period of seven
years, as interpreters commonly understand
(Dan. ix. 24-27 ; cp. Lev. xsv. 8).

Weeks, Feast of.

The second of the three annual festivals at
which every male Israelite was required to
appear before the Lord at the sanctuary, and
the first of the two agricultural festivals
(Ex. xxxiv. 22, 23; 2 Chron. viii. 12, 13; cp.
1 Kin. ix. 25). It was so called because its
date was set seven complete weeks after the
consecration of the harvest season by the
offering of the sheaf of the first ripe bar-
ley (Lev. xxiii. 15, 16; cp. Deut. xvi. 9,
10). This sheaf was waved on the morrow
after the Sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 11). The
Baithoseans (Sadducees) interpreted this Sab-
bath as meaning the weekly Sabbath which
occurred during the festival of unleavened
bread ; and some modern scholars have
adopted this view. The opinion has even
been held tliat it denoted merely the weekly
Sabbath which fell immediately before the
harvest. The older and better opinion is
that it denotes the first day of the festival
of unleavened bread. The Greek translators
understood it so (Lev. xxiii. 7, 11, Septua-
gint), as did also those who directed the
services of the second temple (Antiq. iii. 10,
5) ; this first day was kept as a Sabbath, no
work was done on it and there was a holy
convocation ; and such re.st days, not less
than the seventh day of the week, ■were
called Sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 32 ; xxv. 2) ; on
the morrow after the passover the now grain
was used, which could not be eaten until the
sheaf had been waved before the Lord (Lev.
xxiii. 14 ; Josh. v. 10, 11, R. V. margin). The
festival fell on the fiftieth day after the
waving of the sheaf, wliieh gave rise to the
name Pentecost or fiftieth day (Acts ii. 1).
It was also called the feast of harvest or day
of firstfruits, because the firstfruits of the

wheat harvest, then ended in mcst districts,
were presented (Ex. xxiii. KJ; xxsiv. 22;
Num. xxviii. 26). It celebrated the close <if
the grain harvest. It was bound up with the
cycle of religious feasts by the number seven.
It was observed as a Sabbath, ordinary labors
were suspended and there was a holy convo-
cation (Lev. xxiii. 21 ; Num. xxviii. 26); two
loaves of leavened bread, such as was used in
the household, representing the firstfruits of
the grain harvest, were ofl'ored to the Lord
(Lev. xxiii. 17, 20; cp. Ex. xxxiv. 22 ; Num.
xxviii. 26; Deut. xvi. 10); and with them
ten proper animals were sacrificed for a
burnt offering, a kid for a sin ofl'oring, and
two lambs for a peace offering (Lev. xxiii. Ih,
19). The sacrifices for the entire day were
distributed into — 1. The regular daily burnt
ofi'ering of two lambs (Num. xxviii. 3, 31 ':.
2. The special sacrifices for the feast day
(27-30), which were the same as on the day
of the now moon and each day of unleav-
ened bread (ver. 11, 19). 3. The sacrifices
connected with the offering of the loaves
and the two lambs (Lev. xxiii. 17-19). Jo-
sephus correctly sums up the oflerings
additional to the daily burnt offering, ex-
cept that he or his text as transmitted men-
tions two instead of three rams (Anti(|. iii.
10, 6). As at the culminating agricultural
festival, so at this the people were urged to
remember the needy (Deut. xvi. 11, 12).
Pentecost came to be regarded in later times,
especially in the early Christian centuries, as
the commemoration of the giving of the law
on mount Sinai ; but there is no authority
for this belief in the O. T., and it cannot be
shown that the law was given exactly fifty
days after the passover.

The mo.st notable Pentecost was the fir.st
which occurred after the resuri-ection and
ascension of Christ (Acts ii.). From it dates
the founding of the Christian church. The
essential traits of an institution are seen in
the history of its establishment. At the in-
stitution of the church, the Holy Sjiirit de-
scended into all believers, without distinc-
tion of age, sex, or class (1-4, 14-21) ; see
Tongue. Life had been imparted. The
Spirit had been given to men before, but now
the church entered upon what is character-
istically the dispensation of the Spirit. The
Spirit is now given in full measure to all
believers without the intervention of pre-
scribed rites. He had preserved a peo-
ple of God on earth ; in this new era of
his power he devotes his divine energy
to enlarging, perfecting, and edifying the
church.

Weights.

The Hebrews used scales and weights (Lev.
xix. 36). and they weighed numey as well as
other commodities (Jer. xxxii. 10). The de-
nominations were talent (circle), maneh
(part), shekel (weight), gerah (grain), and
beka (half [shekel]).

Weights

772

Weights

20 gerahs = 1 shekel
60 shekels = 1 maneh
tiO manehs = 1 talent.

It is important to ohserve that the table for
gold and silver is diti'erent from the table for
commodities, and is—

20 gerahs = 1 shekel
50 shekels = 1 maneh
60 manehs = 1 talent.

Pound is the rendering of 1. Hebrew Maneh
(1 Kin. X. 17) ; 2. Greek Mna (1 Mac. xiv.

Bronze and Stone Weights in the form of Lions
and Ducks. They were used by Trades-
people in Nineveh.

24; XV. 18), vphich is generally believed to
be reckoned on the basis of the Attic talent,

Hebrew maneh of gold. Pound as a sum of
money was equivalent to 100 drachmas and
worth about sixteen dollars (Luke xix. 13,
K. V. margin) ; see Money.

In weight a shekel equaled 20 gerahs, and a
maneh was 20 + 25 + 15 ^ 60 shekels (Ezek.
xlv. 12). This interpretation is confirmed by
the Assyrian and Babylonian division of
their maneh into sixty parts. Weights of
the denomination of maneh have been dis-
covered in Nineveh and Babylonia, and show
that a heavy and a light talent were used,
the former weighing 60.6 kilogrammes and
the latter exactly one-half or 30.3 kilo-
grammes. The heavy and light manehs
weighed 1010 and 505 grammes respectively,
and the shekels 16.83 and 8.41 grammes.
According to Josephus, the Hebrew maneh
of gold equaled two and a half Roman
pounds (Antiq. xiv. 7, 1) or 818.57, according
to Madden, 819.538 grammes. It appears
from this that the Jewish maneh of gold was
reckoned at 50 siiekels, that the shekel of
gold was a trifle lighter than the Assyrian
shekel of weight, being 16.37, according to
Madden 16.39, grammes, and that the shekel
of gold and the shekel of weight were in-
tended to be identical. The difference be-
tween this Hebrew shekel and the Assyrian
shekel was about seven troy grains. A com-
parison of 1 Kin. X. 17 (R. V. margin maneh)
with 2 Chron. ix. 16, if the text is pure,
probably indicates that a maneh of gold
was sometimes reckoned at one hundred
liglit shekels, instead of at fifty normal
shekels.

Three thousand shekels of silver equaled
one talent. This appears from the fact that
603,550 half shekels or 301,775 shekels of the
sanctuary equaled 100 talents and 1775 shek-
els (Ex. xxxviii. 25, 26). It may justly be
concluded that the talent of silver was reck-
oned at sixty manehs of fifty shekels each.
The shekel equaled twenty gerahs (Ex. xxx.
13). The shekel of silver, however, was

Weighing and Recording in Ancient Egypt.

and hence a little more than half as heavy
as the Hebrew maneh ; and 3. Lifra (John
xii. 3; xix. 39), eciuivalent to the Roman
libra, of which two and a half equaled a

lighter than the shekel of gold and weight,
the average weight of the extant silver shek-
el coins being only 14.5565, according to
Madden 14.5668, grammes.

WeU

773

Wheat

Table of Weight.

Avoirdupois,
lb. oz. grains.
Talent = 909,438.48 grains = 129 14 313.48
Maneh = lo.loT.SOB " = 2 2 282.308

Shekel = 252.6218 " = 252.621

Table of Gold.

Trov,

lb.
157

Troy.

oz. pwt.

10 13

7 11

10

grains.

6.48

13.308

12.621

lb.
Talent = 757.865.4 grains = 131
Maneh - 12,631.09 " =2

Shekel = 252.6218 " =
The dollar containing 25.8 grains.

pwt.

17

6

10

grains.
17.4 = S-29,374.50
7.09 = 489.577
12.62 = 9.791

Table of Silver.

Troy,
lb. oz. pwt. grains.

Talent -- 673,907.724 grains = 116 11 19 11.724

Maneh = 11,231.7954 " = 1 11 7 23.795

Shekel - •:?24.6359 " = 9 8.6359

The value of the silver shekel was one-fifteenth that of the gold shekel, or
about 65 cents.

Well.

A pit sunk in the earth to reach a supply
of water. It was called in Hebrew h'ev. a
word often used in compound names like
Beer-sheba. The water reached was found
collected in a depression, or slowly percolat-
ing through the sand on its way to a lower
level, or flowing as an underground stream
(Gen. xvi. 7 with 14 ; sxiv. 11 with 13). Wells
were often scooped in the sandy soil by those
who knew of the presence of water. They
were dug in the wadiesand fed by an under-
flow, even when the bed of the torrent was
dry, as at Beer-sheba and in the vallej' of
Gerar (xsi. 30, 31 ; xxiv. 19). They were
sunk far and wide through the surface soil
of the Philistine plain into the lower sand,
where an inexhaustible stream makes its
way to the sea. In hilly Palestine they were
dug in the limestone rock. The well did not
es-sentially differ in outward appearance from
a cistern. The mouth was protected by a
stone curb (John iv. 6), and to prevent acci-
dents to man or beast was covered by a stone
or plank (Ex. xxi. 33 : 2 Sam. xvii. 19 ; An-
tiq. iv. 8, 37). When the well was shallow,
steps were cut in the rock which led down
to the water. Troughs of wood or stone
were placed near the mouth for the benefit
of the cattle (Gen. xxiv. 30). The water
was dipped with the pitcher (16), or, when
the well was deep, was drawn by a rope with
bucket, jar, or waterskin attached (John iv.
11). The rope was either dragged over the curb
by the person getting the water, or perhaps
an ox or ass was sometimes employed, as now.
for the purpo.se, and occasionally a wheel
was, as now, fixed over the well to assist in
the work.

The shaduf is common in Egypt for raising
water from the Nile, and it was used there in

antiquity. It is not employed in Palestine,
but its counterpart, the well swet-j) and
bucket, is used. In the Philistine plain, the
Persian wheel, called na'ui-n, is emploj-ed by
the hundred. It consists of a tall upright
axle, bearing a horizontal cogwheel, and
turned by a mule attached to a sweep ; tliis
turns a vertical wheel which is directly over
the mouth of the well. Over this pass
two thick ropes, made of twigs twisted to-
gether and carrying jars or wooden buckets.
The ascending buckets come up full of water,
which they emptj^ into a spout as they )iass
over the wheel ; this spout conducts the water
to a reservoir. See Cistern, Fountain.

Whale.

The word rendered whale in the A. Y. of
the O. T. denotes any great animal of the
sea, except in Ezek. xxxii. 2, where the He-
brew text must be emended and translated
dragon (E. V.) ; see Dragon.

The Greek word keios, which is used in
Mat. xii.40 and rendered whale in the E. V.,
means any huge fish or other larjje animal
of the sea. such as the dolphin, sea dog. and
seal, and later whale, shark, tunny. Tlie
Septuagint emploj's ketos mecjnlos in Jon. i.
17 (in Septuagint ii. 1) to render the two
words "great fish " of the Hebrew text, and
thus the word ketos passed into Mat. xii. 40.

Wheat.

Wheat was cultivated in Babylonia (Herod,
i. 193), in Mesopotamia (Gen. xxx. 14), in
Egypt (Ex. ix. .32), in Palestine (xxxiv. 22 ;
Deiit. viii. 8; Judg. vi. 11), and elsewhere,
from a very early period.

In Palestine wheat was sown in November
or December, after the rains began. It was
thought that the best manner of planting it
was in rows (Is. xxviii. 25, E. V.). The har-

Wheat

774 Wilderness of the Wandering

vest was in April, May, or June in Palestine,
varying according to the locality, the soil at
the place, and the weather at the time ; see
Year.

The ordinary bread of the Hebrews was
made of the flour of wheat (Ex. xxix. 2).
Tiie ears wei-e also roasted and eaten (Lev.
ii. 14 ; Kuth ii. 14) ; see Parched Corn. The
wheat, bruised and crushed, was also used as
food (Lev. ii. 14, l(j). New wheat thus pre-
pared, or else the fresh ear, is mentioned as
eaten (xxiii. 14 ; 2 Kin. iv. 42).

P^gypt was the granary of the Mediterra-
nean region, and vast quantities were shipped
annually to Rome from Alexandria (Acts
xxvii. C, 38). The best quality, according to
Pliny, was grown in Upper Egypt, in the
Thebaid (Hist. Nat. xviii. 47). The Egyptian

Egyptian Wheat.

wheat was a bearded variety, with many ears
on the head (Triticum. composHum) . It is men-
tioned in Gen. xli. 22, is depicted on the an-
cient monuments, and is still grown. The
wheat commonly cultivated in Palestine is
Trificnm vulf/are, with a simple head.

Wheel. See Garden, Well.
Whore. See Harlot.
Widow.

A widow from early times wore an appro-
priate garb (Gen. xxxviii. 14, 19) ; she laid
aside her ornaments, clothed her.self in sack-
cloth, let her hair hang unbound, and did
not anoint her face (Judith x. 3, 4; xvi. 8).
God shows special compassion to the more
helpless classes, among whom he reckons
widows (Deut. x. 18; Ps. Ixviii. 5; cxlvi. 9;
Prov. XV. 25; Jer. xlix. 11). Under the Mo-
saic law, and subsequently, the Hebrews
were enjoined to treat widows with justice
and consideration, threatening judgment on
those who did diflerently (Ex. xxii. 22 ; Deut.
xiv. 29 ; xvi. 11, 14 ; xxiv. 17-21 ; xxvi. 12,
13; Is. i. 17; Jer. vii. (i; xxii. 3; Zech. vii.
10; Mai. iii. 5), as our Lord also did in his
preaching (Mark xii. 40). The apostolic
church looked after poor widows (Acts vi. 1 ;
Jas. i. 27). In the churches under Timothy's
care certain widows, who were widows in-
deed, and had neither children nor grand-
children to provide for them (1 Tim. v. 4),
were enrolled and cared for by the church
(16). To obtain enrollment it was required
that they be at least sixty years of age, have
been married but once, and be well reported
of for good works (9, 10). Here are the be-
ginnings of an institution. From the end of
the .second century to the fourth they are
mentioned by ecclesiastical writers as elder
widows or the order of widows. Their duty
was to serve the church, and they had over-
sight over the women of the congregation,
especially over widows and orphans. The
office was abolished by the synod of Laodicea,
a. d. 3G4.

For the enactment as to marriage in cer-
tain circumstances to a deceased husband's
brother, see Marriage.

Wife. See Marriage.

Wild Ass, Bull, Goat, etc. See Ass and
the otlier nouns; but for Wild Ox see both
Ox and Unicorn.

Wil'der-ness. See Desert.

Wil'der-ness of the Wan'der-ing.

1. BoniKhirief and Extent of the Wilderness.
Nature has defined a large inverted triangle,
having for its base the southeastern shore of
the Mediterranean Sea and the southern
boundary of Palestine, for its western side
the depression in which the gulf of Suez
and the Bitter Lakes lie, and for its eastern
side the depression occupied by the gulf of
Akaba and the gorge of the Arabah. The
base of this triangle measures 200 miles, and
its area about 22,000 S()uare miles. This dis-
trict_ may be called the wilderness of the
wandering ; but this designation in Arabic,
Badiet et-Tih, is restricted to the table-land
north of Sinai. The region is barren, little
desired by man ; and the great nations of
antiquity accordingly left it virtually to

Wilderness of the Wandering 775 Wilderness of the Wandering

itself. The Israelites pushed their southern
boundary but a short distance into its limits,
and the Egyptians fortified a frontier for
themselves where its sands began.

2. J'hysica! Features of the Wilderness. The
eliief features of the territory are four: a
region of sand, or the northern and north-
western coast; a region of limestone, or the
table-land ; a region of sandstone, or the low
mountains ; and a region of granite, or the
high mouutiiins. (1) The region of sand
extends in a broad baud from I'hilistia along
the shore of the Mediterranean Sea to the
boundary of Egypt and beyond, bending to
the south and continuing in a strip about 10
miles wide past Suez to a point one-third of
the way down the coast. This sandy region
is more or less coextensive with the wilder-
ness of Shur (Saadia, quoted by Delitzsch,
Gen. xvi. 7). (2) The northern and central
portion of the triangle is a sterile table-land
of limestone, from 2000 to 2500 feet high ;
slojjing down on the north to the sandy
region on the Mediterranean ; swelling in
the northeast into a mountainous coun-
try; and confined on the other sides by an
encircling chain of mountains, 4000 and
more feet high, now called Jebel ct-Tih.
The middle of this desert is occupied by a
long central basin, which is drained into the
Mediterranean by the wady el-'Arish and its
tributaries. These water courses are dry
most of the year, but filled by the rains with
raging torrents. West of this basin, other
wadies run by themselves down to the sea.
On the east of the same central basin, be-
tween it and the Arabah, is another similar
and parallel one, extending from Jebel et-
Tih nearly to Jebel 'Araif and the moun-
tainous country of the northeast, and drained
throughout by the wady el-Jerafeh. The
table-land proper, with its continuation in
the adjacent clusters of mountains in the
northeast as far as the cleft of the wady el-
Fikreh, was the wilderness of Paran (Num.
X. 11, 12; xiii. 26; 1 Sam. xxv. 1, 2), in
which the Israelites wandered for 38 years,
and of which the portion lying between
Horeb and Kadesh was remembered by them
as " the great and terrible wilderness " (Dent,
i. 19). This plateau is mostly naked of vege-
tation, and has a gravelly surface. The
wadies, however, seldom fail to show vegeta-
tion of some sort, and after the rainy season
are covered with a thin herbage. The si)rings
are few, and generally send forth impure
water; but in the region about Kadesh and
along the border of the Arabah there is a
considerable number of living fountains, and
near Kadesh and even at other places in the
very heart of the desert water is obtainable
by digging. (3) The Sivndstone formation
crosses the peninsula in a broad belt imme-
diately south of Jebel et-Tih and extends
nearly from shore to shore, separating the
limestone table-land from the granite moun-
tains. It is rich in mineral wealth. It may

be compared to a dumb-bell in shape ; for it
consists of two gnxujts of mountains con-
nected by a central i)lateau. This sandy
table-land has an altitude of about 1500 feet.
(4) The region of granite consists of tiie
groups of mountain ranges about mount
Sinai. The watershed runs north and south,
and lies just east of wady esh-Sheikh.

3. Possibility of a Kojonrn of Forty Years in
the Wilderness. The Israelites numbered
()00,0i)0 men from 20 years old and ujjward,
according to the repeated lestinu)ny of the
Hebrew records. According to statistics of
jjopulation, whidi yield the i)rop()rtion of
four to five between those under and those
above 20 years of age in a given community,
the whole body of fugitives from Egypt
numbered 2,100,000. The Bible, as well" as
exploration, teaches that this great host could
not have survived for any great length of
time in the wilderness save by the ])rovi-
dence and miracles of God. Moses reminded
the people that in the wilderness they had
seen how that the Lord their God did bear
them, as a man doth bear his son, in all the
way that they went (Deut. i. 31). The re-
corded miracles of sustenance are few. In
the wilderness of Sin, at the beginning of
their journey, to the children of Israel
manna was given, of which they continued
to eat for forty years, until they came into the
borders of Canaan (Ex. xvi. 1, 4, 14, 15, 35).
This was the permanent provision for their
needs. The occasional supplies were the
quails, given at the same time as the manna,
but apparently only as a sign and tempo-
rarily, for tliey are not again mentioned
(xvi. 12, 13) ; the water provided shortlj'
afterwards from the rock near Rephidim
(xvii. 3-7) ; the quails given in the second
year for a month (Num. x. 11 ; xi. 4-6, 31) ;
and the water caused to gush from the rock
at Kadesh toward the end of the forty years'
sojourn (xx. 2-11). The Bible teaches further
that, notwithstanding these miracles, certain
periods of the sojotirn remainetl a horrible
memory (Deut. i. 19; viii. 15): that though
it could be said "Thou hast lacked nothing"
(ii. 7), yet the life in the wilderness was one
of repeated privation and hardship. The
water was insufficient at Ee])hidim and
Kadesh (Ex. xvii. 1 : Num. xx. 2) ; the pcojile
were murmuring thi-ee days after leaving
Sinai before reaching Hazeroth (x. 33; xi. 1,
35) and as they journeyed from mount Hor
toward the Red Sea (xxi. 4, 5) : and the
wilderness was found to be terrible (Deut.
viii. 15).

It appears from the biblical narrative
that the manna sufficed as staple fare, though
the people grew weary of it ; and that the
water supply, though scanty often to distress,
was ordinarily sufficient. Food was fur-
nished continuou.sly. In regard to the supply
of water in this region of desolation, there
are two considerations of importance: (1)
The ability of the people to alleviate the

Wilderness of the Wandering 776 Wilderness of the Wandering

distress of the desert journey arising from
the scarcity of water. The power of man
and beast to endure thirst is great in these
dry countries. The camel drivers of Egypt,
both men and boys, escort travelers across
scorching sands and under a burning sun
without tasting a drop of water from early
morning until after nightfall, because unable
to obtain it. Dr. Eobinson relates 'that his
Arab guide spent a fortnight on the Siuaitic
peninsula near mount Serbal pasturing his
camels, without a drop of water for himself
or them. He drank the milk of the camels;
and they, as well as sheep and goats, when
they have fresh pasture, need no water, some-
times going three or four months without
it {Researches i. 150). Again, like other
travelers in the desert, the Israelites un-
doubtedly carried a supply of water with
them, which tliey replenished at every oppor-
tunity. It is evident from the narrative that
at the beginning of their journey they pro-
vided water sufficient for a march of at least
three days into the wilderness (Ex. xv. 22).
Again, the Israelites discovered hidden natu-
ral supplies. Frequently when the bed of
the wady or the surface of the plain is dry,
a stream flows or water lies in a basin under-
ground. According to the geologist Fraas,
the so-called wells of Moses, which bubble
up in the desert a short distance from Suez,
are fed by a subterranean stream which
flows from the mountains of er-Rahah, 10 or
14 miles away (Baedeker, Lower Eiiypt, 421).
In the wady Ghurundel, which is commonly
identified with Elim, there is a subterranean
stream which the Arabs open when the
upper water course is dry. Though the rains
fail for two or three years, water is always to
be found by digging a little below the sur-
face (Robinson, Researches i. 69). Back of
Tur, at Mabuk, at Kubab, and elsewhere,
water collects beneath the surface and may
be reached with slight effort (Ritter, Ercl-
kunde xiv. 161, IS.!; Robinson, Researches i.
167). The Hebrews understood this fact and
took advantage of it during their sojourn in
the wilderness, as the song of the well testi-
fies (Num. xxi. 17, 18). Again, if the man-
ner of travel was like the migrations of
other large bodies of people, the Israelites
scattered in order to utilize for man and
beast all the soil and herbage and water.
Again, the Israelites husbanded the resources
of water. The rainfall is considerable ; the
wadies bear evidence of the torrents which
at times sweep down their courses. The
early Chri.stian monks who dwelt in the
mountains of Sinai and the former inhab-
itants and cultivators of the district about
Kadesh built dams across the ravines and
dug cisterns, and thus secured water for
themselves, their cattle, and their gardens.
Abraham, I.saac. and Jacob, the forefathers
of these Isi-aclites of the exodus, had like-
wise liusbanded the rainfall, and the de-
scendants of these Israelites dug trenches in

the valleys and built reservoirs for a like
purpose ; and doubtless so did the Israelites
during their sojourn of 30 and 8 years in the
wilderness. (2) A second important con-
sideration is the evidence that the country
was better wooded in former times. Char-
coal has been made in the peninsula from
the acacia tree for ages, but the improvident
Arabs have never been wont to replace the
destroyed timber by replanting. Bartlett in
1874 mentions seeing stumps where the
Arabs had burned down the trees, and acacias
with the boughs lopped off for the camels to
eat (FroiK E(jypt to Palestine, pp. 225, 300, 301).
Burckhardt, one of the earliest travelers to
explore Sinai, in his journey acro.ss the
country in 1812 came across charcoal burners
{Erdkunde xiv. 183) ; and Riippell in 1822
mentioned the burning of charcoal for sale
in Egypt as an immemorial industry of the
Bedouin, and ascribed the nakedness of the
valle.vs to the neglect of the Arabs to replant
the ground which they had denuded {Erd-
Icunde xiv. 274, 342). A tribute in charcoal
has also been impo.sed on the Arabs of Sinai
by Egypt since 1823. But charcoal burning
for domestic purposes and export has not
been the only means whereby the peninsula
has been impoverished of wood ; mining and
smelting have also caused the destruction of
great quantities of timber. The ancient
Egyptians worked copper mines in the sand-
stone mountains of the west intermittently
from a very early period, and were still
operating them sulssequently to the exodus.
Acacia wood was sometimes used as supports
for the roofs of the mines (Palmer, Desert of
the Exodus i. 20."j), and the smelting opera-
tions, which were of magnitude, demanded
large quantities of timber for fuel (ibid. 26,
43, 231-235; Erdkunde xiv. 786, 787). One
should recall the disappearance of the cedars
of Lebanon and of wide stretches of forest in
America. It is clear that, beginning long
before the exodus and continuing down to
the present day, causes have been at work
reducing the timber in the region traversed
by the Israelites. This fact has a direct
bearing on the question of the water supply
in earlier times; for the country being better
wooded, there was a natural preservation of
the rainfall. As always where there is vege-
tation, the rain fell more regularly ; the
water was admitted to the wadies more
slowly and gently ; soil and vegetation were
less ruthlessly swept away ; springs were
more numerous and flowed more copiously ;
and streams endured longer into the dry
season and were more frequently perennial.
Under an energetic, competent, and jn-ovi-
dent leader who was acquainted with the
desert and its resources, by husbanding the
supi)ly, by extending the iDounds of the en-
campment, and by scattering from the cen-
tral camji in groups of various size, and with
no failure of the annual rains, it is not to be
doubted that a large host could have se-

Wilderness of the Wandering 777 Wilderness of the Wandering

cured a sufficient though scant supply of
water for man and beast.

4. The Route of the Israelites through the
Wilderness. Cerfciin sites have been identified :
Succoth in Egypt at the beginning of the
journey, the river Arnon which was reached
at the close of the forty years, when the
wilderness was left, and the encampments
beyond the Arnon which are mentioned in
the itinerary ; Kadesh. with which there is
reason to believe Kithmah was practically
equivalent, where the camp was twice pitched,
and whence the Israelites expected to march
directly intt> the promised land, and Ezion-
geber, where the camp was located just before
the second march to Kadesh, and near which
they afterwards passed on their way to the
Arnon. Mount Sinai is almost universally
located in the peninsula, which is accord-
ingly called the peninsula of Sinai. The
camp at Moserah was bard by mount Hor,
on the border of Edom ; and the wells of
Beue-jaakan and Hor-haggidgad were also
near the boundary of Edom. Piinon was
east of Edom and northeast of Petra. With
a knowledge of the location of these places,
one may readily trace the general route.
See maps, Abraham, EciVPT.

An itinerary covering the journey from
Eameses and Succoth to the camp opposite
Jericho was drawn up by Moses (Xum.
xxxiii.). The encampments recorded in it

after Sinai represent the movements of the
tabernacle. The people were, however,
doubtless often disjiersed through the wil-
derness, tending their flocks wherever herb-
age and water were found. When they were
collected and encamping in a body, their
camp was very large and, in a settled coun-
trj-, covered the distance between several
towns ; hence the same encampment may be
differently described or designated (49 with
XXV. 1). Besides the itinerary there is the
narrative of the journey (Ex. xii.-Num.
XXV.), and there are also scattered allu.sions
in the address of Moses to various incidents
that occurred on the way. It is important
to remember that each of these three recitals
was prepared for a special purjjo^e of its
own. The itinerary records formal encamp-
ments, and does not mention every halting
place and every place of spending the night
(Ex. XV. 22; Num. x. 33). It is doubtful
whether it omits a single encampment where
the tabernacle was set up. The narrative is
apt to mention an encampment or even a
stopping place where an important event oc-
curred, and to pass over the others. lu the
address events are cited as illustrations or to
enforce the argument ; and of course they
are chosen at random, without reference to
chronological sequence, and they are fre-
quently alluded to broadly and by compre-
hensive statement.

Itineraky. I

From Rameses to mount
Sinai.

Rameses.lt ft in Ut month.

l.nthday. . . Num. xxxiii. 3, 5

Succoth 5 '

Etham, in the edge of the !

wildfrni'.^s 6

Pi-hahiroth 7

Passage of the Red Sea . 8

Went three days' jtmrney
into the wilderness of
Etham and pitclied at

Marah 8

Elim 9

By the Red Sea 10

Wilderness of Sin ... 11

Dophkah 12

Alush 13

Rephidim, where was no
water for the fieople to

drink 14

Wilderness of Sinai ... 15

From mount Sinai to Ka-
desh-barnea.

Wilderness of Sinai . .
Kibroth-hattaavah . . 16

Nareative.

Xight after 14th day of Ut
mouth .... Ex. xii. 18, 31, 37

37

xiii. 20

xiv. 2

22
Went out into the wilder-
ness or Sliur, and went
three days in tlie wil-
derness and came to
Marah xv. 23

2d month, 15th d;'v

before the mount
in 3d month . . .

XIX. 2
1

Allusions in Moses'
Address.

Deut. xvi. 1

vi. 16; XXV. 17
iv. 10, 11 : V. 2

Num. X. 12 Horeb

in 2d year, 2d month, through all

20th day . 11 ; cp. i. 1 : ix. .5 that gieat

Three days' journey x. 33 and

. . the outermost |>art of terrible

the camp wliere the fire wilderness

devoured being called !•>' the way

Taberah xi. 1, 3, 34 to the hill

Apparently remained . ix. 22 country

30 davs ." 21 I of the

Wilderness of the Wandering 778 Wilderness of the Wandering

Itinerary.

Hazeroth . .
Rithmah . .

Num. xxxiii. 17
18

From Kadesli to Ezion-
geber and Return, until

the men uf tliat generation

dieii.

Rithmali

Rimmon-perez .... 19

Libnah

Rissah

Kehelathah ....
Mount Shepher ....

Haradah

Makhelotb

Tahath

Terah

Mithkah

Hashmonah

Moseroth

Bene-jaakan

Hor-haggidgad ....

Jotbathah

Abronah

Ezion-geber

Wildernes.s of Ziii, i. e.
Kadesh

Narrative.

Num. xi. 35

Remained at least 7 days . xii. 15
Kadesh, in the wihieruess

of Paiun . . . xii. 16; xiii. 26
Aliont tlie time of the
fiist lipe grapes, t. e. in
the latter part of the 5th

month xiii. 20

Discouraged by the spies'
report, the Israelites re-
fused to advance. After
being condemned to
wander in tlie wilder-
ness 40 yinirs and or-
dered to turn back into
the wilderness by the
way to I he Red S'-a, the
l)eople attempted to en-
ter Canaan, and went
up into the mountain,
but were smitten, even
unto Hormah. Moses
departed not from the
camp xiv. 25, 33-45

20
211

22 I

23 ' In the wildernes.s . . . xv. 32

24 i
25
26 '
27
28

29 I In the wilderness . . xvi. 13

30

311

32

H3

34

35

Wilderness of Zin at Ka-
desh, in Isl month [of

40th year] XX. 1

Mo^es and Aaron sinned
against God wlien
smiting the rock . . .
Messengers were sent
to the king of Edom,
asking permis.sion lor
Israel to cross his terri-
tory 14-17

Allusions in Moses'
Address.

Amoiites
Deut. xxiv. 9 to
Kadesh-barnea ... . i.
It is 11 days' journey from
Horeb by the way of
mount Seir to Kadesh-
barnea

i. 40-45 ; ix. 23

At Kadesh many days .
Turned and took their
journey into the wilder-
ness by the way to the
Red Sea, as God had
commanded

46

cp. xxxii. 51

Conijiassed

Seir

From Kadesh to the Jor-
dan.

Kadesh

Jlount Hor, in the edge of

tlie land of Edom . . 37

I n 40th year, bth month,
1st day 38

Aaron ascended the
mountain and died . . 39

The kingof Arad heard of
thecomingof the Israel-
ite-i 40

Kadesh 22

.Journey toward Edom by
the way of Atharim or
the spies xxi. 1

Mount Hor, by the border

of the land of Edom xx. 22, 23,

24-29

The kingof .\rad heard
of their coming, fought
against them, and took
some of them captive . xxi. 1

2-13 . iii. 26; iv. 21

i

days, ii. 2

until

tinally

toward

Wells of Bene-jaakan. x. 6
Moserah, x. 6

the

where Aaron died. x. 6

close
of the

Willow

779

WiUow

Itinerary.

Nakrative.

At mount Hor the Israel-
ites probably received
the answer of ibe king

Allisions in Moses'
Address.

forty
years

of Kdoni, and found his

Deut. ii

.7 :

army drawn up to op-

xxix.5

pose tliem, wherefore

they

Israel turned away

from liini . . Num. xx. 18-21

peace-

From mount Hor they

journeyed, by the way
to the Red Sea, to com-

Gudgodah. x. 7 fully

pass the land of Edom

xxi. 4

Jotbathah. x. 7

crossed the southern
end of Edom, near
Elath and Ezion-geber,
and turned northward,

Zalmonah . . Num. xxxiii

41

Fiery serpents hereabouts .

6-9

Deut. Viii. 15 journeying

Punon

42

.

by the way

Obotli

43

10

of the wil-

lye-abarim, in the border

. . . in the wilderness east

derness of

of Moab

44

of Moab

11

Moab . ii. 4,
and

5,8

Valley of Zered ....

12

Crossed the brook Zerod
38 years after their coii-

i:^

*

demnatiun at Kadesli-
barnea

14

In the V ililerne>s on the

other, I. e. the south.

side of the [upper] Ar-

uon

13

Crossed the [upper] Ar-

non, perhaps the tribu-

tarj- known as wady es-

Saideh, and so were in

the neighborhood of the

Ammonites ii.18

19

and on the borders of

the Amorite kingdom .

24

Beer, in the wilderness .

16,18

From the wilderness
which took its name
from Kedemoth, the
Israelites sent messen-
gers to Sihon

26

Sihon went against Israel

into the wilderness, and

the battle was fought at

Juhaz

Mattanah, not in the wil-

23

32

derness

18

Dibon-gad, the camp prob-

Nahaliel

19

ably e.xteiiding to Na-

haliel

45

Almon to Diblathaim

Bamoth

19

and probably to Bauioth

46

In the monntain.s of Ab-

Valley at the top of Pis-

arim, before Nebo .

47

gah

20

Plains of Moab, opposite

Jericho, Ironi Betli-

jeshimotb to .\bel-sbit-

tim 48

49

sxii. 1

In the valley over against
^ Beth-peor . . . iii. 2<t ; iv.

46

at Shittim

XXV. 1

1

In the 40th year, before the
11th month i.

3

Wil'low, Willow Tree.

1. Any tree of tlie genus F^alix. It was
called mphfphah in Hebrew (Ezek. xvii. 5),
snfmf in Arahic. Several species- are com-
mon in Piile-itine.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew '"rabah.
The Israelites were directed to take branches
from it, as well as from other trees, to make
booths at the feast of tabernacles (Lev.
xxiii. 40). It grew beside brooks or water
courses (ibid.; Is. xliv. 4). and afforded cover

even to the bulky behemoth (Job xl. 22). It
was the tree on which the Hebrews huug
their harps when exiles at Babylon (Ps.
cxxxvii. 2). The Septuagint and Vulgate
render the Hebrew word by willow, and
they are followed by the English version.
It may have been the weeping willow (Salix
hnhylonicn). which is found abundantly on
the Euphrates, and is cultivated in Pales-
tine. But leading interpreters, following
Wetzstein, understand the Arabic gharah.

Willows, Brook of the

780

Wine

and consequently its etymological equiva-
lent, the Hebrew '"rabah, to denote the Eu-
pliratcau jjoplar (Populns ciqjhratica).

Willows, Brook of the.

A willow-frinjied brook in ^foab (Is. xv. 7),
probably wady el-'Ah.sy, the uiiper course of
wady Kurahi, the boundary between Moah
and Edom. It may be identical with the
brook of the Arabah (Amos vi. 14, K. V.).

Wim'ple.

An article of woman's attire, made of silk
or linen, and worn as a covering for the
neck, chin, and sides of the face. In A. V.
of Is. iii. 22, it is the rendering of the He-
brew Mitpahhath, a shawl or mantle (ibid. ;
Ruth iii.' 15,' both R. V.).

Wind.

The Hebrews, who did not define direction
with the minuteness customary in modern
times, recognized four winds : the east, the
west, the north, and the south winds (Jer.
xlix. 36; Ezek. xxxvii. 9; Rev. vii. 1). God
created the wind (Amos iv. 1.3) ; and it stands
at his summons, is under his control, and
performs his pleasure (Job xxviii. 2.5; Ps.
Ixxviii. 26; cvii. 25; cxxxv. 7; cxlviii. 8;
Mat. viii. 26). The wind that blew from the
west, southwest, and northwest brought rain
to Palestine, and accompanied the storm (1
Kin xviii. 43-45; Ps. cxlvii. 18; Prov. xxv.
23, R. v.; Ezek. xiii. 13). Wind was often
destructive to houses and shipping (Job i.
U) ; Ps. xlviii. 7 ; Mat. vii. 27). The scorch-
ing wind dried up streams, and blasted vege-
tation (Gen. xli. 6 ; Is. xi. 15 ; Ezek. xix. 12 ;
.Ion. iv. 8) ; see East Wind. The south and
southeast winds traversed the Arabian desert,
and were dry and hot (Job xxxvii. 17; Luke
xii. 55). The north wind was cooler (Eccliis.
xliii. 20), and was favorable to vegetation
(Song iv. 16). Wind was taken advantage
of by the thresher to blow away the chaff
and broken straw (Job xxi. 18; Ps. i. 4) ; see
Threshing. The mariner also availed him-
self of the wind (Acts xxvii. 40). The words
which are rendered whirlwind in the E. V.
do not denote a rotary wind specifically, but
signify a violent storm of any kind.

Win'dow.

An aperture especially in the wall of a
building (Gen. xxvi. 8; 1 Kin. vi. 4; Jer.
xxii. 14), which was opened and closed at
convenience by means of a movable shutter
of some sort (Gen. viii. 6; 2 Kin. xiii. 17;
Dan. vi. 10), generallv a lattice (Judg. v. 28;
2 Kin. i. 2; Prov. vii. 6; Song ii. 9); but a
window on the ground floor, that looked into
the street, was doubtless in ancient as in
modern times small, high up in the wall,
and strongly barred. In the better class of
hou.ses most of the windows faced the court.
Houses that abutted on the town wall usually
had windows looking toward the country
(Josh. ii. 15; 2 Cor. xi. 33).

Wine.

Wine was made from grapes. The ripe
clusters were gathered in baskets (Jer. vi. 9),
carried to the press, and thrown into it. The
press consisted of a shallow vat, built above
ground or excavated in the rock (Is. v. 2) and,
through holes in the bottom, communicating
with a lower vat al.so frequently excavated
in the rock (Joel iii. 13). An upper vat meas-
uring 8 feet square and 15 inches deep had
at times a lower vat 4 feet square and 3 feet
deep. The grapes were crushed by treading
(Neh. xiii. 15; Job xxi v. 11), one or more
men being employed according to the size of
the vat. In Egypt, and probably in Pales-

Treading the Wine Press in Ancient Egypt.

tine, the treaders held to ropes overhead to
keep from falling ; they sang at their work
and shouted, doubtless to keep time (Is. xvi.
10 ; Jer. xxv. 30 ; xlviii. 33) ; and the red
blood of the grapes flowed around them and
stained their skin and their garments (Is.
Ixiii. 1-3). From the upper vat the juice
trickled into the lower. From this receptacle
the juice was put in bottles of skin (Job
xxxii. 19; Mat. ix. 17), or in large earthen-
ware jars, where it was allowed to ferment.
When fermentation had proceeded far enough
the wine was drawn off into other vessels
(Jer. xlviii. 11, 12).

The juice of the grape when expressed
was iLsed in various conditions : as must,
fresh from the press; as wine, M'hich was
produced by vinous fermentation ; and as
vinegar, which resulted when the fermenta-
tion was continued too long. Probably in
ancient times, as at the present day, some of
the must was reduced to a syrup or honey
by boiling; see Honey. As vinegar it was
called homes, in Greek, oxos ; see Vineg.\R.
Various names were applied to it in the other
states :

The Hebrew tirosh, that which takes pos-
session of, intoxicates : or better, possession,
product of labor. The E. V. sometimes

Wine

781

Wine

renders this word by vintage (Num. xviii.
12 ; Xeh. x. 37, margin) ; and the attempt
has been made by some interpreters to limit
the meaning to this sense, and to deny that
it ever signifies new wine or mnst. It means
juice of the grape or must in Joel ii. 24 :
" The floors shall be full of wheat, and the
fats shall overflow with wine and oil ; " cp.
iii. 13 : "Put ye in the sickle, for the harvest
is ripe : come, tread ye ; for the wine press
in full [of grapes], the fats [both of them]
overflow." It also means juice of the grape
or new wine, as it is rendered in the E. Y.,
in Ht)s. iv. 11: "Whoredom and wine and
new wine take away the understanding;"
for the exegesis is forced and invalid which
interprets this verse as meaning that whore-
dom proceeds from the abuse of wine, and
wine is connected with the abuse, that is, the
fermentation, of tirosh or must The passage
aflirms that all three take away the under-
standing. There is no need to depart from
this meaning of tirosh anywhere, and render
it vintage ; for example : 1. Not in Is. Ixii. 8,
9: "Surely I will no more give thy corn to
be meat for thine enemies; and strangers
shall not drink thy wine [on margin, vint-
age], for the which thou hast labored: but
they that have garnered it shall cat it, and
praise the Lord ; and they that have gathered
it shall drink it in the courts of my sanc-
tuary " (R. v.). There is no need to give
tirosh the meaning of vintage here, as the
R. y. shows by placing wine in the text, as
the A. Y. did. It is said indeed to be gath-
ered ; but this is a proleptic form of speech,
and elsewhere wine and oil are said to be
gathered (Jer. xl. 10 ; the Hebrew word for
Mine being yayin). 2. Not in Is. Ixv. 8 : "As
the new wine is, found in the cluster, and one
saith. Destroy it not, for a blessing is in
it." Cheyue renders " As when [a few good]
grapes are found in the cluster, and one saith
[to the other gleaners] destroy it not, for a
blessing is in it." But the same meaning
exactly is yielded by rendering: " As when
the juice is found in the cluster," etc. (Alex-
ander. Delitzsch, Dillmann). 3. Not in Mic.
vi. 15 : " Thou shalt sow, but shalt not reap :
thou shalt tread the olives, but shalt not
anoint thee with oil ; and the vintage [in
A. V. sweet wine], but shalt not drink the
■wine." The Hebrews spoke of treading
grapes (Amos ix. 13) and of treading wine (Is.
xvi. 10 : yayin being u.sed, and the word " out "
not being found in the original). 4. Not
even in those numerous passages where the
fruits of the ground are mentioned compre-
hen.sively as corn, wine, and oil (Num. xviii.
12, K. Y. vintage: Dent. vii. 13: xi. 14;
xii. 17: Hos. ii. 8, 22; Joel i. 10; ii. 19, in
all 18 times). In many of these passages
the tithe of the corn, wine, and oil is spoken
of. Since yishar denotes the oil which is
found in the olive (2 Kin. xviii. 32; Zech.
iv. 14), tirosh may denote the juice w"hich is
found in the grape ; and as the grain was

thought of as threshed, the tirofih and the oil
may be thought of as expressed. Indeed the
threshed grain rather indicates that the grape
juice and the oil were expressed. The only
(juestion then is: Were not firstfruits and
tithes brought from the other produce of the
vineyard which was not reduced to wine?
They were ; but they are not specifically in-
cluded in the threefold designation so often
employed. The firstfruits of all that was in
the land were presented to the Lord, as is
more explicitly stated in Num. xviii. 13 ;
and mint and anise were tithed, although
the threefold designation does not when
interpreted literally embrace them. Grain,
must, and oil were prominent enough to stand
for all.

The Hebrew 'asis, something trodden out;
hence grape juice, must (Is. xlix. 26 ; Amos
ix. 13). It does not denote the expressed
juice of the grape only, but of other fruits
as the pomegranate.

The Greek (iJeul-os is used by Josephus in
speaking of the grape juice squeezed into
Pharaoh's cup (Gen. xl. 11 ; Antiq. ii. 5, 2).
It is explained by Hesycliius as the juice
that flowed spontaneously from the grapes
before the treading commenced. It was
drawn ofl' and kept separate from the juice
which flowed under pressure. It was with
this that the apostles were accused of being
filled on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 13).

Must was drunk ; and, after fermentation
had set in, was intoxicating (Hos. iv. 11,
tirosh; Acts ii. 13, gleukos : and probably Is.
xlix. 26, '(isis). But although must was
used as a drink, the old wine was preferred
(Ecclus. ix. 10; Luke v. 39). Pliny regarded
must as hurtful to the stomach (Hist. Nat.
xxiii. 18).

The Hebrew yayin is undoubtedly the
same word etymologically as the Greek oinos
and the Latin riuum. }l"mar is the Aramaic
name for the same thing; and hemer is the
etymological equivalent of the Aramaic
word, and is occasionally used in Hebrew
poetry. When the Hebrew word yayin first
occurs in Scripture, it is the fermented juice
of the grape (Gen. ix. 21), and there is no
reason to believe that it has a different mean-
ing elsewhere. The Greek oinos also means
the fermented juice of the grape, except
when it is qualified by the word new, and
even then there are not two w'ines, one fer- .
mented and the other unfermented. New-
wine is must, which only becomes wine by
fermentation. An argument for the u.se of
the term wine for unfermented grape juice
has been sought in the fact that wine was
used in later times at the passover, and yet
leaven was strictly forbidden during the
seven days of the paschal festival ; hence the
term wine, it has been argued, must have
been applied to unfermented juice. But the
reason is invalid. Yinous fermentation was
not regarded as leaven. During the passover
it was fermented drinks into which grain,

Wine

782

Winnowing

1

and hence the leaven of bread, had entered
that the Jews would not taste or touch
(Mishna, Pesachoth ii.). There were numer-
ous varieties of wine which diflered in body
and flavor, such as the wine of Lebanon, the
wine of Helbon. See Vine.

Fruit of the vine, the designation used by-
Jesus at the institution of the Lord's Supper
(Mat. xxvi. 29), is the expression employed
by the Jews from time immemorial for the
wine partaken of on sacred occasions, as at
the passover and on the evening of the Sab-
bath (Mishna, Berakoth vi. 1). The Greeks
also used the term as a synonym of wine
which was capable of producing intoxication
(Herod, i. 211, 212). The juice of the grape

Vintage iu Ancient Egypt.

which was ordinarily planted was red (Is.
Ixiii. 2 ; Kev. xiv. 19, 20) and was called the
blood of the grape (Gen. xlix. 11 ; Dent,
xxxii. 14; 1 Mac. vi. 34). It was wine
(Ecclusr 1. 15).

Mixed wine was .known by the specific
names of mesek (Ps. Ixxv. 8), mimsak (Prov.
xxiii. 30; Is. Ixv. 11), and meseg (Song vii.
2), each of which means mixture and de-
notes wine mixed with spices to give it a
pleasant flavor (Song viii. 2 ; Pliny, Hist.
Nat. xiv. 19, 5), or with water to diminish its
strength (Herod, vi. 84 ; see below).

Wine differed from shekar, rendered strong
drink in E. V., in that wine was made from
the juice of the grape, and shekar from the
juice of other fruits and of grain. It was
fermented, for it was capable of producing
intoxication (Is. xxviii. 7; xxix. 9). It was
prepared from barley (Herod, ii. 77), from
honey, or from dates (i. 193 ; ii. 86 ; Jerome,
Epist. ad Nepotianwn), or from the lotus
(Herod, iv. 177). The drink made from dates
is wholesome and refreshing, but in one day's
heat it undergoes rapid fermentation, effer-
vesces, and produces intoxication if taken
immoderately. Shekar is once used in a broad
sense for strong di'ink generally in distinc-
tion from water, and refers to the drink
offering, which consisted of wine exclusively
(Num. xxviii. 7).

Other words are .so6e', a name derived from
a root which signifies to soak or drink to
excess (Is. i. 22; Nah. i. 10); and sh'marim,
which strictly denotes the lees of wine and
then is used for wiue kept long on the lees,
and hence, old.

'Wine was employed medicinally (Prov.
xxxi. 6 ; Luke x. 34 ; 1 Tim. v. 23) ; was
used in the service of God (Ex. xxix. 39-41 ;

Lev. xxiii. 13) ; and light wine was a staple
article of diet in Palestine, as it has been iu
other Mediterranean lands from time im-
memorial (Num. vi. 20; Deut. xiv. 26; 2
Chron. ii. 1.5 ; Neh. v. 18 ; Mat. xi. 19 ; 1 Tim.
iii. 8). Palestine was a country where meat
was difficult to obtain and vegetables were
rare ; and wine supplied the lack. It would
be a mistake, however, to suppose that wine
was the invariable accompaniment of a meal ;
many a repast was partaken of without it ;
see Food. Still wine was in common use.
Bread and wine signified the staples of life
(Ps. civ. 14, 15; Prov. iv. 17). Wine was
offered as an ordinary hospitality (Gen. xiv.
18) and was served at festivities (Job i. 13,
18; John ii. 3). The Hebrew people
were, as a rule, simple in their mode
of living, and temperate ; but the dan-
ger of excess in the use of even light
wine, especially at feasts, was clearly
discerned. Its use was accordingly
forbidden to priests when ministering
at the sanctuary (Lev. x. 9), and was
declared to be improper for those about
to sit on the judgment seat (Prov.
xxxi. 4, 5; cp. Ecc. x. 17; Is. xxviii.
7) ; and precautions were taken to guard
all men against excess. The means em-
ployed to prevent the danger line from
being crossed were : 1. The weakening of
the wine with water (2 Mac. xv. 39 ; Herod,
vi. 84). That this was done further appears,
for example, in connection with the kettle
of warm water and the servants to mix the
wine, which were employed at the passover
(Mishna, Pesachbn vii. 13 ; x. 2, 4, 7) ; hence
in the early Christian church it was custom-
ary to mix the sacramental wine with water
(Justin Martyr, Apol., i. 65). 2. The gover-
nor of the feast (Ecclus. xxxii. 1, 2; John ii.
9, 10), one of whose duties, at least where
Greek customs were observed, was to fix the
proportion in which the wine and water
should be mixed and to determine how much
wine each guest might drink ; see Meals.
3. Warnings against the danger of lingering
over the wine, of tampering with the cup
when it delights the eye, and of making strong
intoxicants were urgently given, and the
degradation of the drunkard was pointed out
by sad example (Gen. ix. 21 ; Prov. xxiii.
29-35; Is. v. 22). 4. The folly of excess
even from a worldly standpoint was em-
phasized and expressed in proverbs, and put
on record in the religious literature of the
people (Prov. xx. 1 ; xxi. 17; xxiii. 20, 21 ;
Hab. ii. 5; Ecclus. xxxi. 25-31). 5. The
sinfulness of drunkenness was earnestly
taught and the condemnation of the drunk-
ard by God the Judge was fully known (1
Sam. i. 14-16; Is. v. 11-17; 1 Cor. v. 11 ; vi.
10; Gal. V. 21; Eph. v. 18; 1 Pet. iv. 3).

Wine Press. See Wine.

Win'now-ing. See Threshing.

Wisdom

783

Wolf

Wis'dom.

Oue of the three departments of knowl-
edge among the Hebrews, the other two
being the law and prophecy. The law jire-
sents the coiumaudmeuLs and claims of Je-
hovah to man ; prophecy passes judgment
on conduct in the light of God's revealed
will and explains the object of God's dealings
with men ; wisdom seeks by observation,
experience, and reflection to know things in
their essence and reality as they stand re-
lated to man and God. The law and prophecy
proceed directly from God, and in the highest
sense are the word of God. Wisdom proceeds
from man, and is the product of his own
esperience and observation. But while it is
a human etloi-t, it recognizes that a good
understanding is the. gift of God, and it
postulates the fear of God and obedience to
his commands as its first principle (Ps. cxi.
10 ; Prov. ix. 10 ; Ecc. xii. l.'Ji. In the earlier
chapters of The Proverbs, in the Book of
Job, and in the Wisdom of Solomon, wisdom
is personified. See Philosophy.

Wisd'om of Jesus, the Son of Siracli.

The alternative title for Ecclesiasticus. See
Apocrypha.

■Wis'dom of Solomon, sometimes curtailed
into Wisdom. See Apocrypha.

■WitcL and Witch'craft. See Sorcerer.

Wit'ness.

Evidence which could be appealed to in
the future in case a transaction should be
called in question was secured by a written
document, as a deed or a letter of divorce
(Deut. xxiv. 1, 3; Jer. xxxii. 10), and when
writing was not general or was not available
for the purpose, by some tangible token or
memorial, as a heap of stones (Gen. xxxi. 46-
52), or by calling in men to witness the
event (xxiii. 10-18).

W^hen a person was accused of a capital
crime, the concurrent testimony of at least
two witnesses was required under the Mosaic
law to establish his guilt (Xum. xxxv. 30;
Deut. xvii. 6; Heb. x. 28; cp. 1 Kin. xxi. 10,
13; Mat. xxvi. 60); and this principle was
extended and made a general rule in all
judicial procedure (Deut. xix. 15). The
Mo.saic law did not countenance coercion,
did not sanction the use of torture to extract
testimony ; see Punishment. The witness,
before his testimony was given, was adjured
to tell the truth and to conceal nothing ; and
then it was sin for him to withhold evidence
in his possession (Lev. v. 1 ; Prov. xxix. 24).
False witness bearing was denounced in the
decalogue (Ex. xx. 16), and when detected,
it drew upon the false witness the same
penalty that he had attempted to get im-
posed on the accused (Deut. six. 16, 19).
The witnesses aided in executing a sentence
of death ; see Stoning. Josephus asserts
that women and children were excluded
from giving testimony by the Mosaic law
(Antiq. iv. S, 15). The law itself says nothing

on the subject ; but the participation of tlie
witnesses in the execution of the death
penalty would make the exclusion of women
and children from witness bearing expedient.
Josephus' statement evidently rejiresents the
current interpretation of the Mosaic law in
his day.

That the testimony of at least two wit-
nes.ses should be necessary in order to estab-
lish the truth of an accusation was soon seen
to be an excellent requirement, capable of
broader application, and worthy of being
made a general rule to govern the dealings
of man with man (Is. viii. 2 ; Mat. xvii. 1, 2 ;
xviii. 16 ; John viii. 17, 18; 1 Tim. v. 19).

Those who in the face of danger and dis-
tress testify to the truth of God are witnesses
in the highest sense (Heb. x., xi. 1). Martyr
is a Greek word meaning witnes,s, and it
came to signify one who sealed his testimony
with his blood, as Stephen and Antipas (Acts
xxii. 20 ; Rev. ii. 13).

Wiz'ard.

A i)rofessed possessor of supernatural
knowledge derived, in the form of wizardry
referred to in the Bible, from the pretended
ability to converse with the spirits of the
dead (Is. viii. 19). The wizard chirped and
muttered (ibid.) in imitation of the voice of
the spirit (cp. xxix. 4). The wizard is never
mentioned alone, but always in connection
with them that have familiar spirits, because
he belonged to the same class of questioners of
the dead. The Canaanites consulted wizards
(Deut. xviii. 9-12), so did the Egyptians (Is.
xix. 3) ; but for a Hebrew to go to such an
oracle defiled him, and was apostasy from
Jehovah (Lev. xix. 31; xx. 6; Is. viii. 19).
The oflense of wizardry was punished with
death (Lev. xx. 27). Saul, and subsequently
Josiah, put the law in force (1 Sam. xxviii. 3,
9; 2 Kin. xxiii. 24); whilst Manasseh vio-
lated it shamelessly (2 Kin. xxi. 6).

"Wolf.

1. A carnivorous animal, wild and fierce
(Is. xi. 6; Hab. i. 8), that kills sheep and
other small domestic animals (Ecclus. xiii.
17 ; John x. 12), and is accustomed to remain
in hiding by day and seek its prey in the
eveniTig (Zeph. iii. 3). In Hebrew it was
called z''eh, in Greek liil^os. As Judah was
compared to the courageous lion, so Ben-
jamin was compared to the smaller, yet fierce
and dreaded, wolf (Gen. xlix. 9, 27 ; c]). the
warrior Zeeb). But comparison with the
wolf was not always intended as an honor.
Violent princes who prey upon the helpless
are likened to ravening wolves (Ezek. xxii.
27) ; and so are fal.se teachers (Mat. vii. 15;
Acts XX. 29), and enemies of the flock of
God (Mat. X. 16). The wolf of Palestine is a
variety of the European species (Cnnis Ivpus),
and is diflfused throughout the country.
Owing to the ea.se with which food is ob-
tained and the mildness of the winter, they

Woman

784

World

do not hunt in packs, as in the colder north,
but prowl alone.

2. The rendering of the Hebrew 'lyyim,
howling creatures (Is. xiii. 22 ; xxxiv. 14 ;
Jer. 1. 39 ; in A. V. everywhere wild beasts
of the islands). The wolf belongs to the
same genus as the dog ; but it cannot bark,
it can only howl.

Worn 'an.

Tlie counterpart of man, made to be his
helpmeet and social equal (Gen. ii. 21-24 ;
see Eve) ; and monogamy, or the marriage
of one man and one woman, was the Crea-
tor's intention ; see Makri.\ge.

The younger women of the family, espe-
cially in the earlier times and among the no-
mads, tended the sheep (Gen. xxix. 6 ; Ex.
ii. 16), and they went to the harvest field and
gleaned (Ruth ii. 3, 8) ; but the main duties
of women were about the household. They
brought water from the well (Gen. xxiv. 13 ;
John iv. 7), ground the grain for daily use
(Mat. xxiv. 41), prepared the meals (Gen.
xviii. 0 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 8; Luke x. 40), spun
wool and made clothing (1 Sam. ii. 19 ; Prov.
xxxi. 1.3. 19 ; Acts ix. 36-39), taught the
children religious truth (Prov. i. 8 ; xxxi. 1 ;
cp. 2 Tim. iii. 1.")), and directed the house-
hold (Prov. xxxi. 27 ; 1 Tim. iii. 12).

The Mosaic law and apparently public
opinion among the Hebrews did not suffer
woman to be degraded in Israel to the posi-
tion which she had come to occupy among
some of the contemporary nations. The law
mitigated evils, and it secured to women the
enjoyment of many rights; see Concubine,
Divorce, Marri.^ge. Marriage was re-
garded by the Hebrews as a sacred relation
(Mai. ii. 14-16). The wife was spoken of
with respect and accorded honor (Prov. v.
18; xviii. 22; xxxi. 10-12; Ecc. ix. 9). To
the mother honor was due, and her law had
authority (Ex. xx. 12; Prov. i. 8). The capa-
ble woman was highly praised (xxxi. 10-31),
and examides of noble womanhood were
freely and purposely admitted to the sacred
writings. The spirit of the N. T. was equally
hostile to woman's degradation. It insisted
that man and woman shall occupj^ their re-
spective spheres as indicated by the Creator
in mutual respect and dependence (Mark x.
6-9 ; Eph. V. 31 ; 1 Tim. ii. 12-15). The sanc-
tity and permanence of the marriage relation
were taught, and divorce permitted only for
extreme causes (Mat. xix. 8, 9 ; 1 Cor. vii.
15; Eph. V. 22-33). Woman was made the
recipient of the same grace as man, and heir
of the same promises (Gal. iii. 28) ; she was
accorded honorable position in the church,
and her services in the cause of Christ were
fully appreciated and acknowledged (Rom.
xvi. 1-4, 6, 12). The practical precepts in
the epistles were calculated, whether ad-
dres.sed to saints generally or to woman in
particular, to refine and ennoble her, and to
bring her best qualities into exercise (1 Tim.
ii. 9, 10; iii. 11).

Wool. See Sheep, Spinning, Weaving.
World.

The world as known in the Mosaic age was
small (Gen. x.). On the south it extended
from the mountains east of the Persian Gulf
to the Kile ; and on the north, from the Cas-
pian Sea to the Grecian islands : in other
words, it measured about 1500 miles from
east to west, and 900, or including southern
Arabia about 1500, miles from north to south.
The area was about 2,250,000 square miles ;
but a large part of the surface was occupied
by sea, so that the land was scarcely two-
thirds of the extent of the United States, ex-
cluding Alaska. The history which is re-
corded in the Bible, and the great events .of
the world's history, were enacted in the
northern portion of this region, in an area
about one-third that of the United States.

During O. T. times these limits remained
essentially unchanged, although the geo-
graphical horizon widened a little. Media
and Persia rose to importance before the
close of this period, making themselves
known as never before and taking the first
place among the nations. India became a
boundarj' (Esth. i. 1). The existence of the
Sinim was known (Is. xlix. 12). In the west
Africa was circumnavigated during the reign
of Pharaoh-necho, but without increasing
geographical knowledge. The navigators did
not realize the meaning of their achievement.
They had spent more than two years on the
voyage, and what appeared most noteworthy
to them was that the sun, which rose upon
their left hand when they sailed south from
Egypt, rose on their right before they re-
turned (Herod, iv. 42, 43). In Italy and on
the opposite coast of Africa population was
increasing and civilization was slowly devel-
oping ; but these facts seldom reached the
ears of men in the east, and then only
through the reports of traders. Almost at
the close of the O. T. period Greece emerged
from obscurity by the vigorous resistance
which it oflered to the Persians.

Alexander the Great conquered the world.
He extended its eastern limits, and added
immensely to geographical knowledge, by
carrying his arms across the Oxus into mod-
ern Turkestan, eastward beyond the bounds
of modern Afghanistan, and southward into
northern India. The Romans followed him.
In the time of Christ the world, as currently
thought of by men, extended from Spain and
Britain to the plateau of Iran and India, and
from the desert of Sahara on the south to the
forests of Germany and the steppes of Russia
and Siberia on the north. Knowledge of in-
habited regions beyond these limits existed ;
but there was little contact with this outside
world, it seldom engaged men's attention,
and the ideas of its geography were confused.

World is frequently put for the inhabitants
of the world (Ps. ix. 8; Is. xiii. 11; John
iii. 16 ; vii. 7 ; Rimi. iii. 19). and in the N. T.
for that which pertains to the earth and this

c

Worm 7

present state of existence merely (1 Cor. vii.
31 , Gal. vi. 14 ; Eph. ii. 2 ; .las. 1. 27 ; iv. 4 ;
1 John ii. 15).

Worm.

Any small, ci-eeping animal, whose body is
boneless and consists of a number of movable
joints or rings, and which has no Hml)s or
only verj' short ones. It was generically
called tota'ath or tole'uh in Hebrew, skolex in
Greek ; and it is mentioned as destroying
grapes and the gourd vine (Deut. xxviii. 39 ;
Jonah iv. 7), being bred over night in manna
(Ex. xvi. 20), consuming the corpse (Is. xiv.
11 ; cp. Ixvi. 24 with Mark ix. i^), and caus-
ing death to the living (Acts xii. 23). Man
as feeble and despised is likened to a worm
(Job XXV. 6 ; Is. xli. 14).

Specific worms referred to are :

1. Maggots, in Hebrew a collective term
rimmah, putridity and the worm bred in it.
They feed on corpses (Job xxi. 26 ; xxiv. 20;
Is. xiv. 11), and might be cxijected in putrid
manna (Ex. xvi. 24). Man as very small and
despicable is likened to the maggot (Job xxv.
tj). In all these passages the E. V. uses the
general term worm.

2. The larva of the moth, in Hebrew sas
(Is. 11. 8) ; see Moth.

3. The coccus worm, tola'ath shani, which,
however, is not a worm, but an insect, ac-
<?ording to modern classification ; see Scar-
let.

The Hebrew word sahal, creeper, denotes
something that crawls on the ground, and is
rendered by worm in A. V. (Mic. vii. 17 ; in
K. V. crawling things).

Worm'wood.

A plant, ranked with gall, having very
bitter juice (Deut. xxix. 18; Prov. v. 4), un-
]ialatable and, when exclusively drunk, nox-
ious (Eev. viii. 11); called in Hebrew la'"-
nah, in Greek of X. T. apMnthos. It is used
figuratively for injustice (Amos v. 7; vi. 12 ;
in latter pa.ssage rendered hemlock in A. V.),
for sore punishment (Jer. ix. 1,5), for bitter
suffering (Lam. iii. 19) with which one is
sated, not intoxicated (15). It seems to be
some species of the great composite genus
Artemisia. About 180 species are known.
Post enumerates five species and several
varieties as occurring in Palestine or the
adjacent regions. The type is the common
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), cultivated
in gardens.

Wor'ship.

Ees])ect and honor shown to a person
(Luke xiv. 10, in R. V. glory). This sense
of the word worship has become obsolete.
Respect which implies that the object there-
of possesses divine attributes (Mat. xiv. 33 ;
XV. 25; Rev. xiv. 7). Man is forbidden to
give this worship to anj^ but God alone (Ex.
xxxiv. 14 ; Mat. iv. 10 ; Acts x. 25 ; Rev.
xix. 10). The same outward act may be
civility shown to man, as when people bowed
down to Esau, to Joseph, or to the king
50

Writing

Wormwood (Artemisia absiidhiuin).

(Gen. xxxiii. 3 ; xlii. 6 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 20), or
worship rendered to God (Gen. xxiv. 52, R.
V. ; Ps. xcv. (}), the same Hebrew word be-
ing used in all these passages. The perform-
ance of this outward act to idols was strictly
forbidden (Ex. xx. 5).

For public worship in apostolic times see
Church.

Writ'ing.

The Hebrews, or rather some of them,
were able to write (Ex. xvii. 14; xxiv. 4;

Writing Materials.

Num. xxxiii. 2). The art had been practiced
in Babylonia centuries before Abraham left
Ur of the Chaldees, and in Egypt centuries

0PP

Yarn

786

Year

before the Israelites sojourned on the Nile.
It was in use in the towns of Canaan before
the conquest of the country by the Hebrews.
It is recorded that the Hebrews at the time
of the exodus wrote documents (ibid. ; Deut.
xxxi. 24), inscribed the law on the plaster of
an altar (xxvii. 4, 8 ; Jo.sh. viii. 32), and en-
graved words on gems aud metallic plates ( Ex.
xxxix. 14, 30). The ancient inscriptions of
Babylonia were impressed on soft clay, after-
wards baked ; and were engraven on stone
tablets, on the surface of stone statues, on
metal, and on the gem of which the seal was
made. The letters sent from Canaan to Pha-
raoh previous to the exodus were written on
clay tablets. The Egyptians, long before the
sojourn of the Israelites among them, cut
records in stone and wrote on papyrus. See
Book, Ink-horn, Papyrus, Parchment,
Tile.

Y.

Yarn. See Linen 6.
Year.

The year of the Hebrews consisted of twelve
months (1 Kin. iv. 7; 1 Chron. xxvii. 1-15).
These appear to have been lunar (see Month),
and the year would accordingly contain
354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 32.4 seconds.

The annual festivals were inseparably con-
nected with the agricultural seasons. A
strictly lunar year would cause these festi-
vals, as lixed by the calendar, to constantly
recede from their appropriate season. It was
necessary to ))ring the lunar year into corre-
spondence with the solar year of 365 days.
This was doubtless accomplished by the in-
tercalation of an additional month every
three or four years, although the custom is
not mentioned in the Bible. The year began
with the month Abib or Nisan (Ex. xii. 2 ;
xxiii. 15; Eslh. iii. 7), with the new moon
next before or next after the vernal equinox,
when the sun is in Aries (Antiq. iii. 8, 4 ; 10,
5) ; but there was from the earliest times a
civil, or rather agricultural, year which be-
gan in the autumn (cp. Ex. xxiii. 16 ; xxxiv.
22 ; Lev. xxv. 4, 9, seq.). It was convenient
for a people devoted to horticulture and agri-
culture to begin the year with the season of
plowing and sowing, and to close it with
harvest. In pi-actice they frequently pre-
ferred to indicate the time of year by the
particular harvest or agricultural occupation
than by the number or name of the month
(e. g. Num. xiii. 20 ; Ruth i. 22). Sometime
after the exile the new moon of the seventh
month came to be kept as new year's day.
The custom was probably not started by the
events recorded in Ezra iii. 6 and Neh. viiL
2, but was yet favored by them.

Month.

Approxi-
mation.

Festival.

Season.

1. Abib or Nisan.

April.

Latter or spring rains.

Ex. xxiii. 15;

Flax harvest at Jericho (Josh.

Neh. ii. 1;

ii. 6).

Autiq. iii. 10,

14.

Passover (Ex. xii. 18, 19; xiii.

Jordan at flood (Josh. iii. 15).

5.

3-10), introducing

15-21. Feast of Unleavened Bread

Barley harvest in the maritime

(Lev. xxiii. 6).

plain.

16.

Sheaf of firstfruits of the har-
vest presented (Lev. xxiii.
10-14 : cp. Josh. V. 11 ; Autiq.
iii. 10, 5).

Wheat ripe in hot Jordan val-
ley.
Pods on the carob tree.

Dry season begins, continuing to

early October, with prevail-

2. Ziv or lyar.

May.

ing wind from the northwest.

1 Kin. vi. 1,37;

14.

Passover for those who could

Barley harvest in uplands.

Antiq. vili.3.

not keep regular one (Num.

Wheat harvest in lowlands.

1.

ix. 10,11).

3. Sivan.

June.

6.

Pentecost, or Feast of Weeks

Apples on sea coast.

Esth. viii. 9.

or of Harvest, or Day of
Firstfruits. Loaves as first-
fruits of gathered harvest
presented (Ex. xxiii. 16 ;
xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 17, 20;
Num. xxviii. 26; Deut. xvi.
9, 10).

Early figs general.
Oleander in bloom.
Almonds ripe.
Intense heat (War iii. 7, 32).

4. Tammuz.

July.

Wheat harvest in high moun-
tains.
First grapes ripe.

Yoke

787

Zabbai

Month.

Approxi-
mation.

Festival.

Season.

5.Ab.

August.

Antiq. iv. 4,7.

Olives in lowlands.

6 ElUl.

September.

Dates and summer figs.

Neh. vi. 15.

Vintage general.

7. Etbanim or

October.

1. Memorial of Trumpetblowing

Tishri.

(Num. xxix. 1).

1 Kin. viii. 2;

10. Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi.

Pomegranates ripe.

Antiq. viii.4,

29).

Season changing to the winter

1.

15-21. Feast of Ingathering or Tab-

(Antiq. iii. 10, 4) or rainy sea-

ernacles. Firstfruitsofwine

S(m, with prevailing wind

and oil (Ex. xxiii. 16; Lev.

from west and southwest.

xxiii. 34; Deut. xvi. 13).

Former or early rains.

22. Solemn Assembly (Lev. xxiii.

Pistachio nuts ripe.

36; Num. xxix. 35; Neh.

Plowing.

viii. 18; cp. John vii. 37).

8. Bul or Mar-

November.

Barley and wheat sown.

cheshvan.

1 Kin. vi. 38;

Olives gathered in northern

Antiq. i. 3, 3.

Galilee.

9. CMslev.

December.

Winter figs on trees.

Zech. vii. 1;

25. Feast of Dedication (1 JIac.

Rainfall increases (cp. Ezra x. 9,

ep. Antiq.

iv. 52; Johnx. 22).

13).

xii. 5, 4; 7, 6.

10. Tebeth.

January.

Hail; snow on higher hills and

Estli. ii. 16;

occasionally at Jerusalem.

Anticj. xi. 5,

In lowlands grain fields and

4.

pastures green, wild flowers
abundant.

11. Shebat.

February.

Zech. i. 7; 1

Almond trees in blossom.

Mac. xvi. 14.

Appearance of young fruit, or

rather blossorii, of the fig.
Carob tree in blossom.

12. Adar.

March.

Oranges and lemons ripe in the

Esth. iii. 7 ;

14, 15. Feast of Purim (Esth. ix.

lowlands. Storax blossoming

Antiq. iv. 8,

21-28).

and pomegranates showing

49.

their first flowers.
Barley harvest at Jericho.

Yoke.

A small transverse. bar of timber, generally
with two jjortions of the lower surface hol-
lowed so as to rest on the necks of two oxeu,
n.sed to draw a cart or a plow (Num. xix. 2) ;
see illustration, Plow. Two oxen thus held
together were al.so called a yoke (1 Kin. xix.
19), and so, figuratively, was any burden im-
posed on one as a token and means of sub-
jection (xii. 4; Mat. xi. 30; Acts xv. 10).

Z.

Za-a-na'im. See Zaanannim.

Za'a-nan [place of flocks].

A town (Mic. i. 11), perhaps the same as
Zenan.

Za-a-nan'nim, in A. V. once Zaanaim
(Judg. iv. 11), the Hebrew text being pre-
ferred to the traditional reading [departures].

A frontier town of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33),
near Kedesh (Judg. iv. 11). Conder follows
Septuagint which has Besemiin. having made
one word of "in Zaanannini " (so Josh. xix.
33, R. V. margin), and he believes it to have
probably been near Bessum, on the table-land
west of the sea of Galilee.

Za'a-vah, in A. Y. once Zavan [unquiet].
A son of Ezer the Horite (Gen. sxxvi. 27;
1 Chrou. i. 42).

Za'bad [he hath given or endowed].

1. A descendant of Ephraim, family of
Shuthelah (1 Chron. vii. 21).

2. A man of Judah, family of Hezron,
house of Jerahmecl. descended through She-
shan, and a great-grandson of Ahlai (1 Chron.

II. 31, 34-37). Possibly he was David's mighty
man of this name (xi. 41 '.

3. Corrupt form of Jozacar (2 Chron. xxiv.
26) ; see Jozacar.

4. 5, <). Three Hebrews, each of whom was
Induced bv Ezra to put awav his foreign wife
(Ezra X. 27, 33, 43).

Zab-a-dse'ans, in A. V. Zabadeans.

An Arabian tribe which dwelt bctw-een the
river Eleutherus, Hamath, and Damascus
(1 Mac. xii. 30-32; cp. 25), and hence prob-
ably occupied that part of the Anti-Lebanon
mountains where the villages of Zebedani
and Zebad are situated, on the route from
Ba'al-bek to Damascus.

Zab'bai [humming].

A son of Bebai. He was induced by Ezra
to put away, his foreign wife (Ezra x. 28).
He was the father of a certain Baruch (Neh.

III. 20).

Zabbud

788

Zadok

Zab'bud [endowed].

He;id of a family among the sons of Bigvai,
who acconii)anied Ezra from Babylon (Ezra
viii. 14).

Zab'di [gift of (Jehovah)].

1. A man of Judah, family of Zerah, and
founder of a house (Josh. vii. 1). Called in
1 Chron. ii. 6 Zimri. For the confusion of b
and m, d and r, see Beth, Daleth.

2. A Benjamite (1 Chron. viii. 19).

3. A Shiphmite, David's officer over the
increase of the vineyards for the wine cellars
(1 Chron. xxvii. 27).

4. A Levite, .son of Asaph (Neh. xi. 17) ;
see ZicHRi 5.

Zata'di-el [gift of God].

1. Eather of Jashobeam (1 Chron. xxvii. 2).

2. Son of Haggedolim (Neh. xi. 14), or one
of the great men (A. V. and margin of R. V.).

3. An Arabian prince who treacherously
decapitated Alexander Balas and sent the
head to Ptolemy Philometor (1 Mac. xi. 17;
Antiq. xiii. 4, 8). He is probably the person
referred to by Diodorus Sictilus as Diodes,
ruler of Abse, to whose care Alexander com-
mitted his infant son, and while sojourn-
ing with whom Alexander was murdered by
two of his own officers.

Za'bud [given, endowed].

Son of Nathan and chief minister in Solo-
mon's reign (1 Kin. iv. 5, R. V. margin).

Zab'u-lon. See Zebulun.

Zac'cai [pure, innocent].

Founder of a family, members of which
returned with Zerubbabel from the captivity
(Ezra ii. 9 ; Neh. vii. 14).

Zac-chse'us [Greek from Hebrew Zitkkny,
pure] .

A wealthy man of Jericho who farmed the
revenue for the Roman government. Hebe-
came a disciple of Christ (Luke xix. 1-10).

Zac'cur, in A. V. once Zaccliur (1 Chron.
iv. 26) [mindful].

1. A Reubenite (Num. xiii. 4).

2. A Simeonite, descended through Mishma
(1 Chron. iv. 2f)).

3. A Merarite Levite, a son of Jaaziah (1
Chron. xxiv. 27).

4. A Ger.shonite Levite, a son of Asaph,
and head of a course of musicians in David's
reign (1 Chron. xxv. 2, 10; Neh. xii. 35).
See ZiCHRi .5.

5. A son of Imri. who helped to rebuild
the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 2).

6. A Levite, who sealed the covenant (Neh.
X. 12).

7. Son of Mattaniah and father of Hanan
(Neh. xiii. 13).

• Zach-a-ri'as, in R. V. twice Zachariah
(Mat. xxiii. '.i^: Luke xi. 51) [Greek form
of the Hebrew Z'knri/ah, Jehovah hath re-
membered]

1. Father of the captain Joseph (1 Mac.
V. 18).

2. Father of John the Baptist. He was
a priest of the course of Abijah (Luke i.
5) ; sec Abijah. He and his wife were godly
people, and she was related to Mary of
Nazareth (6, 36). Their home was in the
hill country of Judaea (39, 40.) It was
customary to allot to the members of the
course on duty at the sanctuary the several
parts to be performed in the daily min-
istrations. When Zacharias' course assem-
bled at Jerusalem the lot fell to him to burn
incense; and while he was discharging this
service at the hour of prayer, an angel ap-
peared to him and announced that his sup-
plication was heard. His old prayer f(jr
a son, although long abandoned as deiiied
by God (18), and the prayer which he con-
tinually oti'ered for the advent of the Mes-
siah (68-75), were heard; and he was told
that his wife should bear a .son who should
go before the face of the Lord to make ready
for the Lord a people pre[)ared for him (13-
17). Zacharias questioned the promise on
account of the advanced age of himself and
his wife, and asked for a sign. The sign was
granted in the form of a punishment. Zach-
arias was smitten with dumbness until the
promise was fulfilled (18-22; 62-64). When
the child was born, not only was the tongue
of Zacharias released from its speechlessness,
but he himself was filled with the Spirit and
prophesied in words of thanksgiving and
praise (67-79).

3. A righteous man who was murdered in
the court of the temple, between the sanctu-
ary and the house (Mat. xxiii. 35 ; Luke xi.
51) ; see Zechariah 11.

Za'cher. See Zechariah 1.

Za'dok [just, righteous].

1. A descendant of Eleazar, the son of
Aaron (1 .Chron. xxiv. 3). He was the son
of Ahitub (2 Sam. viii. 17). He was doubt-
less the young man, mighty of valor, who
went with the chief men of the tribes of Is-
rael to David at Hebron to turn the kingdom
of Saul unto him (1 Chron. xii. 27,' 28).
Early in David's reign he was joint high
priest with Abiathar (2 Sam. viii. 17). Dur-
ing the rebellion of Absalom the two col-
leagues joined in David's flight from Jerusa-
lem, carrying with them the ark, but the
king desired them to return to the capital,
and there await the issue of the contest (xv.
24-29). After the death of Absalom, a mes-
sage, on which they acted, was sent by David
to Zadok and Abiathar, requesting them to
suggest to the people that the king should he
called back (xix. 11). When, in David's old
age, Adonijah ]>li)tted to usurp the throne,
Zadok remaiiu'd faithful, while his colleague
Abiathar went with the usurper (1 Kin. i. 7, 8).
When the plot was discovered to David,
Zadok, with Nathan the prophet, received
instructions immediately to anoint Solomon
king (32-45). Abiathar was deposed from
the priesthood, and Zadok was the sole occu-

Zaham

789

Zareth-shahar

pant of tlie bigli office till bis death, durinj^
the reign of the new monarch (ii. 26. 27 ; cj).
iv. 4). The ofiice of the high priest was thus
restored to the line of Eleazar; see High
Priest.

2. A i)riest in the line of liigh priests,
father of Shalluni (1 C'hron. vi. 12). He was
descended from the second Ahitub (ibid. ;
Ezra vii. 2) through the second Meraioth (1
Chron. ix. 11 ; Neb. xi. 11).

3. Father of Jerusha, king Uzziah's mother
(2 Kin. XV. 33).

4. A son of Baana. He repaired part of
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 4), and was
perhaps the person of the name who sealed
the covenant (x. 21).

5. A priest, son of Immer. He repaired
the city wall opposite to his house (Neh. iii.
29), and was perhaps the scribe who was made
a treasurer (xiii. 13).

Za'ham [loathing].

A son of Eehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 19).

Za'in.

The .seventh letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
English Z, which bad the same origin, repre-
sents it in Hebrew names in the English
version. It stands at the bead of the seventh
section of Ps. cxix. in several versions, in
which section each verse begins with this
letter.

For possibility of confusing it with other
letters, see Vau.

Za'ir [little].

A place in or near Edom, where king
Joram, of Judah, encamped before making
a night attack on the Edomitcs (2 Kin. viii.
21 ; cp. the different text in 2 Chron. xxi. 9).
Conder proposes Zuwera, a double town
near the Dead Sea, on the road from the
southern end of the sea to Hebron.

Za'laph [fracture].

Father of a certain Hanun (Neh. iii. 30).

Zal'mon, in A. V. once Salmon (Ps. Ixviii.
14) [shady].

1. An Ahohite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 28). Also called Ilai (1 Chron.
xi. 29).

2. A wooded mountain near Shechem
(Judg. ix. 48; cp. Ps. Ixviii. 14).

Zal-mo'iiali [shady].

A station of the Lsraelites in the wilderness
(Num. xxxiii. 41, 42). Not identified. It
may have been west or east of Edom.

Zal-mun'na [perhaps, shelter is denied].

One of the two kings 'of Midian whom
Gideon slew (Judg. viii. 4-28 ; Ps. Ixxxiii.
11).

Zam'bri. See Zimri 2.

Zam-zum'mim, in A. V. Zamzummims
[murmurers, makers of noise].

A tribe of Repbaim, who in ancient times
inhabited the region east of the Jordan,
afterwards occupied by the Ammonites (Dent.
ii. 20) ; probably the same as the Zuzim.

Za-no'ah [foul water].

1. \ town in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
XV. 34). It was inhabited after the captivity
(Neh. xi. 30), and seems to have been the
Zanoah whose inhabitants restored the val-
ley gate of Jerusalem (iii. 13). liobinson
plausibly identified it with Zanua, nearly 3
miles .southeast by south of Ikth-shemesh.

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 50 ; and probably 1 Cliron. iv. IH).
Zanuta about 12^ miles southwest by south of
Hebron, 2i south of Shuweikeh, and 5 south-
west by west of es-Semua, is scarcely the
site ; for it belongs to the group of Josh. xv.
48-51 rather than to that of 55-57.

Zaph'e-nath-pa-ne'ah, in A. V. Zaph-
natL-paaneah [(Jod sjieaks, he lives (Stein-
dorfl")]. From the sound of the name, the
Jews guessed that the name meant revealer
of secrets (Targum Onkelos, Antiq. ii. 6, 1).

The name given by Pharaoh to Joseph
after he had interpreted the king's dreams
(Gen. xli. 45).

Za'phon [concealment, north].

A town of the Gadites in the Jordan val-
ley (Josh. xiii. 27 ; cp. Judg. xii. 1, E. V.
margin). The Talmud calls it 'Amatho. If
this is correct, it is Amathus (Antiq. xiii. 13,
5; xiv. 5, 4), and its site is Tell Ammete, in
the Jordan valley, east of the river and Smiles
north by east of the mouth of the Jabbok.

Za'ra and Zarab. See Zekah.

Za're-ah. See Zorah.

Za're-ath-ite. See Zorathite.

Za'red. See Zered.

Zar'e-phath, in A. V. of N. T. Sarepta
(Luke iv. 26) [perhaps, smelting furnace].

A town belonging to Sidon (1 Kin. xvii. 9;
Luke iv. 26; Antiq. viii. 13, 2). Thither
Elijah repaired when the brook Cheritb dried
up, and there he miraculously multiplied
the widow's oil and meal, and raised her
child from the dead (1 Kin. xvii. 8-24). It
is the predicted limit in one direction of the
Israslites (Obad.20). The name still lingers
in the form of Surafend, a large village on a
hill near the sea, 14 miles north of Tyre,
and 8 south of Sidon. The ancient city
was, however, on the shore, where consider-
able ruins, extending for a mile or more,
point out the old site.

Zar'e-than, in A. V.Zaretan (Josh. iii. 16),
and Zartanah (1 Kin. iv. 12), and Zartbao.
(1 Kin. vii. 46).

A village beneath Jezreel and near the
towns of Beth-shean and Adam (Josh. iii. 16;
1 Kin. iv. 12). In the marly soil between it
and Succoth the bronze work for Solomon's
temple was cast (1 Kin. vii. 46). The name
is probably another form of Zeredab (q. V.).
The site has not been identified, the name
not corresponding with Kurn Sartabeh, a
peak southwest of the ford Damieh.

Za-reth-sha'har. See Zereth-shahab.

Zarhite

790

Zebulun

Zar'hite, in R. V. ZeraWte.

A person helougini? to the family of
Zerah. There was a family of this name in
the tribe of Simeon and another in Judah
(Num. xxvi. 13, 20; Josh. vii. 17 ; cp. 1; 1
C'liron. xxvii. 11, 13).

Zar'ta-nah. See Zakethan.

Zar'than. See Zarethan.

Zat'tu, in A. V. once Zatthu (Neh. x. 14).

Founder of a family, members of which
returned from the captivity (Ezra ii. 8 ; Neh.
vii. 13). Some of them were induced by
Ezra to put away their foreign wives (Ezra
X. 27). The representtitive of the family
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 14).

Za'van. See Zaavan.

Za'za [movement, abundance].

A man of Judah, family of Hezron, house
of Jerahnieel (1 Chron. ii. 33).

Zeal'ot, in A. V. Zelotes [zealous one] ;
Greek equivalent of Canansean (q. v.).

A member of a Jewish patriotic party
(War iv. 3, 9; vii. 8, 1). Simon the apostle
was distinguished from Simon Peter and
others by this epithet (Luke vi. 15 ; Acts 1.
13). The party was started into being by
Judas the Galilsean in the time of Cyrenius
to resist Roman aggression. Its increasing
fanaticism contributed to provoke the Roman
war. Ultimately it degenerated into a body
of mere assassins, called Sicarii (Antiq. xviii.
1, 1 and 6 ; War ii. 8, 1 ; 17, 8 ; iv. 3, 9 seq.).

Zeb-a-di'ah [Jehovah hath given or en-
dowed].

1. A Benjamite, of the house of Beriah (1
Chron. viii. 15, K?).

2. A Benjamite, descended from Elpaal (1
Chron. viii. 17, 18).

3. A son of Jeroham of Gedor. He joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. 7).

4. Son of Asahel, Joab's brother (1 Chron.
xxvii. 7).

5. A Korhite Levite, a sou of Meshelemiah,
in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvi. 1, 2).

6. A Levite, one of those employed by
Jehoshaphat to teach in the cities of Judah
(2 Ohron. xvii. 8).

7. A prince of Judah, who was the chief
judicial functionary for civil cases in the
court which Jehoshaphat established at Jeru-
salem (2 Chron. xix. 11).

8. A descendant of Shephatiah. He was
one of those who accompanied Ezra from
Babylon (Ezra viii. 8).

9. A priest of the house of Immer. He
was induced by Ezra to putawav his foreign
wife (Ezra X. 20).

Ze'bah [slaughter, sacrifice].

( )ne of the two kings of Midian pursued
and slain by (xideon (Judg. viii. 4-28; Ps.
Ixxxiii. 11).*

Ze-ba'im. See Pochereth-hazzebaim.
Zeb'e-dee [Greek form of Hebrew Z'bad-
yiih, Jehovah hath endowed].

The husband of Salome (q. v.), and father
of James and John. Like his sons, he was a
fisherman on the sea of Galilee (Mat. iv. 21,
22), and was a man of some substance, for he
had hired servants (Mark i. 19, 20). He
raised no obstacle to his sous following Jesus.

Ze-bi'dab, in A. V. Zebudab, the tradi-
tional pronunciation [given, bestowed].

A daughter of Pedaiah of Rumah, and
mother of king Jehoiakim (2 Kin. xxiii. 36).

Ze-bi'na [acquired].

A descendant of Nebo. He was induced
by Ezra to put away his foreign wife (Ezra
X. 43).

Ze-boi'im and Zeboim, I. [gazelles]. In
Hebrew text and R. V. the first foi'ni is used
in the Pentateuch, the second in Ho.sea.

One of the five cities of the plain (Gen. x.
19). Its king was defeated by Chedorlaomer
(xiv. 2, 8, 10). It was destroyed with the
other cities of the jdain by fire from heaven
(xix. 17-29 ; Deut. xxix. 23; Hosea xi. 8j.

Ze-bo'im, II. [hyenas].

1. A valley in the territory of Benjamin,
between Michmash and the wilderness on
the east (1 Sam. xiii. 16-18). A cliff just
above the Jordan jjlain, near Jericho, is
called Shukh ed-Duba, lair of the hyena,
and perhaps indicates the locality.

2. A town occupied by Benjamites after
the captivity (Neh. xi. 34). It is evidently
to be sought in the hills bordering the plain
of Sharon, near Lydda.

Ze-bu'dah. See Zebidah.

Ze'bul [habitation].

The governor of the city of Shechem in
the time of Abimelech, to whom he showed
unswerving fidelity (Judg. ix. 28, 36-39).

Zeb'u-lon-ite. See Zebulunite.

Zeb'u-lun, in A. V. of N. T. Zabulon

[habitation, dwelling].

1. The tenth son of Jacob, and the sixth
by Leah (Gen. xxx. 19, 20). He went down
with his father into Egypt (Ex. i. 3). He
had three sons : Sered, Elon, and Jahleel
(Gen. xlvi. 14). Jacob, in his farewell ad-
dress, blessing his sons, pictured Zebulun as
dwelling at the haven of the sea, being a
haven of ships, and having his border on
Zidon (xlix. 13). This picture was real-
ized in its essentials, but not in its details.
Zebulun was allotted territory in the vicinity
of the sea, and enjoyed the mai'kets of the
towns on the coast; but it was itself sepa-
rated from the sea of Galilee by Naphtali
and Issachar, and from the Mediterranean
Sea and the city of Zidon l)y the tribe of
Asher. This lack of agreement between the
picture drawn in Jacob's address and the
actual state of the tribe in Palestine is a
strong argument that the address was not
composed after the settlement of the tribes,
but is genuine.

2. The tribe of which Zebulun was the

Zebulun

191

Zechariah

profreiiitor. From his three sons sprang the
great families into \vhich the tribe was di-
vided (Num. xxvi. 26, 27). The prince of
the trihe early in the wilderness wanderings
w-as Eliab, son of Helon (i. 9; x. 16), and at
a later period Elizaphan, son of Parnach,
was a ]irinee (xxxiv. 25). The spy from
the tribe was Gaddiel, son of Sodi (xiii. 10).
At the first census it contained 57,400 fight-
ing men (i. 30, 31) ; at the second 60,500
(xxvi. 27). It was one of the six tribes the
representatives of which stood on mount
Ebal to pronounce cur.ses on transgressors
(Deut. xxvii. 13; cp. Josh. viii. 32-35).
Moses before his departure, associating the
two brothers, later sons of Leah, and with
the prophecy of Jacob in mind, thus in-
dicated their future history.: " Eejoice, Zebu-
hiu, in thy going out; and, Issachar, iu thy
tents. They shall call the peoples unto the
mountain ; there they shall offer sacrifices
of righteousness : for they shall suck the
abundance of the seas, and the hidden treas-
ures of the sand " (Deut. xxxiii. 18, 19, K. Y.).
In the mountain of Jehovah's inheritance
(Ex. XV. 17), where he will establish his chosen
people, Zebulun and Issachar will hring
rich offerings to their bountiful Benefactor.
After the conquest of Canaan, Zebulun was
allotted territorj' in the northern part of the
country. It lay north of Issachar, east of
Asher, and south and west of Naphtali
(Josh. xix. 27, 34). Its southern boundary
ran by Daberath on the western foot of
mount Tabor, passed Chisloth-tabor, and
after skirting the plain of Esdraelon and
then crossing it reached the brook that is
before Jokneam (11, 12), probably the wady
el-Milh, a southern tributary of the Kishon.
Its eastern boundary went to Gatli-hepher,
which was probably 3 miles north by east of
Kazareth, and on to Rimmon, 6 miles almost
due north of Nazareth (13. R. V.). At the
northwestern corner of the territory was the
valley of Iphtah-el (14), probably about 9
miles north by west of Nazareth, and leaving
the fertile plain of el-Buttauf within the
bounds of Zebulun. Since Bethlehem, 7
miles west-northwest of Nazareth, belonged
to Zebulun (15), the western boundary was
doubtless in part the wady el-Khalladiyeh.
The region posses.sed by Zebulun was fer-
tile. It embraced a part of the mountainous
country of lower Galilee and the north-
western corner of the plain of Esdraelon.
The Zebulunites constituted an important
part of Barak's force in the fight with Sisera
(Judg. iv. 6-10; v. 14, 18 1. and of Gideon's
army in the war with Midian (vi. 35). Deb-
orah sang that there were in the tribe they
that handle the marshal's staff, or the staff
of the scribe (v. 14, R. V. text and margin),
meaning the scribes who gathered and mus-
tered the army (2 Kin. xxv. 19). The judge
Elon was a member of the tribe, exercised his
office, died, and was buried at Aijalon, within
its territory (Judg. xii. 12). Fifty thousand

warriors of the tribe, with skillful and faith-
ful commanders, went with the other tribes
to Hebron to make David king (1 Cliroii. xii.
33, 40). Ishmaiah was the ruler of the
Zebulunites in David's reign (xxvii. 19).
The tribe with the rest of Galileo suffered
severely during the As.syrian wars, but
Isaiah prophesied that it would obtain com-
pensatory blessings in Messianic times (Is.
ix. 1, 2; Mat. iv. 12-16). Some men of the
tribe accepted Hezekiah's invitation to come
to Jerusalem for his great passover (2 Chron.
XXX. 10, 11, 18). Ezekiel, of course, a.ssigns
a gate for the Zebulunites in the Jerusalem
which he describes (Ezek. xlviii. 33), and of
the tribe there were sealed iu the apocalyptic
vision the normal number 12,000 (Rev. vii. 8).

Zeb'u-lun-ite, in A. V. iu Judges Zebu-
lonite.

One belonging to the tribe of Zebulun, or
resident within its territory (Num. xxvi. 27;
Judg. xii. 11, 12).

Zech-a-ri'ali, in A. V. four times Zacha-
riah (2 Kin. siv. 29; xv. 8, 11; xviii. 2)
[Jehovah hath remembered].

1. A Benjaniite of the family of Jeiel of
Gibeon (1 Ghron. ix. 37) : called in 1 Chron.
viii. 31 Zecher (in A. V. Zacher). If the
traditional vocalization is correct, Zecher is
a synonymous name meaning memory. Per-
haps, however, it was an abbreviation of
Zechariah, as Ahaz is of Ahaziah, and was
pronounced Zachar, meaning he hath re-
membered.

2. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar, descended through Ebiasaph. He was
the eldest son of Mcshelemiah. He was
porter of the door of the tent of meeting in
David's reign (1 Chron. ix. 21, 22; xxvi. 2).
He was a discreet counselor (14).

3. A Levite of the second degree who played
a psaltery iu the procession that escorted the
ark to Jerusalem, and afterwards was per-
manently employed in the tabernacle which
David pitched for the ark ( 1 Chron. xv. 18.
20; xvi. 5). It is doubtful whether the word
doorkeepers (xv. 18) is intended to include
bim.

4. A priest who blew a trumpet when the
ark was brought up from the house of Obed-
edom (1 Chron. xv. 24).

5. A Levite, faniilj- of Kohath, house of
Uzziel. He was a son of Isshiah and lived in
the reign of David (1 Chron. xxiv. 25).

6. A Levite, family of Merari, and fourth
.son of Hosah. He was one of the doorkeej)-
ers in David's reign (1 Chron. xxvi. 11).

7. A Manassite of Gilead and father of
Iddo, who lived in David's reign (1 Chron.
xxvii. 21).

8. A Levite, of the sons of Asaph, and
hence of the family of Gershom (2 Chron.
XX. 14).

9. One of the princes whom Jehoshaphat
sent to teach the people of Judah (2 Chron.
xvii. 7).

Zechariah

792

Zechariah

10. Fourth son of king Jelioshaphat (2
Chron. xxi. 2).

11. Sou of Jehoiada. the high priest, and a
righteous man like Ids father. He lived in
the reign of king Joash of Judah. The Spirit
of (xod came upon him and he remonstrated
with the people on their apostasy from
Jehovah which ensued on the death of Je-
hoiada. At the instance of the king he
was stoned to death in the court of the
temple (2 Chron. xxiv. 20-22). It is com-
monly believed that he is referred to by
our Lord when speaking of the righteous
blood shed on earth, from the blood of
Abel unto the blood of Zechariah, who per-
ished between the altar and the sanctuary
{Luke xi. 51). Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, is
the only person mentioned in Scripture as
being thus slain; his violent death was mem-
orable and was familiar to succeeding genera-
tions ; and he is the last of the righteous
men wickedly slain, as Abel was the first,
who are mentioned in the Hebrew Scriiitures,
("hronicles being the last book in tlu' Hebrew
Bible. He is called the son of Barachiah in
the parallel passage (Mat. xxiii. 35, in A. V.
Barachias), which naturally identifies him
with the well-known prophet who lived after
the exile. But this explanatory clause in
Matthew is not improbably a gloss which was
written on the margin by a reader and after-
wards crept into the text.

12. A man who had understanding in the
vision of God, and gave wise counsel to king
Uzziah, which for a time he followed (2
Chron. xxvi. 5).

13. A king of Israel and last ruler of the
dynasty of Jehu. He came to the throne of
Samaria in the thirty-eighth year of Azariah,
king of Judah, and reigned six months, about
749 B. c. He was the son of Jeroboam 11. ,
and was murdered by Shall um, who suc-
ceeded him as king (2 Kin. xiv. 29; xv.
8-12). By his occupancy of the throne the
prediction was fulfilled that the fourth gen-
eration of Jehu's sons should sit on the throne
(x. 30).

14. A Eeubenite chief (1 Chron. v. 7).

15. Son of Jeberechiah. He was a witness
that Isaiah wrote certain enigmatical words
about a year before their meaning was ex-
plained by a prophecy (Is. viii. 2).

16. Maternal grandfather of Hezekiah (2
Kin. xviii. 2).

17. A Levite descended from Asaph. He
took part in the cleansing of the temple dur-
ing the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 13).

18. A Kohathite Levite, overseer of the
workmen employed to repair the temple in
Josiah's reign (2 Chron. xxxiv. 12).

19. A ruler of the house of God in Josiah's
reign and doubtless a priest (2 Chron. xxxv.
8).

20. Aman of Judah, familj' of Shelah (Neh.
xi. 5).

21. A man of .Tudah, family of Perez (Neh.
xi. 4).

22. A priest descended from Pashhur of the
house of Malchijah (Neh. xi. 12).

23. A descendant of Parosh. He returned
from Babylon with a party along with Ezra
(Ezra viii. 3).

24. A son of Bebai who did likewise (Ezra
viii. 11.)

25. One of the chief men whom Ezra sent
to secure Le vites and Nethinim to accompany
the returning exiles (Ezra viii. 16).

26. One of the men, probably priests, who
stood beside Ezra at the public reading of the
law (N-eh. viii. 41).

27. A sou of Elam, induced by Ezra toi)ut
away his foreign wife (Ezra x. 26).

28. A Levite, son of Jonathan, and a de-
scendant of Asaph. He led a division of
Levitical musicians at the dedication of the
rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 35, 36).

29. A priest who blew a trumpet at the
dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. xii. 41).

30. A priest, head of the father's house of
Iddo in the days of the high priest Joiakim
(Neh. xii. 16). See the following.

31. A prophet, son of Berechiah, and grand-
son of Iddo (Zech. i. 1). His first recorded
prophecy was delivered in the second year of
Darius Hystaspis, 520 B. c. (ibid., Ezra iv. 24
with V. 1.). He was a contemporary of
Zerubbabel the governor, Jeshua the high
priest, and Haggai the prophet (Zech. iii. 1 ;
iv. 6; vi. 11; Ezra v. 1, 2), and united with
Haggai in exhorting the leaders of the Jew-
ish colony to resume work on the house of
God. It scarcely admits of question that he
was born in Babylonia, for the exiles had
been back in Palestine eighteen years only
and Zechariah hardly began to prophesy be-
fore he was eighteen. Not improbably
Zechariah belonged to the tribe of Levi, and,
like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Avas a priest as
well as a prophet; for, according to Nehe-
miah (Neh. xii. 1, 4, 7) Iddo was head of a
priestly family and one who returned from
Babylonia with Zerubbabel ; and a descend-
ant of his, Zechariah by name, was bead of the
priestly house of Iddo during the high-priest-
hood of Joiakim, sou of Jeshua (10, 12, 16).
It is true that the lineage, which is involved
in Nehemiah's statements, may be quite dis-
tinct from the genealogy of the prophet,
although it contains the same names in the
same order, but the theory wliich identi-
fies the two has not a little confirmation.
1. Since Iddo had attained to the head-
ship of a priestly family, he is riglitly judged
to have been an elderly man in the year of
the return, .'S,38 b. c. His descendant, Zech-
ariah, attained to the same ])osition in the
next generation, which would naturally in-
involve his being of such an age in .520 B. c.
that he could he called a young man. The
prophet Zechariah is called a young man
(though by an angel it is true), in the year
.520 b. c. (Zech. ii. 4). 2. Assuming that the
prophet's father Berechiah was the son of the

Zechariah

793

Zechariah

])riest Iddo and died prior to 520, without at-
taining to the headship of the family, tlieu
the i)ro])het Zechariali was left next in the
line t>f succession, and this would lead Kzra
to call him the son of Iddo, naming him both
as descendant and successor of Iddo. I5ut
even if Berechiah were alive, his name
might be omitted ; for it was only neces-
sary to name the father's house to which
a man belonged, in order to locate him
among the tribes and families of Israel.
The assumption of Bcrechiah's death would
also account for the fact that in the genera-
tion after the return, Zechariah was head of
the father's hotise. 3. The theory that the
prophet Zechariah was a priest accounts for
his familiarity with priestly functions and
ideas (iii. ; iv.).

Another view is that favored by Kimchi.
According to him, the term prophet in i. 1
and 7 refers to Iddo (for position of the title,
cp. Ezra vii. 5), and the latter is the seer who
prophesied in the reign of Kehoboam (2
Chron. xii. 15; xiii. 22). The theory is im-
probable, but it is not to be rejected because
four centuries intervened between the seer
Iddo and the prophet Zechariah.

The book of Zechariah is the eleventli of
the minor prophets. It may be divided as
follows :

I. Introduction to the book and a series
of eight visions. The introduction (i. 1-6)
strikes the keynote, not to these visions
only, but to the whole book. Learn the les-
son of the past : " Eeturn unto me and I
will return unto you.'' Vision 1 : the drove
of horses (7-17), fleet, tireless messengers.
By thispictui-e it is shown that God is watch-
ing the events of earth ; there is no sign of
relief for God's peoi)Ie or of the punishment
of their oppressors ; the nations are at rest.
Yet God is jealous for Zion and sore dis-
pleased with its oppressors ; therefore, he is
returned to Jerusalem with mercies; his
house and his city shall be built, the land
shall greatly prosper. The first vision is in-
troductory to the seven that follow. Vision
2 : the four horns and the four smiths (18-
21). The vision means that for each of the
horns, i. e. nations that scattered Judah, de-
struction is appointed. Vision 3 : the man
with a measuring line (ii.). The comfort-
able message of the first vision is unfolded,
namely, the rebuilding of the city. The
idea is expanded, however. Jerusalem shall
not be measured, as cities usually are, by the
extent of its walls; for, enjoying unbounded
prosperity, it shall spread abroad without
walls. It will not be insecure, however ; Je-
hovah will be a wall of fire about it. Vision
4 : Joshua, the high priest (iii.). The priest-
hood, although human and defiled, a brand
consuming in the fire of God's wrath, is by
grace plucked forth, cleansed, and, on condi-
tion of obedience, promised continuance.
Then the fact is emphasized that the priests
are types of the Messiah, and bj' a symJjolical

action it is declared that God has a purpose
which he will accomplish ; the one typified
will be raised uj). Vision 5 : the golden can-
dlestick and the two olive trees (iv.). It
seems as though the light of the church
burning feebly after the exile must needs go
out; not so, God has provided an abundant,
unlailing, self-furnishing supjily of oil. Vi-
sion (j : the flying roll (v. 1—1). God has pro-
nounced a curse for the destruction of wick-
edness. Vision 7 : the dejiarting ephah (5-
11). This is the sequel of the sixth vision.
Wickedness, personified as a woman and im-
prisoned, is removed from the land. Vision
8 : the four chariots issuing from the pres-
ence of the Lord of all the earth (vi. 1-8).
The four chariots are declared to represent
the four winds, which commonly denote the
unseen power of God ; and the vision is a
promise that the eutii-e plan outlined in the
preceding series will be executed by the Lord
of all the earth.

II. Symbolic action : crowning of the high
priest (vi. 9-15). This procedure is expressly
declared to belong to the future and to relate
to the well-known Branch who was the ex-
pected king of David's line.

III. Deputation from Bethel to inquire
whether the fasts shall still be kept, now that
the disasters which they commemorated have
been in part retrieved, and the prophet's four
answers (vii.; viii.). 1. Fasts terminate on
the faster ; they do not affect God ; obedience
is the one thing God requires (vii. 4-7). 2.
Justice and truth are the will of God, which is
to be obeyed. The desolation of the land and
dispersion of the i)eople were not a calamity to
be bewailed ; they were a punishment for
disobedience and intended to work reform
(8-14). 3. God returns to Zion in jealousy,
and will secure truth and holiness (viii. 1-17).
4. The fasts will become festivals (18-23).

IV. Burdens naturally follow the visions
w'hich revealed God's purpose to destroy the
oppressors of Judah and bring many nations
into the kingdom. Burden 1 : Jehovah's
overthrow of the enemies of God's kingdom.
Punishments are impending which shall
bring the surrounding nations low. A rem-
nant of Philistia, however, shall he incor-
porated in God's kingdom ; and Jeru.salem
shall be safe amid the widespread desolation,
for God shall encamp about Judah and Ju-
dah's king shall come (ix.). Ej)isode : ex-
hortation to look to the Lord for ])romi.sed
blessings ; and not to idols and soothsayers,
who only cause the flock to err (x. 1, 2). Re-
sumption of the prophecy. The I^ord, how-
ever, as already said, hath visited his flock,
and because of liis wrath will make it as his
goodly horse in battle, free Judah from all
oppressors, gather both Judah and Ephraim,
and make Ephraim joyful in his former hab-
itation (3-12). These promised blessings,
however, will not be enjoyed for some time
to come. Desolation to the land ! is the
prophet's cry (xi. 1-3). The reason for this

Zechariah

794

Zechariah

desolation is explained by the parable of the
rejected shepherd (4-17) : because of the con-
tinued rejection of God's righteous govern-
ment, the covenant with the nations is
broken, and Israel is open to desolation ; be-
cause of the same sin, the unity of Judah
and Ephraim remains unaccorajjlished, and
weakness, discord, and desolation result.
Burden 2 : the couHict and final triumph of
the kingdom of God. The nations of the
earth are arrayed against Jerusalem and Ju-
dah, which at the time of the prophet Zech-
ariah were coextensive with the visible
church of Jehovah ; but Jehovah makes it a
cup of reeling and a burdensome stone to the
nations, smiting the enemy with madue.ss,
and revealing the fact that the citizens of
Zion ai-e strong in the Lord (xii. 1-8). The
preparation of Jerusalem (9-xiv. 5) : God
will prepare .Jerusalem, first, by gracious
spiritual change wrought by God (xii. 10-
xiii. 6) ; second, by purifying chastisement
(7-xiv. 5'). The final triumph (5*'-21). The
Lord shall come ; it shall be a time of dark-
ness and judgment, both for the church and
the nations ; but at a time appointed of
God, at eventide there shall be light. The
church shall flourish, and a remnant of the
nations shall go up from year to year to wor-
ship Jehovah, the king. Then shall the idea
of the kingdom of God be realized, the
church shall be holy. ,

The first to hint that the book of Zechariah
did not proceed in its entirety from the pen
of the prophet whose name it bears was
Joseph Mede, of Christ Church college, Cam-
bridge, in 1653. He ai'gued that chapters ix.
to xi. were written by Jeremiah, because
Matthew in quoting Zechariah xi. 1.3 re-
fers it to Jeremiah (Mat. xxvii. 9). This
argument has no longer weight in the esti-
mation of critics. Some would say that the
mention of .Jeremiah is an error by Matthew,
while others believe that it is probably an
early corruption of Matthew's text. It has
even been suggested that since the Hebrews
in their arrangement of the Scriptures at
one time began the latter prophets with
Jeremiah, observing the sequence Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, Isaiah, instead of the present order,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel (see Canon), this
prophetic section was sometimes referred to
as Jeremiah, just as The Psalms and The
Proverbs are referred to as the Psalms of
David and the Proverbs of Solomon, al-
though David was not the sole author of The
Psalms nor Solomon of The Proverbs. Since
Mede's day many critics have held that in the
present book of Zechariah there are the writ-
ings of two, three, or more prophets. The
principal views are : 1. Chapters ix. to xi. were
written shortly before the fall of Samaria in
722 B. c, and chapters xii. to xiv. shortly be-
fore the destruction of Jerusalem in ,587 B. c.
2. Chapters ix. to xiv. were written in the
late Persian period more than a century and
a half after the death of Zechariah, or in the

Maccabsean period. 3. Chapters ix. to xiv., as
well as chapters i. to viii, proceeded from
Zechariah. The debate, it will be seen, con-
cerns chapters ix. to xiv. only. All critics
confess that Zechariah wrote the first eight
chapters. The debated section contains the
two burdens. What then is the date of these
burdens? In regard to the first burden,
when it was written the house of the Lord
was standing (ix. 15; xi. 13) : but from this
fact no argument as to the date of the burden
can be drawn ; for Solomon's temple was
standing down to the exile, and the new tem-
ple, built after the return, was in use after the
year 515 B. c. The reference in x. 10, 11 has
been cited to prove that Egypt and Assyria
were great powers at the time that this
prophecy was delivered, and it was deliv-
ered after Israel had been carried captive
(6), hence after the capture of Samaria but
before the fall of Nineveh, about 606 B. c.
But a prophet after the exile, as well as a
I)rophet of an earlier date, could foretell that
the Israelites would be restored to the lands
j from which they had been carried, namely,
from Egypt and Assyria ; and although As-
syria had succumbed to a later world empire,
he could still say that the pride of Assyria,
the power by which the Israelites were still
kept in captivity, should be brought down ;
or Assyria may be used of a geographical
region, including Babylonia, just as the term
is employed by Ezra (Ezra vi. 22), although
the region was then under the government
of Persia. Accordingly, the first burden
may have been delivered either before the
fall of Nineveh, while Assyria was still a
power, or else after the exile when the As-
syrian empire had given place to other em-
pires, and since the temple is standing, after
the sixth year of Darius king of Persia.
Another datum which contributes to the
solution of this question is obtained from
the statement that God will break the
brotherhood between Judah and Israel
(Zech. xi. 14). The brotherhood existed
until the reign of Rehoboam, when it was
broken by the refusal of the northern tribes
to render further allegiance to the throne
of David. It might also be said to have been
broken when Samaria fell, and the northern
tribes were scattered. The brotherhood existed
once more after the Babylonian exile. Now
this burden was pronounced after the fall of
Samaria and the captivity of Ephraim (x. 6) ;
and therefore it properly dates from the time
after the exile, when the current conception
was that Ephraim and .Judah were reunited
in the brotherhood. In point of fact they
were reunited : many members of the ten
tribes had joined themselves to .Judah ; and
the existing nation was universally regarded
as the representative of the twelve tribes,
and in Ezra's day accordingly twelve goats
were otfered as a sin otfering at the dedica-
tion of the temple, and a second sin offering
of twelve bullocks was made for all Israel

Zechariah

795

Zedekiah

(Ezra vi. 17 ; viii. 35 ; cp. Mat. xix. 28 ; Luke
ii. 36; Acts iv. 3tJ ; xsvi. 7 ; Phil. iii. 5). It
is true that tlie prophet frequently uses the
old terms Judah and Ephraiiu, and this fact
has been urged to i)rove that the prophecy
■was uttered loug before the time of Zecha-
riah, but many people living after the exile
used the old terms. Zechariah himself in
the first eight chapters emi)loys them. He
addresses the "house of Judah and house
of Israel" (Zech. viii. 13). It is to this post-
exilic period accordingly that the references
to the brotherhood of Ephraim and Judah
point. There is a further mark. It is de-
clared that God will raise up Judah against
the distant sous of Javan, or the Greeki> (ix.
13). It will be observed that the Greeks are
chosen for two reasons : (1) Because the
prophet descries the conflict of the church
with the most distant nations of the world.
Javan and the i.sles were at this time within
the geographical horizon of the Hebrews, and
they were used as types of the remotest
heathen nations (Gen. x. 4, 5 ; Is. xli. .5 ; lix.
18 ; Ixvi. 19 ; Ezek. xxvii. 13). (2) The novel
feature here is that Javan looms up as the
world power of heathenism. The earliest date
when the coming power of Greece became
evident to observers in the Persian empire
was during the years from 500 to 479 B. c,
and the coming greatness of Greece as the
successful antagonist of Persia was clearly
evident. Greece had successfully checked
the advance of Persian arms, and the Grecian
cities of Asia Minor were in open revolt
against their Persian lords during the years
500 to 495 B. c. ; the Persians were defeated
at Marathon in 490 and. after their victory
at Thermopylfe, were crushingly defeated by
the Greeks at Salamis, 480, Platsea and
Mycale. 479. Zechariah, there is reason to
believe on considerable and varied evidence,
was a young man, say twenty or twenty-five,
when in .520 B. c. he exhorted Zerubbabel to
the work of rebuilding the temple, and con-
sequently these stirring events which re-
vealed the unsuspected greatness of Greece
and opened the prospect that it would suc-
cessfully intermeddle in oriental affairs oc-
curred during the years which were Zech-
ariah's prime of life.

The second burden, chapters xii. to xiv., is
also shown by its contents to belong to the
post-exilic period. The writer refers to the
terror of the people when the earthquake in
the days of Uzziah occurred. He refers to it
as an event living vividly in the conscious-
ness of the people. It was vivid to them
either because of recent occurrence or be-
cause it had made a lasting impression on
their minds. It certainly had made this
lasting impression ; it is treated as an epoch
hy the people of the generation in which it
occurred (Amos i. 1), and in the first century
of the Christian era it was still remembered
as a solemn and striking event (Antiq. ix.
10, 4). There is another historical mark in

this second burden, the reference to the
mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley of
iSIegiddon (Zech. xii. II). The only natural
reference here is to the killing of Josiah who
opposed Pharaoh-necho at Megiddo, was mor-
tally wounded there and soon died, and his
death was mourned by the singing men and
singing women, and a lamentation was com-
posed by the prophet Jeremiah. Accordingly
the second burden was delivered not earlier
than the eve of the exile.

Not only do the historical references in
the two burdens point to late times, but the
literary characteristics of tliese burdens pro-
claim them to have proceeded from the same
source as the first eight chapters. This is
strenuously denied by certain critics. It is
urged that a difi"erence of style is discernible
between the burdens and the visions. This
is true, but it is a cardinal doctrine of lit-
erary criticism that the style of an author
diflfers at various periods of his literary
career, and when he essays diflTereut forms
of literature. Zechariah's style naturally un-
derwent change during a period of thirty or
forty years and differed when he depicted
visions and symbolical actions from the style
in which he set forth solemn warnings.
Still, in the i)arable or the symbolic repre-
sentation of the good shepherd, there are
traces of the same literary hand as that
which portrayed the visions and the crown-
ing of the high priest. And the more subtle
marks of the same hand are seen in the
unique usage of certain words and expres-
sions which characterize the first eight chap-
ters in common with the last six. A few of
these are the Qal of yasluih in a ])assive sense
(ii. 8; ix. 5; xii. 6), me'oher lanhhshab (vii.
14 ; ix. 8), 'ehad for the indefinite article (v.
7; xii. 7), 'al-yamhi u"al-s'mol (iv. 11 ; xii. 6),
'"damah (ii. 16; ix. 1(5; xiii. 5). The employ-
ment of the same word in diflerent senses is
also a characteristic both of the section which
is acknowledged to be genuine and of the sec-
tion which is disputed. These reasons afford
proof that Zechariah was the author of the
entire book, and that his mature life was
pas.sed between the years 520 and 479 B. c.

Ze'cher. See Zechariah 1.

Ze'dad.

A place, probably a tower, on the northern
boundary line of Palestine (Num. xxxiv. 8 ;
Ezek. xivii. 15). Sudud or Sadad, in the
desert east of the road from Damascus to
Hums, is believed by many to be the site.

Zed-e-ki'ah, in A. V. once Zidkijah (Neh.
X. 1) [righteou.sness of Jehovah].

1. A son of Chenaanah. Having joined
with other false prophets in encouraging
Ahab to attempt the capture of Kamoth-
gilead, and having predicted that Ahab
would defeat the Syrians, he was so excited
when Micaiah, a prophet of Jehovah, made a
contrary prediction, that he struck the man
of God upon the cheek, accompanying the

Zedekiah

796

Zemarite

blow with words of insult. Micaiah told him
that he would have cause to acknowledge his
error (1 Kiu. xxii. 11-25).

2. A lying and immoral prophet, the son
of Maaseiah. Jeremiah predicted that Neb-
uchadnezzar would roast him in the fire
(Jer. xxix. 21-23).

3. A son of Hananiah. He was a prince
of Judah in the reign of Jehoiakim (Jer.
xxxvi. 12).

4. The name given by Nebuchadnezzar to
Mattaniah, one of Josiah's sons, on appoint-
ing him vassal-king of Judah in the room of
liis nephew, Jehoiachiu (2 Kin. xxiv. 17; 1
Chron. iii. 15). In 2 Chron. xxxvi. 10 he is
called Jehoiachin's brother, i. e., kinsman
of the .same ancestry ; see Brother. He
was the younger of Josiah's two sons by
Hamutal (2 Kin. xxiii. 31 with xxiv. 18).
He was twenty-one years old when he as-
cended the throne, and I'eigned eleven years,
from about 598 to 587 b. c. Neither he nor
his people gave heed to the word of the
Lord which was spoken by Jeremiah (2
Chron. xxxvi. 12; Jer. xxxvii. 2). The
temple was polluted with idolatry (2 Chron.
xxxvi. 14), and justice was not executed
(Jer. xxi. 11, 12). A strong party in the
state, assisted by false prophets, urged the
king to throw off the foreign yoke (xxvii.
12-22). At the beginning of Zedekiah's
reign (1, R. V. margin) messengers from
Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Zidon came
to him at Jerusalem to plan a united revolt
from the king of Babylon ; but Jeremiah
was divinely instructed to condemn the pur-
pose (2-11). Zedekiah sent an embassy to
Nebuchadnezzar, probably to assure the great
king of his fidelity (xxix. 3), and in his
fourth year he himself visited Babylon (li.
59). Ultimately he was rash enough to rebel.
On the tenth day of the tenth month, in the
ninth year of Zedekiah's reign, the Baby-
lonian monarch took post against Jerusalem,
and began to erect forts around the city. It
was too strong to be taken by assault ; and
the Babylonians held it in siege. The ad-
vance of the Egyptians compelled the Baby-
lonians to withdraw for a time (Jer. xxxvii.
5), but they soon returned. By the ninth
day of the fourth month, in the eleventh
year of Zedekiah's reign, the food in the be-
leagured capital was exhausted. That night
Zedekiah, with all the men of war, secretly
quitted the stronghold, and, passing as noise-
lessly as possible between the Babylonian
forts, fled in an easterly direction toward
the Jordan. On learning that the king was
gone, the Babylonian army pursued and
overtook him in the i)lain of Jericho, his
soldiers having fled in all directions, leaving
him nearly alone. He was brought a prisoner
to Nebuchadnezzar, who had retired to Rib-
lah, a little north of Palestine. There, after
he had been tried and condemned, his sons
were put to death in his presence, and his
own eyes put out ; after which he was bound

in fetters, carried to Babylon (2 Kin. xxiv.
17-20 ; XXV. 1-7 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 11-21 ;
Jer. xxxix. 1-14), and put in jirison till the
day of his death (Jer. Hi. 11). Jeremiah
prophesied during the whole of Zedekiah's
reign.

5. A high official who set his seal to the
covenant immediately after Nchemiah the
governor (Neh. x. 1).

Zeeb [wolf].

A Midianite prince captured and put to
death by Gideon. He was slain at a wine
press, which was afterwards called that of
Zeeb (Judg. vii. 25). Its exact .situation is
unknown, but it was doubtless west of the
Jordan, near the river.

Ze'la, in A. V. Zelah and so once in R. V.
erroneously (Josh, xviii. 28) [rib, side].

A town allotted to Benjamin (Josh, xviii.
28). There the bodies of Saul and .Jonathan
were buried after the men of Jabesh-gilead
had taken them down from the wall of
Beth-shean (2 Sam. xxi. 14). Site uniden-
tified.

Ze'lek [a cleft].

An Ammonite, one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 37; 1 Chron. xi. 39).

Ze-lo'phe-had.

A Manassite, family of Machir, subfamily
of Gilead, house of Hepher. He had no
sons, but five daughters (Num. xxvi. 33).
This condition of affairs gave occasion for
enacting the law that if a man die and have
no son the inheritance pass to his daughter
(xxvii. 1-8). The law was soon afterwards
developed by the addition of the provision
that the daughter must marry within her
father's tribe in order that no jiart of the
tribal possession be transferred to another
tribe (xxxvi. 1-12). The inheritance of the
family was east of the Jordan (Josh. xvii.
1-6).

Ze-lo'tes. See Zkalot.

Zel'zah [perhaps, shadow in the heat of
the sun],

A frontier town of Benjamin, near Rachel's
sepulcher (1 Sam. x. 2). Exact situation un-
known.

Zem-a-ra'im [two cuttings].

1. A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 22).
Es-Sumrah, a large ruined village about 3
miles west of the river Jordan, and 4 north-
northeast of Jericho, and less a]i])ropriately
the ravine es-Sunira, about 5^ miles west of
Jericho on the road to Jerusalem, have been
suggested.

2. A mountain in the hill countiy of
Ephraim, on which Abijah, king of Judah,
stood to address the ten tribes before en-
countering them in battle (2 Chron. xiii. 4).
Perhaps it was south of Bethel (19). Prob-
ably it lay not far from the city of Zema-
raim.

Zem'a-rite.

A Canaanite tribe (Gen. x. 18 ; 1 Chron. i.

Zemirah

797

ZeraMah

16). They are cuunierated hctwccu the Ar-
vadite and Hamathite ; and were the in-
habitants of Siinura, Sumura, now Sunira,
on the coast between Arvad and Tripolis.

Ze-mi'rah, in A. V. Zemira [melody, a
song].

A Benjamite, family of Becher (1 Chron.
vii. 8).

Ze'nan [point or, perhaps, a place of
flocks].

A town in or west of the lowland of Judah
(Josh. XV. 37). Perhaps the same as Zaanau
(Mic. i. 11). Site unknown.

Ze'nas [contraction of Greek Zcnodoros,
gift of Zeus].

A lawyer, journeying in Crete with Apol-
los, whom Titus was enjoined by Paul to set
forward on their journey (Titus iii. 13).

Zeph-a-ni'ah [Jehovah has hidden].

1. A Levite of the family of Kohath and
house of Izhar (1 Chron. vi. 3f)-38).

2. A priest, the son of Maaseiah. He was
one of those who carried messages between
Zedekiah and Jeremiah (Jer. xxi. 1 ; xxxvii.
3). A certain false prophet who dwelt in
Babylon, Shemaiah by name, having sent
him letters directing him to punish Jeremiah
for his discouraging predictions, he showed
the missive to the prophet (xxix. 24-32).
He had the oversight of the temple, and was
second priest under the chief priest Seraiah.
After the capture of Jerusalem by the Baby-
lonians, Zephaniah was put to death at Eib-
lah (2 Kin. xxv. 18-21 ; Jer. Iii. 24-27).

3. A man who!5e son Josiah lived in the
days of Zerubbabel and the prophet Zecha-
ria'h (Zech. vi. 10, 14).

4. A prophet, whose descent is traced
through four degrees to Hezekiah (Zeph. i.
1). This ancestor is probably the king, from
the fact that so remote a descent is traced
and because the time suits. The prophet
himself lived and labored in the reign of
Josiah (ibid.).

The book of Zephaniah is the ninth among
the minor prophets. The date given in its
title (i. 1) is confirmed by the omission of
Gath in the enumeration of Philistine cities
(ii. 4), by Nineveh being still in existence
(13), and by the absence of allusion to the
Chaldeans. The subject of the prophecy is
God's universal judgment and its result.
1. A universal judgment (i. 2, 3). (1) It per-
tains particularly to the wicked of Judah
and Jerusalem; and will be a day of .sacrifice
and wrath (4-18). (2) A call to repentance as
the only po.ssible means of escape (ii. 1-3) ;
enforced by the certainty that God will
punish other nations for their wickedness
(4-15), and Jerusalem shall not escape, for it
does not repent and the Lord in the midst of
her is righteous (iii. 1-8). 2. The blessed re-
sult of the judgment. The nation shall turn
to the Lord (9-10), the remnant of Israel shall
trust in the Lord and be holy (11-13), and
the Lord shall reign gloriously and benefi-

cently as king in the midst of his pcojde
(14-18). wiio shall be gathered from cap-
tivity and be a praise in the earth (l!)-20).
Perhaps the prophecy was delivered before
Jo.siah commenced the great religious refor-
mation in the twelfth and eighteenth years
of his reign (2 Kin. xxii. 3; 2 Chron. xxxiv.
3, 8).

Ze'phath [watchtower].

A Canaanite town in the south country
toward the border of Edom, assigned to the
tribe of Simeon. The Himeonites, assisted
by their brethren of Judah, captured the
place and changed its name to Ilormah (Judg.
i. 17) ; see Hokm.^h. Robinson suggested
that the name is perhaps retained in es-
Sufah, the name of a pass leading up from the
Arabah to the soutli of Judah ; but the gener-
al opinion is in favor of Si)aitH, discoveied
by Rowlands and rediscovered by Palmer,
24 miles north by east of Kadesh-barnea,
and 26^ south by west of Beer-sheba. The
ruins cover an area of 1500 yards. The
identification is philologically doubtful.

Zeph'a-thah [watchtower].

A valley near Mareshah, in the tribe of
Judah (2 Chron. xiv. 10). Conder projioses
the wady Safieh, whicli, commencing aliout
a mile northeast of Mareshah, near Beit
Jibrin, runs for a short distance in that di-
rection.

Ze'pM and Zepho [watch].

A son of Eli]diaz, and grandson of Esau.
He founded a tribe (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15; 1
Chron. i. 36). For the diflfereuce in spelling
see Yau.

Ze'phon [watching, expectaticm.]

A son of Gad. and founder of a tribal family
(Num. xxvi. 15). Called in Gen. xlvi. 16
Ziphion, a synonym having the form usually
as.sumed by similar derivatives.

Zer [flint.]

A fortified city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 35).
Site unidentified.

Ze'rah, in A. V. twice Zarah (Gen. xxxviii.
.30; xlvi. 12 1 ; once Zara (Mat. i. 3) [spring-
ing up of light, dawn].

1. A duke of Edom descended from Esau
and also from Ishmael (Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13,
17; 1 Chron. i. 37.)

2. One of twins borne to Judah byTamar,
and the founder of a tribal family (Num.
xxvi. 20; Josh. vii. 1, 17).

3. A son of Simeon, and founder of a tribal
family (Num. xxvi. 13). He is called in
Gen. xlvi. 10 and Ex. vi. 15 Zohar, which
means dazzling whiteness or brightne.s.s.

4. A Levite, of the familv of (iershom (1
Chron. vi. 21, 41).

.5. An Ethio]iian who led a vast army to
attack king Asa, but was defeated with great
slaughter in a battle at Mareshah (2 Chron.
xiv. 8-15). See PHARO.\n 4.

Zer-a-M'ah [the Lord is risen (cp. Is. Ix.
1, 2)].

Zered

798

Zeruiah

1. A priest, son of Uzzi, and a descendant
of Phinehas (1 Chron. vi. 6, 51 ; Ezra vii. 4).

2. One of the children of Pahath-moab
(Ezra viii. 4).

Ze'red, in A. V. once Zared (Num. xxi. 12)
[exuberant growth].

A brook and valley, which the Israelites
crossed 38 years after being turned back into
the wilderness at Kadesh from Moab, and
constituting the farthest limit of the wander-
ings in the wilderness (Num. xxi. 12 ; Deut. ii.
13, 14). It was south of the Arnon ; not, how-
ever, on the southern boundary of Moab, but
somewhere along its eastern border (Num.
xxi. 11, 13). Hence not the wady el-'Ahsy,
which was the boundary between Moab and
Edom. It may be either the Sail Sa'ideh, a
southeastern branch of the Arnon, or the
upper course of the wady Kerek.

Zer'e-dali, in A. V. Zereda, and with the
unaccented vowel of the old case-ending
Ze-red'a-thah [cooling, coolness].

A village whence came Nebat, an Ephraim-
ite, the father of Jeroboam, and apparently
also Jeroboam himself (1 Kin. xi. 20). It was
not far from Succoth. In the clay ground
between Succoth, east of the Jordan, and Zere-
dah, west of the river, Solomon cast vessels
for the temple (2 Chron. iv. 17). The cast-
ing place must have been west of the Jordan
as the opposite eastern bank is reported to
have scarcely any level 'ground at all. Zere-
dah is probably the place elsewhere called
Zarethan (1 Kin. vii. 46). Oonder doubtfully
suggests for its site Surdah, 2| miles north-
west of Bethel ; and the Septuagint actually
locates it in the hill country of Ephraim (1
Kin. xii. 24). But the Septuagint i)roliably
confuses it with Tirzah, and Zeredah was al-
most certainly in the Jordan valley.

Zer'e-rah, in A. V. Zererath, as in the
present Hebrew text.

Apparently the same place as Zeredah and
Zarethan, whether the second r should be
read d, as in the Arabic and Syriac versions,
or whether the two r's are blended in Zare-
than (Judg. vii. 22 with 1 Kin. iv. 12).

Ze'resh [pi-obably, gold].

The wife of Hanian (Esth. v. 10 ; vi. 1.3).

Ze'reth [perhaps, fissure or brightness].

A son of Ashhur, of the tribe of Judah,
by his wife Helah (1 Chron. iv. 5-7).

Ze-reth-sba'har, in A. V. Zareth-shahar
[brightness of the dawn].

A town of Reuben, on a mountain which
overlooks a valley, doubtless that of the
Dead Sea (Josh. xiii. 19). Seetzen suggested
Sara, or Zara, near the mouth of the Zerka
Ma'in. The name.s, however, are not iden-
tical.

Ze'ri.

A son of Jeduthun (1 Chron. xxv. 3). In
ver. 11 he is called Izri, which is doubtless
the correct form, the initial jod having been
lost in course of tran.scription.

Ze'ror [a bundle].

A Benjamite, an ancestor of king Saul
(1 Sam. i'x. 1).

Ze-ru'ah [smitten, leprous].

The mother of Jeroboam I. (1 Kin. xi. 26).

Ze-rub'ba-toel, in A. V. of N. T. Zorobabel
[probably, begotten in Babylon].

A son of Pedaiah, and heir to the throne
of Judah (1 Chron. iii. 17-19). But he is
constantly called the son of Shealtiel, who
was the brother of Pedaiah, quite improbably
his son (Ezra iii. 2, 8 ; Neh. xii. 1 ; Hag. i. 1,
12, 14 ; ii. 2, 23 ; Mat. i. 12, 13 ; Luke iii. 27).
Shealtiel doubtless died childless ; and either
his nephew was his legal heir, and hence
called his son (Ex. ii. 10), or else Pedaiah mar-
ried his widow, in which case the first child
would be considered that of the deceased
brother (Deut. xxv. 5-10, etc.). When Cyrus,
after the conquest of Babylon, adopted the
wise political policy of allowing the Jews to
return to their own land, he appointed Ze-
rubbabel, as the legal successor to the throne,
Persian governor of Judah (Ezra i. 8 ; Hag.
ii. 21). In the royal decree he is called by
his Babylonian name Sheshbazzar (Ezra i. 8,
cp. 11; V. 14-16). Supported by the high
priest Jeshua, and other dignitaries, Zerub-
babel led the returning captives from Baby-
lon to their own country in 538 B. c. (Ezra
ii. ; Neh. vii. ; xii. 1-9). They reared an
altar, restored the feasts, and set the Levites
again to their appropriate work (Ezra iii.
1-9). They next laid the foundations of the
temple, but adversaries, after failing to make
Zerubhabel stop proceedings, acted on suc-
cessive Persian kings, so that building opera-
tions ceased till the .second year of Darius
Hystaspis (iv. 1-24). In this year the
prophet Haggai, speaking in the name of the
Lord, strongly counseled the resumption of
the work (Hag. i. 2-11). Zerubhabel and
his advocates gave heed to the exhortation
and recommenced the erection of the holy
house, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah
giving them great spiritual encouragement
in the enterprise (Ezra v. 1, 2 ; Hag. i. 12-ii.
23; Zech. iv. 1-14; cp. also iii.). The build-
ing was completed 515 b. c. From the office
Zerubhabel held when the second temple
was built, and the personal interest he took
in its erection, it is often called Zerulibabel's
temple. His governorship continued at least
till 515 B. c. How much longer it lasted is
unknown. Zerubhabel was in his day the
representative of the Davidic monarchy (Hag.
ii. 20-23). He was also in the direct line of
ancestry of our Lord (Mat. i. 12. 13; Luke
iii. 27).'

Ze-ru'iah [cleft, divided].

A sister of David (1 Chron. ii. 16), but
probably, like her sister Abigail, not a
daughter of Jesse, but a daughter of David's
mother by an earlier marriage with Nahash (2
Sam. xvii. 25). She was the mother of Abishai,
Joab, and Asahel (ii. 18 ; 1 Chron. ii. 16).

Zetham

799

Ziklag

Ze'tbam.

A Gei-jslioiiite Levite, house of Laadan and
soil ofJehiel (1 Chrou. xxiii. 8 and xxvi. '2"^).

Ze'than [olive tree or place of olives].

A l>» iijamite, family of Jediael (1 Chron.
vii. 10).

Ze'tLar.

A chamlierlaiu at the court of Ahasuerus
(Esth. i. lOJ.

Zi'a [motion, terror].

A Cladite, probably head of a father's
house (1 Chron. v. 13j.

Zi'ba.

A servant or slave of king Saul's. He had
been set free (Anticj. vii. 5, 5), perhaps at the
time of Saul's overthrow by the Philistines,
and he was father of a large family and had
acquired slaves (2 Sam. ix. 10). David made
him and his sons and slaves servants to
Mephibushcth, Saul's son, and ordered them
to till Meidiil.osheth's lands (9-12). When
David was compelled to flee from Jerusalem
because of Absalom's rebellion, Ziba ai)peared
with a couple of asses laden with provisions
for the king, and stated that Mephiboshcth
was expecting that Israel would restore Saul's
kingdom to him. Thereupon David trans-
ferred Mephibosheth's estates to Ziba (xvi.
1-4). After the death of Absalom, when the
king was returning to Jerusalem, among
those who went to the Jordan to welcome
him back was Ziba with his sons and slaves
(xix. 17). Jlephibosheth also went to meet
the king. He had neglected his person, as a
sign of sorrow, during the king's absence.
and now he declared that he had ordered
his ass to be saddled in order to accompany
David on his flight; but Ziba had disobeyed
his orders and had also slandered him to the
king, and he asked David to do what seemed
right. David replied somewhat crustily, and
ordered half of the estates to be restored to
Mephibosheth. and the rest left in the pos-
session of Ziba (24-30).

Zib'e-on [dyed or, perhaps, seizing prey].

A Hivite (Gen. xxxvi. 2 ; if the text should
not be amended to Horite), who perhaps
migrated with his family to mount Seir and
became a Horite tribe (20, 24), organized
under a chief (29). He was ancestor of a
wife of Esau (2, 25).

Zib'i-a [a female gazelle].

A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim and head
of a father's house (1 Chron. viii. 9).

Zib'i-ah [a female gazelle].

A woman of Beer-sheba, wife of Abaziah,
and mother of Jehoash, king of Judah (2
Kin. xii. 1).

Zich'ri [mindful, famous].

1. A Levite, family of Kohath, house of
Izhar (Ex. vi. 21). Zithri in this verse in
many editions of the A. Y. is a modern mis-
print.

2. A Benjamite, son of Shimei (1 Chron.
viii. 19).

3. A Benjamite, sou of Shashak (1 CLron.
viii. 23).

4. A Benjamite, son of Jeroham (1 C'bron.
viii. 27).

5. A Levite, son of Asaph (1 Chron. ix. 15).
In all probability he is the person called
Zaccur, a synonymous name, in xxv. 2, 10;
Neh. xii. 35 ; and also the jier.sou called
Zabdi in xi. 17, in the latter instance the
letters k, anglicized ch, and r having been
misread as 1) and d ; see Bkth, Dalktii.

a. A Levite, descended from Moses' son,
Eliezer (1 Chron. xxvi. 25).

7. A Eeubeuite (1 Chrou. xxvii. 16).

8. A man of Judah, and father of Aniasiah,
a captain in the army of Jehoshaiihat (2
Chron. xvii. If!), and quite possil)ly of
Elishaphat who aided Jehoiada in overthrow-
ing Athaliah (2 Chrou. xxiii. 1).

9. A valiant Ephraimite in Pekah's army,
who slew Maaseiab, a royal prince, and two
of Ahaz' chief officers (2 Chron. xxviii. 7).

10. A Benjamite (Neh. xi. 9).

11. A priest, head of the father's hou.se of
Abijah. He lived in the days of the high
priest Joiakim (Neh. xii. 17).

Zid'dim [sides].

A fenced city of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 35).
The Talmud calls the place Kefar Chittai,
which has led to locating it at Hattin, about
5| miles west by north of Tiberias, and less
than a mile north of the celebrated Horns
of Hattin.

Zid-ki'jah. See Zedekiah.

Zi'don. See Sidon.

Zif. See Ziv.

Zi'ha [sunniness, drought].

Founder or possibly only the liead of a
family of Netliinim, members of which re-
turned from the captivity (Ezra ii. 43 : Neh.
vii. 46 >. If he was identical with Ziba, an
overseer of the Xethinim, who is named in
Neh. xi. 21, the family was of recent origin
among the Nethinim, and small, or else it
was an older family named from its present
chief.

Zik'lag.

A city in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 31), as.signed to the Simeonites
(xix. 5; 1 Chron. iv. 30). In tlie time of
Saul it was in the hands of the Pliilistines,
and at one time David lield it as the vassal
of their king, Achisb (1 Sam. xxvii. 6 ; 1
Chron. xii. 1-22). It was captured, plun-
dered, and burnt by the Amalckites. but
David pursued them, recovered the spoil,
and sent portions of it to many other towns
(1 Sam. XXX. 1-31 ; 2 Sam. i. 1 ; iv. 10). The
connection of David with Ziklag detached
it permanently from the Philistines, and
placed it under the kings of Judah (1 Sam.
xxvii. 6). It was inhal)ited after the captivity
(Neh. xi. 28). Not identified ; unless its site
is Zuheilikah, a ruin discovered by Conder
11 miles east-southeast of Gaza. Identifica-

ZUlah

800

Ziph

tion with 'Asluj, 32 miles south of Gaza, has
nothing in its favor.

Zillali [a shadow].

One of Lamech's wives, and the mother of
Tubal-oaiu (Gen. iv. 19, 22, 23).

Zil'le-thai, in A. V. Zilthai.

1. A Beujamite, son of Shimei (1 Chron.
viii. 20).

2. A Manassite, captain of a thousand
men, who joined t)avid at Ziklag (1 Chron.
xii. 20).

Zil'pah [dropping, a drop].

A maidservant, given by Laban to Leah
on her marriage with Jacob (Gen. xxix. 24).
At Leah's request, she became his secondary
wife, and bore to him Gad and Asher (xxx.
9-13).

Zil'thai. See Zillethai.

Zim'mah [counsel, device].

A Gershonite Levite, son of Shimei, and
grandson of Jahath (1 Chron. vi. 20, 42, 43 ;
and perhaps 2 Chrou. xxix. 12).

Zim'ran [probably connected with the
name for antelope].

A son or rather tribe descended from
Abraham and Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2; 1
Chron. i. 32). An echo of the name has been
surmised either in Zabram, a town west of
Mecca, on the Eed Sea (Ptol. vi. 7, 5), or in
Zamareni, an Arabian tribe (Pliny, Hist.
Nat. vi. 32, 5).

Zim'ri [pertaining to an antelope].

1. Son of Zerah, and grandson of Judah (1
Chron. ii. 6) ; called in Josh. vii. 1, 17, 18
Zabdi (q. v.).

2. A prince of the tribe of Simeon. He was
slain at Shittim for participating with the
Midianites in licentious idolatry (Num. xxv.
14 ; 1 Mac. ii. 26, in A. V. Zambri).

3. A Benjamite, a descendant of Jonathan,
Saul's son (1 Chron. viii. 36; ix. 42).

4. A military officer who commanded half
the chariots of Elah, king of Israel, whom
he assassinated, fulfilling the denunciation
against Baasha's house by extirpating it.
Then he setup for himself as king in Tirzah.
Israel at once proclaimed Omri, the comman-
der-in-chief, king. He marched against the
usurper, and captured his capital, Tirzah.
When Zimri saw that the city was taken he
set the place on fire and perished in the
flames. His reign, which lasted only a week,
fell within the year 885 B. c. (1 Kin. xvi.
8-20). It has been suggested that he may
have been Saul's descendant (1 Chron. viii.
36), seeking to regain the throne.

5. A people (Jer. xxv. 25), not otherwise
known. They may have been descended
from Zimran, but there is no certainty in
the case.

Zin [dwarf palm].

A wilderness traversed by the Israelites on
their way to Canaan. It was close to the south-
ern boundary of that land (Num. xiii. 21).
Kadesh-barnea was within its limits (xx. 1 ;

xxvii. 14 ; xxxiii. 36 ; Dent, xxxii. 51). It con-
stituted the limit of Edom on the west and
of Judah on the southeast (Josh. xv. 1-3).
It was either a part of the wilderness of
Paran or marched on that wilderness at
Kadesh. It is not the same place as the
wilderness of Sin, the Hebrew words for the
two being quite different.

Zi'na. See Zizah.

Zi'on ; in Maccabees Sion, and so in A. V.

of N. T. always, and in O. T. once (Ps. Ixv. 1)
[a dry, .sunny place or a mound or even a
defense] .

1. Cue of the hills on which Jerusalem
stood. It is first mentioned in the O. T. as
the seat of a Jebusite fortress. David cap-
tured this stronghold and changed its name
to the city of David (2 Sam. v. 7; 1 Chron.
xi. 5). Hither he brought the ark, and the
hill from that time forth became sacred (2
Sam. vi. 10-12). The ark was afterwards re-
moved by Solomon to the temple which he
erected on mount Moriah (1 Kin. viii. 1; 2
Chron. iii. 1 ; v. 2). From the last two of
these passages it is plain that Zion and
Moriah were distinct eminences. For the
question which hill was known as Zion see
Jerusalem, paragraph on topography.

2. After the building of the temple on
mount Moriah and the transfer of the ark to
it, the name Zion was extended to compre-
hend the temple (Is. viii. 18 ; xviii. 7 ; xxiv.
23; Joel iii. 17; Mic. iv. 7). This accounts
for the fact that while Zion is mentioned
between one hundred and two hundred times
in the O. T., mount Moriah is named only
once (2 Chron. iii. 1), or at most twice (Gen.
xxii. 2).

3. Zion is often used for the whole of Jeru-
salem (2 Kin. xix. 21 ; Ps. xlviii. ; Ixix. 35;
cxxxiii. 3 ; Is. i. 8 ; iii. 16 : iv. 3 ; x. 24 ; Iii. 1 ;
Ix. 14).

4. In the Maccabfean period the hill on
which the temple stood, as distinct from the
city of David (1 Mac. vii. 32, 33).

5. The Jewish church aud polity (Ps.
cxxvi. 1 : cxxix. 5 ; Is. xxxiii. 14 ; xxxiv. 8 ;
aHx. 14;' Iii. 8).

6. Heaven (Heb. xii. 22 ; cp. Eev. xiv. 1).

Zi'or [smallness].

A town in the hill country of Judah, near
Hebron (Josh. xv. 54). Robinson suggested
Sia'ir, 4| miles north-northeast of Hebron.

Ziph.

1. A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 24). Site unknown.

2. A town in the hill country of Judah
(Josh. XV. 55), near a wilderness (1 Sam.
xxiii. 14). It was fortified by Rehoboam (2
Chron. xi. 8). Robinson identified it with
Zif, a ruin on a low ridge between two small
valleys, 4 miles south by east of Hebron.
The wilderness is east of the town, and
Tristram says that it is very hilly, with
narrow valleys of rich loam. The wood ex-

Ziphah

801

Zoar

isted as late as the time of the f'rusaders,
but only a few straggling trees now reniaiu.

3. A man of Judah, house of Jehallelel (1
C'hri)n. iv. 16).

Zi'phah.

A mau of Judah, house of Jahallelel (1
Chron. iv. 16).

Ziph'lms. See Ziphite.

ZipL'i-on. See Zephox.

Ziph'ites, in A. Y. once ZipMms (Ps. liv.
title).

Natives or inhabitants of Ziph 2 (1 Sam.
xxiii. 19; xxvi. 1 ; Ps. liv. title).

Ziph'ron [fragrance].

A place on the northern boundary line of
the promised laud (Num. xxxiv. 9). Not
identified.

Zip'por [a small bird, a sparrow].

Father of Balak, king of Moab (Num.
xxii. 4, 10).

Zip'po-rah [a small bird, a sparrow].

A daughter of Jethio. priest of Midian.
She became the wife of Moses (Exod. ii. 21,
22). She evidently opposed the circumcision
of their second son ; but when the family
was journeying to Egypt and her husband's
life was in danger on account of that breach
of the covenant, she acquiesced (Ex. iv. 18-
26) ; see Moses. She may have returned
with her sons to her father at this time ; but
quite probably they accompanied Moses to
Egypt, and after the exodus, when the host
of Israel was slowly approaching mount Sinai,
were sent forward to visit Jethro and in-
form him of all that God had done for Moses
and for the Israelites, how that the Lord had
brought Isi-ael out of Egypt (Ex. xviii. 1).
Jethro returned with them to the camp at
Eephidim (2-6).

Zith'ri. See Sithri and Zichri 1.

Ziv, in A. V. Zif [splendor (of flowers in
bloom)].

The second month of the Jewish year (1
Kin. vi. 1, 37), approximately May. Later it
was commonly called lyar. See Ye.\e.

Ziz [brightness, burnished plate, flower].

A cliff or ascent by which the Moabites
and Ammonites ascended from En-gedi
toward the wilderness of Jeruel and Tekoa
(2 Chron. xx. 16; cp. 2, 20). Eobinson be-
lieves it to be the pass up from En-gedi ;
Tristram and Condcr the table-land west of
En-gedi. to which the jiass leads up, and by
which it is commanded.

Zi'za [plenty, fertility].

1. A Simeonite, descended from Shemaiah
(1 Cliron. iv. 37).

2. A son of Eehoboam, bv his queen Maacah
(2 Chron. xi. 20),

Zi'zah [plenty, fertility].

A Levite. family of Clershom, house of
Shimei (1 Chron. xxiii. 11). In ver. 10 the
name is mistranscribed Zina.
51

Zo'an [Egyptian T'a, early changed to

T'dti].

An Egyptian city of the eastern part of
the delta, on the Tanitic branch of the Nile,
near the 31st degree of north latitude. It
was built seven years later than Hebron,
which was in existence in Abraham's life-
time (Num. xiii. 22). Zoan cxi.sted at least
as early as Kameri IVpi of the sixth dynasty,
whose pyramid remains. The earliest kings
of the twelfth dynasty made it their capital
in order to check invasions from the east.
The shepherd kings fortified it and retained
it as the capital. After their expulsion the
city was neglected for several centuries ; but
it was again raised to importance by Kamses
II. and other kings of the nineteenth
dynasty, who erected buildings and fre-
quently held court there. The new town
which thus grew up adjacent to the ancient
fortress was called Pa-Ramses, that is the city
of Eamses. Zoan was the jdace of meeting
between Moses and Pharaoh (Ps. Ixxviii. 12,
43). It was still an important city in the
time of Isaiah and also of Ezekiel (Is. xix.
11, 13; cp. xsx. 4; Ezek. xxx. 14). Between
the days of Isaiah and Ezekiel, it was cap-
tured by the Assyrians. The city was known
to the Greeks as Tanis. It has lingered on
to modern times, and is now called San.
The site has been explored under the aus-
pices of the Egyptian Exploration Fund.
The remains consist of a temple surrounded
by a great ring of mounds. A colossal statue
of Eamses II. was exhumed.

Zo'ar [littleness, smallness (Gen. xix. 20,
22)].

One of the cities of the plain, and appar-
ently the smallest of the five (Gen. xix. 20,
22). The plain was visible from mount Nebo
as far as Zoar (Dent, xxxiv. 3). Its original
name was Bela, and it had a king, one of
those defeated by Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiii.
10; xiv. 2, 8). When threatened judgment
w'as about to descend on the guilty cities. Lot
successfully interceded for Zoar, and fled
thither from the catastrophe (xix. 20-23). A
mountain (or at least high laud) rose imme-
diately behind it, with a cavern, in which
Lot aiid his two daughters dwelt for a time
(30). Zoar still existed in the days of Isaiah
and in those of Jeremiah, and, from their
mentioning it in connection witli Jloab. it
may be presumed that it was on the Moabite
or eastern side of the Dead Sea (Is. xv. 5;
Jer. xlviii. 34 ; cp. also Gen. xix. 37). In the
Maccabsean period it belonged to an Arabian
kingdom of which Petra was tlie capital
(Antiq. xiii. 15, 4 ; xiv. 1, 4). It stood at
the southern end of the Dead Sea (War iv.
8, 4). In the Middle Ages it was an impor-
tant point on the road from Elath to Jerusa-
lem, three days' journey from the latter city
via Hebron. These data indicate that the
site was not on a spur of mount Nebo
(Tristram) nor even on the Lisan, the penin-

Zobah

802

Zuzim

sula which projects into the southern waters
of the Dead Sea (Robinson). They are satis-
fied by assuming that Zoar was situated near
where the wady el-'Alisy opens through the
Moabite mountains into tlie phiin, about 2
miles from the southern end of the sea
(Wetzstein).

Zo'bah, in A. V. and Hebrew text twice
Zoba (2 Sam. x. G, 8) ; see Aram 2 (3).

Zo-be'bah [gentle movement].

Son of Hakkos, a man of Judah (1 Chron.
iv. 8).

Zo'har [brightness, whiteness].

1. Father of Ephron the Hittite (Gen.
xxiii. 8).

2. Son of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 10). Called
also Zerah (Num. xxvi. 13) ; see Zerah.

3. A man of Judah (1 Chron. iv. 7, R. V.
margin) ; see Izhar.

Zo'he-leth [a serpent or other creeper].

A stone beside En-rogel (1 Kin. i. 9). Not
identified. Clermont-Ganneau pointed out
that the ledge of rocks, on which the village
of Silwan stands, is called by the Arabs Zeh-
wele or Zahweileh, which is like an altered
form of Zoheleth. But the Arabic and He-
brew words have no real affinity, it is ques-
tionable whether the term stone would have
been applied to a clitf, and the distance of
the ledge from En-rogel seems too great.

Zo'hetb.

A son of Ishi, registered with the tribe of
Judah (1 Chron. iv. 20).

Zo'phah [expanse, a flask].

An Asherite, son of Helem (1 Chron. vii.
35, .36).

Zo'phai. See Zuph.

Zo'phar [chirper].

A Naamathite, one of Job's friends (Job ii.
11; xi. 1 ; XX. 1; xlii. 9).

Zo'phim [watchers].

A field on the top of Pisgah, from which
Balaam could see a part of the encampment
of the Israelites at Shittim (Num. xxiii. 14).
Conder places it at Tal'at es-Safix, in the
valley separating the southeastern point of
Pisgah from Luhith.

Zo'rah, in A. V. once Zoreah (Josh. xv.
33), once Zareab (Neh. xi. 29) [perhaps,
stroke or scourge].

A town in the lowland of Judah (Josh. xv.
33), inhabited by the Danites (xix. 41).
Manoah, Samson's father, belonged to the
place (Judg. xiii. 2), and Samson was buried
near the town (xvi. 31). Some of the five

Danite spies and of the warriors who subse-
quently took Laish were from Zorah (xviii.
2, 8, 11). The town was fortified by Reho-
boam (2 Chron. xi. 10). It was inhabited
after the captivity (Neh. xi, 29). Its site is
doubtless Sur'ah, on the north side of the
valley of Sorek, 2 miles west-southwest of
Eshtaol.

Zo'rath-ite, in A. V. once Zareathite (1
Chron. ii. 53).

A native or inhabitant of Zorah (1 Chron.
ii. 53; iv. 2).

Zo're-ah. See Zorah.
Zo'rite.

Either tlie same as Zorathite, or a citizen
of some unknown place (1 Chron. ii. 54).
Zo-rob'a-bel. See Zerubbabel.

Zu'ar [smallness].

Father of that Netbaneel who was prince
of the tribe of Issachar in the wilderness
(Num. i. 8; ii. 5; vii. 18, 23; x. 15).

Zuph [honeycomb].

1. A Levite, descended from Kohath. and
an ancestor of the prophet Samuel (1 Chron.
vi. 35). A variant form, of similar meaning,
is Zophai (26).

2. A district beyond the borders of Benja-
min and apparently Ij-ing to the south of
the territory of that tribe (1 Sam. ix. 4-6 ;
X. 2). It may have received its name from
the settlement of the family of Zuph there.
See further in connection with Ramah 2.

Zur [a rock] .

1. A king of Midian, ally or vassal of
Sihon, and the father of the woman Cozbi
(Num. XXV. 15). He was killed in the war
of extermination waged by Moses against
the Midianites for their seduction of the Is-
raelites to licentious idolatry (Num. xxv. 15,
18; xxxi. 8; Josh. xiii. 21).

2. A Benjamite, son of Jeiel (1 Chron. viii.
30).

Zu'ri-el [God is a rock] .
A Levite, chief of the Merarites in the
wilderness (Num. iii. 35, R. V.).

Zu-ri-shad'dai [the Almighty is a rock].

Father of the prince of the Simeonites in
the wilderness (Num. i. 6 ; ii. 12 ; vii. 36, 41 ;
X. 19).

Zu'zlm, in A. V. Zuzims.

A tribe occupying a district called Ham,
east of the Jordan, conquered by Chedorla-
omer (Gen. xiv. 5). Apparently the same as
Zanizummim.

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